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- - - |journal=library of ethics and applied philosophy|volume= |doi= . / - - - - |isbn= - - - - |issn= - }}</ref> [[diego gambetta|gambetta]] argued it is the inherent belief that others generally have good intentions which is the foundation for our reliance on them.<ref>{{cite journal|last=gambetta|first=diego|date= |title=can we trust trust?|journal=trust: making and breaking cooperative relations|publisher=department of sociology, university of oxford|pages= – }}</ref> philosophers such as [[annette baier]] have contended this view, establishing a difference between trust and reliance by saying that trust can be betrayed, whilst reliance can only be disappointed (baier , ).<ref>{{cite journal|author=baier, annette|date= |title=trust and antitrust|journal=ethics|volume= | issue = |pages= – |jstor= |doi= . / |s cid= }}</ref> carolyn mcleod explains baier's argument by giving the following examples: we can rely on our clock to give the time, but we do not feel betrayed when it breaks, thus, we cannot say that we trusted it; we are not trusting when we are suspicious of the other person, because this is in fact an expression of distrust (mcleod ).<ref name=": ">{{cite book|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall /entries/trust/|title=the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy|first=carolyn|last=mcleod|editor-first=edward n.|editor-last=zalta|year= |publisher=metaphysics research lab, stanford university|accessdate= october |via=stanford encyclopedia of philosophy}}</ref> the violation of trust warrants this sense of betrayal.<ref>{{cite journal|last=hawley|first=katherine|date= - - |title=trust, distrust and commitment|url=http://dx.doi.org/ . /nous. |journal=noûs|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /nous. |hdl= / |issn= - }}</ref> thus, trust is different from reliance in the sense that a trustor accepts the risk of being betrayed. karen jones proposed that there is an emotional aspect to trust, an element of [[optimism]]<ref>{{citation|last=jones|first=karen|title=trust as an affective attitude|date= |url=http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - - - _ |work=personal virtues|pages= – |place=london|publisher=palgrave macmillan uk|doi= . / - - - - _ |isbn= - - - - |access-date= - - }}</ref> that the trustee will do the right thing by the trustor, also described as affective trust.<ref name=": ">{{cite book|last=faulkner|first=paul|url=http://dx.doi.org/ . /acprof:oso/ . . |title=knowledge on trust|date= |publisher=oxford university press|isbn= - - - - |doi= . /acprof:oso/ . . }}</ref> though, in some circumstances, we trust others even without the optimistic expectation, instead hoping the mere recognition that the person is being trusted in itself will prompt the favorable action. this is known as therapeutic trust<ref>{{cite journal|last=horsburgh|first=h. j. n.|date= - - |title=the ethics of trust|url=https://academic.oup.com/pq/article/ / / / |journal=the philosophical quarterly|language=en|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / |jstor= |issn= - }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=pettit|first=philip|date= |title=the cunning of trust|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/ |journal=philosophy & public affairs|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /j. - . .tb .x|jstor= |issn= - }}</ref> and gives both the trustee a reason to be trustworthy, and the trustor a reason to believe they are trustworthy. in these situations, the sense of betrayal upon violation of trust is commonly warranted. the definition of trust as a belief in something or a confident expectation about something<ref>"trust." online etymology dictionary. douglas harper, historian. may. .</ref> eliminates the notion of risk, because it does not include whether the expectation or belief is favorable or unfavorable. for example, to have an expectation of a friend arriving to dinner late because she has habitually arrived late for the last fifteen years, is a confident expectation (whether or not we agree with her annoying late arrivals). the trust is not about what we wish for, but rather it is in the consistency of the data of our habits. as a result, there is no risk or sense of betrayal because the data now exists as collective knowledge. faulkner<ref name=": " /> contrasts such predictive trust with aforementioned affective trust, proposing predictive trust may only warrant disappointment as a consequence of an inaccurate prediction, not betrayal. return to trust (social science). retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/trust_(social_science)" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 acceptance - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	acceptance 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		a person's assent to the reality of a situation 	 	this article has multiple issues. please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (learn how and when to remove these template messages) 	 	this article needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "acceptance" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (august ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	 	this article possibly contains original research. please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (july ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) (learn how and when to remove this template message) a simple example of showing acceptance is assenting to receive a gift from someone. pictured is indira gandhi accepting a gift. 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e acceptance in human psychology is a person's assent to the reality of a situation, recognizing a process or condition (often a negative or uncomfortable situation) without attempting to change it or protest it. the concept is close in meaning to acquiescence, derived from the latin acquiēscere (to find rest in).[ ] contents 	 definition 	 types 	 . self-acceptance 	 . social acceptance 	 . conditional 	 . expressed 	 . implied 	 beliefs 	 bibliography 	 external links 	 references definition[edit] the term acceptance is a noun with various different meanings.[ ] when the person to whom a proposal is made signifies their assent, it is an "acceptance" of their offer, also called an agreement. for example, if someone gives a gift and another receives it, then they have accepted the gift; therefore, having acceptance. another definition of acceptance has to do with positive welcome and belonging, favor, and endorsement. for instance, one can like someone and accept them due to their approval of that person. another description is that acceptance can be an act of believing or assenting. the definition overlaps with toleration, but acceptance and tolerance are not synonyms. acceptance – "an express act or implication by conduct that manifests assent to the terms of an offer in a manner invited or required by the offer so that a binding contract is formed. the exercise of power conferred by an offer by performance of some act. the act of a person to whom something is offered of tendered by another, whereby the offered demonstrates through an act invited by the offer an intention of retaining the subject of the offer."[ ] eckhart tolle, a spiritual teacher who is alive today, defines acceptance as a "this is it" response to anything occurring in any moment of life.[citation needed] there, strength, peace and serenity are available when one stops struggling to resist, or hang on tightly to what is so in any given moment. what do i have right now? now what am i experiencing? the point is, can one be sad when one is sad, afraid when afraid, silly when silly, happy when happy, judgmental when judgmental, overthinking when overthinking, serene when serene, etc. to simplify, acceptance means allowing; allowing unwanted private experiences (thoughts, feelings and urges) to come and go without struggling with them. types[edit] before any breakdown to types, it should be recognized that acceptance is treating whatever happens, the actual event which is the outcome of all combined previous events, as overall the best outcome. acceptance typically contains the concept of approval; the psycho-spiritual use of the term infers a non-judgmental mindset. acceptance is contrasted with resistance, a term that has strong political and psychoanalytic connotations that do not apply in most contexts. groups and individuals can show acceptance of various events and conditions in the world; individuals may accept elements of their own thoughts, feelings, and personal histories. for example, psychotherapeutic treatment of a person with depression or anxiety can involve fostering acceptance either for whatever personal circumstances may give rise to those feelings or for the feelings themselves. psychotherapy can also involve lessening an individual's acceptance of various situations. notions of acceptance are prominent in many faiths and meditation practices. for example, buddhism's first noble truth, "all life is suffering", invites people to accept that suffering is a natural part of life. the term "kabbalah" literally means acceptance.[citation needed] minority groups in society often describe their goal as acceptance, wherein the majority will not marginalize the minority's full participation in society. a majority may be said to tolerate minorities when it confines their participation to certain aspects of society, but not accept them. acceptance is the fifth stage of the kübler-ross model (commonly known as the "stages of grief"). the big book of alcoholics anonymous describes the importance of acceptance in the treatment of alcoholism. it states that acceptance can be used to resolve situations where a person feels disturbed by a "person, place, thing or situation – some fact of [their] life – [which is] unacceptable to [them]". it claims that an alcoholic person cannot find serenity until they accept that "nothing happens in god's world by mistake" and that the condition of alcoholism must be accepted as a given.[ ] self-acceptance[edit] main article: self-acceptance self-acceptance is being satisfied with one's current self. it is an agreement with oneself to appreciate, validate, and support the self as it is, despite deficiencies and negative past behavior. people have trouble accepting themselves because of guilt, trauma, or a perceived lack of motivation.[citation needed] some people have the misconception that if one is happy with themself, it always means that they would not change anything about themself. individuals do not have to be unhappy with themselves to know and can actively change things they don't like.[citation needed] social acceptance[edit] changes in attitudes toward cohabitation in the us social acceptance affects people of all social and age groups. social acceptance can be defined as tolerating the differences and diversity in others because most people attempt to look and act like others do in order to fit in.[citation needed] children and teenagers tend to desire to be accepted among friends as part of that group, and act upon that desire through peer pressure. peer pressure sometimes determines how people style their hair and clothing to "look cool". a desire to be accepted by those whose friendship one values can determine their openness towards popular behavior smoking, drinking, swearing, and more.[ ] people exhibit and avoid certain behaviors out of the desire for the approval of their friends, which may include drinking or taking drugs. when it comes to mental disorders, social acceptance plays a big role in recovery. many people don't understand mental illness, so they are unsure of how to embrace people who have a disease, leaving these people with feelings of isolation in friend groups. conditional[edit] standards specify acceptable and hazardous gaps in infant beds a type of acceptance that requires modification of the initial conditions before the final acceptance is made, is called conditional acceptance, or qualified acceptance.[citation needed] for example, a contract that needs to be accepted from two parties may be adjusted or modified so that it fits both parties' satisfactions. a person has been made an offer that they are willing to agree on as long as some changes are made in its terms or that some conditions or event occurs gives conditional acceptance. in a contract that is made from a business to the employer, both parties may change and modify the contract until both parties agree or accept the details in the business contract. expressed[edit] expressed acceptance involves making an overt and unambiguous acceptance of the set conditions. for example, a person clearly and explicitly agreeing to an offer. they accept the terms without any changes. implied[edit] implied acceptance has one's intents to consent to the presented conditions made. acceptance is implied by demonstrating any act indicating a person's assent to the proposed bargain. if a person selects an item in a department store and pays the cashier for it, the person thereby indicates that they agree to the offer of the item for the price stated on the price tag. beliefs[edit] acceptance is fundamental to the core beliefs of most abrahamic religions: the word "islam" can be translated as "acceptance", "surrender" or "voluntary submission",[ ][ ] and christianity is based upon the "acceptance" of jesus of nazareth as the christ and acceptance of god's will. religions and psychological treatments often suggest a path of acceptance when a situation is both disliked and fated, or when change may be possible only at great cost or risk. acceptance may imply only a lack of outward, behavioral attempts at possible change, but the word is also used more specifically for a felt or hypothesized cognitive or emotional state. within christian beliefs, acceptance is characterized as embracing the reality of a situation based on one's trust in god's perfect will and control. in the muslim community, acceptance of allah is similar to people that are considered christian and how they accept god as their higher being (bates, ). jewish people accept the commandments as a way to live and have a good and fulfilling life (mcdowell and stewart, ). beliefs and acceptance overlap in meaning. the acceptance of one's beliefs is important to show commitment and structure of one's life. not only is it vital for survival, but it is used in everyday relationships.[citation needed] being accepted by a friend has shown to positively affect an individual's self-esteem and well-being.[citation needed] in fact, without acceptance, it could lead to a host of psychological issues.[citation needed] bibliography[edit] 	"acceptance - types of acceptance." law library - american law and legal information. apr. . 	"the stages of grief." essortment articles: free online articles on health, science, education & more. apr. . 	"the last phase of grief: acceptance, reorganization and integration." getting past your past. apr. . 	"the need for social acceptance and approval --- its power." the way. art of living. essays. topically arranged scripture, proverbs, precepts, quotations. teachings of jesus. conservative christian outlook emphasizing self-discipline, self-denial, integrity, principle, character, chastity, goodness, morality, virtue. apr. . 	"self acceptance." become who you want to be. apr. . 	welcome, traveling free. apr. . 	"what a difference a friend makes: social acceptance is key to mental health recovery." mental illness, mental health information center. apr. . 	understanding evolution. ( ). university of california museum of paleontology. april . 	mcdowell, josh and don stewart. ( ) “basic beliefs of judaism”, handbook of today's religions. nashville: thomas nelson publishers, . twelfth printing, june . 	bates, stephen. “the beliefs and laws of islam”. ( ). islam for today. april . external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: acceptance 	art of accepting 	acceptance and commitment therapy 	the therapeutic method of self-acceptance[ ] references[edit] 	^ "acquiesce - define acquiesce at dictionary.com". dictionary.com. 	^ "acceptance - definition and more from the free merriam-webster dictionary". merriam-webster.com. 	^ chirelstein, marvin ( ). concepts and case analysis in the law of contracts. new york: foundation. isbn  . 	^ dr paul o, "the big book of alcoholics anonymous" p , rd ed or p , th ed. 	^ "drinking, smoking causes early heart problems". krem. krem. retrieved october . 	^ lewis, bernard ellis; churchill, buntzie ellis ( ). islam: the religion and the people. pearson education inc. p.  . isbn  . 	^ admin. "what does islam mean?". the friday journal. qaem.org. archived from the original on march . retrieved april . 	^ jakub, tencl. power of lovefullness : the method of self-acceptance (updated second release ed.). 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additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 trust (social science) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	trust (social science) 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		this is the current revision of this page, as edited by torstenmandal (talk | contribs) at : , december (modification in line with part of already cited authors conclusion i abreviated: "the rather modest size of the difference implies that apocalyptic claims regarding the severe threat of ethnic diversity for social trust in contemporary societies are exaggerated."). the present address (url) is a permanent link to this version. revision as of : , december by torstenmandal (talk | contribs) (modification in line with part of already cited authors conclusion i abreviated: "the rather modest size of the difference implies that apocalyptic claims regarding the severe threat of ethnic diversity for social trust in contemporary societies are exaggerated.") (diff) ← previous revision | latest revision (diff) | newer revision → (diff) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		assumption of and reliance on the honesty of another party for other types of trust, see trust (disambiguation). 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e trust in others in europe country-level estimates of trust share of people agreeing with the statement "most people can be trusted" trust exists in interpersonal relationships. humans have a natural disposition to trust and to judge trustworthiness. this can be traced to the neurobiological structure and activity of a human brain. some studies indicate that trust can be altered e.g. by the application of oxytocin.[ ][ ] in a social context, trust has several connotations.[ ] definitions of trust[ ][ ] typically refer to situations characterized by the following aspects: one party (trustor) is willing to rely on the actions of another party (trustee), and the situation is typically directed to the future. in addition, the trustor (voluntarily or forcedly) abandons control over the actions performed by the trustee. as a consequence, the trustor is uncertain about the outcome of the other's actions; the trustor can only develop and evaluate expectations. such expectations are formed with a view to the motivations of the trustee, dependent on their characteristics, the situation, and their interaction.[ ] the uncertainty stems from the risk of failure or harm to the trustor if the trustee does not behave as desired. when it comes to the relationship between people and technology, the attribution of trust is a matter of dispute. the intentional stance[ ] demonstrates that trust can be validly attributed to human relationships with complex technologies. one of the key current challenges in the social sciences is to rethink how the rapid progress of technology has impacted constructs such as trust. this is especially true for information technology that dramatically alters causation in social systems.[ ] in the social sciences, the subtleties of trust are a subject of ongoing research. in sociology and psychology, the degree to which one party trusts another is a measure of belief in the honesty, fairness, or benevolence of another party. the term "confidence" is more appropriate for a belief in the competence of the other party. a failure in trust may be forgiven more easily if it is interpreted as a failure of competence rather than a lack of benevolence or honesty.[ ] in economics, trust is often conceptualized as reliability in transactions. in all cases, trust is a heuristic decision rule, allowing the human to deal with complexities that would require unrealistic effort in rational reasoning.[ ] contents 	 sociology 	 types of social trust 	 . influence of ethnic diversity 	 psychology 	 . social identity approach 	 philosophy 	 economics 	 management and organization science 	 systems 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links sociology[edit] sociology claims trust is one of several social constructs; an element of the social reality.[ ] other constructs frequently discussed together with trust include control, confidence, risk, meaning and power. trust is naturally attributable to relationships between social actors, both individuals and groups (social systems). sociology is concerned with the position and role of trust in social systems. interest in trust has grown significantly since the early eighties, from the early works of luhmann,[ ] barber[ ] and giddens[ ] (see[ ] for a more detailed overview). this growth of interest in trust has been stimulated by ongoing changes in society, specifically known as late modernity and post-modernity. sviatoslav contended that society needs trust because it increasingly finds itself operating at the edge between confidence in what is known from everyday experience and contingency of new possibilities. without trust, one should always consider all contingent possibilities, leading to paralysis by analysis.[ ] in this sense, trust acts as a decisional heuristic, allowing the decision maker to overcome bounded rationality[ ] and process what would otherwise be an excessively complex situation. trust can be seen as a bet on one of many contingent futures, specifically, the one that appears to deliver the greatest benefits. once the bet is decided (i.e. trust is granted), the trustor suspends his or her disbelief, and the possibility of a negative course of action is not considered at all. hence trust acts as a reducing agent of social complexity, allowing for cooperation.[ ] sociology tends to focus on two distinct views: the macro view of social systems, and a micro view of individual social actors (where it borders with social psychology). similarly, views on trust follow this dichotomy. on one side, the systemic role of trust can be discussed with a certain disregard to the psychological complexity underpinning individual trust. the behavioral approach to trust is usually assumed[ ] while actions of social actors are measurable, leading to statistical modelling of trust. this systemic approach can be contrasted[ ] with studies on social actors and their decision-making process, in anticipation that understanding of such a process will explain (and allow to model) the emergence of trust. sociology acknowledges that the contingency of the future creates dependency between social actors, and specifically that the trustor becomes dependent on the trustee. trust is seen as one of the possible methods to resolve such a dependency, being an attractive alternative to control.[ ] trust is specifically valuable if the trustee is much more powerful than the trustor, yet the trustor is under social obligation to support the trustee.[ ] modern information technologies have not only facilitated the transition towards a post-modern society, but have also challenged traditional views on trust. information systems research has identified that individuals have evolved to trust in technology, demonstrated by two primary constructs. the first consists of human-like constructs including benevolence, honesty and competence, whilst the second employs system-like constructs such as usefulness, reliability and functionality.[ ] the discussion surrounding the relationship between information technologies and trust is still in progress as research remains in its infant stages. types of social trust[edit] four types of social trust are recognized:[ ] 	generalized trust, or trust in strangers, is an important form of trust in modern society, involving a large amount of social interactions among strangers. 	out-group trust is the trust an individual has in members of a different group. this could be members of a different ethnic group, or citizens of a different country, for example. 	in-group trust is that which is placed in members of one's own group. 	trust in neighbors considers the relationships between individuals who share a common residential environment. influence of ethnic diversity[edit] several dozen studies have examined the impact of ethnic diversity on social trust. research published in the annual review of political science[ ] concluded that there were three key debates on the subject: 	why does ethnic diversity modestly reduce social trust? 	can contact reduce the negative association between ethnic diversity and social trust? 	is ethnic diversity a stand-in for social disadvantage? the review's meta-analysis of studies showed a consistent, though modest, negative relationship between ethnic diversity and social trust. ethnic diversity has the strongest negative impact on neighbor trust, in-group trust, and generalized trust. it did not appear to have a significant impact on out-group trust. the limited size of the impact means apocalyptic claims about it are exaggerated.[ ] psychology[edit] in psychology, trust is believing that the person who is trusted will do what is expected. according to the psychoanalyst erik erikson, development of basic trust is the first state of psychosocial development occurring, or failing, during the first two years of life. success results in feelings of security and optimism, while failure leads towards an orientation of insecurity and mistrust[ ] possibly resulting in attachment disorders.[ ] a person's dispositional tendency to trust others can be considered a personality trait and as such is one of the strongest predictors of subjective well-being.[ ] trust increases subjective well-being because it enhances the quality of one's interpersonal relationships; happy people are skilled at fostering good relationships.[ ] trust is integral to the idea of social influence: it is easier to influence or persuade someone who is trusting. the notion of trust is increasingly adopted to predict acceptance of behaviors by others, institutions (e.g. government agencies) and objects such as machines. yet once again, perceptions of honesty, competence and value similarity[ ] (slightly similar to benevolence) are essential. there are three different forms of trust commonly studied in psychology. trust is being vulnerable to someone even when they are trustworthy. trustworthiness are the characteristics or behaviors of one person that inspire positive expectations in another person. trust propensity is the ability to rely on others.[ ] once trust is lost, by obvious violation of one of these three determinants, it is very hard to regain. thus there is clear asymmetry in the building versus destruction of trust. increasingly in recent times, research has been conducted regarding the notion of trust and its social implications: 	in her book,[ ] barbara misztal attempts to combine all notions of trust together. she describes three basic things that trust does in the lives of people: it makes social life predictable, it creates a sense of community, and it makes it easier for people to work together. 	in the context of sexual trust, riki robbins[ ] describes four stages. these consist of perfect trust, damaged trust, devastated trust and restored trust.[ ] 	in the context of information theory, ed gerck defines and contrasts trust with social functions such as power, surveillance, and accountability.[ ][ ] 	from a social identity perspective, the propensity to trust strangers (see in-group favoritism) arises from the mutual knowledge of a shared group membership,[ ][ ] stereotypes,[ ] or the need to maintain the group's positive distinctiveness.[ ] despite the centrality of trust to the positive functioning of humans and relationships, very little is known about how and why trust evolves, is maintained, and is destroyed.[ ] one factor that enhances trust among humans is facial resemblance. through digital manipulation of facial resemblance in a two-person sequential trust game, supporting evidence was found that having similar facial features (facial resemblance) enhanced trust in a subject's respective partner.[ ] though facial resemblance was shown to increase trust, it also had the effect of decreased sexual desire in a particular partner. in a series of tests, digitally manipulated faces were presented to subjects to be evaluated for attractiveness within the context of a long-term or short-term relationship. the results showed that within the context of a short-term relationship, which is dependent on sexual desire, similar facial features caused a decrease in desire. within the context of a long-term relationship, which is dependent on trust, similar facial features increased the attractiveness of an individual, leading one to believe that facial resemblance and trust have great effects on relationships.[ ] interpersonal trust literature[ ] suggests that trust-diagnostic situations provide a means by which individuals can gauge or alter the level of trust in relationships. trust-diagnostic situations refer to in trust or "strain-test"[ ] situations which test partners' ability to act in the best interests of the other individual or the relationship, simultaneously rejecting that option which is in one's personal self-interest. trust-diagnostic situations occur throughout the course of everyday life, though can be created by individuals wanting to test the current level of trust in a relationship.[ ] low trust relationships are occur where individuals have little confidence their partner is truly concerned about them or the relationship.[ ] those in low trust relationships tend to make distress-maintaining attributions[ ][ ] whereby the consequences of partner's negative behavior become of greatest focus, and any impacts of positive actions are minimized. this feeds into the overarching notion that the individual's partner is disinterested in the relationship, and any positive acts are met with skepticism, leading to further negative outcomes.[ ] distrusting individuals may not always engage in opportunities for trusting relationships. someone who was subject to an abusive childhood may have been deprived of any evidence that trust is warranted in future interpersonal relationships.[ ] an important key to treating sexual victimization of a child is the rebuilding of trust between parent and child. failure for the adults to validate the sexual abuse contributes to the child's difficulty towards trusting self and others.[ ] moreover, trust can often be affected by the erosion of a marriage.[ ] children of divorce do not exhibit less trust in mothers, partners, spouses, friends, and associates than their peers of intact families. the impact of parental divorce is limited to trust in the father.[ ] social identity approach[edit] the social identity approach explains trust in strangers as a function of group-based stereotypes or in-group favoring behaviors based on salient group memberships. with regard to ingroup favoritism, people generally think well of strangers but expect better treatment from in-group members in comparison to out-group members. this greater expectation then translates into a higher propensity to trust an in-group rather than out-group member.[ ][ ][ ] it has been pointed out that it is only advantageous to form such expectations of an in-group stranger if they too know the group membership of the recipient.[ ] there is considerable empirical activity related to the social identity approach. allocator studies have frequently been employed to understand group-based trust in strangers.[ ][ ][ ][ ] they may be operationalized as unilateral or bilateral relationships of exchange. general social categories such as university affiliation, course majors, and even ad-hoc groups have been used to distinguish between in-group and out-group members. in unilateral studies of trust, the participant is asked to choose between envelopes containing money that was previously allocated by an in-group or out-group member.[ ] they have no prior or future opportunities for interaction, simulating brewer's notion that group membership was sufficient in bringing about group-based trust and hence cooperation.[ ] participants could expect an amount ranging from nothing to the maximum value an allocator could give out. bilateral studies of trust have employed an investment game devised by berg and colleagues where individuals choose to give a portion or none of their money to another.[ ] any amount given would be tripled and the receiver would then decide whether they would return the favor by giving money back to the sender. trusting behavior on the part of the sender and the eventual trustworthiness of the receiver was exemplified through the giving of money.[ ][ ] empirical research has demonstrated that when group membership is made salient and known to both parties, trust is granted more readily to in-group members than out-group members.[ ][ ][ ] this occurred even when the in-group stereotype was comparatively less positive than an out-group's (e.g. psychology versus nursing majors),[ ] in the absence of personal identity cues,[ ] and when participants had the option of a sure sum of money (i.e. in essence opting out of the need to trust a stranger).[ ] in contrast, when only the recipient was made aware of group membership, trust becomes reliant upon group stereotypes.[ ][ ] the group with the more positive stereotype was trusted (e.g. one's university affiliation over another)[ ] even over that of the in-group (e.g. nursing over psychology majors).[ ] another reason for in-groups favoring behaviors in trust could be attributed to the need to maintain in-group positive distinctiveness, particularly in the presence of social identity threat.[ ] trust in out-group strangers increased when personal cues to identity were revealed.[ ] philosophy[edit] whilst many philosophers have written about different forms of trust, most would agree interpersonal trust is the foundation on which these forms can be modeled.[ ] for an act to be classed as an expression of trust, it must not betray the expectations of the trustee. in this sense, some philosophers such as lagerspetz argue that trust is a kind of reliance, though not merely reliance.[ ] gambetta argued it is the inherent belief that others generally have good intentions which is the foundation for our reliance on them.[ ] philosophers such as annette baier have contended this view, establishing a difference between trust and reliance by saying that trust can be betrayed, whilst reliance can only be disappointed (baier , ).[ ] carolyn mcleod explains baier's argument by giving the following examples: we can rely on our clock to give the time, but we do not feel betrayed when it breaks, thus, we cannot say that we trusted it; we are not trusting when we are suspicious of the other person, because this is in fact an expression of distrust (mcleod ).[ ] the violation of trust warrants this sense of betrayal.[ ] thus, trust is different from reliance in the sense that a trustor accepts the risk of being betrayed. karen jones proposed that there is an emotional aspect to trust, an element of optimism[ ] that the trustee will do the right thing by the trustor, also described as affective trust.[ ] though, in some circumstances, we trust others even without the optimistic expectation, instead hoping the mere recognition that the person is being trusted in itself will prompt the favorable action. this is known as therapeutic trust[ ][ ] and gives both the trustee a reason to be trustworthy, and the trustor a reason to believe they are trustworthy. in these situations, the sense of betrayal upon violation of trust is commonly warranted. the definition of trust as a belief in something or a confident expectation about something[ ] eliminates the notion of risk, because it does not include whether the expectation or belief is favorable or unfavorable. for example, to have an expectation of a friend arriving to dinner late because she has habitually arrived late for the last fifteen years, is a confident expectation (whether or not we agree with her annoying late arrivals). the trust is not about what we wish for, but rather it is in the consistency of the data of our habits. as a result, there is no risk or sense of betrayal because the data now exists as collective knowledge. faulkner[ ] contrasts such predictive trust with aforementioned affective trust, proposing predictive trust may only warrant disappointment as a consequence of an inaccurate prediction, not betrayal. economics[edit] see also: consumer confidence trust in economics is treated as an explanation for a difference between actual human behavior and the one that can be explained by the individual desire to maximize one's utility. in economic terms, trust can provide an explanation of a difference between nash equilibrium and the observed equilibrium. such an approach can be applied to individuals as well as societies. levels of trust are higher in more equal rich countries and in more equal us states[ ] trust is important to economists for many reasons. taking the "market for lemons" transaction popularized by george akerlof as an example,[ ] if a buyer of a car doesn't trust the seller to not sell a lemon, the transaction won't be entered into. the buyer won't enter into the transaction in the absence of trust, even if the product is of great value to the buyer. trust can act as an economic lubricant, reducing the cost of transactions between parties, enabling new forms of cooperation and generally furthering business activities;[ ][ ] employment and prosperity. this observation [ ] created a significant interest in considering trust as a form of social capital and has led research into closer understanding of the process of creation and distribution of such capital. it has been claimed that a higher level of social trust is positively correlated with economic development. even though the original concept of 'high trust' and 'low trust' societies may not necessarily hold, it has been widely accepted and demonstrated that social trust benefits the economy [ ] and that a low level of trust inhibits economic growth. the absence of trust restricts growth in employment, wages and profits, thus reducing the overall welfare of society.[ ] theoretical economical modelling[ ] demonstrates that the optimum level of trust that a rational economic agent should exhibit in transactions is equal to the trustworthiness of the other party. such a level of trust leads to an efficient market. trusting less leads to the loss of economic opportunities, while trusting more leads to unnecessary vulnerabilities and potential exploitation. economics is also interested in quantifying trust, usually in monetary terms. the level of correlation between an increase in profit margin[ ] or a decrease in transactional costs can be used as indicators of the economic value of trust. economic 'trust games' are popularly used to empirically quantify trust in relationships under laboratory conditions. there are several games and game-like scenarios related to trust that have been tried, with certain preferences to those that allow the estimation of confidence in monetary terms.[ ] games of trust are designed in a way such that the nash equilibrium differs from pareto optimum so that no player alone can maximize his own utility by altering his selfish strategy without cooperation. cooperating partners can also benefit. the classical version of the game of trust has been described[ ] as an abstracted investment game, using the scenario of an investor and a broker. the investor can invest a fraction of his money, and broker can return only part of his gains. if both players follow their economical best interest, the investor should never invest and the broker will never be able to repay anything. thus the flow of money flow, its volume and character is attributable entirely to the existence of trust. the game can be played as a once-off, or repeatedly, with the same or different sets of players to distinguish between a general propensity to trust and trust within particular relationships. several other variants of this game exist. reversing rules lead to the game of distrust, pre-declarations can be used to establish intentions of players,[ ] while alterations to the distribution of gains can be used to manipulate perception of both players. the game can be also played by several players on the closed market,[ ] with or without information about reputation. other interesting games are e.g. binary-choice trust games,[ ] the gift-exchange game[ ] and various other forms of social games. specifically games based on the prisoner's dilemma[ ] are popularly used to link trust with economic utility and demonstrate the rationality behind reciprocity. the popularization of e-commerce opened the discussion of trust in economy to new challenges while at the same time elevating the importance of trust, and desire to understand customer decision to trust.[ ] for example, interpersonal relationships between buyers and sellers have been disintermediated by the technology,[ ] and consequentially required improvement.[ ] websites can influence the buyer to trust the seller, regardless of the seller's actual trustworthiness (e.g.[ ]). reputation-based systems improved on trust assessment by allowing to capture the collective perception of trustworthiness, generating significant interest in various models of reputation.[ ] management and organization science[edit] in management and organization science, trust is studied as a factor that can be managed and influenced by organizational actors. scholars have paid particular attention to how trust develops across individual and organizational levels of analysis.[ ] they suggest a reciprocal process where organizational structures influence individuals’ trust and, at the same time, individuals’ trust manifests in organizational structures. trust is also one of the conditions of an organizational culture that supports knowledge sharing.[ ] an organizational culture that supports knowledge sharing allows employees to feel secure and comfortable to share their knowledge, their work and their expertise.[ ][ ] structure often creates trust in a person that encourages them to feel comfortable and excel in the workplace; it makes an otherwise stressful environment manageable. by having a conveniently organized area to work on, concentration will increase as well as effort. management and organization science scholars have also paid attention to how trust is influenced by contracts and how trust interacts with formal mechanisms.[ ][ ] parallel to the very large interest in trust, scholars in management and related disciplines have made the case for the importance of distrust as a related but distinct construct. since the mid- s, a substantial body of organizational research has fallen into one of two distinct but nonexclusive paradigms of trust research.[ ] the first paradigm distinguishes between two major dimensions of trust. trust in another can be characterized as cognition-based trust (i.e., based on rational calculation) and affect-based trust (i.e., based on emotional attachment).[ ] for example, trust in an auto repair shop could come in the form of an assessment of the capabilities of the shop to do a good job repairing one's car (cognition-based trust) or having a longstanding relationship with the shop's owner (affect-based trust). the second paradigm distinguishes between the trustworthiness factors that give rise to trust (i.e., one’s perceived ability, benevolence, and integrity) and trust itself.[ ] together, these paradigms are useful for predicting how different dimensions of trust form in organizations via the demonstration of various trustworthiness attributes.[ ] systems[edit] in systems, a trusted component has a set of properties which another component can rely on. if a trusts b, a violation in those properties of b might compromise the correct operation of a. observe that those properties of b trusted by a might not correspond quantitatively or qualitatively to b's actual properties. this occurs when the designer of the overall system does not take the relation into account. in consequence, trust should be placed to the extent of the component's trustworthiness. the 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(ed.). the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. metaphysics research lab, stanford university. retrieved october – via stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. 	^ lagerspetz, olli ( ). "trust: the tacit demand". library of ethics and applied philosophy. . doi: . / - - - - . isbn  - - - - . issn  - . 	^ gambetta, diego ( ). "can we trust trust?". trust: making and breaking cooperative relations. department of sociology, university of oxford: – . 	^ baier, annette ( ). "trust and antitrust". ethics. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . s cid  . 	^ hawley, katherine ( - - ). "trust, distrust and commitment". noûs. ( ): – . doi: . /nous. . hdl: / . issn  - . 	^ jones, karen ( ), "trust as an affective attitude", personal virtues, london: palgrave macmillan uk, pp.  – , doi: . / - - - - _ , isbn  - - - - , retrieved - - 	^ a b faulkner, paul ( ). knowledge on trust. oxford university press. doi: . /acprof:oso/ . . . isbn  - - - - . 	^ horsburgh, h. j. n. ( - - ). "the ethics of trust". the philosophical quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . jstor  . 	^ pettit, philip ( ). "the cunning of trust". philosophy & public affairs. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. issn  - . jstor  . 	^ "trust." online etymology dictionary. douglas harper, historian. may. . 	^ the spirit level: why more equal societies almost always do better. london, allen lane ( ). isbn  - - - - uk paperback edition isbn  - - - - ( ) 	^ akerlof, george a. ( ). "the market for "lemons": quality uncertainty and the market mechanism". the quarterly journal of economics. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ morgan, robert; hunt, s. (july ). "the commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing". the journal of marketing. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ zheng, j.; roehrich, j.k.; lewis, m.a. ( ). "the dynamics of contractual and relational governance: evidence from long-term public-private procurement arrangements". journal of purchasing and supply management. ( ): – . doi: . /j.pursup. . . . s cid  . 	^ fukuyama, f. ( ) trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity, touchstone books. 	^ zak, p. j., and knack, s. ( ) "trust and growth". economic journal, : – . 	^ pollitt, michael ( ). "the economics of trust, norms and networks". business ethics: a european review. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ braynov, s.; sandholm, t. ( ). "contracting with uncertain level of trust". computational intelligence. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / - . . s cid  . 	^ resnick, p. "the value of reputation on ebay: a controlled experiment". experimental economics, volume , issue , jun , pp. – . 	^ keser, c. ( ) "experimental games for the design of reputation management systems". ibm systems j., vol. , no. . 	^ berg, j., dickhaut, j., and mccabe, k. ( ) "trust, reciprocity, and social history", games and economic behavior , – . abstract. 	^ airiau, s., and sen, s. ( ) "learning to commit in repeated games". in: proc. of the fifth int. joint conf. on autonomous agents and multiagent systems (aamas ). 	^ bolton, g. e., katok, e., and ockenfels, a. ( ) "how effective are electronic reputation mechanisms? an experimental investigation". 	^ camerer, c.; weigelt, k. ( ). "experimental tests of a sequential equilibrium reputation model". econometrica. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ fehr, e., kirchsteiger, g., and riedl, a.. "does fairness prevent market clearing? an experimental investigation". quarterly journal of economics (may ), pp. – . 	^ poundstone, w. ( ). prisoner's dilemma. doubleday, ny. 	^ mcknight, d., h., chervany, n. l. ( ) "conceptualizing trust: a typology and e-commerce customer relationships model". proc. of the th hawaii int. conf. on system sciences. 	^ giddens, a. ( ) modernity and self-identity: self and society in the late modern age. polity press. 	^ golbeck, j. ( ). computing with social trust. springer. 	^ egger, f. n. "from interactions to transactions: designing the trust experience for business-to-consumer electronic commerce". phd thesis, eindhoven university of technology (the netherlands). 	^ chang, e., dillion, t., hussain, f. k. ( ) trust and reputation for service-oriented environments: technologies for building business intelligence and consumer confidence. john wiley & sons, ltd. 	^ fulmer, c. ashley; gelfand, michele j. ( - - ). "at what level (and in whom) we trust: trust across multiple organizational levels". journal of management. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ a b dalkir, kimiz ( ). knowledge management in theory and practice. cambridge, massachusetts: mit press. isbn  . 	^ vanhala, mika; puumalainen, kaisu; blomqvist, kirsimarja ( ). "impersonal trust: the development of the construct and the scale". personnel review. : – . 	^ poppo, laura; zenger, todd ( ). "do formal contracts and relational governance function as substitutes or complements?". strategic management journal. ( ): – . doi: . /smj. . issn  - . 	^ cao, zhi; lumineau, fabrice ( ). "revisiting the interplay between contractual and relational governance: a qualitative and meta-analytic investigation". journal of operations management. - ( ): – . doi: . /j.jom. . . . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ a b tomlinson, edward; schnackenberg, andrew; dawley, david; ash, steven ( ). "revisiting the trustworthiness-trust relationship: exploring the differential predictors of cognition- and affect-based trust". journal of organizational behavior. ( ): – . doi: . /job. . 	^ mcallister, daniel ( ). "affect-and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizations". academy of management journal. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ paulo verissimo, miguel correia, nuno f. neves, paulo sousa. "intrusion-resilient middleware design and validation". in annals of emerging research in information assurance, security and privacy services, h. raghav rao and shambhu upadhyaya (eds.), elsevier, to appear. . further reading[edit] 	bachmann, reinhard and zaheer, akbar (eds) ( ). handbook of trust research. cheltenham: edward elgar.[isbn missing] 	bicchieri, cristina, duffy, john and tolle, gil ( ). "trust among strangers", philosophy of science : – . 	marková, i., linell, p & gillespie, a. ( ). "trust and distrust in society". in marková, i. and gillespie, a. (eds.) trust and distrust: socio-cultural perspectives. greenwich, ct: information age publishing, inc. 	kelton, kari; fleischmann, kenneth r. & wallace, william a. ( ). "trust in digital information". journal of the american society for information science and technology, ( ): – . 	kini, a., & choobineh, j. (january ). "trust in electronic commerce: definition and theoretical considerations". paper presented at the thirty-first hawaii international conference on system sciences, kohala coast, hi. 	gillespie, a. ( ). "the intersubjective dynamics of trust, distrust and manipulation". in markova and gillespie (eds), trust & distrust: socio-cultural perspectives. charlotte, nc: info age. 	maister, david h., green, charles h. & galford, robert m. ( ). the trusted advisor. free press, new york[isbn missing] external links[edit] 		look up trustworthy in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiversity has learning resources about earning trust 		wikimedia commons has media related to trust. 	trust at philpapers 	trust at the indiana philosophy ontology project 	zalta, edward n. (ed.). "trust". stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. 	trust building activities 	trust: making and breaking cooperative relations, edited by diego gambetta 	am i trustworthy? ( ) educational video clip 	stony brook university weekly seminars on the issue of trust in the personal, religious, social, and scientific realms 	world database of trust harvey s. james, jr., ph.d (updated august ) a variety of definitions of trust are collected and listed. 	authority control 	 	gnd: - 	lccn: sh retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=trust_(social_science)&oldid= " 		categories: 	interpersonal relationships 	reputation management 	concepts in ethics 	accountability 	social constructionism 	social epistemology 	sociological terminology 	emotions 	moral psychology hidden categories: 	webarchive template wayback links 	cs maint: multiple names: authors list 	pages with missing isbns 	wikipedia articles needing page number citations from december 	cs maint: others 	cs : long volume value 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	commons category link is on wikidata 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	wikipedia articles with lccn identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	chishona 	dansk 	deutsch 	eesti 	español 	esperanto 	euskara 	français 	frysk 	galego 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	hrvatski 	italiano 	עברית 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	Қазақша 	nederlands 	日本語 	polski 	português 	Русский 	simple english 	slovenčina 	Српски / srpski 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	suomi 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 view source for trust (social science) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	view source for trust (social science) 	 		 		← trust (social science) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		you do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: 	your ip address is in a range that has been blocked on all wikimedia foundation wikis. the block was made by jon kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). the reason given is open proxy: webhost: contact stewards if you are affected . 	start of block: : , july 	expiry of block: : , january your current ip address is . . . and the blocked range is . . . / . please include all above details in any queries you make. if you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the no open proxies global policy. otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on meta-wiki or send an email to the stewards otrs queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 	 you are currently unable to edit wikipedia. you are still able to view pages, but you are not currently able to edit, move, or create them. editing from . . . / has been blocked (disabled) by ‪sql‬ for the following reason(s): 	 the ip address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. to prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing wikipedia. 	you will not be able to edit wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider. since the web host acts like a proxy or vpn, because it hides your ip address, it has been blocked. we recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. for example, if you use a proxy or vpn to connect to the internet, turn it off when editing wikipedia. if you edit using a mobile connection, try using a wi-fi connection, and vice versa. if you have a wikipedia account, please log in. if you do not have any other way to edit wikipedia, you will need to request an ip block exemption. if you do not believe you are using a web host, you may appeal this block by adding the following text on your talk page: {{unblock|reason=caught by a colocation web host block but this host or ip is not a web host. my ip address is _______. place any further information here. ~~~~}}. you must fill in the blank with your ip address for this block to be investigated. your ip address can be determined using whatismyip.com. alternatively, if you wish to keep your ip address private you can use the unblock ticket request system. if you are using a wikipedia account, you will need to request an ip block exemption by either using the unblock template or by submitting an appeal using the unblock ticket request system. administrators: the ip block exemption user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. if you intend to give the ipbe user right, a checkuser needs to take a look at the account. this can be requested most easily at spi quick checkuser requests. unblocking an ip or ip range with this template is highly discouraged without at least contacting the blocking administrator. this block has been set to expire: : , june . even if blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page and email other editors and administrators. other useful links: blocking policy · username policy ·   appealing blocks: policy and guide if the block notice is unclear, or it does not appear to relate to your actions, please ask for assistance as described at help:i have been blocked. you can view and copy the source of this page: {{short description|assumption of and reliance on the honesty of another party}} {{for|other types of trust|trust (disambiguation)}}{{emotion}} [[file:trust in others in europe, owid.svg|thumb|trust in others in europe]] [[file:country-level estimates of trust, owid.svg|thumb|country-level estimates of trust]] [[file:share of people agreeing with the statement &quot;most people can be trusted&quot;, owid.svg|thumb|share of people agreeing with the statement "most people can be trusted"]] trust exists in [[interpersonal relationship|interpersonal relationships]]. humans have a natural [[disposition]] to trust and to judge trustworthiness. this can be traced to the [[neuroscience|neurobiological]] structure and activity of a human brain. some studies indicate that trust can be altered e.g. by the application of [[oxytocin]].<ref>{{cite journal|last =kosfeld|first =m.|last =heinrichs|first =m.|last =zak|first =p. j.|last =fischbacher|first =u.|last =fehr|first =e.|year= |title=oxytocin increases trust in humans|url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige: |journal=nature|volume= |issue= |pages= – |bibcode= natur. .. k|doi= . /nature |pmid= |s cid= }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last =zak|first =paul|last =knack|first =stephen|date= |title=trust and growth|journal=economic journal|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / - . }}</ref> in a social context, '''''trust''''' has several connotations.<ref>mcknight, d. h., and chervany, n. l. ( ). [http://www.misrc.umn.edu/wpaper/wp - .htm the meanings of trust. scientific report, university of minnesota.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.misrc.umn.edu/wpaper/wp - .htm |date= - - }}</ref> definitions of trust<ref name="mayer">{{cite journal | last = mayer | first = r.c. | last = davis | first = j.h. | last = schoorman | first = f.d. | year = | title = an integrative model of organizational trust | journal = academy of management review | volume = | issue = | pages = – | doi= . /amr. . | citeseerx = . . . . }}</ref><ref>bamberger, walter ( ). [http://www.ldv.ei.tum.de/en/research/fidens/interpersonal-trust/ "interpersonal trust – attempt of a definition"]. scientific report, technische universität münchen. retrieved - - .</ref> typically refer to situations characterized by the following aspects: one [[social entity|party]] ('''trustor''') is willing to rely on the [[social action|actions]] of another party ('''trustee'''), and the situation is typically directed to the future. in addition, the trustor (voluntarily or forcedly) abandons control over the actions performed by the trustee. as a consequence, the trustor is [[uncertainty|uncertain]] about the outcome of the other's actions; the trustor can only develop and evaluate [[expectation]]s. such expectations are formed with a view to the [[motivation|motivations]] of the trustee, dependent on their characteristics, the situation, and their interaction.<ref name=": ">{{cite book|last=hardin|first=russell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=juqfawaaqbaj&q=trust&pg=pr |title=trust and trustworthiness|date= - - |publisher=russell sage foundation|isbn= - - - - |language=en}}</ref> the uncertainty stems from the risk of failure or harm to the trustor if the trustee does not behave as desired. when it comes to the relationship between people and technology, the attribution of trust is a matter of dispute. the [[intentional stance]]<ref>dennett, d.c. ( ) the intentional stance. bradford books.</ref> demonstrates that trust can be validly attributed to human relationships with complex technologies. one of the key current challenges in the social sciences is to rethink how the rapid progress of technology has impacted constructs such as trust. this is especially true for [[information technology]] that dramatically alters [[causation (sociology)|causation]] in social systems.<ref>{{cite book|last=luhmann, niklas, - .|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ |title=risk : a sociological theory|date= |publisher=aldine transaction|isbn= - - - |edition= st paperback|location=new brunswick, n.j.|oclc= }}</ref> in the social sciences, the subtleties of trust are a subject of ongoing research. in [[sociology]] and [[psychology]], the degree to which one party trusts another is a measure of belief in the honesty, fairness, or benevolence of another party. the term "confidence" is more appropriate for a belief in the [[skill|competence]] of the other party. a failure in trust may be [[forgive]]n more easily if it is interpreted as a failure of competence rather than a lack of benevolence or honesty.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mnkr r qziyc&q=failure+in+trust+lack+of+competence&pg=pa |title=trust: forms, foundations, functions, failures and figures|first=b.|last=nooteboom|year= |publisher=edward elgar publishing|accessdate= october |via=google books|isbn= }}</ref> in [[economics]], trust is often conceptualized as reliability in transactions. in all cases, trust is a [[heuristic]] decision rule, allowing the human to deal with complexities that would require unrealistic effort in rational reasoning.<ref>{{cite journal|last =lewicki|first =roy|last =brinsfield|first =chad|date= |title=trust as a heuristic|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ |journal=framing matters: perspectives on negotiation research and practice in communication|publisher=peter lang publishing}}</ref> ==sociology{{multiple image | align = left | direction = horizontal | image = | image = | image = | width = px | caption = trust combined with other primary emotions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adliterate.com/archives/plutchik.emotion.theorie.poster.pdf |title=robert plutchik's psychoevolutionary theory of basic emotions |website=adliterate.com |accessdate= - - }}</ref><ref name="turner ">{{cite book|author=jonathan turner|title=on the origins of human emotions: a sociological inquiry into the evolution of human affect|url=https://archive.org/details/onoriginsofhuman turn|url-access=registration|year= |publisher=stanford university press|isbn= - - - - |page=[https://archive.org/details/onoriginsofhuman turn/page/ ]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=a fuzzy inference system for synergy estimation of simultaneous emotion dynamics in agents|journal=international journal of scientific & engineering research|volume= |issue= |date=june |url=http://www.ijser.org/paper/a_fuzzy_inference_system_for_synergy_estimation_of_simultaneous_emotion_dynamics_in_agents.html|author =atifa athar|author =m. saleem khan|author =khalil ahmed|author =aiesha ahmed|author =nida anwar}} </ref> }}== sociology claims trust is one of several [[social constructs]]; an element of the social reality.<ref>searle, j.r. ( ). ''the construction of social reality''. the free press</ref> other constructs frequently discussed together with trust include control, confidence, risk, meaning and power. trust is naturally attributable to relationships between social actors, both individuals and groups (social systems). sociology is concerned with the position and role of trust in social systems. interest in trust has grown significantly since the early eighties, from the early works of luhmann,<ref>luhmann, n. ( ). ''trust and power''. john wiley & sons.</ref> barber<ref>barber, b. ( ) ''the logic and limits of trust''. rutgerts university press.</ref> and giddens<ref>giddens, a. ( ). ''the constitution of society: outline of the theory of structuration''; polity press, cambridge</ref> (see<ref>sztompka, p. ( ). ''trust: a sociological theory''. cambridge university press.</ref> for a more detailed overview). this growth of interest in trust has been stimulated by ongoing changes in society, specifically known as [[late modernity]] and [[post-modernity]]. [[sviatoslav i|sviatoslav]] contended that society needs trust because it increasingly finds itself operating at the edge between confidence in what is known from everyday experience and contingency of new possibilities. without trust, one should always consider all contingent possibilities, leading to [[analysis paralysis|paralysis by analysis]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=braynov|first=sviatoslav|date= |title=contracting with uncertain level of trust|journal=computational intelligence|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / - . |s cid= }}</ref> in this sense, trust acts as a decisional heuristic, allowing the decision maker to overcome [[bounded rationality]]<ref>{{cite book|last=simon|first=herbert alexander|url=https://books.google.com/books?id= ciwu z wqc&q=herbert+simon+bounded+rationality&pg=pa |title=models of bounded rationality: empirically grounded economic reason|date= |publisher=mit press|isbn= - - - - |language=en}}</ref> and process what would otherwise be an excessively complex situation. trust can be seen as a bet on one of many contingent futures, specifically, the one that appears to deliver the greatest benefits. once the bet is decided (i.e. trust is granted), the trustor suspends his or her disbelief, and the possibility of a negative course of action is not considered at all. hence trust acts as a reducing agent of [[social complexity]], allowing for [[cooperation]].<ref>{{cite journal | last = bachmann | first = r. | s cid = | year = | title = trust, power and control in transorganizational relations | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/ a dca e c a c c e eb ca df c a | journal = organization studies | volume = | issue = | pages = – | doi= . / }}</ref> sociology tends to focus on two distinct views: the macro view of social systems, and a micro view of individual social actors (where it borders with [[social psychology]]). similarly, views on trust follow this dichotomy. on one side, the systemic role of trust can be discussed with a certain disregard to the psychological complexity underpinning individual trust. the behavioral approach to trust is usually assumed<ref>coleman, j. ( ). ''foundations of social theory''. the belknap press of harvard university press.</ref> while actions of social actors are measurable, leading to statistical modelling of trust. this systemic approach can be contrasted<ref>castelfranchi, c., falcone, r. ( ). "trust is much more than subjective probability: mental components and sources of trust". ''proc. of the rd hawaii international conference on system sciences''. volume .</ref> with studies on social actors and their decision-making process, in anticipation that understanding of such a process will explain (and allow to model) the emergence of trust. sociology acknowledges that the contingency of the future creates dependency between social actors, and specifically that the trustor becomes dependent on the trustee. trust is seen as one of the possible methods to resolve such a dependency, being an attractive alternative to control.<ref>mollering, g.. "the trust/control duality: an integrative perspective on positive expectations of others". in: ''int. sociology'', september , vol. ( ): – .</ref> trust is specifically valuable if the trustee is much more powerful than the trustor, yet the trustor is under social obligation to support the trustee.<ref>baier, a. ( ). "trust and antitrust". ''ethics'', vol. , pp. – . reprinted in: ''moral prejudices''. cambridge university press.</ref> modern information technologies have not only facilitated the transition towards a post-modern society, but have also challenged traditional views on trust. [[information system|information systems]] research has identified that individuals have evolved to trust in technology, demonstrated by two primary constructs. the first consists of human-like constructs including benevolence, honesty and competence, whilst the second employs system-like constructs such as usefulness, reliability and functionality.<ref>{{cite journal|last =lankton|first =nancy|last =mcknight|first =harrison|last =tripp|first =john|date= |title=technology, humanness, and trust: rethinking trust in technology|url=http://dx.doi.org/ . / jais. |journal=journal of the association for information systems|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / jais. |issn= - }}</ref> the discussion surrounding the relationship between information technologies and trust is still in progress as research remains in its infant stages. == types of social trust == four types of social trust are recognized:<ref name="dinesen">{{cite journal|doi= . /annurev-polisci- - |title=ethnic diversity and social trust: a narrative and meta-analytical review|year= |last =dinesen|first =peter thisted|last =schaeffer|first =merlin|last =sønderskov|first =kim mannemar|journal=annual review of political science|volume= |pages= – |doi-access=free}}</ref> *[[generalized trust]], or trust in strangers, is an important form of trust in modern society, involving a large amount of social interactions among strangers. *[[in-group and out-group|out-group]] trust is the trust an individual has in members of a different group. this could be members of a different ethnic group, or citizens of a different country, for example. *[[in-group and out-group|in-group]] trust is that which is placed in members of one's own group. *trust in [[neighbourhood|neighbors]] considers the relationships between individuals who share a common residential environment. === influence of ethnic diversity === several dozen studies have examined the impact of [[ethnic diversity]] on social trust. research published in the [[annual review of political science]]<ref name="dinesen" /> concluded that there were three key debates on the subject: # why does ethnic diversity modestly reduce social trust? # can [[contact hypothesis|contact]] reduce the negative association between ethnic diversity and social trust? # is ethnic diversity a stand-in for social disadvantage? the review's [[meta-analysis]] of studies showed a consistent, though modest, negative relationship between ethnic diversity and social trust. ethnic diversity has the strongest negative impact on neighbor trust, in-group trust, and generalized trust. it did not appear to have a significant impact on out-group trust. the limited size of the impact means apocalyptic claims about it are exaggerated.<ref name="dinesen" /> ==psychology== in psychology, trust is believing that the person who is trusted will do what is expected. according to the [[psychoanalysis|psychoanalyst]] [[erik erikson]], development of basic trust is the [[erikson's stages of psychosocial development|first state of psychosocial development]] occurring, or failing, during the first two years of life. success results in feelings of security and optimism, while failure leads towards an orientation of insecurity and mistrust<ref>{{cite web|author=child development institute parenting today |url=http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/erickson.shtml |title=stages of social-emotional development in children and teenagers |publisher=childdevelopmentinfo.com |accessdate= - - |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/erickson.shtml |archive-date=october , }}</ref> possibly resulting in [[attachment disorder]]s.<ref>fonagy, peter ( ). ''attachment theory and psychoanalysis''. other press professional, {{isbn| }}</ref> a person's dispositional tendency to trust others can be considered a personality trait and as such is one of the strongest predictors of subjective well-being.<ref name="deneve&cooper">{{cite journal|last=deneve|first=kristina m.|author =cooper, harris |title=the happy personality: a meta-analysis of personality traits and subjective well-being|journal=psychological bulletin|year= |volume= |pages= – |url=http://www.subjectpool.com/ed_teach/y _id/personality/wellbeing/ _deneve_cooper_psych_bull.pdf|doi= . / - . . . |pmid= |issue= }}</ref> trust increases subjective well-being because it enhances the quality of one's interpersonal relationships; happy people are skilled at fostering good relationships.<ref name="deneve ">{{cite journal|last=deneve|first=kristina m. |s cid= |title=happy as an extraverted clam? the role of personality for subjective well-being |journal=current directions in psychological science |year= |volume= |pages= – |issue= |doi= . / - . }}</ref> trust is integral to the idea of [[social influence]]: it is easier to influence or persuade someone who is trusting. the notion of trust is increasingly adopted to predict acceptance of behaviors by others, [[institutional trust|institution]]s (e.g. [[government agency|government agencies]]) and objects such as machines. yet once again, perceptions of honesty, competence and value similarity<ref>{{cite journal|last =garcia-retamero|first =rocio|last =müller|first =stephanie m.|last =rousseau|first =david l.|date= - - |title=the impact of value similarity and power on the perception of threat|url=http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x|journal=political psychology|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /j. - . . .x|issn= - x}}</ref> (slightly similar to benevolence) are essential. there are three different forms of trust commonly studied in psychology. trust is being vulnerable to someone even when they are trustworthy. trustworthiness are the characteristics or behaviors of one person that inspire positive expectations in another person. trust propensity is the ability to rely on others.<ref>{{cite web|title=psycnet|url=http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=main.showcontent&view=fulltext&format=html&id= - - |accessdate= october |website=psycnet.apa.org}}</ref> once trust is lost, by obvious violation of one of these three determinants, it is very hard to regain. thus there is clear asymmetry in the building versus destruction of trust. increasingly in recent times, research has been conducted regarding the notion of trust and its social implications: * in her book,<ref name="barbaramisztal">barbara misztal, ''trust in modern societies: the search for the bases of social order'', polity press, {{isbn| - - - }}</ref> barbara misztal attempts to combine all notions of trust together. she describes three basic things that trust does in the lives of people: it makes social life predictable, it creates a sense of [[community]], and it makes it easier for people to work together. * in the context of sexual trust, riki robbins<ref name="rikirobbins">riki robbins, ''betrayed!: how you can restore sexual trust and rebuild your life'', adams media corporation, {{isbn| - - - }}</ref> describes four stages. these consist of perfect trust, damaged trust, devastated trust and restored trust.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.innerself.com/relationships/four_stages_of_trust.htm |title=four stages of trust |publisher=innerself.com |accessdate= - - |date= - - }}</ref> * in the context of [[information theory]], ed gerck defines and contrasts trust with social functions such as [[power (philosophy)|power]], surveillance, and [[accountability]].<ref name="ed gerck">ed gerck, ''trust points'', digital certificates: applied internet security by j. feghhi, j. feghhi and p. williams, addison-wesley, {{isbn| - - - }}, .</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=ed gerck |url=http://mcwg.org/mcg-mirror/trustdef.htm |title=definition of trust |publisher=mcwg.org |date= - - |accessdate= - - }}</ref> * from a [[social identity]] perspective, the propensity to trust strangers (see [[in-group favoritism]]) arises from the mutual knowledge of a shared group membership,<ref name="platow ">{{cite journal |last =platow |first =m. j. |last =foddy |first =m. |last =yamagishi |first =t. |last =lim |first =l. |last =chow |first =a. |year= |title=two experimental tests of trust in in-group strangers: the moderating role of common knowledge of group membership |journal=european journal of social psychology |volume= |pages= – |doi= . /ejsp. }}</ref><ref name="foddy " /> [[stereotype|stereotypes]],<ref name="foddy ">{{cite journal |last =foddy |first =m. |last =platow |first =m.j. |last =yamagishi |first =t. |s cid= |year= |title=group-based trust in strangers: the role of stereotypes and expectations |journal=psychological science |volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /j. - . . .x|pmid= }}</ref> or the need to maintain the group's positive distinctiveness.<ref name="tanis " /> despite the centrality of trust to the positive functioning of humans and relationships, very little is known about how and why trust evolves, is maintained, and is destroyed.<ref name=": ">{{cite journal|last=simpson|first=jeffry a.|date= - - |title=psychological foundations of trust|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/ . /j. - . . .x|journal=current directions in psychological science|volume= |issue= |pages= – |language=en|doi= . /j. - . . .x|s cid= |issn= - }}</ref> one factor that enhances trust among humans is facial resemblance. through digital manipulation of facial resemblance in a two-person sequential trust game, supporting evidence was found that having similar [[facial feature]]s (facial resemblance) enhanced trust in a subject's respective partner.<ref>{{cite journal|author=lisa m. debruine|date= july |title=facial resemblance enhances trust|journal=proceedings of the royal society of london. series b: biological sciences|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /rspb. . |pmc= |pmid= }}</ref> though facial resemblance was shown to increase trust, it also had the effect of decreased [[sexual desire]] in a particular partner. in a series of tests, digitally manipulated faces were presented to subjects to be evaluated for attractiveness within the context of a long-term or short-term relationship. the results showed that within the context of a short-term relationship, which is dependent on sexual desire, similar facial features caused a decrease in desire. within the context of a long-term relationship, which is dependent on trust, similar facial features increased the attractiveness of an individual, leading one to believe that facial resemblance and trust have great effects on relationships.<ref>{{cite journal|last=debruine|first=lisa|date= november |title=trustworthy but not lust-worthy: context-specific effects of facial resemblance|journal=[[proceedings of the royal society b]]|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /rspb. . |jstor= |pmc= |pmid= }}</ref> interpersonal trust literature<ref name=": " /> suggests that trust-diagnostic situations provide a means by which individuals can gauge or alter the level of trust in relationships. trust-diagnostic situations refer to in trust or "strain-test"<ref>{{cite journal|last =shallcross|first =sandra l.|last =simpson|first =jeffry a.|date= |title=trust and responsiveness in strain-test situations: a dyadic perspective.|url=http://dx.doi.org/ . /a |journal=journal of personality and social psychology|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /a |pmid= |issn= - }}</ref> situations which test partners' ability to act in the best interests of the other individual or the relationship, simultaneously rejecting that option which is in one's personal [[self-interest]]. trust-diagnostic situations occur throughout the course of everyday life, though can be created by individuals wanting to test the current level of trust in a relationship.<ref name=": " /> low trust relationships are occur where individuals have little confidence their partner is truly concerned about them or the relationship.<ref name=": ">{{cite journal|last =rempel|first =john k.|last =ross|first =michael|last =holmes|first =john g.|date= |title=trust and communicated attributions in close relationships.|url=http://dx.doi.org/ . / - . . . |journal=journal of personality and social psychology|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / - . . . |pmid= |issn= - }}</ref> those in low trust relationships tend to make distress-maintaining attributions<ref>{{cite journal|last=collins|first=nancy l.|date= |title=working models of attachment: implications for explanation, emotion, and behavior.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi= . / - . . . |journal=journal of personality and social psychology|language=en|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / - . . . |pmid= |issn= - }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last =holtzworth-munroe|first =amy|last =jacobson|first =neil s.|date= |title=causal attributions of married couples: when do they search for causes? what do they conclude when they do?|url=http://dx.doi.org/ . / - . . . |journal=journal of personality and social psychology|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / - . . . |pmid= |issn= - }}</ref> whereby the consequences of partner's negative behavior become of greatest focus, and any impacts of positive actions are minimized. this feeds into the overarching notion that the individual's partner is disinterested in the relationship, and any positive acts are met with [[skepticism]], leading to further negative outcomes.<ref name=": " /> distrusting individuals may not always engage in opportunities for trusting relationships. someone who was subject to an abusive childhood may have been deprived of any evidence that trust is warranted in future interpersonal relationships.<ref name=": " /> an important key to treating [[sexual victimization]] of a child is the rebuilding of trust between parent and child. failure for the adults to validate the [[sexual abuse]] contributes to the child's difficulty towards trusting self and others.<ref>timmons-mitchell, jane. ''treating sexual victimization: developing trust-based relating in the mother-daughter dyad{{isbn?}}{{page?|date=december }}''</ref> moreover, trust can often be affected by the [[marital breakdown|erosion of a marriage]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=brinig|first=margaret f.|date= |title=belonging and trust: divorce and social capital|url=http://dx.doi.org/ . /ssrn. |journal=ssrn electronic journal|doi= . /ssrn. |issn= - }}</ref> children of [[divorce]] do not exhibit less trust in mothers, partners, spouses, friends, and associates than their peers of intact families. the impact of parental divorce is limited to trust in the father.<ref name="king ">{{cite journal|author=king, valarie|title=parental divorce and interpersonal trust in adult offspring|journal=journal of marriage and family|volume= |issue= |date=august |pages= – |doi= . /j. - . . .x|jstor= }}</ref> ===social identity approach=== the [[social identity approach]] explains trust in strangers as a function of group-based stereotypes or [[ingroup favoritism|in-group favoring]] behaviors based on [[self-categorization theory|salient group memberships]]. with regard to ingroup favoritism, people generally think well of strangers but expect better treatment from in-group members in comparison to out-group members. this greater expectation then translates into a higher propensity to trust an in-group rather than out-group member.<ref name="platow " /><ref name="tanis " /><ref name="foddy " /> it has been pointed out that it is only advantageous to form such expectations of an in-group stranger if they too know the group membership of the recipient.<ref name="foddy " /> there is considerable empirical activity related to the social identity approach. allocator studies have frequently been employed to understand group-based trust in strangers.<ref name="platow " /><ref name="foddy " /><ref name="foddy ">{{cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ |title=new issues and paradigms in research on social dilemmas|date= |publisher=springer|others=biel, anders., eek, daniel., gärling, tommy., gustafsson, mathias.|isbn= - - - - |location=[new york, n.y.]|oclc= }}</ref><ref name="guth ">{{cite journal | last = guth | first = w. | last = levati | first = m.v. | last = ploner | first = m. | year = | title = social identity and trust – an experimental investigation | url = http://edoc.mpg.de/ | journal = the journal of socio-economics | volume = | issue = | pages = – | doi = . /j.socec. . . }}</ref> they may be operationalized as [[unilateralism|unilateral]] or [[bilateral]] relationships of exchange. general social categories such as university affiliation, course majors, and even ad-hoc groups have been used to distinguish between in-group and out-group members. in unilateral studies of trust, the participant is asked to choose between envelopes containing money that was previously allocated by an in-group or out-group member.<ref name="foddy " /> they have no prior or future opportunities for interaction, simulating [[marilynn brewer|brewer's]] notion that group membership was sufficient in bringing about group-based trust and hence cooperation.<ref name="brewer ">{{cite journal | last = brewer | first = m.b. | year = | title = the psychology of prejudice: ingroup love or outgroup hate? | journal = journal of social issues | volume = | issue = | pages = – | doi= . / - . }}</ref> participants could expect an amount ranging from nothing to the maximum value an allocator could give out. bilateral studies of trust have employed an investment game devised by berg and colleagues where individuals choose to give a portion or none of their money to another.<ref name="berg ">berg, j., dickhaut, j., & mccabe, k. ( ). "trust, reciprocity, and social history". ''games and economic behaviour'', , – </ref> any amount given would be tripled and the receiver would then decide whether they would return the favor by giving money back to the sender. trusting behavior on the part of the sender and the eventual trustworthiness of the receiver was exemplified through the giving of money.<ref name="tanis ">{{cite journal |last =tanis |first =m. |last =postmes |first =t. |year= |title=a social identity approach to trust: interpersonal perception, group membership and trusting behaviour |url=https://research.vu.nl/ws/files/ / .pdf|journal=european journal of social psychology |volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /ejsp. }}</ref><ref name="foddy " /> empirical research has demonstrated that when group membership is made salient and known to both parties, trust is granted more readily to in-group members than out-group members.<ref name="foddy " /><ref name="foddy " /><ref name="guth " /> this occurred even when the in-group stereotype was comparatively less positive than an out-group's (e.g. psychology versus nursing majors),<ref name="foddy " /> in the absence of personal identity cues,<ref name="tanis " /> and when participants had the option of a sure sum of money (i.e. in essence opting out of the need to trust a stranger).<ref name="platow " /> in contrast, when only the recipient was made aware of group membership, trust becomes reliant upon group stereotypes.<ref name="foddy " /><ref name="tanis " /> the group with the more positive stereotype was trusted (e.g. one's university affiliation over another)<ref name="tanis " /> even over that of the in-group (e.g. nursing over psychology majors).<ref name="foddy " /> another reason for in-groups favoring behaviors in trust could be attributed to the need to maintain in-group [[social identity theory#positive distinctiveness|positive distinctiveness]], particularly in the presence of social identity threat.<ref name="guth " /> trust in out-group strangers increased when personal cues to identity were revealed.<ref name="tanis " /> ==philosophy== whilst many philosophers have written about different forms of trust, most would agree interpersonal trust is the foundation on which these forms can be modeled.<ref name=": " /> for an act to be classed as an expression of trust, it must not betray the expectations of the trustee. in this sense, some philosophers such as lagerspetz argue that trust is a kind of reliance, though not merely reliance.<ref>{{cite journal|last=lagerspetz|first=olli|date= |title=trust: the tacit demand|url=http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - - - |journal=library of ethics and applied philosophy|volume= |doi= . / - - - - |isbn= - - - - |issn= - }}</ref> [[diego gambetta|gambetta]] argued it is the inherent belief that others generally have good intentions which is the foundation for our reliance on them.<ref>{{cite journal|last=gambetta|first=diego|date= |title=can we trust trust?|journal=trust: making and breaking cooperative relations|publisher=department of sociology, university of oxford|pages= – }}</ref> philosophers such as [[annette baier]] have contended this view, establishing a difference between trust and reliance by saying that trust can be betrayed, whilst reliance can only be disappointed (baier , ).<ref>{{cite journal|author=baier, annette|date= |title=trust and antitrust|journal=ethics|volume= | issue = |pages= – |jstor= |doi= . / |s cid= }}</ref> carolyn mcleod explains baier's argument by giving the following examples: we can rely on our clock to give the time, but we do not feel betrayed when it breaks, thus, we cannot say that we trusted it; we are not trusting when we are suspicious of the other person, because this is in fact an expression of distrust (mcleod ).<ref name=": ">{{cite book|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall /entries/trust/|title=the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy|first=carolyn|last=mcleod|editor-first=edward n.|editor-last=zalta|year= |publisher=metaphysics research lab, stanford university|accessdate= october |via=stanford encyclopedia of philosophy}}</ref> the violation of trust warrants this sense of betrayal.<ref>{{cite journal|last=hawley|first=katherine|date= - - |title=trust, distrust and commitment|url=http://dx.doi.org/ . /nous. |journal=noûs|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /nous. |hdl= / |issn= - }}</ref> thus, trust is different from reliance in the sense that a trustor accepts the risk of being betrayed. karen jones proposed that there is an emotional aspect to trust, an element of [[optimism]]<ref>{{citation|last=jones|first=karen|title=trust as an affective attitude|date= |url=http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - - - _ |work=personal virtues|pages= – |place=london|publisher=palgrave macmillan uk|doi= . / - - - - _ |isbn= - - - - |access-date= - - }}</ref> that the trustee will do the right thing by the trustor, also described as affective trust.<ref name=": ">{{cite book|last=faulkner|first=paul|url=http://dx.doi.org/ . /acprof:oso/ . . |title=knowledge on trust|date= |publisher=oxford university press|isbn= - - - - |doi= . /acprof:oso/ . . }}</ref> though, in some circumstances, we trust others even without the optimistic expectation, instead hoping the mere recognition that the person is being trusted in itself will prompt the favorable action. this is known as therapeutic trust<ref>{{cite journal|last=horsburgh|first=h. j. n.|date= - - |title=the ethics of trust|url=https://academic.oup.com/pq/article/ / / / |journal=the philosophical quarterly|language=en|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / |jstor= |issn= - }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=pettit|first=philip|date= |title=the cunning of trust|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/ |journal=philosophy & public affairs|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /j. - . .tb .x|jstor= |issn= - }}</ref> and gives both the trustee a reason to be trustworthy, and the trustor a reason to believe they are trustworthy. in these situations, the sense of betrayal upon violation of trust is commonly warranted. the definition of trust as a belief in something or a confident expectation about something<ref>"trust." online etymology dictionary. douglas harper, historian. may. .</ref> eliminates the notion of risk, because it does not include whether the expectation or belief is favorable or unfavorable. for example, to have an expectation of a friend arriving to dinner late because she has habitually arrived late for the last fifteen years, is a confident expectation (whether or not we agree with her annoying late arrivals). the trust is not about what we wish for, but rather it is in the consistency of the data of our habits. as a result, there is no risk or sense of betrayal because the data now exists as collective knowledge. faulkner<ref name=": " /> contrasts such predictive trust with aforementioned affective trust, proposing predictive trust may only warrant disappointment as a consequence of an inaccurate prediction, not betrayal. ==economics== {{see also|consumer confidence}} trust in economics is treated as an explanation for a difference between actual human behavior and the one that can be explained by the individual desire to maximize one's utility. in economic terms, trust can provide an explanation of a difference between [[nash equilibrium]] and the observed equilibrium. such an approach can be applied to individuals as well as societies. {{multiple image | width = | image = levels of trust are higher in more equal rich countries.jpg | alt = | image = levels of trust are higher in more equal us states.jpg | alt = | footer = levels of trust are higher in more [[economic inequality|equal]] rich countries and in more equal us states<ref>the spirit level: why more equal societies almost always do better. london, allen lane ( ). {{isbn| - - - - }} uk paperback edition {{isbn| - - - - }} ( )</ref> }} trust is important to economists for many reasons. taking the "[[the market for lemons|market for lemons]]" transaction popularized by [[george akerlof]] as an example,<ref>{{cite journal|last=akerlof|first=george a.|date= |title=the market for "lemons": quality uncertainty and the market mechanism|url=https://academic.oup.com/qje/article-lookup/doi/ . / |journal=the quarterly journal of economics|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / |jstor= }}</ref> if a buyer of a car doesn't trust the seller to not sell a lemon, the transaction won't be entered into. the buyer won't enter into the transaction in the absence of trust, even if the product is of great value to the buyer. trust can act as an economic lubricant, reducing the cost of transactions between parties, enabling new forms of cooperation and generally furthering business activities;<ref name="morgan – ">{{cite journal|last=morgan|first=robert|author =hunt, s. |author-link =shelby d. hunt |title=the commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing|journal=the journal of marketing|date=july |volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / |jstor= }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author =zheng, j.|author =roehrich, j.k.|author =lewis, m.a.|s cid= |date= |title=the dynamics of contractual and relational governance: evidence from long-term public-private procurement arrangements|journal=journal of purchasing and supply management|volume= | issue = |pages= – |url=https://www.scopus.com/record/display.url?eid= -s . - &origin=inward&txgid=yxivjq aspq yydqfjmjlca% a |doi= . /j.pursup. . . }}</ref> employment and prosperity. this observation <ref>fukuyama, f. ( ) trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity, touchstone books.</ref> created a significant interest in considering trust as a form of [[social capital]] and has led research into closer understanding of the process of creation and distribution of such capital. it has been claimed that a higher level of social trust is positively correlated with [[economic development]]. even though the original concept of 'high trust' and 'low trust' societies may not necessarily hold, it has been widely accepted and demonstrated that social trust benefits the economy <ref>zak, p. j., and knack, s. ( ) "trust and growth". ''economic journal'', : [https://www.jstor.org/pss/ ]– .</ref> and that a low level of trust inhibits [[economic growth]]. the absence of trust restricts growth in employment, wages and profits, thus reducing the overall welfare of society.<ref>{{cite journal|last=pollitt|first=michael|date= |title=the economics of trust, norms and networks|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/ . / - . |journal=business ethics: a european review|language=en|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / - . |s cid= |issn= - }}</ref> theoretical economical modelling<ref>{{cite journal | last = braynov | first = s. | last = sandholm | first = t. | year = | title = contracting with uncertain level of trust | journal = computational intelligence | volume = | issue = | pages = – | doi= . / - . | citeseerx = . . . . | s cid = }}</ref> demonstrates that the optimum level of trust that a rational economic agent should exhibit in transactions is equal to the trustworthiness of the other party. such a level of trust leads to an efficient market. trusting less leads to the loss of economic opportunities, while trusting more leads to unnecessary vulnerabilities and potential exploitation. economics is also interested in quantifying trust, usually in monetary terms. the level of correlation between an increase in [[profit margin]]<ref>resnick, p. "the value of reputation on ebay: a controlled experiment". ''experimental economics'', volume , issue , jun , pp. – .</ref> or a decrease in transactional costs can be used as indicators of the economic value of trust. economic 'trust games' are popularly used to empirically quantify trust in relationships under laboratory conditions. there are several games and game-like scenarios related to trust that have been tried, with certain preferences to those that allow the estimation of confidence in monetary terms.<ref>keser, c. ( ) "experimental games for the design of reputation management systems". ''ibm systems j.'', vol. , no. .</ref> games of trust are designed in a way such that the nash equilibrium differs from [[pareto efficiency|pareto optimum]] so that no player alone can maximize his own utility by altering his selfish strategy without cooperation. cooperating partners can also benefit. the classical version of the game of trust has been described<ref>berg, j., dickhaut, j., and mccabe, k. ( ) "trust, reciprocity, and social history", ''games and economic behavior'' , – . [https://archive.today/ /http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=articleurl&_udi=b wfw- njfpr- &_user= &_coverdate= / / &_rdoc= &_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_rerunorigin=scholar.google&_acct=c &_version= &_urlversion= &_userid= &md = c b d b f ffd &searchtype=a abstract.]</ref> as an abstracted investment game, using the scenario of an investor and a broker. the investor can invest a fraction of his money, and broker can return only part of his gains. if both players follow their economical best interest, the investor should never invest and the broker will never be able to repay anything. thus the flow of money flow, its volume and character is attributable entirely to the existence of trust. the game can be played as a once-off, or repeatedly, with the same or different sets of players to distinguish between a general propensity to trust and trust within particular relationships. several other variants of this game exist. reversing rules lead to the game of distrust, pre-declarations can be used to establish intentions of players,<ref>airiau, s., and sen, s. ( ) "learning to commit in repeated games". in: ''proc. of the fifth int. joint conf. on autonomous agents and multiagent systems'' (aamas ).</ref> while alterations to the distribution of gains can be used to manipulate perception of both players. the game can be also played by several players on the closed market,<ref>bolton, g. e., katok, e., and ockenfels, a. ( ) "how effective are electronic reputation mechanisms? an experimental investigation".</ref> with or without information about reputation. other interesting games are e.g. binary-choice trust games,<ref>{{cite journal | last = camerer | first = c. | last = weigelt | first = k. | year = | title = experimental tests of a sequential equilibrium reputation model | journal = econometrica | volume = | issue = | pages = – | doi= . / | citeseerx = . . . . | jstor = }}</ref> the gift-exchange game<ref>fehr, e., kirchsteiger, g., and riedl, a.. "does fairness prevent market clearing? an experimental investigation". ''quarterly journal of economics'' (may ), pp. – .</ref> and various other forms of social games. specifically games based on the [[prisoner's dilemma]]<ref>poundstone, w. ( ). ''prisoner's dilemma''. doubleday, ny.</ref> are popularly used to link trust with economic utility and demonstrate the rationality behind reciprocity. the popularization of [[e-commerce]] opened the discussion of trust in economy to new challenges while at the same time elevating the importance of trust, and desire to understand customer decision to trust.<ref>mcknight, d., h., chervany, n. l. ( ) "conceptualizing trust: a typology and e-commerce customer relationships model". ''proc. of the th hawaii int. conf. on system sciences''.</ref> for example, interpersonal relationships between buyers and sellers have been disintermediated by the technology,<ref>giddens, a. ( ) ''modernity and self-identity: self and society in the late modern age''. polity press.</ref> and consequentially required improvement.<ref>golbeck, j. ( ). ''computing with social trust''. springer.</ref> websites can influence the buyer to trust the seller, regardless of the seller's actual trustworthiness (e.g.<ref>egger, f. n. "from interactions to transactions: designing the trust experience for business-to-consumer electronic commerce". phd thesis, eindhoven university of technology (the netherlands).</ref>). reputation-based systems improved on trust assessment by allowing to capture the collective perception of trustworthiness, generating significant interest in various models of reputation.<ref>chang, e., dillion, t., hussain, f. k. ( ) ''trust and reputation for service-oriented environments: technologies for building business intelligence and consumer confidence''. john wiley & sons, ltd.</ref> == management and organization science == in management and organization science, trust is studied as a factor that can be managed and influenced by organizational actors. scholars have paid particular attention to how trust develops across individual and organizational levels of analysis.<ref>{{cite journal|last =fulmer|first =c. ashley|last =gelfand|first =michele j.|s cid= |date= - - |title=at what level (and in whom) we trust: trust across multiple organizational levels|journal=journal of management|language=en|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / |issn= - }}</ref> they suggest a reciprocal process where organizational structures influence individuals’ trust and, at the same time, individuals’ trust manifests in organizational structures. trust is also one of the conditions of an [[organizational culture]] that supports [[knowledge sharing]].<ref name=": ">{{cite book|last=dalkir|first=kimiz|title=knowledge management in theory and practice|publisher=mit press|year= |isbn= |location=cambridge, massachusetts}}</ref> an organizational culture that supports knowledge sharing allows employees to feel secure and comfortable to share their knowledge, their work and their expertise.<ref name=": " /><ref>{{cite journal|last=vanhala|first=mika|last =puumalainen|first =kaisu|last =blomqvist|first =kirsimarja|date= |title=impersonal trust: the development of the construct and the scale|journal=personnel review|volume= |pages= - }}</ref> structure often creates trust in a person that encourages them to feel comfortable and excel in the workplace; it makes an otherwise stressful environment manageable. by having a conveniently organized area to work on, concentration will increase as well as effort. management and organization science scholars have also paid attention to how trust is influenced by contracts and how trust interacts with formal mechanisms.<ref>{{cite journal|last =poppo|first =laura|last =zenger|first =todd|date= |title=do formal contracts and relational governance function as substitutes or complements?|journal=strategic management journal|language=en|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /smj. |issn= - }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last =cao|first =zhi|last =lumineau|first =fabrice|s cid= |date= |title=revisiting the interplay between contractual and relational governance: a qualitative and meta-analytic investigation|journal=journal of operations management|language=en|volume= - |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /j.jom. . . |issn= - }}</ref> parallel to the very large interest in trust, scholars in management and related disciplines have made the case for the importance of distrust as a related but distinct construct. since the mid- s, a substantial body of organizational research has fallen into one of two distinct but nonexclusive paradigms of trust research.<ref name="tomlinson">{{cite journal|last =tomlinson|first =edward|last =schnackenberg|first =andrew|last =dawley|first =david|last =ash|first =steven|date= |title=revisiting the trustworthiness-trust relationship: exploring the differential predictors of cognition- and affect-based trust|journal=journal of organizational behavior|language=en|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /job. }}</ref> the first paradigm distinguishes between two major dimensions of trust. trust in another can be characterized as cognition-based trust (i.e., based on rational calculation) and affect-based trust (i.e., based on emotional attachment).<ref>{{cite journal|last =mcallister|first =daniel|date= |title= affect-and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizations|journal=academy of management journal|language=en|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / }}</ref> for example, trust in an auto repair shop could come in the form of an assessment of the capabilities of the shop to do a good job repairing one's car (cognition-based trust) or having a longstanding relationship with the shop's owner (affect-based trust). the second paradigm distinguishes between the trustworthiness factors that give rise to trust (i.e., one’s perceived ability, benevolence, and integrity) and trust itself.<ref name="mayer"/> together, these paradigms are useful for predicting how different dimensions of trust form in organizations via the demonstration of various trustworthiness attributes.<ref name="tomlinson"/> ==systems== in [[systems]], a trusted component has a set of properties which another component can rely on. if a trusts b, a violation in those properties of b might compromise the correct operation of a. observe that those properties of b trusted by a might not correspond quantitatively or qualitatively to b's actual properties. this occurs when the designer of the overall system does not take the relation into account. in consequence, trust should be placed to the extent of the component's trustworthiness. the trustworthiness of a component is thus, not surprisingly, defined by how well it secures a set of functional and non-functional properties, deriving from its architecture, construction, and environment, and evaluated as appropriate.<ref> paulo verissimo, miguel correia, nuno f. neves, paulo sousa. "intrusion-resilient middleware design and validation". in ''annals of emerging research in information assurance, security and privacy services'', h. raghav rao and shambhu upadhyaya (eds.), elsevier, to appear. .</ref> ==see also== {{columns-list|colwidth= em| * [[attachment theory]] * [[credulity]] * [[gullibility]] * [[intimacy]] * [[misplaced trust]] * [[personal boundaries]] * [[position of trust]] * [[source criticism]] * [[swift trust theory]] * [[trust metric]] * [[trusted system]] * [[:category:computational trust|trust in computing]] }} ==references== {{reflist| em}} ==further reading== * [[reinhard bachmann|bachmann, reinhard]] and zaheer, akbar (eds) ( ). ''handbook of trust research''. cheltenham: edward elgar.{{isbn?}} * [[cristina bicchieri|bicchieri, cristina]], duffy, john and tolle, gil ( ). "trust among strangers", ''philosophy of science'' : – . * marková, i., linell, p & gillespie, a. ( ). [https://lse.academia.edu/alexgillespie/papers/ /trust_and_distrust_in_society "trust and distrust in society"]. in marková, i. and gillespie, a. (eds.) ''trust and distrust: socio-cultural perspectives''. greenwich, ct: information age publishing, inc. * kelton, kari; fleischmann, kenneth r. & wallace, william a. ( ). "trust in digital information". ''journal of the american society for information science and technology'', ( ): – . * kini, a., & choobineh, j. (january ). "trust in electronic commerce: definition and theoretical considerations". paper presented at the thirty-first hawaii international conference on system sciences, kohala coast, hi. * gillespie, a. ( ). [https://lse.academia.edu/alexgillespie/papers/ /the_intersubjective_dynamics_of_trust_distrust_and_manipulation "the intersubjective dynamics of trust, distrust and manipulation"]. in markova and gillespie (eds), ''trust & distrust: socio-cultural perspectives''. charlotte, nc: info age. * maister, david h., green, charles h. & galford, robert m. ( ). ''the trusted advisor''. free press, new york{{isbn?}} ==external links== {{wiktionary|trustworthy}} {{wikiversity|earning trust}} {{commons category|trust}} * {{philpapers|category|trust|trust}} * {{inpho|idea| |trust}} * {{cite sep |url-id=trust |title=trust}} * [http://www.wilderdom.com/games/trustactivities.html trust building activities] * [https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.sociology.ox.ac.uk/papers/trustbook.html trust: making and breaking cooperative relations], edited by diego gambetta * [https://archive.org/details/amitrust ''am i trustworthy?'' ( ) educational video clip] *[http://www.stonybrook.edu/trust/ stony brook university weekly seminars on the issue of trust in the personal, religious, social, and scientific realms] *[https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://web.missouri.edu/~jamesha/trust/index.htm world database of trust] harvey s. james, jr., ph.d (updated august ) a variety of definitions of trust are collected and listed. {{authority control}} {{defaultsort:trust (social sciences)}} [[category:interpersonal relationships]] [[category:reputation management]] [[category:concepts in ethics]] [[category:accountability]] [[category:social constructionism]] [[category:social epistemology]] [[category:sociological terminology]] [[category:emotions]] [[category:moral psychology]] pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help): 	trust (social science) (edit) 	template:authority control (view source) (template editor protected) 	template:catalog lookup link (view source) (template editor protected) 	template:category handler (view source) (protected) 	template:citation (view source) (protected) 	template:cite sep (view source) (template editor protected) 	template:cite book (view source) (protected) 	template:cite encyclopaedia (view source) (protected) 	template:cite encyclopedia (view source) (protected) 	template:cite journal (view source) (protected) 	template:cite web (view source) (protected) 	template:column-width (view source) (template editor protected) 	template:columns-list (view source) (template editor protected) 	template:commons category (view source) (template editor protected) 	template:delink (view source) (template editor protected) 	template:div col (view source) (template editor protected) 	template:editatwikidata (view source) (protected) 	template:emotion (edit) 	template:error-small (view source) (template editor protected) 	template:fix (view source) (protected) 	template:fix/category (view source) (template editor protected) 	template:for (view source) (template editor protected) 	template:isbn (view source) (template editor protected) 	template:isbn missing (view source) (semi-protected) 	template:isbn? 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wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	arousal 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		state of being awoken not to be confused with sexual arousal. 	 	this article's lead section may not adequately summarize its contents. to comply with wikipedia's lead section guidelines, please consider modifying the lead to provide an accessible overview of the article's key points in such a way that it can stand on its own as a concise version of the article. (october ) 	neuropsychology 	 topics 	brain regions 	clinical neuropsychology 	cognitive neuropsychology 	cognitive neuroscience 	dementia 	human brain 	neuroanatomy 	neurophysiology 	neuropsychological assessment 	neuropsychological rehabilitation 	traumatic brain injury 	 brain functions 	arousal 	attention 	consciousness 	decision making 	executive functions 	natural language 	learning 	memory 	motor coordination 	perception 	planning 	problem solving 	thought 	 people 	alan baddeley 	arthur l. benton 	david bohm 	antonio damasio 	phineas gage 	norman geschwind 	elkhonon goldberg 	patricia goldman-rakic 	donald o. hebb 	kenneth heilman 	eric kandel 	edith kaplan 	muriel lezak 	benjamin libet 	rodolfo llinás 	alexander luria 	brenda milner 	karl h. pribram 	pasko rakic 	oliver sacks 	mark rosenzweig 	roger w. sperry 	hans-lukas teuber 	henry molaison ("h.m.", patient) 	k.c. (patient) 	 tests 	benton visual retention test 	continuous performance task 	halstead-reitan neuropsychological battery 	hayling and brixton tests 	lexical decision task 	luria-nebraska neuropsychological battery 	mini–mental state examination 	rey–osterrieth complex figure 	stroop test 	wechsler adult intelligence scale 	wechsler memory scale 	wisconsin card sorting task 	 	 psychology portal 	 philosophy portal 	 medicine portal 		v 	t 	e 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	v 	t 	e arousal is the physiological and psychological state of being awoken or of sense organs stimulated to a point of perception. it involves activation of the ascending reticular activating system (aras) in the brain, which mediates wakefulness, the autonomic nervous system, and the endocrine system, leading to increased heart rate and blood pressure and a condition of sensory alertness, mobility, and readiness to respond. arousal is mediated by several neural systems. wakefulness is regulated by the aras, which is composed of projections from five major neurotransmitter systems that originate in the brainstem and form connections extending throughout the cortex; activity within the aras is regulated by neurons that release the neurotransmitters acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine, histamine, and serotonin. activation of these neurons produces an increase in cortical activity and subsequently alertness. arousal is important in regulating consciousness, attention, alertness, and information processing. it is crucial for motivating certain behaviours, such as mobility, the pursuit of nutrition, the fight-or-flight response and sexual activity (the arousal phase of masters and johnson's human sexual response cycle). it is also important in emotion and has been included in theories such as the james-lange theory of emotion. according to hans eysenck, differences in baseline arousal level lead people to be extraverts or introverts. the yerkes-dodson law states that an optimal level of arousal for performance exists, and too little or too much arousal can adversely affect task performance. one interpretation of the yerkes-dodson law is the easterbrook cue-utilisation hypothesis. easterbrook states that an increase of arousal decreases the number of cues that can be used. contents 	 neurophysiology 	 importance 	 personality 	 . introversion and extraversion 	 . emotional stability vs. introversion-extraversion 	 . four personality types 	 emotion 	 . cannon–bard theory 	 . james–lange theory 	 . schachter–singer two-factor theory 	 memory 	 preference 	 associated problems 	 abnormally increased behavioral arousal 	 effects of physiological arousal on cognition 	 see also 	 references neurophysiology[edit] main article: ascending reticular activating system structures of the brainstem, the origin of the arousal system, viewed along the sagittal plane wakefulness is regulated by the ascending reticular activating system, which is composed of five major neurotransmitter systems – the acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine, histamine, and serotonin systems – that originate in the brainstem and form connections which extend throughout the cerebral cortex.[ ][ ][ ] when stimulated, these systems produce cortical activity and alertness.[ ][ ] the noradrenergic system is a bundle of axons that originate in the locus coeruleus and ascends up into the neocortex, limbic system, and basal forebrain. most of the neurons are projected to the posterior cortex which is important with sensory information, and alertness. the activation of the locus coeruleus and release of norepinephrine causes wakefulness and increases vigilance. the neurons that project into the basal forebrain impact cholinergic neurons that results in a flood of acetylcholine into the cerebral cortex. the acetylcholinergic system has its neurons located in the pons and in the basal forebrain. stimulation of these neurons result in cortical activity, shown from eeg records, and alertness. all of the other four neurotransmitters play a role in activating the acetylcholine neurons. another arousal system, the dopaminergic system, releases dopamine produced by the substantia nigra. the neurons arise in the ventral tegmental area in the midbrain, and projects to the nucleus accumbens, the striatum forebrain, limbic system, and prefrontal cortex. the limbic system is important for control of mood, and the nucleus accumbens signal excitement and arousal. the path terminating in the prefrontal cortex is important in regulating motor movements, especially reward oriented movements. the serotonergic system has almost all of its serotonergic neurons originating in the raphe nuclei. this system projects to the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex. stimulation of these axons and release of serotonin causes cortical arousal and impacts locomotion and mood. the neurons of the histaminergic system are in the tuberomammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus. these neurons send pathways to the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and the basal forebrain, where they stimulate the release of acetylcholine into the cerebral cortex. all of these systems are linked and show similar redundancy. the pathways described are ascending pathways, but there also arousal pathways that descend. one example is the ventrolateral preoptic area, which release gaba reuptake inhibitors, which interrupt wakefulness and arousal. neurotransmitters of the arousal system, such as acetylcholine and norepinephrine, work to inhibit the ventrolateral preoptic area. importance[edit] mental state in terms of challenge level and skill level, according to csikszentmihalyi's flow model.[ ] (click on a fragment of the image to go to the appropriate article) arousal is important in regulating consciousness, attention, and information processing. it is crucial for motivating certain behaviors, such as mobility, the pursuit of nutrition, the fight-or-flight response and sexual activity (see masters and johnson's human sexual response cycle, where it is known as the arousal phase). arousal is also an essential element in many influential theories of emotion, such as the james-lange theory of emotion or the circumplex model. according to hans eysenck, differences in baseline arousal level lead people to be either extraverts or introverts. later research suggests that extroverts and introverts likely have different arousability. their baseline arousal level is the same, but the response to stimulation is different.[ ] the yerkes–dodson law states that there is a relationship between arousal and task performance, essentially arguing that there is an optimal level of arousal for performance, and too little or too much arousal can adversely affect task performance. one interpretation of the yerkes–dodson law is the easterbrook cue-utilisation theory. it predicted that high levels of arousal will lead to attention narrowing, during which the range of cues from the stimulus and the environment decreases.[ ] according to this hypothesis, attention will be focused primarily on the arousing details (cues) of the stimulus, so that information central to the source of the emotional arousal will be encoded while peripheral details will not.[ ] in positive psychology, arousal is described as a response to a difficult challenge for which the subject has moderate skills.[ ] personality[edit] introversion and extraversion[edit] eysenck's theory of arousal describes the different natural frequency or arousal states of the brains of people who are introverted versus people who are extroverted. the theory states that the brains of extroverts are naturally less stimulated, so these types have a predisposition to seek out situations and partake in behaviors that will stimulate arousal.[ ] whereas extroverts are naturally under-stimulated and therefore actively engage in arousing situations, introverts are naturally over-stimulated and therefore avoid intense arousal. campbell and hawley ( ) studied the differences in introverts versus extroverts responses to particular work environments in the library.[ ] the study found that introverts were more likely to choose quiet areas with minimal to no noise or people. extroverts were more likely to choose areas with much activity with more noise and people.[ ] daoussiss and mckelvie's ( ) research showed that introverts performed worse on memory tasks when they were in the presence of music compared to silence. extroverts were less affected by the presence of music.[ ] similarly, belojevic, slepcevic and jokovljevic ( ) found that introverts had more concentration problems and fatigue in their mental processing when work was coupled with external noise or distracting factors.[ ] the level of arousal surrounding the individuals greatly affected their ability to perform tasks and behaviors, with the introverts being more affected than the extroverts, because of each's naturally high and low levels of stimulation, respectively. emotional stability vs. introversion-extraversion[edit] neuroticism or emotional instability and extroversion are two factors of the big five personality index. these two dimensions of personality describe how a person deals with anxiety-provoking or emotional stimuli as well as how a person behaves and responds to relevant and irrelevant external stimuli in their environment. neurotics experience tense arousal which is characterized by tension and nervousness. extroverts experience high energetic arousal which is characterized by vigor and energy.[ ] gray ( ) claimed that extroverts have a higher sensitivity to reward signals than to punishment in comparison to introverts. reward signals aim to raise the energy levels.[ ] therefore, extroverts typically have a higher energetic arousal because of their greater response to rewards. four personality types[edit] hippocrates theorized that there are four personality types: choleric, melancholic, sanguine, and phlegmatic. put in terms of the five factor level of personality, choleric people are high in neuroticism and high in extraversion. the choleric react immediately, and the arousal is strong, lasting, and can easily create new excitement about similar situations, ideas, or impressions.[ ] melancholic people are high in neuroticism and low in extraversion (or more introverted). the melancholic are slow to react and it takes time for an impression to be made upon them if any is made at all. however, when aroused by something, melancholics have a deeper and longer lasting reaction, especially when exposed to similar experiences.[ ] sanguine people are low in neuroticism (or more emotionally stable) and high in extraversion. the sanguine are quickly aroused and excited, like the cholerics, but unlike the cholerics, their arousal is shallow, superficial, and shortly leaves them as quickly as it developed.[ ] phlegmatic people are low in neuroticism and low in extraversion. the phlegmatic are slower to react and the arousal is fleeting.[ ] the contrasts in the different temperaments come from individuals variations in a person's brain stem, limbic system, and thalamocortical arousal system. these changes are observed by electroencephalogram (eeg) recordings which monitor brain activity.[ ] limbic system activation is typically linked to neuroticism, with high activation showing high neuroticism.[ ] cortical arousal is associated with introversion–extraversion differences, with high arousal associated with introversion.[ ] both the limbic system and the thalamocortical arousal system are influenced by the brainstem activation.[ ] robinson's study ( ) concluded that melancholic types had the greatest natural frequencies, or a "predominance of excitation", meaning that melancholics (who are characterized by introversion) have a higher internal level of arousal.[ ] sanguine people (or those with high extraversion and low neuroticism) had the lowest overall levels of internal arousal, or a "predominance of inhibition".[ ] melancholics also had the highest overall thalamocortical excitation, whereas cholerics (those with high extraversion and high neuroticism) had the lowest intrinsic thalamocortical excitation.[ ] the differences in the internal system levels is the evidence that eysenck used to explain the differences between the introverted and the extroverted. ivan pavlov, the founder of classical conditioning, also partook in temperament studies with animals. pavlov's findings with animals are consistent with eysenck's conclusions. in his studies, melancholics produced an inhibitory response to all external stimuli, which holds true that melancholics shut out outside arousal, because they are deeply internally aroused.[ ] pavlov found that cholerics responded to stimuli with aggression and excitement whereas melancholics became depressed and unresponsive.[ ] the high neuroticism which characterizes both melancholics and cholerics manifested itself differently in the two types because of the different levels of internal arousal they had. emotion[edit] cannon–bard theory[edit] the cannon–bard theory is a theory of undifferentiated arousal, where the physical and emotional states occur at the same time in response to an event. this theory states that an emotionally provoking event results in both the physiological arousal and the emotion occurring concurrently.[ ] for example, if a person's dear family member dies, a potential physiological response would be tears falling down the person's face and their throat feeling dry; they are "sad". the cannon–bard theory states that the tears and the sadness both happen at the same time. the process goes: event (family member dies) → physiological arousal (tears) and emotion (sadness) simultaneously.[ ] the fact that people can experience different emotions when they have the same pattern of physiological arousal is one argument in favor of the cannon-bard theory. for example, a person may have a heart racing and rapid breathing when they are angry or afraid. even though not completely in accordance with the theory, it is taken as one piece of evidence in favor of the cannon–bard theory that physiological reactions sometimes happen more slowly than experiences of emotion. for example, if you are in the forest or woods, a sudden sound can create an immediate response of fear, while the physical symptoms of fear follow that feeling, and do not precede it.[ ] james–lange theory[edit] the james–lange theory describes how emotion is caused by the bodily changes which come from the perception of the emotionally arousing experience or environment.[ ] this theory states that events cause the autonomic nervous system to induce physiological arousal, characterized by muscular tension, heart rate increases, perspiration, dryness of mouth, tears, etc.[ ] according to james and lange, the emotion comes as a result of the physiological arousal.[ ] the bodily feeling as a reaction to the situation actually is the emotion.[ ] for example, if someone just deeply insulted a person and their family, the person's fists might ball up and they might begin to perspire and become tense all around. the person feels that their fists are balled and that they are tense. the person then realizes that they are angry. the process here is: event (insult) --> physiological arousal (balled fists, sweat, tension) --> interpretation ("i have balled fists, and tension") --> emotion (anger: "i am angry").[ ] this type of theory emphasizes the physiological arousal as the key, in that the cognitive processes alone would not be sufficient evidence of an emotion. schachter–singer two-factor theory[edit] the schachter–singer two-factor theory or the cognitive labeling theory takes into account both the physiological arousal and the cognitive processes that respond to an emotion-provoking situation. schachter and singer's theory states that an emotional state is the product of the physiological arousal and the cognition regarding the state of arousal. thus, cognition determines how the physical response is labeled; for example, as "anger", "joy", or "fear".[ ] in this theory, emotion is seen as a product of the interaction between the state of arousal and how one's thought processes appraise the current situation.[ ] the physiological arousal does not provide the label for the emotion; cognition does. for example, if a person is being pursued by a serial killer, the person will likely be sweating and their heart will be racing, which is their physiological state. the person's cognitive label will come from assessing their quickly beating heart and sweat as "fear". then they will feel the emotion of "fear", but only after it has been established through cognition. the process is: the event (serial killer chasing the person) --> physiological arousal (sweat, heart racing) --> cognitive label (reasoning; "this is fear") --> emotion (fear).[ ] memory[edit] arousal is involved in the detection, retention, and retrieval of information in the memory process. emotionally arousing information can lead to better memory encoding, therefore influencing better retention and retrieval of information. arousal is related to selective attention during the encoding process by showing that people are more subject to encode arousing information than neutral information.[ ] the selectivity of encoding arousing stimuli produces better long-term memory results than the encoding of neutral stimuli.[ ] in other words, the retention and accumulation of information is strengthened when exposed to arousing events or information. arousing information is also retrieved or remembered more vividly and accurately.[ ] although arousal improves memory under most circumstances, there are some considerations. arousal at learning is associated more with long-term recall and retrieval of information than short-term recall of information. for example, one study found that people could remember arousing words better after one week of learning them than merely two minutes after learning them.[ ] another study found that arousal affects the memory of people in different ways. eysenck found an association between memory and the arousal of introverts versus extroverts. higher levels of arousal increased the number of words retrieved by extroverts and decreased the number of words retrieved by introverts.[ ] preference[edit] a person's level of arousal when introduced to stimuli can be indicative of his or her preferences. one study found that familiar stimuli are often preferred to unfamiliar stimuli. the findings suggested that the exposure to unfamiliar stimuli was correlated to avoidance behaviors. the unfamiliar stimuli may lead to increased arousal and increased avoidance behaviors.[ ] on the contrary, increased arousal can increase approach behaviors as well. people are said to make decisions based on their emotional states. they choose specific options that lead to more favorable emotional states.[ ] when a person is aroused, he or she may find a wider range of events appealing[ ] and view decisions as more salient, specifically influencing approach-avoidance conflict.[ ] the state of arousal might lead a person to view a decision more positively than he or she would have in a less aroused state. the reversal theory accounts for the preference of either high or low arousal in different situations. both forms of arousal can be pleasant or unpleasant, depending on a person's moods and goals at a specific time.[ ] wundt's and berlyne's hedonic curve differ from this theory. both theorists explain a person's arousal potential in terms of his or her hedonic tone. these individual differences in arousal demonstrate eysenck's theory that extroverts prefer increased stimulation and arousal, whereas introverts prefer lower stimulation and arousal.[ ] associated problems[edit] altered experiences of arousal are associated with both anxiety and depression. depression can influence a person's level of arousal by interfering with the right hemisphere's functioning. arousal in women has been shown to be slowed in the left visual field due to depression, indicating the influence of the right hemisphere.[ ] arousal and anxiety have a different relationship than arousal and depression. people who suffer from anxiety disorders tend to have abnormal and amplified perceptions of arousal. the distorted perceptions of arousal then create fear and distorted perceptions of the self. for example, a person may believe that he or she will get sick from being so nervous about taking an exam. the fear of the arousal of nervousness and how people will perceive this arousal will then contribute to levels of anxiety.[ ] abnormally increased behavioral arousal[edit] this is caused by withdrawal from alcohol or barbiturates, acute encephalitis, head trauma resulting in coma, partial seizures in epilepsy, metabolic disorders of electrolyte imbalance, intra-cranial space-occupying lesions, alzheimer's disease, rabies, hemispheric lesions in stroke and multiple sclerosis.[ ] anatomically this is a disorder of the limbic system, hypothalamus, temporal lobes, amygdala and frontal lobes.[ ] it is not to be confused with mania. effects of physiological arousal on cognition[edit] the effects of physiological arousal on cognition cause individuals to be active, attentive, or excited. the term "physiological" refers to physiology and concerns the normal functioning of an organism. physiological arousal refers to features of arousal reflected by physiological reactions, such as escalations in blood pressure and rate of respiration and lessened activity of the gastrointestinal system. these terms are what allow for the effects physiological arousal has on cognition itself.[ ] cognition is internal mental representations best characterized as thoughts and ideas- resulting from and involved in multiple mental processes and operations including perception, reasoning, memory, intuition, judgement and decision making. while cognition is not directly observable, it is still amenable to study using the scientific method. cognition is also something that plays a fundamental role in determining behavior. goes into explaining cognitive functions and how they are internal and inferred from behavior using measure like accuracy in performing a task like recalling a list of words of the time taken to find some word on a page of text. the study of cognitive functions derive from the information processing approach[ ] which argues that these functions that these functions involve operations occurring at various processing stages is typically based on a model of cognitive function of interest. physiological comes from physiology which is the study of the functioning of living organisms, animal or plant, and of the functioning of their constituent tissues or cells. this word was first used by the greeks to describe a philosophical inquiry into the nature of things. the use of the term with specific reference to vital activities of healthy humans, which began in the th century, also applicable to many current aspects of physiology. physiological responses to fight or flight: when the body is initially challenged by a stressor it responds with physiological activation (also known as arousal) of a defense system to deal with the immediate stressor. "if a stimulus is perceived as a threat, a more intense and prolonged discharge of the locus ceruleus which is the major nor adrenergic nucleus of the brain, giving rise to fibers innervating extensive areas throughout the neuraxis. also referred as the neuroaxis, is the axis in the central nervous system. activates the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. (thase & howland )" (psychologistworld.org, n.d.)[ ] the activation of the sympathetic nervous system leads to the release of non-epinephrine from nerve endings acting on the heart, blood vessels, respiratory centers, and other sites. the ensuing physiological changes constitute a major part of the acute stress response. which can often lead to as the fight or flight response. anticipated behaviors are actions that are foreseen or predicted to happen in a specific situation due to different environmental factors. furthermore, they are decided by one's past experiences and knowledge. anticipated behaviors examples 	someone sitting in the same seat every day during class 	someone reaching their hand out towards you would indicate they are wanting to shake hands 	while driving a car you would anticipate people braking therefore you would brake as well 	when a loud unexpected noise is created you are startled and flinch 	when a person sneezes you say "bless you" a real-life example of cognition is used whenever decision making is involved; for example, a real-life scenario of a cognitive decision would be when a traffic light is changing from green to yellow. one would either make a cognitive decision to run through the yellow light in hopes you could clear the intersection before the light turned red. however, one could make a different cognitive decision to stop when they see the yellow light to not run the light before it turned red. a real-life example of the effects of physiological arousal on cognition is when you're walking through the woods and you notice a rattlesnake in front of the walkway on the ground. you would feel alarmed and scared (physiological arousal). your past experience and knowledge of poisonous snakes and dangerous predators provides the (cognition) of the situation. based on your analysis of your position you label your arousal as fear. fear is explained to be an emotion that one might expect with alarm, it is also known as something to be afraid of or the feelings of apprehensiveness. fear works when one senses danger, the brain reacts instantly, sending signals that activate the nervous system. this causes physical responses, such as a faster heartbeat, rapid breathing, and an increase in blood pressure. blood pumps to muscle groups to prepare the body for physical action like running or fighting. skin sweats to keep the body cool. some people might notice sensations in the stomach, head, chest, legs, or hands. these physical sensations of fear can be mild or strong. a study done by joan vickers and mark williams[ ] analyzed how a group of elite biathlon shooters handled an experimental task. the goal was to determine why there might be a failure to perform in high pressure situations. difficulties come about when trying to test performance pressure, physiological workload, anxiety, and visual attention in a controlled setting. which is why they decided to test these elite biathlon shooters, due to the easy ability to stimulate the controlled experiment. in the low pressure stimulation the subjects were only told that the purpose of the test was to simply provide feedback and the fixation on the target at different power output levels. in the high pressure situation the shorter were told that the national team coach was going to observe the shooters, and their shooting percentages would be used to make the national team selections. both groups were told that prizes would be rewarded to the most accurate shooters. to test physiological arousal that was being used, vickers and williams measured each shooter's heart rate as well as the perceived exertion. trying to determine if the failure to perform to whatever level of skill or ability the person has at the time, also known as choking; was indeed a factor in this test. physiological arousal was measured and recorded through the athlete's heart rate and rate of perceived exertion. the findings showed that the biathletes developed the ability to decelerate their heart rate just before they shoot, most only shoot when hr is % or lower. whereas the test was designed for shots to be taken with a heart rate % or above. the expectations were for the low-pressure and high-pressure groups to be more prone to choking compared to those who were able to maintain their heart rates. the findings showed exactly what was expected, the only exception was that the pressure applied did not necessarily have much of an effect. while it was clear that high pressure stimulations did appear far more anxious than those of low-pressure stimulations. problem solving is the cognitive process that someone uses to achieve a goal whenever a solution cannot be determined by others. for example, you are with your buddies on a trip and get a flat tire. everyone looks around nervously because nobody knows how to change a flat. but then you remember that you took an automotive class in college where you learned to change flat tires. you change the tire and solve the issue with your cognitive problem solving. cognitively, the utilization of logical analysis and problem solving has been associated with higher levels of life satisfaction, better health, and lower depression in caregivers. a realistic appraisal and acceptance of the difficult situation is healthy and allows the caregiver to live his or her own life while accommodating the needs of the recipient. less effective cognitive coping styles include avoidant-evasive, regressive, and an increased use of wishfulness and fantasizing by the caregiver, all of which have been related to higher levels of care burden (hayley et al., ; quayhagen & quayhagen, ). cognitive appraisal is the stress perceived as imbalance between demands place on the individual and the individual and the individual's resources to cope. lazarus argued that the experience of stress differs significantly between individuals depending on how they interpret an event and the outcome of a specific sequence of thinking patterns called appraisals. it also refers to the personal interpretation of a situation that ultimately influences the extent to which the situation is perceived as stressful, process of assessing whether a situation or event threatens our well being, whether there are sufficient personal resources available for coping with the demand of the situation of whether our strategy for dealing with the situation is effective. the three parts that it can be divided into are primary appraisal, secondary appraisal, and reappraisal. primary appraisal is an assessment of how significant an event is for a person, including whether it is a threat or opportunity, also including that no heightened physiological arousal occurs it means no stress will either. secondary appraisal considers one's ability to cope or take advantage of the situation. cognitive appraisal is a personal interpretation of a situation and possible reactions to it. their secondary appraisal determines what the person will do, and involves their perception of their options and resources. these appraisals can be accurate or inaccurate, and helping a person arrive at more apt appraisals is a goal of some modes of cognitive behavioral therapy, this is a psychosocial intervention that is the most widely used evidence based practice for improving mental health guided by empirical research cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on the development of personal coping strategies that target solving current problems and changing unhelpful patterns in cognition, behaviors, and emotional regulation. also known as regulation of emotion; is the ability to respond to the ongoing demands of experience with the range of emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable and sufficiently flexible to permit spontaneous reactions as well as the ability to delay spontaneous reactions as needed. it can also be defined as extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions. emotional self-regulation belongs to the broader set of emotion-regulation processes, which includes the regulations of one's own feelings and the regulations of other people's feelings. see also[edit] 		look up arousal in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	low arousal approach 	low arousal theory references[edit] 	"how fight-or-flight instincts impact on your stress levels". psychologist world. 	lench, heather c.; flores, sarah a.; bench, shane w. 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( ): – . doi: . /jmbr. . . - . issn  - . pmid  . s cid  . 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion 	 	v 	t 	e psychophysiology 	 	appetite 	arousal 	biofeedback 	blushing 	consciousness 	cerebral dominance 	habituation 	lie detection 	orientation 	reaction time 	reflex 	satiation 	self stimulation 	sensation 	sleep 	psychological stress retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=arousal&oldid= " 		categories: 	neuropsychology 	neuropsychological assessment 	emotions 	mental states in csikszentmihalyi's flow model hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	wikipedia introduction cleanup from october 	all pages needing cleanup 	articles covered by wikiproject wikify from october 	all articles covered by wikiproject wikify 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	deutsch 	eesti 	español 	فارسی 	français 	한국어 	italiano 	עברית 	nederlands 	polski 	svenska 	ไทย 	粵語 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; 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"intrusion-resilient middleware design and validation". in ''annals of emerging research in information assurance, security and privacy services'', h. raghav rao and shambhu upadhyaya (eds.), elsevier, to appear. .</ref> return to trust (social science). retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/trust_(social_science)" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 bilateral - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	bilateral 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 				look up bilateral in wiktionary, the free dictionary. bilateral may refer to any concept including two sides, in particular: 	bilateria, bilateral animals 	bilateralism, the political and cultural relations between two states 	bilateral, occurring on both sides of an organism (anatomical terms of location § medial and lateral) 	bilateral symmetry, symmetry between two sides of an organism 	bilateral filter, an image processing algorithm 	bilateral amplifier, a type of amplifier 	bilateral (album), an album by the band leprous 	bilateral school, see partially selective school (england) 	 	 disambiguation page providing links to topics that could be referred to by the same search term this disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title bilateral. if an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=bilateral&oldid= " 		categories: 	disambiguation pages hidden categories: 	disambiguation pages with short descriptions 	short description is different from wikidata 	all article disambiguation pages 	all disambiguation pages 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		add links 	 		 this page was last edited on april , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 Доверие – Уикипедия 	 	 	 	 	Доверие 	 		от Уикипедия, свободната енциклопедия 		 		 		 		 		Направо към навигацията 		Направо към търсенето 		 „Доверието на Бога“, Лоренцо Бартолини Доверието е знанието или убеждението, че действията, бъдещия статут или собствеността на даден обект, ще бъдат съобразени с желанието ни.[ ] В случай на човешки взаимоотношения доверието се отнася най-често за честност и искреност от друга страна към нас.[ ] Източници[редактиране | редактиране на кода] 	↑ а б sztompka, piotr. „zaufanie: fundament społeczeństwa“. kraków. isbn - - - - . Външни препратки[редактиране | редактиране на кода] 	 	 В Общомедия има медийни файлове относно Доверие Тази статия, свързана с психология, все още е мъниче. Помогнете на Уикипедия, като я редактирате и разширите. 	 Портал „Психология“ 			п 	б 	р Емоции 	 	Емоции	 	Апатия 	Безразличие 	Благодарност 	Вина 	Гняв 	Гордост 	Депресия 	Доверие 	Екстаз 	Ентусиазъм 	Еуфория 	Завист 	Задоволство 	Изненада 	Интерес 	Искреност 	Копнеж 	Любов 	Любопитство 	Надежда 	Носталгия 	Обожание 	Обич 	Омраза 	Отвращение 	Паника 	Плач 	Притеснителност 	Приятелство 	Радост 	Раздразнение 	Разочарование 	Ревност 	Самота 	Саудаде 	Скромност 	Скръб 	Скука 	Смелост 	Срам 	Страдание 	Страст 	Страх 	Съмнение 	Състрадание 	Съчувствие 	Тревожност 	Тъга 	Удовлетворение 	Ужас 	Унижение 	Учудване 	Фрустрация 	Хистерия 	Честност 	Щастие 	Ярост 	 	 	Мироглед	 	Цинизъм 	Пораженство 	Нихилизъм 	Оптимизъм 	Песимизъм 	Отшелник 	Мирова скръб Взето от „https://bg.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Доверие&oldid= “. 		Категория: 	Психология Скрити категории: 	Страници, използващи вълшебни препратки isbn 	Мъничета за психология 	Портал:Психология/Тематични статии 	Препратки с меташаблони 	 	 	Навигация 	 		 	 		Лични инструменти 	 	 			Не сте влезли в системата 	Беседа 	Приноси 	Създаване на сметка 	Влизане 		 	 		 			 	 		Именни пространства 	 	 			Статия 	Беседа 		 	 			 	 	 		Варианти 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		Прегледи 	 	 			Преглед 	Редактиране 	Редактиране на кода 	История 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		Търсене 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		Навигация 	 	 			Начална страница 	Случайна статия 	За Уикипедия 	Блог на общността 	Страница за контакт 	Направете дарение 		 	 	 	 		Участвайте 	 	 			Защо? 	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Текстът е достъпен под лиценза creative commons Признание-Споделяне на споделеното; може да са приложени допълнителни условия. За подробности вижте Условия за ползване. 		Поверителност 	За контакт с Уикипедия 	Предупреждение 	Мобилен изглед 	За разработчици 	Статистика 	Използване на „бисквитки“ 		 	 	 Давер — Вікіпедыя 	 	 	 	 	Давер 	 		З пляцоўкі Вікіпедыя 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		Давер — характар адносін паміж сацыяльнымі суб'ектамі (асобамі, сацыяльнымі групамі і інстытутамі); у больш канкрэтнай форме — гэта адносіны аднаго чалавека да другога (партнёра, кіраўніка, сябра), заснаваныя на перакананасці ў яго праваце, вернасці і добрасумленнасці. Супрацьлеглым гэтаму паняццю з'яўляецца недавер, падазронасць, калі пад сумненне ставіцца вернасць агульнай справе ці шчырасць адносін паміж людзьмі. Шчырасць у характары адносін можа існаваць толькі тады, калі суб'екты адносін перакананы ў тым, што могуць з вялікай ступенню імавернасці прагназаваць паводзіны іншых людзей і калі партнёры прытрымліваюцца агульнапрынятых маральных прынцыпаў - добрасумленнасці, гонару і інш. Псіхолагі лічаць, што ў аснове даверу ляжаць разуменне і веданне іншых людзей. Здольнасць праяўляць давер у розных людзей неаднолькавая. Упэўнены ў сабе чалавек здольны больш лаяльна ставіцца да іншых людзей, найперш заўважаць у іх дадатныя рысы, а не недахопы. Шлях да даверу ляжыць і праз удасканаленне самога сябе. Давер адыгрывае важную ролю ў выхаванні чалавека. Літаратура[правіць | правіць зыходнік] 	Чалавек і грамадства: Энцыклапедычны даведнік. Мінск: Беларуская Энцыклапедыя, . isbn - - - Узята з "https://be.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Давер&oldid= " 		Катэгорыі: 	Сацыяльная псіхалогія 	Этыка Схаваная катэгорыя: 	Старонкі, на якіх ужыты чароўныя спасылкі isbn 	 	 	Навігацыя 	 		 	 		Асабістыя прылады 	 	 			Не ўвайшоў 	Размовы 	Уклад 	Стварыць уліковы запіс 	Увайсці 		 	 		 			 	 		Прасторы назваў 	 	 			Артыкул 	Размовы 		 	 			 	 	 		Варыянты 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		Віды 	 	 			Чытаць 	Правіць 	Правіць зыходнік 	Паказаць гісторыю 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		Знайсці 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		Навігацыя 	 	 			Галоўная старонка 	Супольнасць 	Апошнія змены 	Новыя старонкі 	Форум 	Выпадковая старонка 	Даведка 	Ахвяраванні 	Паведаміць пра памылку 		 	 	 	 		Прылады 	 	 			Сюды спасылаюцца 	Звязаныя праўкі 	Адмысловыя старонкі 	Нязменная спасылка 	Звесткі пра старонку 	Цытаваць гэту старонку 	Элемент Вікідадзеных 		 	 	 		Друк/экспарт 	 	 			Стварыць кнігу 	Загрузіць як pdf 	Для друку 		 	 	 		У іншых праектах 	 	 			Вікісховішча 		 	 	 	 		На іншых мовах 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	galego 	עברית 	hrvatski 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	日本語 	Қазақша 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		Правіць спасылкі 	 		 Апошняе змяненне старонкі адбылося : , лістапада . 	Тэкст даступны на ўмовах ліцэнзіі creative commons attribution-sharealike, у асобных выпадках могуць дзейнічаць дадатковыя ўмовы. Падрабязней гл. Умовы выкарыстання. 		Палітыка прыватнасці 	Пра Вікіпедыю 	Адмова ад адказнасці 	Мабільная версія 	Распрацоўшчыкі 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 tillid - wikipedia, den frie encyklopædi 	 	 	 	 	tillid 	 		fra wikipedia, den frie encyklopædi 		 		 		 		 		spring til navigation 		spring til søgning 		 graf der viser sammenhængen mellem graden af tillid i et samfund og den økonomiske lighed. tillid eller tiltro er en følelse og er dét fænomen, som viser sig ved, at et individ har en forventning om eller tro på, at et andet individ er pålideligt. på græsk og oldnordisk er ordet for (til)lid det samme som (til)tro.[ ][ ] ifølge k.e. løgstrup er menneskers tillid medfødt, hvorimod mistillid læres under opvæksten.[ ] i sociologien beskriver tillid en relation mellem aktører (fx en person eller virksomhed). tillid handler først og fremmest om en social aktørs suspenderingen af tvivl overfor en anden aktør eller en ide, dvs. det at en aktør godtager en anden aktør, eller en anden aktørs ide, som gangbar, kompetent, god, ærlig eller sand. tilliden kan siges at have i hvert fald tre funktioner i det sociale rum. den gør sociale handlinger forudsigelige, den skaber en fornemmelse af sammenhørighed og den gør det nemmere for personer at arbejde sammen. ifølge gert tinggaard svendsen, som er professor i statskundskab ved Århus universitet, har danskernes høj tillid til hinanden. kontrol koster meget, men har man i et samfund gensidigt tillid til hinanden, kan meget kontrol spares. gert tinggaard svendsen har på den baggrund omskrevet lenins frase: "tillid er godt, men kontrol er bedre" til "kontrol er godt, men tillid er billigere". [ ] et eksempel på danskernes høje tillid i praksis er, at det i danmark normalt kan svare sig at lave uovervåget vejsalg fra vejboder. ifølge et speciale af maria emilie arup fra Århus universitet, har vestjyder i ringkøbing-skjern kommune den højeste tillid i danmark til fremmede ( %), i forhold til landsgennemsnittet på %.[ ] se også[redigér | redigér wikikode] 	mistro 	skuffelse 	følelsesmæssig sårbarhed kilder/referencer[redigér | redigér wikikode] 	^ . august , kristeligt-dagblad.dk: tro er tillid citat: "...ordet tro opleves ofte fejlagtigt som noget, den troende kan præstere. jeg kan bedre lide ordet tillid, der på græsk er det samme ord som tro. at have tillid er en gave. i øvrigt også i forholdet mellem mennesker..." 	^ ordnet.dk: lid citat: "...oldnordisk hlít afledt af lide (på) 'stole, tro (på)'..." 	^ bibelselskabet.dk: brevkassen: hvorfor har vi tillid til hinanden? citat: "...tilliden kommer af sig selv, spontant. den skal man ikke lære eller anstrenge sig for. mistilliden skal derimod læres og opstår først, når vi har erfaret svigt, dvs. tillidsbrud. løgstrup kalder derfor tilliden for en ”suveræn livsytring"...tillid er med andre ord ikke et produkt af tilfældige samfundsforhold eller et resultat af det enkelte menneskes psykologiske konstitution, men er et fænomen, der så at sige er indbygget i selve tilværelsen..." 	^ . feb. , politiken.dk: danskerne er verdensmestre i tillid. mens tilliden daler i andre lande i verden, vokser den i danmark citat: "...ordene kommer fra professor i statskundskab gert tinggaard svendsen fra Århus universitet...»det store paradoks for økonomerne er, hvorfor vi i skandinavien er så rige. hvis vi ser på, hvad vi indtil nu har haft af uddannelse og ressourcer, så er det meget svært at forklare. der må være noget mere. og ’the missing link’ kunne være vores tillid. hvis du kan lave tingene baseret på tillid, så sparer du en masse papirarbejde og kontrollanter. det smører samfundets tandhjul«...lenin sagde, at tillid er godt, men kontrol er bedre. jeg har omskrevet det til ’kontrol er godt, men tillid er billigere’...", backup 	^ . aug. , dr.dk: vestjyder er verdensmestre i tillid citat: "...i ringkøbing-skjern kommune har procent af borgerne tillid til mennesker, de ikke kender...på landsplan er det kun procent, der stoler på fremmede, men det er faktisk verdensrekorden. det viser et stort europæisk studie - european values study - fra ...", backup litteratur[redigér | redigér wikikode] 	luhmann, niklas, tillid – en mekanisme til reduktion af social kompleksitet isbn - - - 	misztal, barbara, trust in modern societies: the search for the bases of social order isbn - - - 		autoritetsdata	 	lccn: sh 	gnd: - hentet fra "https://da.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=tillid&oldid= " 		kategorier: 	følelser 	mellemmenneskelige forhold skjulte kategorier: 	wikipedia artikler med lccn autoritetsdata-id 	wikipedia artikler med gnd autoritetsdata-id 	sider, der bruger automatiske isbn-henvisninger 	 	 	navigationsmenu 	 		 	 		personlige værktøjer 	 	 			ikke logget på 	diskussion 	bidrag 	opret konto 	log på 		 	 		 			 	 		navnerum 	 	 			artikel 	diskussion 		 	 			 	 	 		varianter 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		visninger 	 	 			læs 	redigér 	redigér wikikode 	se historik 		 	 			 	 	 		mere 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		søg 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			forside 	kategorier 	fremhævet indhold 	tilfældig side 	tilfældige artikler 	aktuelt 		 	 	 	 		deltagelse 	 	 			velkommen 	skribentforside 	landsbybrønden 	projekter 	portaler 	Ønskede artikler 	oprydning 	kalender 	seneste ændringer 	hjælp 		 	 	 		værktøjer 	 	 			hvad henviser hertil 	relaterede ændringer 	læg en fil op 	specialsider 	permanent link 	oplysninger om siden 	referér til denne side 	wikidata-emne 		 	 	 		organisation 	 	 			donation 	kontakt wikipedia 	wikimedia danmark 	glam 		 	 	 		udskriv/eksportér 	 	 			lav en bog 	download som pdf 	udskriftsvenlig udgave 		 	 	 		i andre projekter 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		på andre sprog 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	galego 	עברית 	hrvatski 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	日本語 	Қазақша 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		redigér links 	 		 denne side blev senest ændret den . juni kl. : . 	tekst er tilgængelig under creative commons navngivelse/del på samme vilkår . ; yderligere betingelser kan være gældende. se brugsbetingelserne for flere oplysninger. 		fortrolighedspolitik 	om wikipedia 	forbehold 	mobilvisning 	udviklere 	statistik 	brug af cookies 		 	 	 _hochformat .eps „a mixture of any two primary emotions may be called a dyad.“ „organisms at all evolutionary levels face certain common functional survival problems .“ joy trust fear surprise sadness disgust anger anticipation stimulus event cognite appraisal subjective reaction behavioral reaction function robert plutchik's psychoevolutionary theory of basic emotions acceptance surprise distraction uncertainty timidity dismay tolerance serenity delight cheerfulness interest annoyance hostility fury boredom dislike aversion pensiveness gloominess grief sorrow amazement astonishment terror panic admiration extasy elation vigilance attentiveness curiosity loathing revulsion rage sadness disgust anger anticipation joyjoy fear based on the book „emotion: a psychoevolutionary synthesis“ by robert plutchik; harper & row, publishers ( ) visualization by markus drews, university of applied sciences potsdam, germany, february supervised by prof. matthias krohn trust apprehension fright dejection expectancy animals and humans evolutionary history prototype patterns basic emotions combinations hypothetical constructs opposites similarity intensity survival issues emotions serve an adaptive role in helping organisms deal with key survival issues posed by the environment. dispite different forms of expression of emotions in different species, there are certain common elements, or prototype patterns, that can be identified. there is a small number of basic, primary or prototype emotions. all other emotions are mixed or derivative states; that is, they occur as combinations, mixtures, or compounds of the primary emotions. primary emotions are hypothetical constructs or idealized states whose properties and characteristics can only be inferred from various kinds of evidence. primary emotions can be conceptualized in terms of polar opposites. all emotions vary in their degree of similarity to one another. each emotion can exist in varying degrees of intensity or levels of arousal. the concept of emotion is applicable to all evolutionary levels and applies to all animals as well as humans. emotions have an evolutionary history and have evolved various forms of expression in different species. postulates combinations & opposites basic emotions, similarity, intensity survival issues primary dyads secondary dyads tertiary dyads opposites joy joy trust trust love fear fear submission alarm surprise surprise disappointment sadness sadness remorse disgust disgust contempt anger anger aggression anticipation joy trust fear surprise sadness disgust anger anticipation joy trust fear surprise sadness disgust anger anticipation joy trust fear surprise sadness disgust anger anticipation joy trust fear surprise sadness disgust anger anticipation joy trust fear surprise sadness disgust anger anticipation anticipation optimism guilt curiosity despair ? envy cynism pride fatalism delight sentimentality shame outrage pessimism morbidness dominance anxiety conflict conflict conflict conflict [often felt] [seldom felt][sometimes felt] threat obstacle gain of valued object loss of valued object member of one‘s group unpalatable object new territory unexpected event „danger“ „enemy“ „possess“ „abandonment“ „friend“ „poison“ „examine“ „what is it?“ escape attack retain or repeat cry groom vomit map stop safety destroy obstacle gain resources reattach to lost object mutual support eject poison knowledge of territory gain time to orient scientific basis theories of emotions: • psychoanalytic theories • brain function theories • current cognitive and evolutionary theories • early behavioristic and arousal theories major traditions in the study of emotions charles darwin william james walter b. cannon siegmund freud john b. watson edward c. tolman burrhus f. skinner j. r. millenson robert leeper harold schlosberg marion a. wenger paul t. young stanley s. schachter george mandler richard s. lazarus joseph de rivera sylvan s. tomkins carrol e. izard j. w. papez paul d. maclean karl h. pribram magda b. arnold josé m. r. delgado manfred clynes sandor rado charles brenner john bowlby m. shermanh. r. conte paul ekman j. a. r. a. m. van hooff vertrauen – wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	vertrauen 	 		aus wikipedia, der freien enzyklopädie 		 		 		 		 		zur navigation springen 		zur suche springen 		 dieser artikel oder nachfolgende abschnitt ist nicht hinreichend mit belegen (beispielsweise einzelnachweisen) ausgestattet. angaben ohne ausreichenden beleg könnten demnächst entfernt werden. bitte hilf wikipedia, indem du die angaben recherchierst und gute belege einfügst. zu wenig einzelnachweise die ausgestreckte hand, ein zeichen der vertrauensbildung vertrauen bezeichnet die subjektive Überzeugung (oder auch das gefühl für oder glaube an die) von der richtigkeit, wahrheit von handlungen, einsichten und aussagen bzw. der redlichkeit von personen. vertrauen kann sich auf einen anderen oder das eigene ich beziehen (selbstvertrauen). zum vertrauen gehört auch die Überzeugung der möglichkeit von handlungen und der fähigkeit zu handlungen. man spricht dann eher von zutrauen. als das gegenteil des vertrauens gilt das misstrauen. neben diesem psychologisch-persönlichkeitstheoretischen ansatz, der die quelle des vertrauens in sozialisationsbedingten oder kulturell vermittelten persönlichkeitsstrukturen sucht, gibt es ökonomische, soziologische, politologische und sozialpsychologische theorien (transaktionsanalytische modelle), die versuchen, die entstehung von vertrauen in institutionellen zusammenhängen (z. b. in organisationen) bzw. in interpersonalen beziehungen zu erklären.[ ] eine vertrauensrelevante situation findet in einem interaktionellen kontext statt. hierbei hat der interaktionspartner die möglichkeit, eine verhaltensalternative auszuwählen, die für das vertrauende individuum mit negativen konsequenzen verbunden sein kann; das ist das risiko des vertrauenden in dieser kommunikativen struktur. denn das vertrauende individuum ist in gewissem sinne der kontrolle des interaktionspartners ausgesetzt.[ ] inhaltsverzeichnis 	 wortherkunft und begriffsgeschichte 	 charakteristik 	 vertrauensdimensionen 	 grundlagen der vertrauensbeziehung 	 . situationsbasiertes vertrauen 	 . eigenschaftsbasiertes vertrauen 	 . identifikationsbasiertes vertrauen 	 vertrauen in der soziologie 	 . vertrauen als mittlerer zustand zwischen wissen und nichtwissen 	 . vertrauen als mechanismus der reduktion von komplexität 	 . swift trust 	 . vertrauen und kontrolle 	 vertrauen in den wirtschaftswissenschaften 	 vertrauen in anderen disziplinen 	 spiritualität 	 siehe auch 	 literatur 	 weblinks 	 einzelnachweise wortherkunft und begriffsgeschichte[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] vertrauen ist als wort seit dem . jahrhundert bekannt (althochdeutsch: „fertruen“, mittelhochdeutsch: „vertruwen“) und geht auf das gotische trauan zurück. das wort „trauen“ gehört zu der wortgruppe um „treu“ = „stark“, „fest“, „dick“. im griechischen steht dafür „πίστις“ (pistis) („glaube“), im lateinischen „fiducia“ (selbstvertrauen) oder „fides“ (treue). so steht im antiken und mittelalterlichen gebrauch vertrauen im spannungsfeld von treue und glauben (z. b. bei demokrit, der fordert, nicht allen, sondern nur den bewährten zu vertrauen). für thomas von aquin ist vertrauen durch erfahrung bekräftigte hoffnung auf erfüllung von erwarteten zuständen unter der prämisse des vertrauens auf gott.[ ] seit beginn der neuzeit – etwa mit thomas hobbes einsetzend – ist vertrauen immer stärker ein zutrauen in die eigenen fähigkeiten (selbstvertrauen). charakteristik[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] vertrauen ist ein phänomen, das in unsicheren situationen oder bei risikohaftem ausgang einer handlung auftritt: wer sich einer sache sicher sein kann, muss nicht vertrauen. vertrauen ist aber auch mehr als nur glaube oder hoffnung, es benötigt immer eine grundlage, die sog. „vertrauensgrundlage“. dies können gemachte erfahrungen sein, aber auch das vertrauen einer person, der man selbst vertraut, oder institutionelle mechanismen. vertrauen ist teilweise übertragbar. jemandem sein ganzes vertrauen zu schenken, kann sehr aufregend sein, beispielsweise das vertrauen, das ein kind dem vater schenkt, wenn es von oben herab in die ausgebreiteten arme springt. dies gilt sowohl für den vater als auch für das kind. die geschichte wird oft im übertragenen sinn erzählt – als gottvertrauen. vertrauensdimensionen[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] „vertrauen ist der wille, sich verletzlich zu zeigen.“[ ] dieser einfache satz umfasst mehrere vertrauensdimensionen: . vertrauen entsteht in situationen, in denen der vertrauende (der vertrauensgeber) mehr verlieren als gewinnen kann – er riskiert einen schaden bzw. eine verletzung. . vertrauen manifestiert sich in handlungen, die die eigene verletzlichkeit erhöhen. man liefert sich dem vertrauensnehmer aus und setzt zum vertrauenssprung an. . der grund, warum man sich ausliefert, ist die positive erwartung, dass der vertrauensnehmer die situation nicht zum schaden des vertrauensgebers verwendet. grundlagen der vertrauensbeziehung[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] dieser artikel oder nachfolgende abschnitt ist nicht hinreichend mit belegen (beispielsweise einzelnachweisen) ausgestattet. angaben ohne ausreichenden beleg könnten demnächst entfernt werden. bitte hilf wikipedia, indem du die angaben recherchierst und gute belege einfügst. aus psychologischer sicht bezeichnet der begriff vertrauen eine wichtige dimension der identitätsbildung. vertrauen als konglomerat von gefühl und den assoziativ zugrundeliegenden erfahrungen, kann sich in frühen kindheitserfahrungen im kontakt mit wichtigen bezugspersonen (das grundvertrauen/urvertrauen) bilden. je nach dauer und intensität einer beziehung und je nach informationsgrundlage bezieht sich das vertrauen[ ]: 	auf die situation – es entsteht situationsbasiertes vertrauen, 	auf die wahrgenommene vertrauenswürdigkeit des vertrauensnehmers – es entsteht eigenschaftsbasiertes vertrauen, 	auf gemeinsam geteilte normen und werte von vertrauensgeber und vertrauensnehmer – es entsteht identifikationsbasiertes vertrauen vertrauensbeziehungen basieren oft auf gegenseitigkeit. identifikationsbasiertes vertrauen basiert auf gemeinsamen erfahrungen und früheren handlungen sowie auf gegenseitigem verstehen. in partnerschaften gedeiht gegenseitiges vertrauen umso stärker, je feinfühliger die partner wechselseitig auf die gefühle des jeweils anderen eingehen. situationsbasiertes vertrauen[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] in rationalistisch-entscheidungsorientierter betrachtungsweise bestehen folgende voraussetzungen dafür, dass ein situationsbasiertes vertrauen entstehen kann: 	der wert der zukünftigen kooperation muss den wert einer sofortigen nicht-kooperation übersteigen. 	eine mögliche nicht-kooperation muss beobachtbar sein und entdeckt werden können. 	der vertrauensgeber muss willens und fähig sein, den nicht-kooperateur zu bestrafen. vertrauen kann man vergrößern, indem man informationen gibt oder gewinnt (vertrauensbildende maßnahmen). auf längere sicht gewinnen strategien, die auf vertrauen basieren und zu kooperation führen, oft mehr als strategien, die auf misstrauen beruhen. situationsbasiertes vertrauen ist oft kein „echtes vertrauen“, und zwar, wenn verletzlichkeit nicht gegeben ist. aber es ist eine grundlage für die folgenden „echten formen“ von vertrauen. eigenschaftsbasiertes vertrauen[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] drei erwartungen gegenüber den persönlichen eigenschaften, die der kooperationspartner aufweisen soll, sind grundlage eines vertrauensvorschusses, den man ihm gibt: 	kompetenzerwartung, also die erwartung, dass der kooperationspartner in seiner domäne kompetent ist. 	integritätserwartung, also die erwartung, dass er keine verdeckten, für seine partner gefährlichen strategien betreibt. 	benevolenzerwartung, wobei benevolenz eine optimistisch-offene (wörtl. wohlwollende) haltung gegenüber anderen menschen und beziehungen meint, die nicht durch besondere handlungen, sondern durch guten willen und allgemeine geneigtheit gekennzeichnet ist. benevolenz gilt auch in der ökonomischen theorie als eine grundvoraussetzung für austausch und handel und ist nicht zu verwechseln mit altruismus.[ ] identifikationsbasiertes vertrauen[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] identifikationsbasiertes vertrauen beruht in sozialpsychologischer betrachtung auf vier komponenten: 	voraussetzungen: enge zusammenarbeit, offenheit und regelmäßige kommunikation 	identifikation mit den werten, zielen und bedürfnissen des partners 	gemeinschaft zwischen den vertrauenden 	gegenseitige sympathie und die entwicklung einer emotionalen bindung vertrauen in der soziologie[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] vertrauen als mittlerer zustand zwischen wissen und nichtwissen[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] georg simmel unterscheidet den „mystischen“ glauben des menschen an den menschen von der sozialen form des vertrauens. bei dieser handelt es sich um einen mittleren zustand zwischen wissen und nichtwissen, also um eine „hypothese künftigen verhaltens“. diese muss sicher genug sein, um „praktisches handeln darauf zu gründen.“[ ] allerdings gibt keinen eindeutigen zusammenhang zwischen dem grade des wissens bzw. nichtwissens und der damit verbundenen form oder intensität des vertrauens; denn sowohl bei sehr geringem wissen als auch bei genauem wissen kann sich sowohl großes vertrauen als auch misstrauen in eine andere person oder eine gruppe herausbilden.[ ] in der rationalisierten „zweckvereinigung“, etwa im rahmen geldwirtschaftlicher beziehungen oder – modern gesprochen – ganz allgemein im kontext klar definierter rollensysteme, wissen die akteure über ihre partner meist nur „das, was zu wissen über die zu knüpfende beziehung erforderlich ist“.[ ] damit entdeckt simmel die sozialkonstitutive funktion des nichtwissens für moderne gesellschaften: je differenzierter eine gesellschaft, desto geringer die chance auf identifikationsbasiertes vertrauen und desto größer das nichtwissen über die andere akteure, ohne welches aber situationsbasiertes vertrauen gar nicht möglich wäre, ohne das wiederum objektivierte sozialbeziehungen kaum funktionieren würden. vertrauen in soziale bindungen vertrauen als mechanismus der reduktion von komplexität[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] für niklas luhmann ist grundlage des vertrauens (d. h. letztlich des zutrauens zu den eigenen erwartungen) die „gegenwart als dauerndes kontinuum ..., als gesamtheit der bestände, an denen ereignisse sich ereignen können“. dieses vertrauen hat im zusammenhang der sozialen interaktionen die funktion, die komplexität der möglichkeiten auf ein maß zu reduzieren, das den einzelnen in seiner umwelt handlungsfähig bleiben lässt.[ ] swift trust[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] eine besondere form situationsbasierten vertrauens ist sowohl in soziologisch-institutioneller als auch in sozialpsychologisch-beziehungsorientierter perspektive interessant: das sog. swift trust (rasches, flüchtiges vertrauen), das sich einstellt bzw. einstellen muss, wenn eine heterogen zusammengesetzte temporäre arbeitsgruppe sofort mit der arbeit beginnen soll, ohne dass zeit für vorherige vertrauensbildung besteht. ein beispiel ist das filmproduktionsteam, in denen sich die akteure vorher kaum kennen und selbst ihre eigenen aufgaben noch nicht vollständig überschauen können. sie müssen sich vom ersten tag an fast blind vertrauen. Ähnliche prozesse sind für viele ad hoc gebildete virtuelle teams kennzeichnend.[ ] voraussetzungen für die entstehung von swift trust sind u. a.[ ] 	gleichartig ausgerichtete aktivitäten durch gemeinsame belohnung im falle des erfolgs oder gemeinsame strafe im scheiternsfall (z. b. die möglichkeit, durch den film ruhm zu ernten oder sich zu blamieren) 	das gefühl starker wechselseitiger abhängigkeit (man denke an den stuntman bei einer filmproduktion und die ihn sichernden teammitglieder) 	knappe zeit (zu viel zeit verführt dazu, egoistische oder unproduktive aktivitäten durchzuführen) 	ausreichende materielle ressourcen, um ressourcenkonflikte zu vermeiden 	fokussierung der professionalität, nicht der person der beteiligten akteure 	strikte aufgaben- und prozessorientierung, absehen von persönlichen problemen und verzicht auf persönliche kritik 	und vor allem ein trust broker (vertrauensbroker) mit transparentem handeln, der die teammitglieder ernennt und entlässt und für die professionalität eines jeden einzelnen verantwortlich ist. aus diesen erkenntnissen können wiederum schlussfolgerungen für eine effektive (re-)organisation der im allgemeinen zeitraubenden und teuren vertrauensbildungsprozesse im arbeitsalltag gezogen werden. vertrauen und kontrolle[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] vertrauen und kontrolle sind zwei gleichberechtigte komponenten der zusammenarbeit. vertrauen ist für die verhaltensweisen vorteilhaft, die nicht beobachtbar sind (z. b. einhaltung von pausen). je nach aufgabenkomplexität und je nach organisationsstruktur sind vertrauens- und kontrollspanne unterschiedlich. ist vertrauen vorhanden, besteht eine geringe notwendigkeit für kontrolle, vertrauensverluste dagegen verstärken die notwendigkeit von kontrolle. für die entfaltung von kreativität, innovation und flexibilität sind eher größere handlungsspielräume und dadurch vertrauen erforderlich.[ ] vertrauen in den wirtschaftswissenschaften[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] → hauptartikel: vertrauen (wirtschaft) in den wirtschaftswissenschaften wird vertrauen im kontext der entscheidungstheorie, der spieltheorie sowie durch die organisationspsychologie untersucht, wobei hierfür häufig das sogenannte vertrauensspiel (samt verschiedener modifikationen und erweiterungen dieses spiels) herangezogen wird. das spiel verdeutlicht paradigmatisch das verhaltensrisiko, dem sich die vertrauende person (man spricht hier vom vertrauensgeber) gegenübersieht, wenn sie sich vom zukünftigen verhalten einer anderen person (vertrauensnehmer) abhängig macht. 	auf ebene der entscheidungstheorie steht die frage im vordergrund, welche ( ) einflussfaktoren der entscheidungssituation (z. b. grad des interessenskonfliktes, symmetrischer oder asymmetrischer informationsstand) und ( ) welche persönlichkeitsfaktoren seitens des vertrauensgebers (z. b. soziale risikobereitschaft, kognitive dissonanz etc.) vertrauensvolles verhalten begründen können.[ ] 	bei spieltheoretischen analysen steht die interaktion mit dem empfänger des vertrauens im vordergrund. im kontext des vertrauensspiels ist sowohl die bereitschaft (= wahrscheinlichkeit für vertrauensvolle entscheidung) als auch die intensität (= höhe des riskierten vorschusses) umso höher, je ( ) niedriger der interessenkonflikt zwischen vertrauensgeber (vg) und vertrauensnehmer (vn) ausgeprägt ist; ( ) intensiver der informationsfluss zwischen vg und vn ausgeprägt ist; ( ) reibungsloser die kommunikation zwischen vg und vn erfolgt; ( ) häufiger vg und vn miteinander in interaktion treten (wiederholtes spiel); ( ) stärker das moralische commitment (z. b. orientierung an sozialen normen) bei beiden ausgeprägt ist.[ ] vertrauen in anderen disziplinen[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] 	in der entwicklungspsychologie spricht man vom urvertrauen. 	die psychiatrie kennt pathologien, die u. a. durch eine unfähigkeit zu vertrauen und intimität gekennzeichnet sind, wie z. b. die narzisstische persönlichkeitsstörung. 	in der organisationstheorie ist vertrauen ein mechanismus, der kontrollkosten und andere transaktionskosten senkt.[ ] dadurch werden auch kognitive anstrengungen gespart und ressourcen freigesetzt. unter anderem schafft vertrauen intime beziehungen, vereinfacht austausch von informationen und die entscheidungsfindung, erleichtert offene kommunikation und dient der wertschöpfung.[ ] 	in der politikwissenschaft ist vor allem das als institutionenvertrauen bezeichnete vertrauen der bevölkerung in die fähigkeit von institutionen, kontrolle über ressourcen, handlungen und ereignisse im sinne der bevölkerung auszuüben, wichtig. eine tyrannis – so aristoteles – hat nur unter wahrung des misstrauens zwischen den einwohnern bestand. für fichte ist der staat auf allgemeines misstrauen aufgebaut.[ ] 	die friedensforschung begreift vertrauen als notwendigen faktor für die nachhaltige Überwindung des sicherheitsdilemmas sowie für die etablierung von langfristigen, diffus reziproken kooperationsformen.[ ] 	in der verwaltungswissenschaft werden möglichkeiten des vertrauensauf- bzw. -ausbaus nach ethikeklats und korruptionsfällen diskutiert (verwaltungsethik). 	im (öffentlichen und privaten) recht wird „vertrauen“ als schützenswertes rechtsgut behandelt. 	oft können verhandlungen zwischen gegnern erfolgreicher geführt werden, wenn sie von einer person des beiderseitigen vertrauens moderiert werden (mediation). 	in der wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie und der zuverlässigkeitstheorie spricht man vom vertrauensbereich, wenn die wahrscheinlichkeit, dass ein ereignis in diesen bereich fällt, größer ist als die irrtumswahrscheinlichkeit. 	in der biochemie wird das hormon oxytocin für die vertrauensbildung verantwortlich gemacht. spiritualität[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] in vielen religionen existiert das konzept des vertrauens in einen gott, in die vorsehung (z. b. im islam), in personifizierte (fortuna, gute fee – vgl. lat.: fatua) oder unpersönliche höhere mächte (schicksal). siehe auch[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] 	treue 	verlässlichkeit 	verbindlichkeit 	soziales vertrauen literatur[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] 	michaela i. abdelhamid: die Ökonomisierung des vertrauens. eine kritik gegenwärtiger vertrauensbegriffe. transcript, bielefeld , isbn - - - - . 	reinhard bachmann, akbar zaheer (hrsg.): handbook of trust research. edward elgar publishing, cheltenham . isbn - - - - 	josette baer, wolfgang rother (hrsg.): vertrauen. schwabe, basel , isbn - - - - . 	douglas creed, raymond miles: trust in organizations: a conceptual framework linking organizational forms, managerial philosophies, and the opportunity cost of control, in: trust in organizations, hrsg. roderick kramer, tom tyler, thousand oaks , s. – 	olaf geramanis: vertrauen – die entdeckung einer sozialen ressource. hirzel, stuttgart , isbn - - - - . 	martin hartmann, zusammen mit claus offe: vertrauen: die grundlage des sozialen zusammenhalts. campus, frankfurt am main , isbn - - - . 	martin hartmann: die praxis des vertrauens. suhrkamp, frankfurt am main , isbn - - - . 	niklas luhmann: vertrauen: ein mechanismus der reduktion sozialer komplexität. . auflage. lucius & lucius, stuttgart , isbn - - - . 	barbara a. misztal: trust in modern societies: the search for the bases of social order. polity, cambridge , isbn - . 	marcus wiens: vertrauen in der ökonomischen theorie. eine mikrofundierte und verhaltensbezogene analyse. lit, münster , isbn - - - - . weblinks[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] wiktionary: misstrauen – bedeutungserklärungen, wortherkunft, synonyme, Übersetzungen wiktionary: vertrauen – bedeutungserklärungen, wortherkunft, synonyme, Übersetzungen wikiquote: vertrauen – zitate 	wörterbuch frankfurter rundschau 	www.wissenschaft.de: das vertrauen in fremde wird bei männern und frauen von unterschiedlichen kriterien bestimmt 	vertrauen geht durch die nase - die welt einzelnachweise[bearbeiten | quelltext bearbeiten] 	↑ nach worchel , zit. roy j. lewicki/barbara benedict bunker, developing and maintaining trust in work relationships ( ), in: http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/trusting/lewicki.html zugriff . juli 	↑ michael koller: interpersonales vertrauen. s.  – in: martin k. w. schweer (hrsg.): psychologie interpersonalen vertrauens vs verlag für sozialwissenschaften, , isbn - - - - 	↑ stichwort vertrauen, in: historisches wörterbuch der philosophie, bd. , basel , sp. 	↑ osterloh, m., weibel, a. ( ), investition vertrauen. prozesse der vertrauensentwicklung in organisationen, gabler: wiesbaden. 	↑ margit osterloh: investition vertrauen: prozesse der vertrauensentwicklung in organisationen. isbn - - - - , s.  -...  	↑ david kelley, unrugged individualism: the selfish basis of benevolence, the objectivist center , isbn - 	↑ georg simmel, soziologie( ). gesamtausgabe, hg. von o. rammstedt, bd. , , s. . 	↑ matthias groß: experimentelles nichtwissen. bielefeld: transcript, , s. – . 	↑ simmel , s. . 	↑ niklas luhmann, vertrauen: ein mechanismus der reduktion sozialer komplexität, , s. , 	↑ christian scholz, virtuelle teams mit darwiportunistischer tendenz: der dorothy-effekt, organisationsentwicklung . jg. ( / ), s. – 	↑ http://changingminds.org/explanations/trust/swift_trust.htm und http://www.workingwider.com/leadership_management/build-swift-trust/ zugriff . juli 	↑ paul w. l. vlaar, frans a. j. van den bosch, henk w. volberda, on the evolution of trust, distrust, and formal coordination and control in interorganizational relationships , group & organization management : doi: . / . 	↑ marcus wiens, vertrauen in der ökonomischen theorie. eine mikrofundierte und verhaltensbezogene analyse, kapitel , münster, lit-verlag. 	↑ marcus wiens, vertrauen in der ökonomischen theorie. eine mikrofundierte und verhaltensbezogene analyse, kapitel + , münster, lit-verlag. 	↑ peter eberl, vertrauen und kontrolle. das problematische verhältnis der betriebswirtschaftslehre zum vertrauen, in: h. möller (hg.): vertrauen in organisationen. riskante vorleistung oder hoffnungsvolle erwartung?, wiesbaden, s. – 	↑ bill mcevily, vincenzo perrone, akbar zaheer,trust as an organizing principle ,graduate school of industrial administration, carnegie mellon university, pittsburgh, pennsylvania - 	↑ stichwort vertrauen, in: historisches wörterbuch der philosophie, bd. , basel , sp. f. 	↑ philipp brugger, andreas hasenclever, lukas kasten, vertrauen lohnt sich. Über gegenstand und potential eines vernachlässigten konzepts in den internationalen beziehungen , zeitschrift für internationale beziehungen, . jahrg. 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jeweils zusätzlichen bedingungen. durch die nutzung dieser website erklären sie sich mit den nutzungsbedingungen und der datenschutzrichtlinie einverstanden. wikipedia® ist eine eingetragene marke der wikimedia foundation inc. 		datenschutz 	Über wikipedia 	impressum 	mobile ansicht 	entwickler 	statistiken 	stellungnahme zu cookies 		 	 	 accountability - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	accountability 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 in ethics and governance, accountability is answerability, blameworthiness, liability, and the expectation of account-giving.[ ] as in an aspect of governance, it has been central to discussions related to problems in the public sector, nonprofit and private (corporate) and individual contexts. in leadership roles,[ ] accountability is the acknowledgment and assumption of responsibility for actions, products, decisions, and policies including the administration, governance, and implementation within the scope of the role or employment position and encompassing the obligation to report, explain and be answerable for resulting consequences. in governance, accountability has expanded beyond the basic definition of "being called to account for one's actions".[ ][ ] it is frequently described as an account giving relationship between individuals, e.g. "a is accountable to b when a is obliged to inform b about a's (past or future) actions and decisions, to justify them, and to suffer punishment in the case of eventual misconduct"and more.[ ] accountability cannot exist without proper accounting practices; in other words, an absence of accounting means an absence of accountability. another key area that contributes to accountability is good records management.[ ] contents 	 history and etymology 	 political 	 . electoral 	 . administrative 	 . . public goods 	 non-electoral 	 . political protest 	 . selectorate 	 . civil society 	 . public opinion poll 	 accountability for unelected leaders 	 . threat or fear of losing power 	 . moral standing and social norms 	 . shared-interests 	 accountability and corruption 	 organizational 	 . ethical 	 . security 	 . individuals within organizations 	 . public/private overlap 	 in education 	 media and accountability 	 electoral manipulation and accountability 	 standards 	 see also 	 footnotes 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links history and etymology[edit] "accountability" stems from late latin accomptare (to account), a prefixed form of computare (to calculate), which in turn derived from putare (to reckon).[ ] while the word itself does not appear in english until its use in th century norman england,[ ][ ] the concept of account-giving has ancient roots in record keeping activities related to governance and money-lending systems that first developed in ancient egypt,[ ] israel,[ ] babylon,[ ] greece,[ ] and later, rome.[ ] political[edit] political accountability is when a politician makes choices on behalf of the people and the people have the ability to reward or sanction the politician.[ ] in representative democracies citizens delegate power to elected officials through periodic elections in order to represent or act in their interest.[ ] the challenge then becomes why would rulers with such power, who presumably have divergent interests from the people, act in the best interest of the people?[ ] citizens can rely on rewards or sanctions to threaten or reward politicians who might otherwise act antithetical to the people's interest.[ ] accountability occurs when citizens only vote to re-elect representatives who act in their interests, and if representatives then select policies that will help them be re-elected.[ ] "governments are 'accountable' if voters can discern whether governments are acting in their interest and sanction them appropriately, so that those incumbents who act in the best interest of the citizens win reelection and those who do not lose them."[ ] representatives can be held accountable through two mechanisms: electoral replacement and rational anticipation.[ ] in electoral replacement citizens vote to replace representatives who are out of step with their interests. rational anticipation requires that representatives anticipate the consequences of being out of step with their constituency and then govern in accordance with citizens' wishes to avoid negative consequences.[ ] accountability can still be achieved even if citizens are not perfectly knowledgeable about representative's actions as long as representatives believe that they will be held accountable by citizens they will still act in accordance with the citizens' interests.[ ] electoral[edit] electoral accountability refers to citizens using the vote to sanction or reward politicians, but other forms of political accountability do exist.[ ] some researchers have considered the accountability using formal theory, which makes assumptions about the state of the world to draw larger conclusions (link). voters can hold representatives accountable through the process of sanctioning, voters voting the incumbent out of office in response to poor performance.[ ] while politicians face a decrease in vote share as a result of poor performance, they are less likely to see an increase in vote share for good performance.[ ] selection, voters choosing candidates based on who will best represent their interests, is another method by which voters hold their representative accountable.[ ] these methods of accountability can occur simultaneously with voters holding representatives accountable using sanctioning and selection.[ ] these conclusions rely on the assumption that voters do not observe the policy implemented by the incumbent, but do know their own welfare.[ ] some factors make it harder for voters to sanction incumbents. when politicians do not have control over the outcomes, then accountability breaks down because it is harder to hold them accountable.[ ] further, when organizations are unable to monitor elections and provide information to voters, then voters struggle to sanction the incumbent.[ ] thus, when voters have more information about the incumbent's performance, the incumbent is more likely to voter sanctioning.[ ] further, when incumbents face sanctioning, challengers are more like to enter the race.[ ] administrative[edit] refer to the liability of government servants to give a satisfactory account of the use of their power and resources. it is often that power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely. therefore, checking the accountability is the basis of the success of public administration. public goods[edit] politicians may be incentivized to provide public goods as a means of accountability.[ ] the ability of voters to attribute credit and blame of outcomes also determines the extent of public goods provision.[ ][ ] research suggests that public goods provision is conditional on being able to attribute outcomes to politicians as opposed to civil servants.[ ] this can be enhanced by more short-run and visible inputs and outcomes such as famine relief or drinking water, whereas low-visibility issues such as sanitation and education may be more difficult to attribute credit and thus less likely to provided.[ ] another condition determining how voters use the provision of public goods to hold leaders accountable is whether the prioritization of public goods is determined either directly via vote or delegated to a governing body.[ ][ ] an experiment in new mexico regarding proposed spending during the state's special summer legislative session provides evidence that legislators update their positions when learning about voters' policy preferences, indicating representative democracy can increase accountability when politicians learn about voters' preferences.[ ] a experiment in afghanistan regarding rural development projects, however, finds that when voters directly prioritize their preferences at the ballot box, they perceive the quality of local government to be higher than when a governing committee prioritizes development projects.[ ] these contrasting outcomes highlight the trustee-vs-delegate debate, though the lack of objective superior outcomes in projects decided by vote as opposed to committee in the afghanistan experiment indicate neither is superior to the other in determining which public good should be given priority.[ ][ ] other research indicates voters use elections to hold politicians accountable for the provision of public goods.[ ][ ] in india, rural areas are charged a flat rate for electricity, but in the province of uttar pradesh, line loss - electricity that is consumed but not billed bill - is significantly higher in election years relative to non-election years and increases in line loss reliably predict electoral gains.[ ] to put this in context, voters rewarded incumbent politicians with a % increase in party seats in response to a % increase of unbilled electricity in elections.[ ] in ghana, the improvement of road conditions is linked to increasing vote share for incumbent parties.[ ] both of these research outcomes hinge on the context of voters being able to attribute the service of public goods to politicians, however.[ ][ ][ ] politicians may also have incentives to respond to pressure for public goods provision in electoral autocracies.[ ][ ] there is evidence that as autocratic governments lose seats in their party legislatures, they respond by increasing spending on public goods such as education, healthcare, and pensions.[ ] there is further evidence suggesting higher quality of life, civil liberties, and human development in electoral autocracies, lending credence to the theory that autocratic rulers use elections as a bellwether against popular discontent and citizen opposition and in turn increase public goods provision to dampen grievances of disgruntled citizens, even in non-democracies.[ ] non-electoral[edit] governments are held accountable if citizens can punish and/or reward the government to influence it to pursue the best interests of citizens.[ ] while scholars who study democratic theory emphasize the role of elections in ensuring accountability,[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] another strand of scholars investigates non-electoral forms of accountability in democracies and non-democracies[ ][ ][ ][ ] and the conditions that make unelected leaders represent the interests of the general public.[ ][ ][ ][ ] political protest[edit] political changes after protests can be the result of the protests per se or symptoms of shifts in political preferences underneath the observable phenomena of the protests. one study of the tea party movement in the united states has shown that protests per se have an impact on political change.[ ] other scholars have studied the effect of protests on political changes in developing countries. mass protests instigated by economic hardship and political repression occurred in sub-saharan african countries, and governments in the region implemented significant political reforms such as adoption of multiparty elections.[ ] authoritarian regimes in africa distorted the market and reduced the cost of farm produce in favor of urban workers at the cost of rural farmers in the s to prevent urban unrest, which is more visible and easier to mobilize than rural protests.[ ] selectorate[edit] belsky et al. point out, whereas, under more democratic governance accountability is built into the institution of the state by a habit of regular elections, accountability in autocratic regimes[ ] relies on a selectorate; a group that legitimizes or delegitimizes the autocrats powers according to selectorate theory. the primary mechanism at a selectorate's disposal is deposition, which is a form of exit. beyond that institutions can act as credible restraints on autocracy as well. civil society[edit] in democracies, voluntary associations, interest groups, and associational activity can improve the performance of the government.[ ][ ][ ][ ] one study has also shown that civil society organizations such as ngos can increase the performance of local government according to the central government's standards by monitoring and disclosing information about local government performance in authoritarian regimes like china.[ ] solidary groups – groups based on shared moral obligations and interests – in rural china, where members of the group share moral obligations and interests, can hold local officials accountable as well.[ ] at the local level, various accountability measures exist that impact the job performance of elected officials.[ ][ ][ ] in uganda, civil society organizations (csos) that divulge to the public how well an incumbent is performing their job duties, in a district with an upcoming competitive election, increases the performance of the politician for the rest of their term.[ ] in contrast to these works, meta-analysis released in uncover no effects from cso voter information campaigns on political accountability after examining the results from seven trials across six countries.[ ] in ghana, election-day monitoring of polling centers for district-level positions, as well as gaining awareness of monitoring in an upcoming election, increases job performance among incumbents as these officials spent more of their annual constituency development fund allocations from the central government on public goods for the electorate.[ ] in locales with weaker institutions, when citizens elect leaders with higher levels of competency, these officials have a greater ability to overcome the barriers of bad informal institutions and deliver more goods anshared d long-term investment projects for the constituency without needing to raise their taxes.[ ] additionally, many local elections are for positions that involve performing jobs with a single function, such as school board member or sheriff. these elected officials are held accountable to their positions mainly through the information provided to the public through the media.[ ] when the media focuses attention on data trends associated with these positions, constituents are then able to use this information to retrospectively vote for or against the incumbent based on the performance shown while in office.[ ] public opinion poll[edit] approval ratings generated through public opinion polling create a measure of job performance during an incumbent's term that has implications for whether the official will retain their seat, or if reelection will even be sought.[ ][ ] these approval ratings are predictors of election outcomes when combined with other factors included in bayesian model averaging forecasts.[ ] in the united states, senator job approval ratings affect whether a senator will retire, the quality of candidates that seek to challenge the incumbent, the amount of money the senator can raise to seek reelection if they decide to run, and the outcome of the election itself.[ ] thus, strategic incumbent senators will seek reelection less when their approval ratings are low during their time in office.[ ][ ] accountability for unelected leaders[edit] threat or fear of losing power[edit] selectorates are those on whom a leader depends in order to hold onto power and those who have the ability to depose a leader.[ ] when selectorates' hold on power is not overly dependent on the leader in office, selectorates can remove poorly performing leaders, and this accountability by selectorates render it possible for autocracies to perform better for the benefit of all.[ ] moral standing and social norms[edit] the solidary groups in rural china can hold local officials accountable when ) the solidary group encompasses everyone under the local government's jurisdiction, and ) local officials are embedded in the group as members; the recognition from these groups encourages local officials to carry out their official tasks as they value high moral standing in the group.[ ] shared-interests[edit] traditional leaders in zambia provide local public goods despite the fact that they lack an electoral incentive to provide public goods.[ ] many customary chiefs never leave the communities they lead permanently and depend on local sources for a significant portion of their income, thus, traditional leaders may facilitate bringing local public goods in the present and benefit from the community's development over time just like stationary bandits in olson's argument.[ ][ ] accountability and corruption[edit] political corruption refers to "the misuse or the abuse of public office for private gains", where corrupt practices include fraud, appropriation of public funds, or accepting bribes are some examples of corrupt practices.[ ][ ][ ] corruption can be negative for politicians' evaluations, since citizens' may perceive corruption as a signal of poor performance, motivating them to sanction the incumbent.[ ] in fact, the model of retrospective voting that suggests that voters incentivize good politicians' behavior by rewarding good and punishing bad performance, citizens are expected to sanction corrupt politicians.[ ] however, recent studies suggest that, though voters have a general distaste for corruption, they often fail to punish corrupt incumbents; and that some of them also receive benefits from their representatives' corrupt practices, and prefer to retain this type of politicians.[ ][ ] moreover, in high-corrupt contexts, voters may become more tolerant or even prefer corrupt politicians because others are also perceived as corrupt, leading to a corrupt equilibrium "where voters are generally willing to retain corrupt politicians", which is referred to as a "political corruption trap".[ ] the high corruption equilibrium is difficult to break due to the interaction between corrupt politicians, voters who tolerate and retain corrupt politicians, and potential entrants or challengers who are also apt to engage in corrupt practices, leading to the maintenance of corruption.[ ] the literature about corruption finds mixed results about the role of political institutions —such as the executive, electoral institutions, federalism, and the judiciary— on the reduction of corruption.[ ] moreover, democracy seems to have a null effect on reducing corruption.[ ] nevertheless, economic development is associated with a decrease in corruption.[ ] furthermore, so far, the only agreement in the literature is that freedom of the press contributes to the reduction of corruption, by exposing these actions.[ ] in fact, documentation on how a corrupt government (fujimori's government from – , in peru) strategically undermined check and balance institutions, suggests that the media —e.g. newspapers and, mainly, television— is crucial, due to its broad scope to disseminate information to the public.[ ] additionally, there is also evidence about the importance of local media —such as local radio stations— in holding accountable corrupt incumbents and promoting noncorrupt politicians.[ ] nevertheless, information about corruption may not only lead to vote losses for the incumbent parties, but also for the challenger parties, as well to the erosion of partisan attachments, which implies that information about corruption also provokes citizens' disengagement from the political process.[ ] on the other hand, there is evidence that points out to the fact that, despite strategic evasion and unintentional consequences, anticorruption initiatives are beneficial, as they allow to lower malfeasance and increases social welfare, even where strategic evasion is relatively large.[ ] organizational[edit] ethical[edit] see also: social accounting and environmental accounting within an organization, the principles and practices of ethical accountability aim to improve both the internal standard of individual and group conduct as well as external factors, such as sustainable economic and ecologic strategies. also, ethical accountability plays a progressively important role in academic fields, such as laboratory experiments and field research. debates around the practice of ethical accountability on the part of researchers in the social field – whether professional or others – have been thoroughly explored by norma r.a. romm in her work on accountability in social research,[ ] including her book on new racism: revisiting researcher accountabilities, reviewed by carole truman in the journal sociological research online.[ ] here it is suggested that researcher accountability implies that researchers are cognizant of, and take some responsibility for, the potential impact of their ways of doing research – and of writing it up – on the social fields of which the research is part. that is, accountability is linked to considering carefully, and being open to challenge in relation to, one's choices concerning how research agendas are framed and the styles in which write-ups of research "results" are created. security[edit] the traceability of actions performed on a system to a specific system entity (user, process, device). for example, the use of unique user identification and authentication supports accountability; the use of shared user ids and passwords destroys accountability. individuals within organizations[edit] because many different individuals in large organizations contribute in many ways to the decisions and policies, it is difficult even in principle to identify who should be accountable for the results. this is what is known, following thompson, as the problem of many hands.[ ] it creates a dilemma for accountability. if individuals are held accountable or responsible, individuals who could not have prevented the results are either unfairly punished, or they "take responsibility" in a symbolic ritual without suffering any consequences. if only organizations are held accountable, then all individuals in the organization are equally blameworthy or all are excused. various solutions have been proposed. one is to broaden the criteria for individual responsibility so that individuals are held accountable for not anticipating failures in the organization. another solution, recently proposed by thompson, is to hold individuals accountable for the design of the organization, both retrospectively and prospectively.[ ] accountability is an element of a raci to indicate who is ultimately answerable for the correct and thorough completion of the deliverable or task, and the one who delegates the work to those responsible. public/private overlap[edit] with the increase over the last several decades in public service provided by private entities, especially in britain and the united states, some have called for increased political accountability mechanisms for otherwise non-political entities. legal scholar anne davies, for instance, argues that the line between public institutions and private entities like corporations is becoming blurred in certain areas of public service in the united kingdom, and that this can compromise political accountability in those areas. she and others argue that some administrative law reform is necessary to address this accountability gap.[ ] with respect to the public/private overlap in the united states, public concern over the contracting of government services (including military) and the resulting accountability gap has been highlighted recently following the shooting incident involving the blackwater security firm in iraq.[ ] in education[edit] student accountability is traditionally based on hang school and classroom rules, combined with sanctions for infringement. as defined by national council on measurement in education (ncme), accountability is "a program, often legislated, that attributes the responsibility for student learning to teachers, school administrators, and/or students. test results typically are used to judge accountability, and often consequences are imposed for shortcomings."[ ] in contrast, some educational establishments such as sudbury schools believe that students are personally responsible for their acts, and that traditional schools do not permit students to choose their course of action fully; they do not permit students to embark on the course, once chosen; and they do not permit students to suffer the consequences of the course, once taken. freedom of choice, freedom of action, freedom to bear the results of action are considered the three great freedoms that constitute personal responsibility. sudbury schools claim that "'ethics' is a course taught by life experience". they adduce that the essential ingredient for acquiring values—and for moral action is personal responsibility, that schools will become involved in the teaching of morals when they become communities of people who fully respect each other's right to make choices, and that the only way the schools can become meaningful purveyors of ethical values is if they provide students and adults with real-life experiences that are bearers of moral import. students are given complete responsibility for their own education and the school is run by a direct democracy in which students and staff are equals.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] media and accountability[edit] econometric research has found that countries with greater press freedom tend to have less corruption.[ ] greater political accountability and lower corruption were more likely where newspaper consumption was higher in data from roughly countries and from different states in the us.[ ] congressmen who receive less press coverage are less likely to produce a positive impact for their constituencies, they are less likely to stand witness before congressional hearings, and federal spending for the district is lower.[ ] one explanation for the positive impact of media on accountability stems from besley and burgess' work.[ ] they argue that media resolves the information asymmetries between citizens and government and provides a way of overcoming obstacles preventing political action.[ ] when elected officials and the public gain information, the public is better equipped to hold politicians accountable and politicians are more responsive.[ ][ ] ferraz & finan demonstrate this in the brazilian context.[ ] in their work, they find releasing audit reports prior to elections creates a more informed electorate which holds incumbent officials accountable.[ ] while large evidence supports the positive impact of press freedom on political accountability, other work has highlighted the significance of factors such as media concentration and ownership as government tools for influencing or controlling news content.[ ] non-democratic regimes use media for a variety of purposes such as – (i) to enhance regime resilience, (ii) censor or (iii) strategically distract the public.[ ][ ][ ] control of the media may also be especially beneficial to incumbents in new or developing democracies, who consider media control a spoil of office.[ ] an analysis of the evolution of mass media in the us and europe since world war ii noted mixed results from the growth of the internet: "the digital revolution has been good for freedom of expression [and] information [but] has had mixed effects on freedom of the press": it has disrupted traditional sources of funding, and new forms of internet journalism have replaced only a tiny fraction of what's been lost.[ ] various systems have been proposed for increasing the funds available for investigative journalism that allow individual citizens to direct small amounts of government funds to news outlets or investigative journalism projects of their choice. electoral manipulation and accountability[edit] studies on political accountability have emphasized the key role of elections in promoting accountability in democratic settings. it is through elections that citizens hold governments accountable for past performance.[ ][ ] however, the role of elections in fostering accountability is often undermined by electoral manipulation and fraud.[ ] by preventing citizens from removing leaders through elections based on their performance in office, electoral manipulation breaks down accountability and may even undercut the consolidation of democratic institutions.[ ] electoral manipulation is not rare: some estimates point out that in the last two decades up to one fourth of elections suffered some form of substantial manipulation.[ ] this includes a large array of preelection and election-day tactics, such as outlawing rival parties and candidates, employing violence and intimidation, and manipulating voter registration and vote count.[ ] some efforts at improving accountability by preventing electoral manipulation and fraud have obtained a certain measure of success, such as using cell-phone applications for monitoring and disseminating polling station results[ ] and employing domestic or international election observers.[ ][ ] however, governments sometimes simply shift the type or the place of manipulation in order to deceive observers and monitoring agencies.[ ][ ] governments, politicians and political parties are more likely to resort to electoral manipulation and fraud when they believe they might be removed from office and face few institutional constraints to their power.[ ] alternatively, low political competition has also been linked to some forms manipulation, such as abolishing presidential term limits.[ ] further, well-connected candidates are more likely to resort to vote count fraud.[ ] however, governments may engage in electoral manipulation not only to obtain victory at a given election or to remain longer in office, but also for post-election reasons such as reducing the strength of the opposition and increasing their own bargaining power in the subsequent period.[ ] standards[edit] accountability standards have been set up, and organizations can voluntarily commit to them. standards apply in particular to the non-profit world and to corporate social responsibility (csr) initiatives. accountability standards include: 	ingo accountability charter, signed by a large number of ngos to "demonstrate their commitment to accountability and transparency"[ ] 	accountability's aa series. "principles-based standards to help organisations become more accountable, responsible and sustainable. they address issues affecting governance, business models and organizational strategy, as well as providing operational guidance on sustainability assurance and stakeholder engagement"[ ] 	humanitarian accountability partnership (hap) standards. a standard for humanitarian organizations to help them "design, implement, assess, improve and recognize accountable programmes"[ ] in addition, some non-profit organizations set up their own commitments to accountability: 	accountability, learning and planning system (alps) by actionaid, a framework that sets out the key accountability requirements, guidelines, and processes.[ ] see also[edit] 	accountability partner 	accountability software 	campaign finance reform in the united states 	committee on standards in public life 	euthenics 	exit, voice, and loyalty 	exit, voice, and loyalty model 	freedom of information laws by country 	government accountability office 	moral responsibility 	one world trust 	right to be forgotten 	special district (united states) 	supreme audit institution 	transparency international 	worldwide governance indicators 	world bank's inspection panel footnotes[edit] 	^ dykstra, clarence a. 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( ) "the moral behavior of children and adolescents at a democratic school." pdf. __this study examined moral discourse, reflection, and development in a school community with a process similar to that described by lawrence kohlberg. data were drawn from an extensive set of field notes made in an ethnographic study at sudbury valley school (an ungraded, democratically structured school in framingham, ma), where students, ranging in age from to , are free to choose their own activities and companions. vignettes were analyzed using grounded theory approach to qualitative analysis, and themes were developed from an analysis of observations of meetings. each theme describes a participation level that students assume in the process and that provide opportunities for them to develop and deepen understanding of the balance of personal rights and responsibilities within a community. the study adds to the understanding of education and child development by describing a school that differs significantly in its practice from the wider educational community and by validating kohlberg's thesis about developing moral reasoning. retrieved, october . 	^ the sudbury valley school ( ), the crisis in american education — an analysis and a proposal.(p. - ). retrieved, october . 	^ greenberg, d. 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( ), whatever happened to personal responsibility?[permanent dead link] retrieved august . 	^ brunetti, aymo; weder, beatrice ( ), "a free press is bad news for corruption", journal of public economics, ( – ): – , doi: . /s - ( ) - 	^ adserà, alícia; boix, carles; payne, mark ( ), "are you being served?: political accountability and quality of government" (pdf), working paper, inter-american development bank research department ( ), retrieved august and adserà, alícia; boix, carles; payne, mark ( ), "are you being served? political accountability and quality of government" (pdf), journal of law, economics, & organization, ( ): – , doi: . /jleo/ . . , hdl: / , retrieved august 	^ a b snyder, james m.; strömberg, david ( ), "press coverage and political accountability", journal of political economy, ( ): – , citeseerx  . . . . , doi: . / , s cid  	^ a b besley, timothy; burgess, robin ( ), "political agency, government responsiveness and the role of the media", european economic review, ( – ): – , doi: . /s - ( ) - 	^ barbera, pablo; casas, andreu; nagler, jonathan; egan, patrick; bonneau, richard; jost, john; tucker, joshua ( ), "who leads? who follows? measuring issue attention and agenda setting by legislators and the mass public using social media data", american political science review, ( ): – , doi: . /s 	^ a b ferraz, claudio; finan, frederico ( ), "exposing corrupt politicians: the effect of brazil's publicly released audits on electoral outcomes", quarterly journal of economics, ( ): – , doi: . /qjec. . . . , s cid  	^ besley, timothy; prat, andrea ( ), "handcuffs for the grabbing hand? media capture and government accountability" (pdf), american economic review, ( ): – , doi: . /aer. . . , s cid  	^ munger, kevin; bonneau, richard; nagler, jonathan; tucker, joshua ( ), "elites tweet to get feet off the streets: measuring regime social media strategies during protest", political science research and methods, ( ): – , doi: . /psrm. . 	^ king, gary; pan, jennifer; roberts, margaret ( ), "how censorship in china allows government criticism but silences collective expression", american political science review, ( ): – , doi: . /s 	^ king, gary; pan, jennifer; roberts, margaret ( ), "how the chinese government fabricates social media posts for strategic distraction, not engaged argument", american political science review, ( ): – , doi: . /s 	^ boas, taylor; hidalgo, f. daniel ( ), "controlling the airwaves: incumbency advantage and community radio in brazil", american journal of political science, ( ): – , doi: . /j. - . . .x 	^ starr, paul ( ), "an unexpected crisis: the news media in post-industrial democracies" (pdf), international journal of press/politics, ( ): – , doi: . / , s cid  , retrieved august , since , the newspaper industry alone has lost an estimated “$ . billion in annual reporting and editing capacity... or roughly per cent", but the new non-profit money coming into journalism has made up less than one-tenth that amount. 	^ democracy, accountability, and representation. przeworski, adam., stokes, susan carol., manin, bernard. cambridge, u.k.: cambridge university press. . isbn  - - - . oclc  .cs maint: others (link) 	^ besley, timothy j.; kudamatsu, masayuki ( may ). "making autocracy work". rochester, ny. ssrn  . cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ a b c simpser, alberto ( ). why governments and parties manipulate elections : theory, practice, and implications. cambridge: cambridge university press. isbn  - - - - . oclc  . 	^ long, james dunway ( ). voting, fraud, and violence: political accountability in african elections (thesis). university of california san diego. 	^ schedler, andreas ( ). "the menu of manipulation". journal of democracy. ( ): – . doi: . /jod. . . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ a b callen, michael; long, james d. ( ). "institutional corruption and election fraud: evidence from a field experiment in afghanistan" (pdf). american economic review. ( ): – . doi: . /aer. . issn  - . 	^ a b ichino, nahomi; schündeln, matthias ( ). "deterring or displacing electoral irregularities? spillover effects of observers in a randomized field experiment in ghana". the journal of politics. ( ): – . doi: . /s . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ a b beaulieu, emily; hyde, susan d. ( ). "in the shadow of democracy promotion: strategic manipulation, international observers, and election boycotts". comparative political studies. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ hafner-burton, emilie marie; hyde, susan d.; jablonski, ryan s. ( september ). "when do governments resort to election violence?". british journal of political science. rochester, ny. ssrn  . 	^ mckie, kristin ( ). "presidential term limit contravention: abolish, extend, fail, or respect?". comparative political studies. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ "about the charter". archived from the original on may . retrieved december . 	^ website: "accountability | setting the standard for corporate responsibility and sustainable development – standards". archived from the original on september . retrieved december . 	^ webpage: "hap international rss feed". archived from the original on july . retrieved july . 	^ actionaid ( ). alps - accountability, learning, and planning system. references[edit] 	bovens, mark. the quest for responsibility: accountability and citizenship in complex organisations (cambridge university press, ). 	mastop, rosja. "characterising responsibility in organisational structures: the problem of many hands" in deontic logic in computer science, eds. g. governatori and g. sartor (berlin: springer-verlag, ). pp.  – . isbn  - - - - 	thompson, dennis f. "responsibility for failures of government: the problem of many hands," american review of public administration : ( ), – . 	thompson, dennis f. "the responsibility of advisers" in restoring responsibility: ethics in government, business and healthcare (cambridge university press, ), pp.  – . isbn  - further reading[edit] 	mark bovens, "two concepts of accountability: accountability as a virtue and as a mechanism," west european politics ( ), – . 	sterling harwood, "accountability," in john k. roth, ed., ethics: ready reference (salem press, ), reprinted in sterling harwood, ed., business as ethical and business as usual (wadsworth publishing co., ). 	david luban, alan strudler, and david wasserman, "moral responsibility in the age of bureaucracy," michigan law review ( ), – . 	romm, norma ra ( ) accountability in social research. new york: springer. [ ] 	dennis thompson, "the responsibility of advisers" in restoring responsibility: ethics in government, business and healthcare (cambridge university press, ), pp.  – . isbn  - 	williams, christopher ( ) leadership accountability in a globalizing world. london: palgrave macmillan. 	painter-morland mollie, ghislain deslandes, ( ), "authentic leading as relational accountability: facing up to the conflicting expectations of media leaders", leadership, online available april, doi: . external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: accountability 		look up accountability in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	citizens' circle for accountability 	accountability initiative 	organizational realities – accountability: what does it really mean? 	international budget partnership: what we do 		v 	t 	e euthenics 	the philosophy of and activism for euthenics 	concepts	 	accountability 	consumerism 	critical thinking 	ecology 	education 	environment 	food safety 	health 	household 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(march ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	acute stress reaction 	specialty	psychiatry 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e acute stress disorder (asd, also known as acute stress reaction, psychological shock, mental shock, or simply shock) is a psychological response to a terrifying, traumatic, or surprising experience. acute stress disorder is not fatal, but it may bring about delayed stress reactions (better known as posttraumatic stress disorder, or ptsd) if not correctly addressed.[ ][ ] contents 	 types of asd 	 . sympathetic (also known as "fight or flight" response) 	 . parasympathetic 	 signs and symptoms 	 causes 	 pathophysiology 	 diagnosis 	 treatment 	 history 	 references 	 external links types of asd[edit] sympathetic (also known as "fight or flight" response)[edit] sympathetic acute stress disorder is caused by the release of excessive adrenaline and norepinephrine into the nervous system. these hormones may speed up a person's pulse and respiratory rate, dilate pupils, or temporarily mask pain. this type of asd developed as an evolutionary advantage to help humans survive dangerous situations. the "fight or flight" response may allow for temporarily-enhanced physical output, even in the face of severe injury. however, other physical illnesses become more difficult to diagnose, as asd masks the pain and other vital signs that would otherwise be symptomatic.[ ] parasympathetic[edit] parasympathetic acute stress disorder is characterised by feeling faint and nauseous. this response is fairly often triggered by the sight of blood. in this stress response, the body releases acetylcholine. in many ways, this reaction is the opposite of the sympathetic response, in that it slows the heart rate and can cause the patient to either regurgitate or temporarily lose consciousness. the evolutionary value of this is unclear, although it may have allowed for prey to appear dead to avoid being eaten.[ ] signs and symptoms[edit] the dsm-iv specifies that acute stress disorder must be accompanied by the presence of dissociative symptoms, which largely differentiates it from posttraumatic stress disorder. dissociative symptoms include a sense of numbing or detachment from emotional reactions, a sense of physical detachment – such as seeing oneself from another perspective – decreased awareness of one's surroundings, the perception that one's environment is unreal or dreamlike, and the inability to recall critical aspects of the traumatic event (dissociative amnesia).[ ] in addition to these characteristics, asd can be present in the following four distinct symptom clusters;[ ] 	intrusion symptom cluster recurring and distressing dreams, flashbacks, and/or memories related to the traumatic event. intense/prolonged psychological distress or somatic reactions to internal or external traumatic cues. 	negative mood cluster a persistent inability to experience positive emotions such as happiness, loving feelings, or satisfaction. 	avoidance symptom cluster the avoidance of distressing memories, thoughts, feelings (or external reminders of them) that are closely associated with the traumatic event. 	arousal symptom cluster sleep disturbances, hyper-vigilance, difficulties with concentration, easily startled, and irritability/anger/aggression.[ ] causes[edit] there are several theoretical perspectives on trauma response, including cognitive, biological, and psycho-biological. while ptsd-specific, these theories are still useful in understanding acute stress disorder, as the two disorders share many symptoms.[ ] a recent study found that even a single stressful event may have long-term consequences on cognitive function. this result calls the traditional distinction between the effects of acute and chronic stress into question.[ ] pathophysiology[edit] stress is characterised by specific physiological responses to adverse or noxious stimuli. hans selye was the first to coin the term "general adaptation syndrome" to suggest that stress-induced physiological responses proceed through the stages of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.[ ] the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system gives rise to a specific set of physiological responses to physical or psychological stress. the body's response to stress is also termed a "fight or flight" response, and it is characterised by an increase in blood flow to the skeletal muscles, heart, and brain, a rise in heart rate and blood pressure, dilation of pupils, and an increase in the amount of glucose released by the liver.[ ] the onset of an acute stress response is associated with specific physiological actions in the sympathetic nervous system, both directly and indirectly through the release of adrenaline and, to a lesser extent, noradrenaline from the medulla of the adrenal glands. these catecholamine hormones facilitate immediate physical reactions by triggering increases in heart rate and breathing, constricting blood vessels. an abundance of catecholamines at neuroreceptor sites facilitates reliance on spontaneous or intuitive behaviours often related to combat or escape.[ ] normally, when a person is in a serene, non-stimulated state, the firing of neurons in the locus ceruleus is minimal. a novel stimulus, once perceived, is relayed from the sensory cortex of the brain through the thalamus to the brain stem. that route of signalling increases the rate of noradrenergic activity in the locus ceruleus, and the person becomes more alert and attentive to their environment.[ ] if a stimulus is perceived as a threat, a more intense and prolonged discharge of the locus ceruleus activates the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.[ ] the activation of the sympathetic nervous system leads to the release of norepinephrine from nerve endings acting on the heart, blood vessels, respiratory centres, and other sites. the ensuing physiological changes constitute a major part of the acute stress response. the other major player in the acute stress response is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. stress activates this axis and produces neuro-biological changes. these chemical changes increase the chances of survival by bringing the physiological system back to homeostasis.[ ] the autonomic nervous system controls all automatic functions in the body and contains two subsections within it that aid the response to an acute stress reaction. these two subunits are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. the sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "fight or flight" response, indicated by accelerated pulse and respiration rates, pupil dilation, and a general feeling of anxiety and hyper-awareness. this is caused by the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal glands. the epinephrine and norepinephrine strike the beta receptors of the heart, which feeds the heart's sympathetic nerve fibres to increase the strength of heart muscle contraction; as a result, more blood gets circulated, increasing the heart rate and respiratory rate. the sympathetic nervous system also stimulates the skeletal system and muscular system to pump more blood to those areas to handle the acute stress. simultaneously, the sympathetic nervous system inhibits the digestive system and the urinary system to optimise blood flow to the heart, lungs, and skeletal muscles. this plays a role in the alarm reaction stage. the parasympathetic response is colloquially known as the "rest and digest" response, indicated by reduced heart and respiration rates, and, more obviously, by a temporary loss of consciousness if the system is fired at a rapid rate. the parasympathetic nervous system stimulates the digestive system and urinary system to send more blood to those systems to increase the process of digestion. to do this, it must inhibit the cardiovascular system and respiratory system to optimise blood flow to the digestive tract, causing low heart and respiratory rates. the parasympathetic nervous system plays no role in acute stress response.[ ][ ] studies have shown that patients with acute stress disorder have overactive right amygdalae and prefrontal cortices; both structures are involved in the fear-processing pathway.[ ] diagnosis[edit] according to the dsm-v, symptom presentation must last for three consecutive days to be classified as acute stress disorder. if symptoms persist past one month, the diagnosis of ptsd is explored.[ ] there must be a clear temporal connection between the impact of an exceptional stressor and the onset of symptoms; onset is usually within a few minutes or days but may occur up to one month after the stressor. also, the symptoms show a mixed and rapidly changing picture; although "daze" depression, anxiety, anger, despair, hyper-activity, and withdrawal may all be seen, no one symptom dominates for long. the symptoms usually resolve rapidly where removal from the stressful environment is possible. in cases where the stress continues, the symptoms usually begin to diminish after – hours and are usually minimal after about three days. the dsm-v specifies that there is a higher prevalence rate of asd among females compared to males due to higher risk of experiencing traumatic events and neurobiological gender differences in stress response.[ ] treatment[edit] this disorder may resolve itself with time or may develop into a more severe disorder, such as ptsd. however, results of creamer, o'donnell, and pattison's ( ) study of patients suggests that a diagnosis of acute stress disorder had only limited predictive validity for ptsd. creamer et al. found that re-experiences of the traumatic event and arousal were better predictors of ptsd.[ ] early pharmacotherapy may prevent the development of post-traumatic symptoms.[ ] additionally, early trauma-focused cognitive behavioural therapy (tfcbt) for those with a diagnosis of asd can protect an individual from developing chronic ptsd.[ ] studies have been conducted to assess the efficacy of counselling and psychotherapy for people with acute stress disorder. cognitive behavioural therapy, which includes exposure and cognitive restructuring, was found to be effective in preventing ptsd in patients diagnosed with acute stress disorder with clinically significant results at six-month follow-up appointments. a combination of relaxation, cognitive restructuring, imaginal exposure, and in-vivo exposure was superior to supportive counselling.[ ] mindfulness-based stress reduction programmes also appear to be effective for stress management.[ ] in a wilderness context where counselling, psychotherapy, and cognitive behavioural therapy is unlikely to be available, the treatment for acute stress reaction is very similar to the treatment of cardiogenic shock, vascular shock, and hypovolemic shock; that is, allowing the patient to lie down, providing reassurance, and removing the stimulus that prompted the reaction. in traditional shock cases, this generally means relieving injury pain or stopping blood loss. in an acute stress reaction, this may mean pulling a rescuer away from the emergency to calm down or blocking the sight of an injured friend from a patient.[ ] history[edit] the term "acute stress disorder" was first used to describe the symptoms of soldiers during world war i and ii, and it was therefore also termed "combat stress reaction" (csr). approximately % of u.s. troops displayed symptoms of csr during wwii. it was assumed to be a temporary response of healthy individuals to witnessing or experiencing traumatic events. symptoms include depression, anxiety, withdrawal, confusion, paranoia, and sympathetic hyperactivity.[ ] the apa officially included the term asd in the dsm-iv in . before that, symptomatic individuals within the first month of trauma were diagnosed with adjustment disorder. according to the dsm-iv, acute stress reaction refers to the symptoms experienced immediately to -hours after exposure to a traumatic event. in contrast, acute stress disorder is defined by symptoms experienced -hours to one-month following the event. symptoms experienced for longer than one month are consistent with a diagnosis of ptsd.[ ] initially, being able to describe different asrs was one of the goals of introducing asd. some criticisms surrounding asd's focal point include issues with asd recognising other distressing emotional reactions, like depression and shame. emotional reactions similar to these may then be diagnosed as adjustment disorder under the current system of trying to diagnose asd.[ ] references[edit] 	^ a b c isaac, jeff. 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( ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . pmid  . 	^ vaiva, g; ducrocq, f; jezequel, k; averland, b; lestavel, p; brunet, a; marmar, c. r ( ). "immediate treatment with propranolol decreases posttraumatic stress disorder two months after trauma". biological psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ kornør, hege; winje, dagfinn; ekeberg, Øivind; weisæth, lars; kirkehei, ingvild; johansen, kjell; steiro, asbjørn (september ). "early trauma-focused cognitive-behavioural therapy to prevent chronic post-traumatic stress disorder and related symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis". bmc psychiatry. : . doi: . / - x- - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ lambert, m.j., ed. ( ). bergin and garfield's handbook of psychotherapy and behavioral change. new york: wiley. [page needed] 	^ sharma, manoj; rush, sarah e ( ). "mindfulness-based stress reduction as a stress management intervention for healthy individuals". journal of evidence-based complementary & alternative medicine. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ bryant, richard a.; friedman, matthew j.; spiegel, david; ursano, robert; strain, james (september ). "a review of acute stress disorder in dsm- ". depression and anxiety. 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wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 max planck society - edoc server 	 		please note that edoc will be permanently shut down in the first quarter of !     		 home		 news		 about us		 contact		 contributors		disclaimer		privacy policy		 help		 faq 		 	 	 	 	 	home 	 search 	quick search 	 		 	 advanced 	 fulltext 	 browse 	 collections 	 persons 	 my edoc 	 session history 	login name:	 		 	password:	 	 	 	 	 documentation 	 help 	 support wiki 	 direct access to 	 	document id:	 	 	 	 	   	         display documents 	 	 	 	 		id: . , mpi für Ökonomik / strategic interaction group 	social identity and trust : an experimental investigation 	authors:	güth, werner; levati, vittoria m.; ploner, matteo 	language:	english 	place of publication:	jena 	publisher:	max-planck-institut für Ökonomik 	date of publication (yyyy-mm-dd):	 	total number of pages:	 	title of series:	papers on strategic interaction 	issue / number:	 - 	corporate body (series editor):	max-planck-institut für Ökonomik 	copyright:	 	review status:	internal review 	audience:	not specified 	abstract / description:	we experimentally examine how group identity affects trust behavior in an investment game. in one treatment, group identity is induced purely by minimal groups. in other treatments, group members are additionally related by outcome interdependence established in a prior public goods game. moving from the standard investment game (where no group identity is prompted) to minimal group identity to two-dimensional group identity, we find no significant differences in trust decisions. however, trust is significantly and positively correlated with contribution decisions, suggesting that "social" trust is behaviorally important. 	free keywords:	experiment; investment game; trust; group identity 	classification / thesaurus:	jel classification: c ; c 	external publication status:	published 	document type:	paper 	affiliations:	mpi für Ökonomik/abteilung strategische interaktion 	identifiers:	issn: - 		full text: 	you have privileges to view the following file(s): 	 - [ ].pdf  [ ,  kb]    	 	  	 	 	 	 the scope and number of records on edoc is subject to the collection policies defined by each institute - see "info" button in the collection browse view. 	 	 bibcode - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	bibcode 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from bibcode (identifier)) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for the wikipedia template to link to bibcoded articles, see template:bibcode code used to identify references in certain astronomical data systems bibcode	full name	bibliographic code 	introduced	 s 	no. of digits	 	check digit	none 	example	 mnras.. .. e the bibcode (also known as the refcode) is a compact identifier used by several astronomical data systems to uniquely specify literature references. contents 	 adoption 	 format 	 examples 	 see also 	 references adoption[edit] the bibliographic reference code (refcode) was originally developed to be used in simbad and the nasa/ipac extragalactic database (ned), but it became a de facto standard and is now used more widely, for example, by the nasa astrophysics data system who coined and prefer the term "bibcode".[ ][ ] format[edit] the code has a fixed length of characters and has the form 	yyyyjjjjjvvvvmppppa where yyyy is the four-digit year of the reference and jjjjj is a code indicating where the reference was published. in the case of a journal reference, vvvv is the volume number, m indicates the section of the journal where the reference was published (e.g., l for a letters section), pppp gives the starting page number, and a is the first letter of the last name of the first author. periods (.) are used to fill unused fields and to pad fields out to their fixed length if too short; padding is done on the right for the publication code and on the left for the volume number and page number.[ ][ ] page numbers greater than are continued in the m column. the -digit article id numbers (in lieu of page numbers) used by the physical review publications since the late s are treated as follows: the first two digits of the article id, corresponding to the issue number, are converted to a lower-case letter ( = a, etc.) and inserted into column m. the remaining four digits are used in the page field.[ ] examples[edit] some examples of bibcodes are: 	bibcode 	reference 	 aj..... .. h 	heintz, w. d. ( ). "astrometric study of four visual binaries". the astronomical journal. : – . bibcode: aj..... .. h. doi: . / . 	 mnras.. .. e 	eddington, a. s. ( ). "on the relation between the masses and luminosities of the stars". monthly notices of the royal astronomical society. ( ): – . bibcode: mnras.. .. e. doi: . /mnras/ . . . 	 apj... l.. k 	kemp, j. c.; swedlund, j. b.; landstreet, j. d.; angel, j. r. p. ( ). "discovery of circularly polarized light from a white dwarf". the astrophysical journal letters. : l –l . bibcode: apj... l.. k. doi: . / . 	 phrvl.. o m 	mukherjee, m.; kellerbauer, a.; beck, d.; et al. ( ). "the mass of mg" (pdf). physical review letters. ( ): . bibcode: phrvl.. o m. doi: . /physrevlett. . . pmid  . see also[edit] 	digital object identifier references[edit] 	^ a b m. schmitz; g. helou; p. dubois; c. lague; b.f. madore; h. g. corwin jr. & s. lesteven ( ). "ned and simbad conventions for bibliographic reference coding". in daniel egret & miguel a. albrecht (eds.). information & on-line data in astronomy. kluwer academic publishers. isbn  - - - . archived from the original on june . retrieved - - . 	^ a b c "the ads data, help page". nasa ads. archived from the original on october . retrieved november , . retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=bibcode&oldid= " 		categories: 	index (publishing) 	identifiers 	electronic documents 	computational astronomy hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			afrikaans 	العربية 	asturianu 	বাংলা 	bân-lâm-gú 	bosanski 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	eesti 	Ελληνικά 	español 	esperanto 	euskara 	فارسی 	français 	galego 	ГӀалгӀай 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	हिन्दी 	ilokano 	bahasa indonesia 	italiano 	ქართული 	Қазақша 	Македонски 	മലയാളം 	मराठी 	bahasa melayu 	မြန်မာဘာသာ 	日本語 	norsk bokmål 	norsk nynorsk 	polski 	português 	română 	Русский 	slovenščina 	Српски / srpski 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	svenska 	ไทย 	türkçe 	Українська 	اردو 	tiếng việt 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on october , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 bounded rationality - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	bounded rationality 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		bounded rationality is the idea that rationality is limited, when individuals make decisions, by the tractability of the decision problem, the cognitive limitations of the mind, and the time available to make the decision. decision-makers, in this view, act as satisficers, seeking a satisfactory solution rather than an optimal one. therefore, humans do not undertake a full cost-benefit analysis to determine the optimal decision, rather they choose an option that fulfils their adequacy criterion.[ ] herbert a. simon proposed bounded rationality as an alternative basis for the mathematical modeling of decision-making, as used in economics, political science and related disciplines. it complements "rationality as optimization", which views decision-making as a fully rational process of finding an optimal choice given the information available.[ ] simon used the analogy of a pair of scissors, where one blade represents "cognitive limitations" of actual humans and the other the "structures of the environment", illustrating how minds compensate for limited resources by exploiting known structural regularity in the environment.[ ] many economics models assume that agents are on average rational, and can in large enough quantities be approximated to act according to their preferences in order to maximise utility.[ ] with bounded rationality, simon's goal was "to replace the global rationality of economic man with a kind of rational behavior that is compatible with the access to information and the computational capacities that are actually possessed by organisms, including man, in the kinds of environments in which such organisms exist."[ ] in short, the concept of bounded rationality revises notions of "perfect" rationality to account for the fact that perfectly rational decisions are often not feasible in practice because of the intractability of natural decision problems and the finite computational resources available for making them. the concept of bounded rationality continues to influence (and be debated in) different disciplines, including economics, psychology, law, political science and cognitive science.[ ] some models of human behavior in the social sciences assume that humans can be reasonably approximated or described as "rational" entities, as in rational choice theory or downs political agency models.[ ] contents 	 origins 	 model extensions 	 relationship to behavioral economics 	 relationship to psychology 	 influence on social network structure 	 see also 	 reference list 	 further reading 	 external links origins[edit] the term was coined by herbert a. simon. in models of man, simon points out that most people are only partly rational, and are irrational in the remaining part of their actions. in another work, he states "boundedly rational agents experience limits in formulating and solving complex problems and in processing (receiving, storing, retrieving, transmitting) information".[ ] simon describes a number of dimensions along which "classical" models of rationality can be made somewhat more realistic, while sticking within the vein of fairly rigorous formalization. these include: 	limiting the types of utility functions 	recognizing the costs of gathering and processing information 	the possibility of having a "vector" or "multi-valued" utility function simon suggests that economic agents use heuristics to make decisions rather than a strict rigid rule of optimization. they do this because of the complexity of the situation. an example of behaviour inhibited by heuristics can be seen when comparing the strategies in easy situations (e.g tic-tac-toe) verses the strategies in difficult situations (e.g chess). both games, as defined by game theory economics are finite games with perfect information and therefore equivalent.[ ] however, within chess mental capacities and abilities are a binding constraint therefore optimal choices are not a possibility.[ ] thus, in order to test the mental limits of agents, complex problems such as chess should be studied to test how individuals work around their cognitive limits and what behaviours or heuristics are used to form solutions [ ] model extensions[edit] as decision-makers have to make decisions about how and when to decide, ariel rubinstein proposed to model bounded rationality by explicitly specifying decision-making procedures.[ ] this puts the study of decision procedures on the research agenda. gerd gigerenzer opines that decision theorists have not really adhered to simon's original ideas. rather, they have considered how decisions may be crippled by limitations to rationality, or have modeled how people might cope with their inability to optimize. gigerenzer proposes and shows that simple heuristics often lead to better decisions than theoretically optimal procedures.[ ] moreover gigerenzer states, agents react relative to their environment and use their cognitive processes to adapt accordingly.[ ] huw dixon later argues that it may not be necessary to analyze in detail the process of reasoning underlying bounded rationality.[ ] if we believe that agents will choose an action that gets them "close" to the optimum, then we can use the notion of epsilon-optimization, which means we choose our actions so that the payoff is within epsilon of the optimum. if we define the optimum (best possible) payoff as u ∗ {\displaystyle u^{*}} , then the set of epsilon-optimizing options s(ε) can be defined as all those options s such that: u ( s ) ≥ u ∗ − ϵ {\displaystyle u(s)\geq u^{*}-\epsilon } . the notion of strict rationality is then a special case (ε= ). the advantage of this approach is that it avoids having to specify in detail the process of reasoning, but rather simply assumes that whatever the process is, it is good enough to get near to the optimum. from a computational point of view, decision procedures can be encoded in algorithms and heuristics. edward tsang argues that the effective rationality of an agent is determined by its computational intelligence. everything else being equal, an agent that has better algorithms and heuristics could make "more rational" (more optimal) decisions than one that has poorer heuristics and algorithms.[ ] tshilidzi marwala and evan hurwitz in their study on bounded rationality observed that advances in technology (e.g. computer processing power because of moore's law, artificial intelligence and big data analytics) expand the bounds that define the feasible rationality space. because of this expansion of the bounds of rationality, machine automated decision making makes markets more efficient.[ ] relationship to behavioral economics[edit] further information: behavioral economics bounded rationality implies the idea that humans take reasoning shortcuts that may lead to sub-optimal decision-making. behavioral economists engage in mapping the decision shortcuts that agents use in order to help increase the effectiveness of human decision-making. one treatment of this idea comes from cass sunstein and richard thaler's nudge.[ ][ ] sunstein and thaler recommend that choice architectures are modified in light of human agents' bounded rationality. a widely cited proposal from sunstein and thaler urges that healthier food be placed at sight level in order to increase the likelihood that a person will opt for that choice instead of a less healthy option. some critics of nudge have lodged attacks that modifying choice architectures will lead to people becoming worse decision-makers.[ ][ ] bounded rationality was shown to be essential to predict human sociability properties in a particular model by vernon l. smith and michael j. campbell.[ ] there, an agent-based model correctly predicts that agents are averse to resentment and punishment, and that there is an asymmetry between gratitude/reward and resentment/punishment. the purely rational nash equilibrium is shown to have no predictive power for that model, and the boundedly rational gibbs equilibrium must be used to predict phenomena outlined in humanomics.[ ] relationship to psychology[edit] the collaborative works of daniel kahneman and amos tversky expand upon herbert a. simon's ideas in the attempt to create a map of bounded rationality. the research attempted to explore the choices made by what was assumed as rational agents compared to the choices made by individuals optimal beliefs and their satisficing behaviour.[ ] kahneman cites that the research contributes mainly to the school of psychology due to imprecision of psychological research to fit the formal economic models, however the theories are useful to economic theory as a way to expand simple and precise models and cover diverse psychological phenomena.[ ] three major topics covered by the works of daniel kahneman and amos tversky include heuristics of judgement, risky choice and framing effect, which were a culmination of research that fit under what was defined by herbert a. simon as the psychology of bounded rationality.[ ] in contrast to the work of simon; kahneman and tversky aimed to focus on the effects bounded rationality had on simple tasks which therefore placed more emphasis on errors in cognitive mechanisms irrespective of the situation.[ ] influence on social network structure[edit] recent research has shown that bounded rationality of individuals may influence the topology of the social networks that evolve among them. in particular, kasthurirathna and piraveenan[ ] have shown that in socio-ecological systems, the drive towards improved rationality on average might be an evolutionary reason for the emergence of scale-free properties. they did this by simulating a number of strategic games on an initially random network with distributed bounded rationality, then re-wiring the network so that the network on average converged towards nash equilibria, despite the bounded rationality of nodes. they observed that this re-wiring process results in scale-free networks. since scale-free networks are ubiquitous in social systems, the link between bounded rationality distributions and social structure is an important one in explaining social phenomena. see also[edit] 	administrative behavior 	altruism 	analysis paralysis 	ars longa, vita brevis 	carnegie school 	concept driven strategy 	cognitive bias 	cognitive miser 	ecological rationality 	elitism 	framing (social sciences) 	homo economicus 	memetics 	neoclassical economics 	organizing principle 	parametric determinism 	potential game § bounded rational models 	priority heuristic 	prospect theory 	psychohistory 	rational ignorance 	roman dual mentality on trade 	satisficing 	social heuristics 	subjective theory of value 	substitution bias (psychology) 	tragedy of the commons 	transaction cost 	utility maximization problem reference list[edit] 	^ a b c campitelli, guillermo; gobet, fernand ( ). "herbert simon's decision-making approach: investigation of cognitive processes in experts". review of general psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /a . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ a b gigerenzer, gerd; selten, reinhard ( ). bounded rationality: the adaptive toolbox. mit press. isbn  - - - - . 	^ simon, herbert a. ( - - ). "a behavioral model of rational choice". the quarterly journal of economics. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . jstor  . 	^ chater, nick; felin, teppo; funder, david c.; gigerenzer, gerd; koenderink, jan j.; krueger, joachim i.; noble, denis; nordli, samuel a.; oaksford, mike; schwartz, barry; stanovich, keith e. ( - - ). "mind, rationality, and cognition: an interdisciplinary debate". psychonomic bulletin & review. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b mancur olson, jr. ([ ] ). the logic of collective action: public goods and the theory of groups, nd ed. harvard university press, description, table of contents, and preview. 	^ oliver e. williamson, p.  , citing simon. 	^ a b c bendor, john ( ), "bounded rationality", international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences, elsevier, pp.  – , doi: . /b - - - - . - , isbn  - - - - , retrieved - - 	^ rosenzweig, m; porter, l ( ). "invariants of human behaviour". annual review of psychology. : – . doi: . /annurev.ps. . . . pmid  . 	^ rubinstein, ariel ( ). modeling bounded rationality. mit press. isbn  . 	^ moss; rae, eds. ( ). "some thoughts on artificial intelligence and economic theory". artificial intelligence and economic analysis. edward elgar. pp.  – . isbn  - . 	^ tsang, e.p.k. ( ). "computational intelligence determines effective rationality". international journal of automation and computing. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . s cid  . 	^ marwala, tshilidzi; hurwitz, evan ( ). artificial intelligence and economic theory: skynet in the market. london: springer. isbn  - - - - . 	^ thaler, richard h., sunstein, cass r. (april , ). nudge: improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. yale university press. isbn  - - - - . oclc  .cs maint: uses authors parameter (link) 	^ thaler, richard h., sunstein, cass r. and balz, john p. (april , ). "choice architecture". doi: . /ssrn. . s cid  . ssrn  . cite journal requires |journal= (help)cs maint: uses authors parameter (link) 	^ wright, joshua; ginsberg, douglas (february , ). "free to err?: behavioral law and economics and its implications for liberty". library of law & liberty. 	^ sunstein, cass ( - - ). going to extreems: how like minds unite and divide. isbn  . 	^ michael j. campbell; vernon l. smith ( ). "an elementary humanomics approach to boundedly rational quadratic models". physica a. : . doi: . /j.physa. . . 	^ vernon l. smith and bart j. wilson ( ). humanomics: moral sentiments and the wealth of nations for the twenty-first century. cambridge university press. doi: . / . isbn  . 	^ a b kahneman, daniel ( ). "maps of bounded rationality: psychology for behavioral economics". the american economic review. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . jstor  . 	^ kahneman, daniel ( ). "a perspective on judgment and choice: mapping bounded rationality". american psychologist. ( ): – . doi: . / - x. . . . issn  - x. pmid  . 	^ kasthurirathna, dharshana; piraveenan, mahendra ( - - ). "emergence of scale-free characteristics in socio-ecological systems with bounded rationality". scientific reports. ( ): . doi: . /srep . issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . further reading[edit] 	bayer, r. c., renner, e., & sausgruber, r. ( ). confusion and reinforcement learning in experimental public goods games. nrn working papers – , the austrian center for labor economics and the analysis of the welfare state, johannes kepler university linz, austria. 	elster, jon ( ). sour grapes: studies in the subversion of rationality. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. isbn  - - - - . 	felin, t., koenderink, j., & krueger, j. ( ). "rationality, perception and the all-seeing eye." psychonomic bulletin and review, : - . doi . /s - - -z 	gershman, s.j., horvitz, e.j., & tenenbaum, j.b. ( ). computational rationality: a converging paradigm for intelligence in brains, minds, and machines. science, : - . doi: . /science.aac 	gigerenzer, gerd & selten, reinhard ( ). bounded rationality. cambridge: mit press. isbn  - - - - . 	hayek, f.a ( ) individualism and economic order 	kahneman, daniel ( ). "maps of bounded rationality: psychology for behavioral economics" (pdf). the american economic review. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . archived from the original (pdf) on - - . retrieved - - . 	march, james g. ( ). a primer on decision making: how decisions happen. new york: the free press. isbn  - - - - . 	simon, herbert ( ). "a behavioral model of rational choice", in models of man, social and rational: mathematical essays on rational human behavior in a social setting. new york: wiley. 	march, james g. & simon, herbert ( ). organizations. john wiley and sons. isbn  - - - - . 	simon, herbert ( ). "a mechanism for social selection and successful altruism". science. ( ): – . doi: . /science. . pmid  . 	simon, herbert ( ). "bounded rationality and organizational learning". organization science. ( ): – . doi: . /orsc. . . . 	tisdell, clem ( ). bounded rationality and economic evolution: a contribution to decision making, economics, and management. cheltenham, uk: brookfield. isbn  - - - - . 	wheeler, gregory ( ). "bounded rationality". in edward zalta (ed.). stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. stanford, ca. 	williamson, oliver e. ( ). "the economics of organization: the transaction cost approach". american journal of sociology. ( ): – (press +). doi: . / . s cid  . external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: bounded rationality 	bounded rationality in stanford encyclopedia of philosophy 	mapping bounded rationality by daniel kahneman 	artificial intelligence and economic theory chapter of surfing economics by huw dixon. 	"resource bounded agents". internet encyclopedia of philosophy. 		v 	t 	e topics in game theory 	definitions	 	cooperative game 	determinacy 	escalation of commitment 	extensive-form game 	first-player and second-player win 	game complexity 	graphical game 	hierarchy of beliefs 	information set 	normal-form game 	preference 	sequential game 	simultaneous game 	simultaneous action selection 	solved game 	succinct game 	equilibrium concepts	 	nash equilibrium 	subgame perfection 	mertens-stable equilibrium 	bayesian nash equilibrium 	perfect bayesian equilibrium 	trembling hand 	proper equilibrium 	epsilon-equilibrium 	correlated equilibrium 	sequential equilibrium 	quasi-perfect equilibrium 	evolutionarily stable strategy 	risk dominance 	 core 	shapley value 	pareto efficiency 	gibbs equilibrium 	quantal response equilibrium 	self-confirming equilibrium 	strong nash equilibrium 	markov perfect equilibrium 	strategies	 	dominant strategies 	pure strategy 	mixed strategy 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wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 citeseerx — experimental tests of a sequential equilibrium reputation model 	 	 	documents 	authors 	tables 	log in 	sign up 	metacart 	dmca 	donate 	 			 		 documents: 		 		 		 advanced search include citations 		 	 	 	 authors: advanced search include citations | disambiguate 	 	 		 tables: 	dmca experimental tests of a sequential equilibrium reputation model ( ) cached 	 download links 	 [www.eief.it] 	save to list 	add to collection 	correct errors 	monitor changes by author(s) colin camerer , keith weigelt , camerer , keith weigelt 	venue:	econometrica 	citations:	 - self 	summary 	citations 	active bibliography 	co-citation 	clustered documents 	version history 		 bibtex @article{camerer experimentaltests,     author = {author(s) colin camerer and keith weigelt and camerer and keith weigelt},     title = {experimental tests of a sequential equilibrium reputation model},     journal = {econometrica},     year = { },     pages = { -- } } share 				 	 		 			 		 openurl   abstract your use of the jstor archive indicates your acceptance of jstor's terms and conditions of use, available at keyphrases sequential equilibrium reputation model    experimental test    	 	 powered by: 	 	 	about citeseerx 	submit and index documents 	privacy policy 	help 	data 	source 	contact us 	developed at and hosted by the college of information sciences and technology 	© - the pennsylvania state university none ثقة (علم الاجتماع) - ويكيبيديا 	 	 	 	 	ثقة (علم الاجتماع) 	 		من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعة الحرة 		 		 		 		 		اذهب إلى التنقل 		اذهب إلى البحث 		 كلمة ثقة مكتوبة بالعربية والإنجليزية على حائط في بغداد. الثقة هي علاقة اعتماد بين اثنان، الشخص المؤتمن عليه من المفترض ان يفى بوعده، هي رمز وقيمة اخلاقية وايفاء بالوعود.[ ][ ][ ] الثقة تتضمن عدم الشك في اعتقاد الشخصية الجيدة، نوايا أو اخلاق الشخص الاخر. والثقة لا تتطلب ان تكون موجودة في الاشخاص ذو النوايا الحسنة فقط فإننا نرى ان الاشخاص المتورطين في الاعمال الإجرامية عادة ما يثقوا في بعضهم البعض. أيضا الثقة لا تتطلب حركة تشترك فيها أنت والشخص الاخر. الثقة هي توقع النوايا الحسنة، مبنية على معرفة المرء بالإنسان الاخر. الثقة هي كلمة عن ما هو المجهول—على سبيل المثال لانها لا يمكن التحقق منها في الوقت الحالي ولكن من الممكن رؤية نتائجها في المستقبل. محتويات 	 علم الاجتماع 	 علم النفس 	 مراجع 	 انظر أيضًا علم الاجتماع[عدل] في علوم الاجتماع، تكون مدى الثقة في البحث شيء مهم جدا. في علم الاجتماع أو علم النفس تكون درجة ثقة الشخص في الاخر هي معيار ايمانه وتصديقه لامانة الشخص الاخر. بناء على معظم الابحاث الحديثة، فإن فشل وانهيار أي ثقة من الممكن ان يتم مسامحته بسهولة إذا كان الفشل ناتجا عن ضعف في القدرة وليس قلة في الامانة أو الصدق. من هذا المنطلق فأن الثقة حالة عقلية، لا يمكن قياسها مباشرة. الاعتماد هو نتيجة مباشرة للثقة يمكن قياسها من خلال التصرف، وبديلا عن ذلك فإن المرء من الممكن ان يقيس الثقة بالإحساس (مع اخذ الحذر في ذلك). الثقة من الممكن ان تعتبر خيار اخلاقى أو على الاقل اخلاقى، مما يسمح للإنسان بالتعامل مع التعقيدات التي تتجاوز التفكير العقلانى. في هذه الحالة، الثقة بين الإنسان والآلة ليس لها معنى، لان الحاسبات ليس عندها حس اخلاقى وتعتمد على الحسابات العقلية. أي ثقة في جهاز تحت هذه الحالة هي ثقة متوسطة من المستخدم في صانع أو مخترع هذه الآلة لانه هو الذي وضع القواعد العقلانية التي تسير عليها الآلة. فرانسيس فوكوياما وتيلر هما الأكاديميان الذان دافعا عن هذا المفهوم للثقة كمعنى وتصرف اخلاقى غير مباشر. نظرة أخرى في نظرية الاجتماع تأتى من القواعد الأساسية لنظرية الاجتماع لجيمس كوليمان. كوليمان عرض مصطلح بأربع اجزاء: - موضع الثقة يسمح للأفعال التي تكون غير ممكنة (مثلا الثقة تسمح بالقيام ببعض الاشياء بناء على معلومات غير كاملة وغير مؤكدة). -الشخص الموثوق فيه هو شخص مستحق للثقة، لذا من الأفضل ان يثق فيه الشخص ولكن إذا كان الشخص غير موثوق فيه فالأفضل عدم الثقة فيه. -الثقة هي حركة تتضمن عمل تطوعى بين اثنان فيجب على الأول ان يظهر ثقته لكى يثق فيه بالضرورة الاخر وإلا لبقى الاثنان فاقدين الثقة في بعضهما البعض. -توجد فترة زمنية بين تمديد الثقة ونتيجة تصرف الثقة. قوة تعريف كولمان انه يسمح مناقشة تصرف الثقة. هذه المناقشات كانت مفيدة في تفسير الثقة بين الإنسان والاخر. علم النفس[عدل] في علم النفس الثقة هي تكاملية للتأثير الاجتماعى فهى التي تسهل التأثير أو الإقناع لشخص بالاتمئان على شخص آخر. ان فكرة الثقة يتم تبنيها في شكل واسع على نطاق الاشخاص، المؤسسات (الوكالات الحكومية) والاشياء مثل الماكينات. على اية حال، مرة أخرى فهم الامانة والإحسان والقدرة هما اشياء ضرورية من اجل الثقة. عندما يتم فقدان الثقة، عن طريق انتهاك واضح لاحد الاشياء الثلاثة، وانه شيء صعب لاعادة اكتساب الثقة مرة أخرى. وهذا يوضح التناظر بين بناء وتدمير الثقة. ولكن لاحظ ان التصرف بشكل موثوق فيه يعتبر تأهيل للوصول إلى مرحلة الثقة. مراجع[عدل] 	^ the meanings of trust. scientific report, university of minnesota.نسخة محفوظة - - على موقع واي باك مشين.[وصلة مكسورة] 	^ zheng, j.; roehrich, j.k.; lewis, m.a. ( ). "the dynamics of contractual and relational governance: evidence from long-term public-private procurement arrangements". journal of purchasing and supply management. ( ): – . مؤرشف من الأصل في أبريل . الوسيط |citationclass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة) 	^ "psycnet". psycnet.apa.org. مؤرشف من الأصل في ديسمبر . اطلع عليه بتاريخ أكتوبر . الوسيط |citationclass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة) انظر أيضًا[عدل] 	نظرية الغرس الثقافي في كومنز صور وملفات عن: ثقة 			ع 	ن 	ت أخلاقيات 	 	أخلاق معيارية	 	عواقبية 	نفعية 	الأخلاق الواجبة 	kantian ethics 	أخلاقيات الرعاية 	وجودية 	انصرافية أخلاقية 	أخلاق براغماتية 	role ethics 	أخلاقيات الفضيلة 	يودايمونيا 	 	أخلاق تطبيقية	 	animal ethics 	أخلاقيات علم الأحياء 	أخلاقيات الأعمال 	discourse ethics 	أخلاقيات الهندسة 	أخلاقيات بيئية 	أخلاق قانونية 	machine ethics 	أخلاقيات الإعلام 	أخلاقيات الطب 	أخلاقيات التمريض 	أخلاق المهنة 	أخلاقيات جنسية 	أخلاقيات الذكاء الاصطناعي 	أخلاقيات أكل اللحوم 	ethics of technology 	ethics of terraforming 	ethics of uncertain sentience 	 	أخلاقيات فوقية	 	cognitivism 	واقعية أخلاقية 	ethical naturalism 	ethical non-naturalism 	ethical subjectivism 	ideal observer theory 	نظرية الأمر الإلهي 	error theory 	non-cognitivism 	انفعالية 	expressivism 	quasi-realism 	universal prescriptivism 	شمولية أخلاقية 	تعدد القيم 	نسبية أخلاقية 	moral nihilism 	moral rationalism 	ethical intuitionism 	شكوكية أخلاقية 	 	مفاهيم	 	استقلال ذاتي 	علم القيم 	ضمير 	رضا 	مساواتية 	حرية الإرادة 	الخير والشر 	خير 	شر 	سعادة 	ideal 	الفسوق الأخلاقي 	عدالة 	حرية 	أخلاق 	معيار 	حرية سياسية 	معاناة 	stewardship 	sympathy 	ثقة 	قيمة 	فضيلة 	خطأ 	 	فلاسفة	 	لاوتزه 	سقراط 	أفلاطون 	أرسطو 	ديوجانس الكلبي 	ثيروفالوفار 	شيشرون 	كونفوشيوس 	أوغسطينوس 	منسيوس 	موزي 	زونزي 	توما الأكويني 	باروخ سبينوزا 	ديفيد هيوم 	إيمانويل كانت 	جورج فيلهلم فريدريش هيغل 	أرتور شوبنهاور 	جيرمي بنثام 	جون ستيوارت مل 	سورين كيركغور 	هنري سيدجويك 	فريدريك نيتشه 	جورج إدوارد مور 	كارل بارث 	بول تيليش 	ديتريش بونهوفر 	فيليبا فوت 	جون رولز 	جون ديوي 	بيرنارد ويليامز 	جاي إل. ماكي 	إليزابيث أنسكوم 	وليام فرانكينا 	ألسدير ماكنتاير 	r. m. hare 	بيتر سنجر 	ديريك بارفيت 	توماس ناغل 	robert merrihew adams 	تشارلز تيلور 	جوكس أزورمندي 	كريستين كورسغارد 	مارثا نوسباوم 	 	مواضيع مُرتبطة	 	احتيال شرعي 	أخلاق مسيحية 	descriptive ethics 	الأخلاقيات في الدين 	الأخلاق التطويرية 	الأخلاقيات النسوية 	تاريخ الأخلاقيات 	أيديولوجيا 	أخلاق إسلامية 	الأخلاق اليهودية 	علم النفس الأخلاقي 	فلسفة القانون 	فلسفة سياسية 	أخلاق السكان 	فلسفة اجتماعية 	 	 	 تصنيف 	بوابة الاقتصاد 	بوابة علم النفس 	بوابة علم الاجتماع 		ضبط استنادي	 	gnd: - 	lccn: sh مجلوبة من "https://ar.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ثقة_(علم_الاجتماع)&oldid= " 		تصنيفات: 	العلاقات الشخصية 	بنائية (اجتماع) 	علاقات بين الأشخاص 	علم النفس الأخلاقي 	مسؤولية 	مشاعر 	مصطلحات علم الاجتماع 	مفاهيم أخلاقية 	نظرية المعرفة الاجتماعية تصنيفات مخفية: 	قالب أرشيف الإنترنت بوصلات واي باك 	جميع المقالات ذات الوصلات الخارجية المكسورة 	مقالات ذات وصلات خارجية مكسورة منذ أغسطس 	cs : long volume value 	قالب تصنيف كومنز بوصلة كما في ويكي بيانات 	بوابة الاقتصاد/مقالات متعلقة 	بوابة علم النفس/مقالات متعلقة 	بوابة علم الاجتماع/مقالات متعلقة 	جميع المقالات التي تستخدم شريط بوابات 	صفحات تستخدم خاصية p 	صفحات تستخدم خاصية p 	 	 	قائمة التصفح 	 		 	 		أدوات شخصية 	 	 			غير مسجل للدخول 	نقاش 	مساهمات 	إنشاء حساب 	دخول 		 	 		 			 	 		نطاقات 	 	 			مقالة 	نقاش 		 	 			 	 	 		المتغيرات 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		معاينة 	 	 			اقرأ 	عدل 	تاريخ 		 	 			 	 	 		المزيد 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		بحث 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		الموسوعة 	 	 			الصفحة الرئيسية 	الأحداث الجارية 	أحدث التغييرات 	أحدث التغييرات الأساسية 		 	 	 	 		تصفح 	 	 			المواضيع 	أبجدي 	بوابات 	مقالة عشوائية 	تصفح بدون إنترنت 		 	 	 		مشاركة 	 	 			تواصل مع ويكيبيديا 	مساعدة 	الميدان 	تبرع 		 	 	 		أدوات 	 	 			ماذا يصل هنا 	تغييرات ذات علاقة 	رفع ملف 	الصفحات الخاصة 	وصلة دائمة 	معلومات الصفحة 	استشهد بهذه الصفحة 	عنصر ويكي بيانات 		 	 	 		طباعة/تصدير 	 	 			إنشاء كتاب 	تحميل pdf 	نسخة للطباعة 		 	 	 		في مشاريع أخرى 	 	 			ويكيميديا كومنز 		 	 	 	 		لغات 	 	 			asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	galego 	עברית 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exists in interpersonal relationships. humans have a natural disposition to trust and to judge trustworthiness. this can be traced to the neurobiological structure and activity of a human brain. some studies indicate that trust can be altered e.g. by the application of oxytocin.[ ][ ] trust in others in europe country-level estimates of trust share of people agreeing with the statement "most people can be trusted" in a social context, trust has several connotations.[ ] definitions of trust[ ][ ] typically refer to situations characterized by the following aspects: one party (trustor) is willing to rely on the actions of another party (trustee), and the situation is typically directed to the future. in addition, the trustor (voluntarily or forcedly) abandons control over the actions performed by the trustee. as a consequence, the trustor is uncertain about the outcome of the other's actions; the trustor can only develop and evaluate expectations. such expectations are formed with a view to the motivations of the trustee, dependent on their characteristics, the situation, and their interaction.[ ] the uncertainty stems from the risk of failure or harm to the trustor if the trustee does not behave as desired. when it comes to the relationship between people and technology, the attribution of trust is a matter of dispute. the intentional stance[ ] demonstrates that trust can be validly attributed to human relationships with complex technologies. one of the key current challenges in the social sciences is to rethink how the rapid progress of technology has impacted constructs such as trust. this is especially true for information technology that dramatically alters causation in social systems.[ ] in the social sciences, the subtleties of trust are a subject of ongoing research. in sociology and psychology, the degree to which one party trusts another is a measure of belief in the honesty, fairness, or benevolence of another party. the term "confidence" is more appropriate for a belief in the competence of the other party. a failure in trust may be forgiven more easily if it is interpreted as a failure of competence rather than a lack of benevolence or honesty.[ ] in economics, trust is often conceptualized as reliability in transactions. in all cases, trust is a heuristic decision rule, allowing the human to deal with complexities that would require unrealistic effort in rational reasoning.[ ] contents 	 sociology 	 types of social trust 	 . influence of ethnic diversity 	 psychology 	 . social identity approach 	 philosophy 	 economics 	 management and organization science 	 systems 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links sociologyedit sociology claims trust is one of several social constructs; an element of the social reality.[ ] other constructs frequently discussed together with trust include control, confidence, risk, meaning and power. trust is naturally attributable to relationships between social actors, both individuals and groups (social systems). sociology is concerned with the position and role of trust in social systems. interest in trust has grown significantly since the early eighties, from the early works of luhmann,[ ] barber[ ] and giddens[ ] (see[ ] for a more detailed overview). this growth of interest in trust has been stimulated by ongoing changes in society, specifically known as late modernity and post-modernity. sviatoslav contended that society needs trust because it increasingly finds itself operating at the edge between confidence in what is known from everyday experience and contingency of new possibilities. without trust, one should always consider all contingent possibilities, leading to paralysis by analysis.[ ] in this sense, trust acts as a decisional heuristic, allowing the decision maker to overcome bounded rationality[ ] and process what would otherwise be an excessively complex situation. trust can be seen as a bet on one of many contingent futures, specifically, the one that appears to deliver the greatest benefits. once the bet is decided (i.e. trust is granted), the trustor suspends his or her disbelief, and the possibility of a negative course of action is not considered at all. hence trust acts as a reducing agent of social complexity, allowing for cooperation.[ ] sociology tends to focus on two distinct views: the macro view of social systems, and a micro view of individual social actors (where it borders with social psychology). similarly, views on trust follow this dichotomy. on one side, the systemic role of trust can be discussed with a certain disregard to the psychological complexity underpinning individual trust. the behavioral approach to trust is usually assumed[ ] while actions of social actors are measurable, leading to statistical modelling of trust. this systemic approach can be contrasted[ ] with studies on social actors and their decision-making process, in anticipation that understanding of such a process will explain (and allow to model) the emergence of trust. sociology acknowledges that the contingency of the future creates dependency between social actors, and specifically that the trustor becomes dependent on the trustee. trust is seen as one of the possible methods to resolve such a dependency, being an attractive alternative to control.[ ] trust is specifically valuable if the trustee is much more powerful than the trustor, yet the trustor is under social obligation to support the trustee.[ ] modern information technologies have not only facilitated the transition towards a post-modern society, but have also challenged traditional views on trust. information systems research has identified that individuals have evolved to trust in technology, demonstrated by two primary constructs. the first consists of human-like constructs including benevolence, honesty and competence, whilst the second employs system-like constructs such as usefulness, reliability and functionality.[ ] the discussion surrounding the relationship between information technologies and trust is still in progress as research remains in its infant stages. types of social trustedit four types of social trust are recognized:[ ] 	generalized trust, or trust in strangers, is an important form of trust in modern society, involving a large amount of social interactions among strangers. 	out-group trust is the trust an individual has in members of a different group. this could be members of a different ethnic group, or citizens of a different country, for example. 	in-group trust is that which is placed in members of one's own group. 	trust in neighbors considers the relationships between individuals who share a common residential environment. influence of ethnic diversityedit several dozen studies have examined the impact of ethnic diversity on social trust. research published in the annual review of political science[ ] concluded that there were three key debates on the subject: 	why does ethnic diversity modestly reduce social trust? 	can contact reduce the negative association between ethnic diversity and social trust? 	is ethnic diversity a stand-in for social disadvantage? the review's meta-analysis of studies showed a consistent, though modest, negative relationship between ethnic diversity and social trust. ethnic diversity has the strongest negative impact on neighbor trust, in-group trust, and generalized trust. it did not appear to have a significant impact on out-group trust. the limited size of the impact means apocalyptic claims about it are exaggerated.[ ] psychologyedit in psychology, trust is believing that the person who is trusted will do what is expected. according to the psychoanalyst erik erikson, development of basic trust is the first state of psychosocial development occurring, or failing, during the first two years of life. success results in feelings of security and optimism, while failure leads towards an orientation of insecurity and mistrust[ ] possibly resulting in attachment disorders.[ ] a person's dispositional tendency to trust others can be considered a personality trait and as such is one of the strongest predictors of subjective well-being.[ ] trust increases subjective well-being because it enhances the quality of one's interpersonal relationships; happy people are skilled at fostering good relationships.[ ] trust is integral to the idea of social influence: it is easier to influence or persuade someone who is trusting. the notion of trust is increasingly adopted to predict acceptance of behaviors by others, institutions (e.g. government agencies) and objects such as machines. yet once again, perceptions of honesty, competence and value similarity[ ] (slightly similar to benevolence) are essential. there are three different forms of trust commonly studied in psychology. trust is being vulnerable to someone even when they are trustworthy. trustworthiness are the characteristics or behaviors of one person that inspire positive expectations in another person. trust propensity is the ability to rely on others.[ ] once trust is lost, by obvious violation of one of these three determinants, it is very hard to regain. thus there is clear asymmetry in the building versus destruction of trust. increasingly in recent times, research has been conducted regarding the notion of trust and its social implications: 	in her book,[ ] barbara misztal attempts to combine all notions of trust together. she describes three basic things that trust does in the lives of people: it makes social life predictable, it creates a sense of community, and it makes it easier for people to work together. 	in the context of sexual trust, riki robbins[ ] describes four stages. these consist of perfect trust, damaged trust, devastated trust and restored trust.[ ] 	in the context of information theory, ed gerck defines and contrasts trust with social functions such as power, surveillance, and accountability.[ ][ ] 	from a social identity perspective, the propensity to trust strangers (see in-group favoritism) arises from the mutual knowledge of a shared group membership,[ ][ ] stereotypes,[ ] or the need to maintain the group's positive distinctiveness.[ ] despite the centrality of trust to the positive functioning of humans and relationships, very little is known about how and why trust evolves, is maintained, and is destroyed.[ ] one factor that enhances trust among humans is facial resemblance. through digital manipulation of facial resemblance in a two-person sequential trust game, supporting evidence was found that having similar facial features (facial resemblance) enhanced trust in a subject's respective partner.[ ] though facial resemblance was shown to increase trust, it also had the effect of decreased sexual desire in a particular partner. in a series of tests, digitally manipulated faces were presented to subjects to be evaluated for attractiveness within the context of a long-term or short-term relationship. the results showed that within the context of a short-term relationship, which is dependent on sexual desire, similar facial features caused a decrease in desire. within the context of a long-term relationship, which is dependent on trust, similar facial features increased the attractiveness of an individual, leading one to believe that facial resemblance and trust have great effects on relationships.[ ] interpersonal trust literature[ ] suggests that trust-diagnostic situations provide a means by which individuals can gauge or alter the level of trust in relationships. trust-diagnostic situations refer to in trust or "strain-test"[ ] situations which test partners' ability to act in the best interests of the other individual or the relationship, simultaneously rejecting that option which is in one's personal self-interest. trust-diagnostic situations occur throughout the course of everyday life, though can be created by individuals wanting to test the current level of trust in a relationship.[ ] low trust relationships are occur where individuals have little confidence their partner is truly concerned about them or the relationship.[ ] those in low trust relationships tend to make distress-maintaining attributions[ ][ ] whereby the consequences of partner's negative behavior become of greatest focus, and any impacts of positive actions are minimized. this feeds into the overarching notion that the individual's partner is disinterested in the relationship, and any positive acts are met with skepticism, leading to further negative outcomes.[ ] distrusting individuals may not always engage in opportunities for trusting relationships. someone who was subject to an abusive childhood may have been deprived of any evidence that trust is warranted in future interpersonal relationships.[ ] an important key to treating sexual victimization of a child is the rebuilding of trust between parent and child. failure for the adults to validate the sexual abuse contributes to the child's difficulty towards trusting self and others.[ ] moreover, trust can often be affected by the erosion of a marriage.[ ] children of divorce do not exhibit less trust in mothers, partners, spouses, friends, and associates than their peers of intact families. the impact of parental divorce is limited to trust in the father.[ ] social identity approachedit the social identity approach explains trust in strangers as a function of group-based stereotypes or in-group favoring behaviors based on salient group memberships. with regard to ingroup favoritism, people generally think well of strangers but expect better treatment from in-group members in comparison to out-group members. this greater expectation then translates into a higher propensity to trust an in-group rather than out-group member.[ ][ ][ ] it has been pointed out that it is only advantageous to form such expectations of an in-group stranger if they too know the group membership of the recipient.[ ] there is considerable empirical activity related to the social identity approach. allocator studies have frequently been employed to understand group-based trust in strangers.[ ][ ][ ][ ] they may be operationalized as unilateral or bilateral relationships of exchange. general social categories such as university affiliation, course majors, and even ad-hoc groups have been used to distinguish between in-group and out-group members. in unilateral studies of trust, the participant is asked to choose between envelopes containing money that was previously allocated by an in-group or out-group member.[ ] they have no prior or future opportunities for interaction, simulating brewer's notion that group membership was sufficient in bringing about group-based trust and hence cooperation.[ ] participants could expect an amount ranging from nothing to the maximum value an allocator could give out. bilateral studies of trust have employed an investment game devised by berg and colleagues where individuals choose to give a portion or none of their money to another.[ ] any amount given would be tripled and the receiver would then decide whether they would return the favor by giving money back to the sender. trusting behavior on the part of the sender and the eventual trustworthiness of the receiver was exemplified through the giving of money.[ ][ ] empirical research has demonstrated that when group membership is made salient and known to both parties, trust is granted more readily to in-group members than out-group members.[ ][ ][ ] this occurred even when the in-group stereotype was comparatively less positive than an out-group's (e.g. psychology versus nursing majors),[ ] in the absence of personal identity cues,[ ] and when participants had the option of a sure sum of money (i.e. in essence opting out of the need to trust a stranger).[ ] in contrast, when only the recipient was made aware of group membership, trust becomes reliant upon group stereotypes.[ ][ ] the group with the more positive stereotype was trusted (e.g. one's university affiliation over another)[ ] even over that of the in-group (e.g. nursing over psychology majors).[ ] another reason for in-groups favoring behaviors in trust could be attributed to the need to maintain in-group positive distinctiveness, particularly in the presence of social identity threat.[ ] trust in out-group strangers increased when personal cues to identity were revealed.[ ] philosophyedit whilst many philosophers have written about different forms of trust, most would agree interpersonal trust is the foundation on which these forms can be modeled.[ ] for an act to be classed as an expression of trust, it must not betray the expectations of the trustee. in this sense, some philosophers such as lagerspetz argue that trust is a kind of reliance, though not merely reliance.[ ] gambetta argued it is the inherent belief that others generally have good intentions which is the foundation for our reliance on them.[ ] philosophers such as annette baier have contended this view, establishing a difference between trust and reliance by saying that trust can be betrayed, whilst reliance can only be disappointed (baier , ).[ ] carolyn mcleod explains baier's argument by giving the following examples: we can rely on our clock to give the time, but we do not feel betrayed when it breaks, thus, we cannot say that we trusted it; we are not trusting when we are suspicious of the other person, because this is in fact an expression of distrust (mcleod ).[ ] the violation of trust warrants this sense of betrayal.[ ] thus, trust is different from reliance in the sense that a trustor accepts the risk of being betrayed. karen jones proposed that there is an emotional aspect to trust, an element of optimism[ ] that the trustee will do the right thing by the trustor, also described as affective trust.[ ] though, in some circumstances, we trust others even without the optimistic expectation, instead hoping the mere recognition that the person is being trusted in itself will prompt the favorable action. this is known as therapeutic trust[ ][ ] and gives both the trustee a reason to be trustworthy, and the trustor a reason to believe they are trustworthy. in these situations, the sense of betrayal upon violation of trust is commonly warranted. the definition of trust as a belief in something or a confident expectation about something[ ] eliminates the notion of risk, because it does not include whether the expectation or belief is favorable or unfavorable. for example, to have an expectation of a friend arriving to dinner late because she has habitually arrived late for the last fifteen years, is a confident expectation (whether or not we agree with her annoying late arrivals). the trust is not about what we wish for, but rather it is in the consistency of the data of our habits. as a result, there is no risk or sense of betrayal because the data now exists as collective knowledge. faulkner[ ] contrasts such predictive trust with aforementioned affective trust, proposing predictive trust may only warrant disappointment as a consequence of an inaccurate prediction, not betrayal. economicsedit see also: consumer confidence trust in economics is treated as an explanation for a difference between actual human behavior and the one that can be explained by the individual desire to maximize one's utility. in economic terms, trust can provide an explanation of a difference between nash equilibrium and the observed equilibrium. such an approach can be applied to individuals as well as societies.     levels of trust are higher in more equal rich countries and in more equal us states[ ] trust is important to economists for many reasons. taking the "market for lemons" transaction popularized by george akerlof as an example,[ ] if a buyer of a car doesn't trust the seller to not sell a lemon, the transaction won't be entered into. the buyer won't enter into the transaction in the absence of trust, even if the product is of great value to the buyer. trust can act as an economic lubricant, reducing the cost of transactions between parties, enabling new forms of cooperation and generally furthering business activities;[ ][ ] employment and prosperity. this observation [ ] created a significant interest in considering trust as a form of social capital and has led research into closer understanding of the process of creation and distribution of such capital. it has been claimed that a higher level of social trust is positively correlated with economic development. even though the original concept of 'high trust' and 'low trust' societies may not necessarily hold, it has been widely accepted and demonstrated that social trust benefits the economy [ ] and that a low level of trust inhibits economic growth. the absence of trust restricts growth in employment, wages and profits, thus reducing the overall welfare of society.[ ] theoretical economical modelling[ ] demonstrates that the optimum level of trust that a rational economic agent should exhibit in transactions is equal to the trustworthiness of the other party. such a level of trust leads to an efficient market. trusting less leads to the loss of economic opportunities, while trusting more leads to unnecessary vulnerabilities and potential exploitation. economics is also interested in quantifying trust, usually in monetary terms. the level of correlation between an increase in profit margin[ ] or a decrease in transactional costs can be used as indicators of the economic value of trust. economic 'trust games' are popularly used to empirically quantify trust in relationships under laboratory conditions. there are several games and game-like scenarios related to trust that have been tried, with certain preferences to those that allow the estimation of confidence in monetary terms.[ ] games of trust are designed in a way such that the nash equilibrium differs from pareto optimum so that no player alone can maximize his own utility by altering his selfish strategy without cooperation. cooperating partners can also benefit. the classical version of the game of trust has been described[ ] as an abstracted investment game, using the scenario of an investor and a broker. the investor can invest a fraction of his money, and broker can return only part of his gains. if both players follow their economical best interest, the investor should never invest and the broker will never be able to repay anything. thus the flow of money flow, its volume and character is attributable entirely to the existence of trust. the game can be played as a once-off, or repeatedly, with the same or different sets of players to distinguish between a general propensity to trust and trust within particular relationships. several other variants of this game exist. reversing rules lead to the game of distrust, pre-declarations can be used to establish intentions of players,[ ] while alterations to the distribution of gains can be used to manipulate perception of both players. the game can be also played by several players on the closed market,[ ] with or without information about reputation. other interesting games are e.g. binary-choice trust games,[ ] the gift-exchange game[ ] and various other forms of social games. specifically games based on the prisoner's dilemma[ ] are popularly used to link trust with economic utility and demonstrate the rationality behind reciprocity. the popularization of e-commerce opened the discussion of trust in economy to new challenges while at the same time elevating the importance of trust, and desire to understand customer decision to trust.[ ] for example, interpersonal relationships between buyers and sellers have been disintermediated by the technology,[ ] and consequentially required improvement.[ ] websites can influence the buyer to trust the seller, regardless of the seller's actual trustworthiness (e.g.[ ]). reputation-based systems improved on trust assessment by allowing to capture the collective perception of trustworthiness, generating significant interest in various models of reputation.[ ] management and organization scienceedit in management and organization science, trust is studied as a factor that can be managed and influenced by organizational actors. scholars have paid particular attention to how trust develops across individual and organizational levels of analysis.[ ] they suggest a reciprocal process where organizational structures influence individuals’ trust and, at the same time, individuals’ trust manifests in organizational structures. trust is also one of the conditions of an organizational culture that supports knowledge sharing.[ ] an organizational culture that supports knowledge sharing allows employees to feel secure and comfortable to share their knowledge, their work and their expertise.[ ][ ] structure often creates trust in a person that encourages them to feel comfortable and excel in the workplace; it makes an otherwise stressful environment manageable. by having a conveniently organized area to work on, concentration will increase as well as effort. management and organization science scholars have also paid attention to how trust is influenced by contracts and how trust interacts with formal mechanisms.[ ][ ] parallel to the very large interest in trust, scholars in management and related disciplines have made the case for the importance of distrust as a related but distinct construct. since the mid- s, a substantial body of organizational research has fallen into one of two distinct but nonexclusive paradigms of trust research.[ ] the first paradigm distinguishes between two major dimensions of trust. trust in another can be characterized as cognition-based trust (i.e., based on rational calculation) and affect-based trust (i.e., based on emotional attachment).[ ] for example, trust in an auto repair shop could come in the form of an assessment of the capabilities of the shop to do a good job repairing one's car (cognition-based trust) or having a longstanding relationship with the shop's owner (affect-based trust). the second paradigm distinguishes between the trustworthiness factors that give rise to trust (i.e., one’s perceived ability, benevolence, and integrity) and trust itself.[ ] together, these paradigms are useful for predicting how different dimensions of trust form in organizations via the demonstration of various trustworthiness attributes.[ ] systemsedit in systems, a trusted component has a set of properties which another component can rely on. if a trusts b, a violation in those properties of b might compromise the correct operation of a. observe that those properties of b trusted by a might not correspond quantitatively or qualitatively to b's actual properties. this occurs when the designer of the overall system does not take the relation into account. in consequence, trust should be placed to the extent of the component's trustworthiness. the trustworthiness of a component is thus, not surprisingly, defined by how well it secures a set of functional and non-functional properties, deriving from its architecture, construction, and environment, and evaluated as appropriate.[ ] see alsoedit 	attachment theory 	credulity 	gullibility 	intimacy 	misplaced trust 	personal boundaries 	position of trust 	source criticism 	swift trust theory 	trust metric 	trusted system 	trust in computing referencesedit 	^ kosfeld, m.; heinrichs, m.; zak, p. j.; fischbacher, u.; fehr, e. 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"intrusion-resilient middleware design and validation". in annals of emerging research in information assurance, security and privacy services, h. raghav rao and shambhu upadhyaya (eds.), elsevier, to appear. . further readingedit 	bachmann, reinhard and zaheer, akbar (eds) ( ). handbook of trust research. cheltenham: edward elgar.[isbn missing] 	bicchieri, cristina, duffy, john and tolle, gil ( ). "trust among strangers", philosophy of science : – . 	marková, i., linell, p & gillespie, a. ( ). "trust and distrust in society". in marková, i. and gillespie, a. (eds.) trust and distrust: socio-cultural perspectives. greenwich, ct: information age publishing, inc. 	kelton, kari; fleischmann, kenneth r. & wallace, william a. ( ). "trust in digital information". journal of the american society for information science and technology, ( ): – . 	kini, a., & choobineh, j. (january ). "trust in electronic commerce: definition and theoretical considerations". paper presented at the thirty-first hawaii international conference on system sciences, kohala coast, hi. 	gillespie, a. ( ). "the intersubjective dynamics of trust, distrust and manipulation". in markova and gillespie (eds), trust & distrust: socio-cultural perspectives. charlotte, nc: info age. 	maister, david h., green, charles h. & galford, robert m. ( ). the trusted advisor. free press, new york[isbn missing] external linksedit 	look up trustworthy in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	wikiversity has learning resources about earning trust 	wikimedia commons has media related to trust. 	trust at philpapers 	trust at the indiana philosophy ontology project 	zalta, edward n. (ed.). "trust". stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. 	trust building activities 	trust: making and breaking cooperative relations, edited by diego gambetta 	am i trustworthy? ( ) educational video clip 	stony brook university weekly seminars on the issue of trust in the personal, religious, social, and scientific realms 	world database of trust harvey s. james, jr., ph.d (updated august ) a variety of definitions of trust are collected and listed. retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=trust_(social_science)&oldid= " 			 			 			 		 		 		 	 		 		 				last edited on december , at : 		 		 	 			 			 	 			 			content is available under cc by-sa . unless otherwise noted. 				 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 				privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	terms of use 	desktop 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 			 		 	 trust, power and control in trans-organizational relations | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . / corpus id: trust, power and control in trans-organizational relations @article{bachmann trustpa, title={trust, power and control in trans-organizational relations}, author={r. bachmann}, journal={organization studies}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	r. bachmann 	published 	sociology, political science 	organization studies this paper analyzes trust and power as means of co-ordinating trans-organizational relationships. it is argued that, depending on the institutional environment, there are two distinct patterns of controlling relationships, where trust and power are interrelated in quite different ways. first, both mechanisms are generated at the inter-personal level and either trust or power dominates the relationship. second, power occurs at the level of the structural framework of relationships and is highly… continue reading view on sage nebula.wsimg.com save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationshighly influencial citations background citations methods citations results citations view all citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency trust and power as means of co-ordinating the internal relations of the organization: a conceptual framework 	r. bachmann 	sociology, political science 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed the role of trust and power in the institutional regulation of territorial business systems 	r. bachmann 	sociology, business 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed trust and control interrelations 	ana cristina costa, k. bijlsma-frankema 	sociology, psychology 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed who trusts who?: the role of individual and organizational level in determining the nature of inter-organizational trust 	risto seppänen 	political science, computer science 	int. j. knowl. based organ. 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed understanding institutional-based trust building processes in inter-organizational relationships 	r. bachmann, a. inkpen 	sociology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed trust and institutions 	r. bachmann, a. inkpen 	political science 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed cooperation and coordination : the role of trust in inter-organizational relationships 	a. brattström, r. bachmann 	business 	 	 save alert research feed beyond rational order: shifting the meaning of trust in organizational research 	t. b. eikeland, tone saevi 	sociology 	 	 save alert research feed the dynamics of accounting, control and trust-shaping the governance of an outsourcing relationship 	m. k. zahir-ul-hassan, e. vosselman 	business 	 	 	highly influenced 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed balancing trust and control in organizations: towards a process perspective 	søren jagd 	sociology 	 	 save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	 	 	› references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency organization, trust and control: a realist analysis 	m. reed 	sociology 	 	 save alert research feed co-operation in inter-firm relations in britain and germany: the role of social institutions 	c. lane, r. bachmann 	economics 	 	 save alert research feed contracts, opportunism and trust: self-interest and social orientation 	b. lyons, j. mehta 	economics 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed market, hierarchy, and trust: the knowledge economy and the future of capitalism 	p. adler 	economics 	 	 , 	pdf save alert research feed the formation of inter-organizational networks 	m. ebers 	political science, business 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed contract law, social norms and inter-firm cooperation 	a. arrighetti, r. bachmann, s. deakin 	economics, business 	 	 	 save alert research feed an organizational perspective on changing buyer-supplier relations: a critical review of the evidence 	mike bresnen 	sociology 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed the social constitution of trust: supplier relations in britain and germany 	c. lane, r. bachmann 	economics 	 	 save alert research feed explaining the limited effectiveness of legalistic “remedies” for trust/distrust 	s. sitkin, n. roth 	business 	 	 , 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed 'trust' or law? towards an integrated theory of contractual relations between firms 	s. deakin, c. lane, f. wilkinson 	sociology 	 	 save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	 	 	› related papers 	abstract 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue none anxiety - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	anxiety 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		unpleasant combination of emotions including fear, apprehension and worry for other uses of "anxiety" and "anxious", see anxiety (disambiguation). "misgiving" redirects here. for the band, see misgiving (band). 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e anxiety is an emotion characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil, often accompanied by nervous behavior such as pacing back and forth, somatic complaints, and rumination.[ ] it includes subjectively unpleasant feelings of dread over anticipated events.[ ][need quotation to verify] anxiety is a feeling of uneasiness and worry, usually generalized and unfocused as an overreaction to a situation that is only subjectively seen as menacing.[ ] it is often accompanied by muscular tension,[ ] restlessness, fatigue and problems in concentration. anxiety is closely related to fear, which is a response to a real or perceived immediate threat; anxiety involves the expectation of future threat.[ ] people facing anxiety may withdraw from situations which have provoked anxiety in the past.[ ] anxiety disorders differ from developmentally normative fear or anxiety by being excessive or persisting beyond developmentally appropriate periods. they differ from transient fear or anxiety, often stress-induced, by being persistent (e.g., typically lasting months or more), although the criterion for duration is intended as a general guide with allowance for some degree of flexibility and is sometimes of shorter duration in children.[ ] contents 	 anxiety vs. fear 	 symptoms 	 types 	 . existential 	 . test and performance 	 . stranger, social, and intergroup anxiety 	 . trait 	 . choice or decision 	 . panic disorder 	 . anxiety disorders 	 . short- and long-term anxiety 	 co-morbidity 	 risk factors 	 . neuroanatomy 	 . . the gut-brain axis 	 . genetics 	 . medical conditions 	 . substance-induced 	 . psychological 	 . . evolutionary psychology 	 . social 	 . . gender socialization 	 treatment 	 prevention 	 pathophysiology 	 see also 	 references 	 external links anxiety vs. fear[edit] a job applicant with a worried facial expression anxiety is distinguished from fear, which is an appropriate cognitive and emotional response to a perceived threat.[ ] anxiety is related to the specific behaviors of fight-or-flight responses, defensive behavior or escape.[ ] it occurs in situations only perceived as uncontrollable or unavoidable, but not realistically so.[ ] david barlow defines anxiety as "a future-oriented mood state in which one is not ready or prepared to attempt to cope with upcoming negative events,"[ ] and that it is a distinction between future and present dangers which divides anxiety and fear. another description of anxiety is agony, dread, terror, or even apprehension.[ ] in positive psychology, anxiety is described as the mental state that results from a difficult challenge for which the subject has insufficient coping skills.[ ] fear and anxiety can be differentiated in four domains: ( ) duration of emotional experience, ( ) temporal focus, ( ) specificity of the threat, and ( ) motivated direction. fear is short-lived, present-focused, geared towards a specific threat, and facilitating escape from threat; anxiety, on the other hand, is long-acting, future-focused, broadly focused towards a diffuse threat, and promoting excessive caution while approaching a potential threat and interferes with constructive coping.[ ] joseph e. ledoux and lisa feldman barrett have both sought to separate automatic threat responses from additional associated cognitive activity within anxiety.[ ][ ] symptoms[edit] anxiety can be experienced with long, drawn-out daily symptoms that reduce quality of life, known as chronic (or generalized) anxiety, or it can be experienced in short spurts with sporadic, stressful panic attacks, known as acute anxiety.[ ] symptoms of anxiety can range in number, intensity, and frequency, depending on the person. while almost everyone has experienced anxiety at some point in their lives, most do not develop long-term problems with anxiety. anxiety may cause psychiatric and physiological symptoms.[ ][ ] the risk of anxiety leading to depression could possibly even lead to an individual harming themselves, which is why there are many -hour suicide prevention hotlines.[ ] the behavioral effects of anxiety may include withdrawal from situations which have provoked anxiety or negative feelings in the past.[ ] other effects may include changes in sleeping patterns, changes in habits, increase or decrease in food intake, and increased motor tension (such as foot tapping).[ ] the emotional effects of anxiety may include "feelings of apprehension or dread, trouble concentrating, feeling tense or jumpy, anticipating the worst, irritability, restlessness, watching (and waiting) for signs (and occurrences) of danger, and, feeling like your mind's gone blank"[ ] as well as "nightmares/bad dreams, obsessions about sensations, déjà vu, a trapped-in-your-mind feeling, and feeling like everything is scary."[ ] it may include a vague experience and feeling of helplessness[ ] the cognitive effects of anxiety may include thoughts about suspected dangers, such as fear of dying. "you may ... fear that the chest pains are a deadly heart attack or that the shooting pains in your head are the result of a tumor or an aneurysm. you feel an intense fear when you think of dying, or you may think of it more often than normal, or can't get it out of your mind."[ ] the physiological symptoms of anxiety may include:[ ][ ] 	neurological, as headache, paresthesias, fasciculations, vertigo, or presyncope. 	digestive, as abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, indigestion, dry mouth, or bolus. 	respiratory, as shortness of breath or sighing breathing. 	cardiac, as palpitations, tachycardia, or chest pain. 	muscular, as fatigue, tremors, or tetany. 	cutaneous, as perspiration, or itchy skin. 	uro-genital, as frequent urination, urinary urgency, dyspareunia, or impotence, chronic pelvic pain syndrome. stress hormones released in an anxious state have an impact on bowel function and can manifest physical symptoms that may contribute to or exacerbate ibs. types[edit] painting entitled anxiety, , by edvard munch there are various types of anxiety. existential anxiety can occur when a person faces angst, an existential crisis, or nihilistic feelings. people can also face mathematical anxiety, somatic anxiety, stage fright, or test anxiety. social anxiety refers to a fear of rejection and negative evaluation by other people.[ ] existential[edit] further information: angst, existential crisis, and nihilism the philosopher søren kierkegaard, in the concept of anxiety ( ), described anxiety or dread associated with the "dizziness of freedom" and suggested the possibility for positive resolution of anxiety through the self-conscious exercise of responsibility and choosing. in art and artist ( ), the psychologist otto rank wrote that the psychological trauma of birth was the pre-eminent human symbol of existential anxiety and encompasses the creative person's simultaneous fear of – and desire for – separation, individuation, and differentiation.[citation needed] the theologian paul tillich characterized existential anxiety[ ] as "the state in which a being is aware of its possible nonbeing" and he listed three categories for the nonbeing and resulting anxiety: ontic (fate and death), moral (guilt and condemnation), and spiritual (emptiness and meaninglessness). according to tillich, the last of these three types of existential anxiety, i.e. spiritual anxiety, is predominant in modern times while the others were predominant in earlier periods. tillich argues that this anxiety can be accepted as part of the human condition or it can be resisted but with negative consequences. in its pathological form, spiritual anxiety may tend to "drive the person toward the creation of certitude in systems of meaning which are supported by tradition and authority" even though such "undoubted certitude is not built on the rock of reality".[ ] according to viktor frankl, the author of man's search for meaning, when a person is faced with extreme mortal dangers, the most basic of all human wishes is to find a meaning of life to combat the "trauma of nonbeing" as death is near.[ ] depending on the source of the threat, psychoanalytic theory distinguishes the following types of anxiety: 	realistic 	neurotic 	moral[ ] test and performance[edit] main articles: test anxiety, mathematical anxiety, stage fright, and somatic anxiety according to yerkes-dodson law, an optimal level of arousal is necessary to best complete a task such as an exam, performance, or competitive event. however, when the anxiety or level of arousal exceeds that optimum, the result is a decline in performance.[ ] test anxiety is the uneasiness, apprehension, or nervousness felt by students who have a fear of failing an exam. students who have test anxiety may experience any of the following: the association of grades with personal worth; fear of embarrassment by a teacher; fear of alienation from parents or friends; time pressures; or feeling a loss of control. sweating, dizziness, headaches, racing heartbeats, nausea, fidgeting, uncontrollable crying or laughing and drumming on a desk are all common. because test anxiety hinges on fear of negative evaluation,[ ] debate exists as to whether test anxiety is itself a unique anxiety disorder or whether it is a specific type of social phobia.[ ] the dsm-iv classifies test anxiety as a type of social phobia.[ ] while the term "test anxiety" refers specifically to students,[ ] many workers share the same experience with regard to their career or profession. the fear of failing at a task and being negatively evaluated for failure can have a similarly negative effect on the adult.[ ] management of test anxiety focuses on achieving relaxation and developing mechanisms to manage anxiety.[ ] stranger, social, and intergroup anxiety[edit] main articles: stranger anxiety and social anxiety humans generally require social acceptance and thus sometimes dread the disapproval of others. apprehension of being judged by others may cause anxiety in social environments.[ ] anxiety during social interactions, particularly between strangers, is common among young people. it may persist into adulthood and become social anxiety or social phobia. "stranger anxiety" in small children is not considered a phobia. in adults, an excessive fear of other people is not a developmentally common stage; it is called social anxiety. according to cutting,[ ] social phobics do not fear the crowd but the fact that they may be judged negatively. social anxiety varies in degree and severity. for some people, it is characterized by experiencing discomfort or awkwardness during physical social contact (e.g. embracing, shaking hands, etc.), while in other cases it can lead to a fear of interacting with unfamiliar people altogether. those suffering from this condition may restrict their lifestyles to accommodate the anxiety, minimizing social interaction whenever possible. social anxiety also forms a core aspect of certain personality disorders, including avoidant personality disorder.[ ] to the extent that a person is fearful of social encounters with unfamiliar others, some people may experience anxiety particularly during interactions with outgroup members, or people who share different group memberships (i.e., by race, ethnicity, class, gender, etc.). depending on the nature of the antecedent relations, cognitions, and situational factors, intergroup contact may be stressful and lead to feelings of anxiety. this apprehension or fear of contact with outgroup members is often called interracial or intergroup anxiety.[ ] as is the case the more generalized forms of social anxiety, intergroup anxiety has behavioral, cognitive, and affective effects. for instance, increases in schematic processing and simplified information processing can occur when anxiety is high. indeed, such is consistent with related work on attentional bias in implicit memory.[ ][ ][ ] additionally recent research has found that implicit racial evaluations (i.e. automatic prejudiced attitudes) can be amplified during intergroup interaction.[ ] negative experiences have been illustrated in producing not only negative expectations, but also avoidant, or antagonistic, behavior such as hostility.[ ] furthermore, when compared to anxiety levels and cognitive effort (e.g., impression management and self-presentation) in intragroup contexts, levels and depletion of resources may be exacerbated in the intergroup situation. trait[edit] anxiety can be either a short-term 'state' or a long-term personality "trait". trait anxiety reflects a stable tendency across the lifespan of responding with acute, state anxiety in the anticipation of threatening situations (whether they are actually deemed threatening or not).[ ] a meta-analysis showed that a high level of neuroticism is a risk factor for development of anxiety symptoms and disorders.[ ] such anxiety may be conscious or unconscious.[ ] personality can also be a trait leading to anxiety and depression. through experience, many find it difficult to collect themselves due to their own personal nature.[ ] choice or decision[edit] anxiety induced by the need to choose between similar options is increasingly being recognized as a problem for individuals and for organizations.[ ] in , capgemini wrote: "today we're all faced with greater choice, more competition and less time to consider our options or seek out the right advice."[ ] in a decision context, unpredictability or uncertainty may trigger emotional responses in anxious individuals that systematically alter decision-making.[ ] there are primarily two forms of this anxiety type. the first form refers to a choice in which there are multiple potential outcomes with known or calculable probabilities. the second form refers to the uncertainty and ambiguity related to a decision context in which there are multiple possible outcomes with unknown probabilities.[ ] panic disorder[edit] main article: panic disorder panic disorder may share symptoms of stress and anxiety, but it is actually very different. panic disorder is an anxiety disorder that occurs without any triggers. according to the u.s department of health and human services, this disorder can be distinguished by unexpected and repeated episodes of intense fear.[ ] someone who suffers from panic disorder will eventually develop constant fear of another attack and as this progresses it will begin to affect daily functioning and an individual's general quality of life. it is reported by the cleveland clinic that panic disorder affects to percent of adult americans and can begin around the time of the teenage and early adult years. some symptoms include: difficulty breathing, chest pain, dizziness, trembling or shaking, feeling faint, nausea, fear that you are losing control or are about to die. even though they suffer from these symptoms during an attack, the main symptom is the persistent fear of having future panic attacks.[ ] anxiety disorders[edit] main article: anxiety disorder anxiety disorders are a group of mental disorders characterized by exaggerated feelings of anxiety and fear responses.[ ] anxiety is a worry about future events and fear is a reaction to current events. these feelings may cause physical symptoms, such as a fast heart rate and shakiness. there are a number of anxiety disorders: including generalized anxiety disorder, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, panic disorder, and selective mutism. the disorder differs by what results in the symptoms. people often have more than one anxiety disorder.[ ] anxiety disorders are caused by a complex combination of genetic and environmental factors.[ ] [ ]to be diagnosed, symptoms typically need to be present for at least six months, be more than would be expected for the situation, and decrease a person's ability to function in their daily lives.[citation needed] other problems that may result in similar symptoms include hyperthyroidism, heart disease, caffeine, alcohol, or cannabis use, and withdrawal from certain drugs, among others.[citation needed] without treatment, anxiety disorders tend to remain.[ ][ ] treatment may include lifestyle changes, counselling, and medications. counselling is typically with a type of cognitive behavioural therapy.[ ] medications, such as antidepressants or beta blockers, may improve symptoms.[ ] about % of people are affected by an anxiety disorder in a given year and between – % are affected at some point in their life.[ ][ ] they occur about twice as often in women than they do in men, and generally begin before the age of .[ ][ ] the most common are specific phobia which affects nearly % and social anxiety disorder which affects % at some point in their life. they affect those between the ages of and the most and become less common after the age of . rates appear to be higher in the united states and europe.[ ] short- and long-term anxiety[edit] anxiety can be either a short-term "state" or a long-term "trait". whereas trait anxiety represents worrying about future events, anxiety disorders are a group of mental disorders characterized by feelings of anxiety and fear.[ ] co-morbidity[edit] anxiety disorders often occur with other mental health disorders, particularly major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, eating disorders, or certain personality disorders. it also commonly occurs with personality traits such as neuroticism. this observed co-occurrence is partly due to genetic and environmental influences shared between these traits and anxiety.[ ][ ] anxiety is often experienced by those with obsessive–compulsive disorder and is an acute presence in panic disorder. risk factors[edit] a marble bust of the roman emperor decius from the capitoline museum. this portrait "conveys an impression of anxiety and weariness, as of a man shouldering heavy [state] responsibilities".[ ] anxiety disorders are partly genetic, with twin studies suggesting - % genetic influence on individual differences in anxiety.[ ] environmental factors are also important. twin studies show that individual-specific environments have a large influence on anxiety, whereas shared environmental influences (environments that affect twins in the same way) operate during childhood but decline through adolescence.[ ] specific measured ‘environments’ that have been associated with anxiety include child abuse, family history of mental health disorders, and poverty.[ ] anxiety is also associated with drug use, including alcohol, caffeine, and benzodiazepines (which are often prescribed to treat anxiety). neuroanatomy[edit] neural circuitry involving the amygdala (which regulates emotions like anxiety and fear, stimulating the hpa axis and sympathetic nervous system) and hippocampus (which is implicated in emotional memory along with the amygdala) is thought to underlie anxiety.[ ] people who have anxiety tend to show high activity in response to emotional stimuli in the amygdala.[ ] some writers believe that excessive anxiety can lead to an overpotentiation of the limbic system (which includes the amygdala and nucleus accumbens), giving increased future anxiety, but this does not appear to have been proven.[ ][ ] research upon adolescents who as infants had been highly apprehensive, vigilant, and fearful finds that their nucleus accumbens is more sensitive than that in other people when deciding to make an action that determined whether they received a reward.[ ] this suggests a link between circuits responsible for fear and also reward in anxious people. as researchers note, "a sense of 'responsibility', or self-agency, in a context of uncertainty (probabilistic outcomes) drives the neural system underlying appetitive motivation (i.e., nucleus accumbens) more strongly in temperamentally inhibited than noninhibited adolescents".[ ] the gut-brain axis[edit] the microbes of the gut can connect with the brain to affect anxiety. there are various pathways along which this communication can take place. one is through the major neurotransmitters.[ ] the gut microbes such as bifidobacterium and bacillus produce the neurotransmitters gaba and dopamine, respectively.[ ] the neurotransmitters signal to the nervous system of the gastrointestinal tract, and those signals will be carried to the brain through the vagus nerve or the spinal system.[ ][ ][ ] this is demonstrated by the fact that altering the microbiome has shown anxiety- and depression-reducing effects in mice, but not in subjects without vagus nerves.[ ] another key pathway is the hpa axis, as mentioned above.[ ] the microbes can control the levels of cytokines in the body, and altering cytokine levels creates direct effects on areas of the brain such as the hypothalmus, the area that triggers hpa axis activity. the hpa axis regulates production of cortisol, a hormone that takes part in the body's stress response.[ ] when hpa activity spikes, cortisol levels increase, processing and reducing anxiety in stressful situations. these pathways, as well as the specific effects of individual taxa of microbes, are not yet completely clear, but the communication between the gut microbiome and the brain is undeniable, as is the ability of these pathways to alter anxiety levels. with this communication comes the potential to treat anxiety. prebiotics and probiotics have been shown to reduced anxiety. for example, experiments in which mice were given fructo- and galacto-oligosaccharide prebiotics[ ] and lactobacillus probiotics[ ] have both demonstrated a capability to reduce anxiety. in humans, results are not as concrete, but promising.[ ][ ] genetics[edit] genetics and family history (e.g. parental anxiety) may put an individual at increased risk of an anxiety disorder, but generally external stimuli will trigger its onset or exacerbation.[ ] estimates of genetic influence on anxiety, based on studies of twins, range from – % depending on the specific type and age-group under study. for example, genetic differences account for about % of variance in panic disorder and % in generalized anxiety disorder.[citation needed] longitudinal twin studies have shown the moderate stability of anxiety from childhood through to adulthood is mainly influenced by stability in genetic influence.[ ][ ] when investigating how anxiety is passed on from parents to children, it is important to account for sharing of genes as well as environments, for example using the intergenerational children-of-twins design.[ ] many studies in the past used a candidate gene approach to test whether single genes were associated with anxiety. these investigations were based on hypotheses about how certain known genes influence neurotransmitters (such as serotonin and norepinephrine) and hormones (such as cortisol) that are implicated in anxiety. none of these findings are well replicated,[citation needed] with the possible exception of tmem d, comt and mao-a.[ ] the epigenetic signature of bdnf, a gene that codes for a protein called brain derived neurotrophic factor that is found in the brain, has also been associated with anxiety and specific patterns of neural activity.[citation needed] and a receptor gene for bdnf called ntrk was associated with anxiety in a large genome-wide investigation.[ ] the reason that most candidate gene findings have not replicated is that anxiety is a complex trait that is influenced by many genomic variants, each of which has a small effect on its own. increasingly, studies of anxiety are using a hypothesis-free approach to look for parts of the genome that are implicated in anxiety using big enough samples to find associations with variants that have small effects. the largest explorations of the common genetic architecture of anxiety have been facilitated by the uk biobank, the angst consortium and the crc fear, anxiety and anxiety disorders.[ ][ ][ ] medical conditions[edit] many medical conditions can cause anxiety. this includes conditions that affect the ability to breathe, like copd and asthma, and the difficulty in breathing that often occurs near death.[ ][ ][ ] conditions that cause abdominal pain or chest pain can cause anxiety and may in some cases be a somatization of anxiety;[ ][ ] the same is true for some sexual dysfunctions.[ ][ ] conditions that affect the face or the skin can cause social anxiety especially among adolescents,[ ] and developmental disabilities often lead to social anxiety for children as well.[ ] life-threatening conditions like cancer also cause anxiety.[ ] furthermore, certain organic diseases may present with anxiety or symptoms that mimic anxiety.[ ][ ] these disorders include certain endocrine diseases (hypo- and hyperthyroidism, hyperprolactinemia),[ ][ ] metabolic disorders (diabetes),[ ][ ][ ] deficiency states (low levels of vitamin d, b , b , folic acid),[ ] gastrointestinal diseases (celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, inflammatory bowel disease),[ ][ ][ ] heart diseases, blood diseases (anemia),[ ] cerebral vascular accidents (transient ischemic attack, stroke),[ ] and brain degenerative diseases (parkinson's disease, dementia, multiple sclerosis, huntington's disease), among others.[ ][ ][ ][ ] substance-induced[edit] several drugs can cause or worsen anxiety, whether in intoxication, withdrawal or as side effect. these include alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, sedatives (including prescription benzodiazepines), opioids (including prescription pain killers and illicit drugs like heroin), stimulants (such as caffeine, cocaine and amphetamines), hallucinogens, and inhalants.[ ] while many often report self-medicating anxiety with these substances, improvements in anxiety from drugs are usually short-lived (with worsening of anxiety in the long term, sometimes with acute anxiety as soon as the drug effects wear off) and tend to be exaggerated. acute exposure to toxic levels of benzene may cause euphoria, anxiety, and irritability lasting up to weeks after the exposure.[ ] psychological[edit] poor coping skills (e.g., rigidity/inflexible problem solving, denial, avoidance, impulsivity, extreme self-expectation, negative thoughts, affective instability, and inability to focus on problems) are associated with anxiety. anxiety is also linked and perpetuated by the person's own pessimistic outcome expectancy and how they cope with feedback negativity.[ ] temperament (e.g., neuroticism)[ ] and attitudes (e.g. pessimism) have been found to be risk factors for anxiety.[ ][ ] cognitive distortions such as overgeneralizing, catastrophizing, mind reading, emotional reasoning, binocular trick, and mental filter can result in anxiety. for example, an overgeneralized belief that something bad "always" happens may lead someone to have excessive fears of even minimally risky situations and to avoid benign social situations due to anticipatory anxiety of embarrassment. in addition, those who have high anxiety can also create future stressful life events.[ ] together, these findings suggest that anxious thoughts can lead to anticipatory anxiety as well as stressful events, which in turn cause more anxiety. such unhealthy thoughts can be targets for successful treatment with cognitive therapy. psychodynamic theory posits that anxiety is often the result of opposing unconscious wishes or fears that manifest via maladaptive defense mechanisms (such as suppression, repression, anticipation, regression, somatization, passive aggression, dissociation) that develop to adapt to problems with early objects (e.g., caregivers) and empathic failures in childhood. for example, persistent parental discouragement of anger may result in repression/suppression of angry feelings which manifests as gastrointestinal distress (somatization) when provoked by another while the anger remains unconscious and outside the individual's awareness. such conflicts can be targets for successful treatment with psychodynamic therapy. while psychodynamic therapy tends to explore the underlying roots of anxiety, cognitive behavioral therapy has also been shown to be a successful treatment for anxiety by altering irrational thoughts and unwanted behaviors. evolutionary psychology[edit] an evolutionary psychology explanation is that increased anxiety serves the purpose of increased vigilance regarding potential threats in the environment as well as increased tendency to take proactive actions regarding such possible threats. this may cause false positive reactions but an individual suffering from anxiety may also avoid real threats. this may explain why anxious people are less likely to die due to accidents.[ ] there is ample empirical evidence that anxiety can have adaptive value. within a school, timid fish are more likely than bold fish to survive a predator. [ ] when people are confronted with unpleasant and potentially harmful stimuli such as foul odors or tastes, pet-scans show increased blood flow in the amygdala.[ ][ ] in these studies, the participants also reported moderate anxiety. this might indicate that anxiety is a protective mechanism designed to prevent the organism from engaging in potentially harmful behaviors. social[edit] social risk factors for anxiety include a history of trauma (e.g., physical, sexual or emotional abuse or assault), bullying, early life experiences and parenting factors (e.g., rejection, lack of warmth, high hostility, harsh discipline, high parental negative affect, anxious childrearing, modelling of dysfunctional and drug-abusing behaviour, discouragement of emotions, poor socialization, poor attachment, and child abuse and neglect), cultural factors (e.g., stoic families/cultures, persecuted minorities including the disabled), and socioeconomics (e.g., uneducated, unemployed, impoverished although developed countries have higher rates of anxiety disorders than developing countries).[ ][ ] a comprehensive systematic review of over studies showed that food insecurity in the united states is strongly associated with depression, anxiety, and sleep disorders.[ ] food-insecure individuals had an almost fold risk increase of testing positive for anxiety when compared to food-secure individuals. gender socialization[edit] contextual factors that are thought to contribute to anxiety include gender socialization and learning experiences. in particular, learning mastery (the degree to which people perceive their lives to be under their own control) and instrumentality, which includes such traits as self-confidence, self-efficacy, independence, and competitiveness fully mediate the relation between gender and anxiety. that is, though gender differences in anxiety exist, with higher levels of anxiety in women compared to men, gender socialization and learning mastery explain these gender differences.[ ][medical citation needed] treatment[edit] see also: fear § management the first step in the management of a person with anxiety symptoms involves evaluating the possible presence of an underlying medical cause, whose recognition is essential in order to decide the correct treatment.[ ][ ] anxiety symptoms may mask an organic disease, or appear associated with or as a result of a medical disorder.[ ][ ][ ][ ] cognitive behavioral therapy (cbt) is effective for anxiety disorders and is a first line treatment.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] cbt appears to be equally effective when carried out via the internet.[ ] while evidence for mental health apps is promising, it is preliminary.[ ] psychopharmacological treatment can be used in parallel to cbt or can be used alone. as a general rule, most anxiety disorders respond well to first-line agents. first-line drugs are the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors. benzodiazepines are not recommended for routine use. other treatment options include pregabalin, tricyclic antidepressants, buspirone, moclobemide, and others.[ ] prevention[edit] the above risk factors give natural avenues for prevention. a review found that psychological or educational interventions have a small yet statistically significant benefit for the prevention of anxiety in varied population types.[ ][ ][ ] pathophysiology[edit] 	 	this section does not cite any sources. please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (october ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) anxiety disorder appears to be a genetically inherited neurochemical dysfunction that may involve autonomic imbalance; decreased gaba-ergic tone; allelic polymorphism of the catechol-o-methyltransferase (comt) gene; increased adenosine receptor function; increased cortisol.[ ] in the central nervous system (cns), the major mediators of the symptoms of anxiety disorders appear to be norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (gaba). other neurotransmitters and peptides, such as corticotropin-releasing factor, may be involved. peripherally, the autonomic nervous system, especially the sympathetic nervous system, mediates many of the symptoms. increased flow in the right parahippocampal region and reduced serotonin type a receptor binding in the anterior and posterior cingulate and raphe of patients are the diagnostic factors for prevalence of anxiety disorder. the amygdala is central to the processing of fear and anxiety, and its function may be disrupted in anxiety disorders. anxiety processing in the basolateral amygdala has been implicated with dendritic arborization of the amygdaloid neurons. sk potassium channels mediate inhibitory influence on action potentials and reduce arborization.[ ] see also[edit] 	list of people with an anxiety disorder 	angst – intense feeling of apprehension, anxiety, or inner turmoil 	fear – basic emotion induced by a perceived threat 	tripartite model of anxiety and depression 	uncanny references[edit] 	^ seligman me, walker ef, rosenhan dl. abnormal psychology ( th ed.). new york: w.w. norton & company.[page needed] 	^ davison gc ( ). abnormal psychology. toronto: veronica visentin. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ bouras n, holt g ( ). psychiatric and behavioral disorders in intellectual and developmental disabilities ( nd ed.). cambridge university press. isbn  . 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( ): – . doi: . /jn. . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ national research council (us) institute of medicine (us) committee on the prevention of mental disorders substance abuse among children, youth, and young adults ( ). "table e- risk factors for anxiety". in o'connell me, boat t, warner ke (eds.). prevention of mental disorders, substance abuse, and problem behaviors: a developmental perspective. national academies press. p.  . doi: . / . isbn  - - - - . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ arenas, daniel j.; thomas, arthur; wang, jici; delisser, horace m. (august , ). "a systematic review and meta-analysis of depression, anxiety, and sleep disorders in us adults with food insecurity". journal of general internal medicine. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ behnke rr, sawyer cr ( ). "anticipatory anxiety patterns for male and female public speakers". communication education. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ testa a, giannuzzi r, sollazzo f, petrongolo l, bernardini l, dain s (february ). "psychiatric emergencies (part ii): psychiatric disorders coexisting with organic diseases". european review for medical and pharmacological sciences. suppl : – . pmid  . 	^ stein, mb; sareen, j (november , ). "clinical practice: generalized anxiety disorder". the new england journal of medicine. ( ): – . doi: . /nejmcp . pmid  . 	^ cuijpers, p; sijbrandij, m; koole, s; huibers, m; berking, m; andersson, g (march ). "psychological treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: a meta-analysis". clinical psychology review. ( ): – . doi: . /j.cpr. . . . pmid  . 	^ otte, c ( ). "cognitive behavioral therapy in anxiety disorders: current state of the evidence". dialogues in clinical neuroscience. ( ): – . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ pompoli, a; furukawa, ta; imai, h; tajika, a; efthimiou, o; salanti, g (april , ). "psychological therapies for panic disorder with or without agoraphobia in adults: a network meta-analysis" (pdf). the cochrane database of systematic reviews. : cd . doi: . / .cd .pub . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b olthuis, jv; watt, mc; bailey, k; hayden, ja; stewart, sh (march , ). "therapist-supported internet cognitive behavioural therapy for anxiety disorders in adults". the cochrane database of systematic reviews. : cd . doi: . / .cd .pub . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ donker, t; petrie, k; proudfoot, j; clarke, j; birch, mr; christensen, h (november , ). "smartphones for smarter delivery of mental health programs: a systematic review". journal of medical internet research. ( ): e . doi: . /jmir. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ bandelow b, michaelis s, wedekind d. treatment of anxiety disorders. dialogues clin neurosci. ; ( ): ‐ . 	^ moreno-peral, patricia; conejo-cerón, sonia; rubio-valera, maria; fernández, anna; navas-campaña, desirée; rodríguez-morejón, alberto; motrico, emma; rigabert, alina; luna, juan de dios; martín-pérez, carlos; rodríguez-bayón, antonina; ballesta-rodríguez, maría isabel; luciano, juan vicente; bellón, juan Ángel (october , ). "effectiveness of psychological and/or educational interventions in the prevention of anxiety". jama psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . /jamapsychiatry. . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ pote, inês (february , ). "preventing anxiety with psychological and educational interventions". national elf service. 	^ schmidt, norman b.; allan, nicholas p.; knapp, ashley a.; capron, dan ( ). "targeting anxiety sensitivity as a prevention strategy". the clinician's guide to anxiety sensitivity treatment and assessment. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . isbn  - - - - . 	^ anxiety disorders at emedicine 	^ shelton, charles i. (march , ). "diagnosis and management of anxiety disorders". the journal of the american osteopathic association. 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foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 affection - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	affection 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		feeling or type of love "public affection" redirects here. for the band formerly known as public affection, see live (band). for other uses, see affection (disambiguation). two children showing affection. 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e affection or fondness is a "disposition or state of mind or body"[ ] that is often associated with a feeling or type of love. it has given rise to a number of branches of philosophy and psychology concerning emotion, disease, influence, and state of being.[ ] "affection" is popularly used to denote a feeling or type of love, amounting to more than goodwill or friendship. writers on ethics generally use the word to refer to distinct states of feeling, both lasting and spasmodic. some contrast it with passion as being free from the distinctively sensual element.[ ] even a very simple demonstration of affection can have a broad variety of emotional reactions, from embarrassment, to disgust, pleasure, and annoyance. it also has a different physical effect on the giver and the receiver.[ ] contents 	 restricted definition 	 expression 	 . benefits of affection 	 . parental relationships 	 affectionism 	 see also 	 references 	 external links restricted definition[edit] a young girl kisses a baby on the cheek. more specifically, the word has been restricted to emotional states, the object of which is a living thing such as a human or animal. affection is compared with passion,[ ] from the greek "pathos". as such it appears in the writings of french philosopher rené descartes,[ ] dutch philosopher baruch spinoza,[ ] and most of the writings of early british ethicists. however, on various grounds (e.g., that it does not involve anxiety or excitement and that it is comparatively inert and compatible with the entire absence of the gratifyingly physical element), it is generally and distinguished from passion. in this narrower sense, the word has played a great part in ethical systems, which have spoken of the social or parental affections as in some sense a part of moral obligations.[ ] for a consideration of these and similar problems, which depend ultimately on the degree in which the affections are regarded as voluntary.[ ] expression[edit] further information: public display of affection affection can be communicated by looks, words, gestures, or touches. it conveys love and social connection. affectionate behavior may have evolved from parental nurturing behavior due to its associations with hormonal rewards.[ ] such affection has been shown to influence brain development in infants.[ ] expressions of affection can be unwelcome if they pose implied threats to one's well-being. if welcomed, affectionate behavior may be associated with various health benefits. it has been proposed that positive sentiments increase the propensity of people to interact and that familiarity gained through affection increases positive sentiments among them.[ ] benefits of affection[edit] affection exchange is seen as an adaptive human behavior that contributes to greater physical and mental well-being. the expression of affection mediates emotional, physical, and relational benefits for the individual and significant counterparts. the communication of positive feelings towards others has shown health benefits that include; lower stress hormones, lower cholesterol, lower blood pressure and stronger immune system.[ ] benefits are internally noticed when the emotion is expressed and not merely felt, if affection is not reciprocated through the receiver, effects of the affection are still felt through the giver. parental relationships[edit] affectionate behavior is often regarded as the result of parental nurturing behavior due to its associations with hormonal rewards. positive and negative parental behaviors can be linked to later life health problems. abuse is a common attribute to poor health in later life, as the lack of affection leads to naturally poorer well-being and mental health. a study showed the effects of early child abuse and the outcome between lack of affection and the strong biological link for how these negative early-life experiences affect physical health.[ ] affectionism[edit] affectionism is a school of thought which considers affections as central importance. although it is not found in mainstream western philosophy, it does exist in indian philosophy.[ ] see also[edit] 	affectional orientation 	affective filter 	affective videogames 	attraction 	crush 	doctrine of the affections 	emotion 	infatuation 	list of emotions 	list of terms of endearment 	social connection 	the four loves 	terms of endearment references[edit] 	^ "affection - define affection at dictionary.com". dictionary.com. retrieved november . 	^ " th and th century theories of emotions > francis hutcheson on the emotions (stanford encyclopedia of philosophy)". plato.stanford.edu. retrieved november . 	^ a b  one or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: chisholm, hugh, ed. ( ). "affection". encyclopædia britannica. ( th ed.). cambridge university press. pp.  – . 	^ "the effects of affection | research matters". researchmatters.asu.edu. retrieved - - . 	^ fernández, damián j. ( january ). cuba and the politics of passion. university of texas press. isbn  . retrieved november – via google books. 	^ rené descartes. "the passions of the soul" (pdf). earlymoderntexts.com. retrieved november . 	^ lebuffe, michael ( november ). zalta, edward n. (ed.). the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. metaphysics research lab, stanford university. retrieved november – via stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. 	^ "methods of ethics" (pdf). earlymoderntexts.com. p.  – . retrieved november . 	^ according to communication professor kory floyd of the university of arizona 	^ infant observation: international journal of infant observation and its applications 	^ "jmf lawtonetal" (pdf). archived from the original (pdf) on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ affection expression 	^ ucla affection 	^ franklin merrell-wolff ( ). transformations in consciousness: the metaphysics and epistemology: containing his introceptualism. state university of new york press. p.  . isbn  - - - . external links[edit] 	 quotations related to affection at wikiquote 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=affection&oldid= " 		categories: 	affection 	phrenology 	emotions 	love 	personal life hidden categories: 	wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the encyclopaedia britannica with wikisource reference 	wikipedia articles incorporating text from the encyclopædia britannica 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			afrikaans 	العربية 	azərbaycanca 	Български 	català 	français 	frysk 	한국어 	हिन्दी 	hrvatski 	bahasa indonesia 	עברית 	मराठी 	nederlands 	日本語 	ਪੰਜਾਬੀ 	sicilianu 	slovenčina 	Српски / srpski 	svenska 	தமிழ் 	türkçe 	Українська 	اردو 	tiếng việt 	粵語 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on october , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 models of bounded rationality: empirically grounded economic reason - herbert alexander simon - google books search images maps play youtube news gmail drive more » sign in books try the new google books check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features try it now no thanks try the new google books 	try the new google books 	my library 	help 	advanced book search get print book no ebook available 	the mit press 	amazon.com 	barnes&noble.com 	books-a-million 	indiebound 	 	find in a library 	all sellers » 	 	 reviewswrite review models of bounded rationality: empirically grounded economic reason by herbert alexander simon 		  	 about this book get textbooks on google play rent and save from the world's largest ebookstore. read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone. go to google play now » 	 	pages displayed by permission of mit press. copyright.  			page 	 	 	  		 		 				 	  restricted page you have reached your viewing limit for this book (why?). 			 boredom - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	boredom 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		experienced when an individual is left without anything to do for other uses, see boredom (disambiguation). "tedium" redirects here. for the film, see khastegi. "bored" and "ennui" redirect here. for other uses, see bored (disambiguation) and ennui (disambiguation). a souvenir seller appears bored as she waits for customers. 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e in conventional usage, boredom is an emotional and occasionally psychological state experienced when an individual is left without anything in particular to do, is not interested in their surroundings, or feels that a day or period is dull or tedious. it is also understood by scholars as a modern phenomenon which has a cultural dimension. "there is no universally accepted definition of boredom. but whatever it is, researchers argue, it is not simply another name for depression or apathy. it seems to be a specific mental state that people find unpleasant—a lack of stimulation that leaves them craving relief, with a host of behavioural, medical and social consequences."[ ] according to bbc news, boredom "...can be a dangerous and disruptive state of mind that damages your health"; yet research "...suggest[s] that without boredom we couldn't achieve our creative feats."[ ] in experience without qualities: boredom and modernity, elizabeth goodstein traces the modern discourse on boredom through literary, philosophical, and sociological texts to find that as "a discursively articulated phenomenon...boredom is at once objective and subjective, emotion and intellectualization—not just a response to the modern world but also a historically constituted strategy for coping with its discontents."[ ] in both conceptions, boredom has to do fundamentally with an experience of time and problems of meaning.[citation needed] contents 	 etymology and terminology 	 psychology 	 physical health 	 philosophy 	 causes and effects 	 in the workplace 	 in popular culture 	 . superfluous man 	 . existentialist fiction 	 . grunge lit 	 see also 	 references 	 external links etymology and terminology the expression to be a bore had been used in print in the sense of "to be tiresome or dull" since at the latest.[ ] the expression "boredom" means "state of being bored," , from bore (v. ) + -dom. it also has been employed in a sense "bores as a class" ( ) and "practice of being a bore" ( , a sense properly belonging to boreism, ).[ ] the word "bore" as a noun meaning a "thing which causes ennui or annoyance" is attested to since ; "of persons by ". the noun "bore" comes from the verb "bore", which had the meaning "[to] be tiresome or dull" first attested [in] , a vogue word c. – according to grose ( ); possibly a figurative extension of "to move forward slowly and persistently, as a [hole-] boring tool does."[ ] the french term for boredom, ennui, is sometimes used in english as well, at least since . the term ennui was first used "as a french word in english;" in the s and it was "nativized by ".[ ] the term ennui comes "from french ennui, from old french enui "annoyance" ( c.), [a] back-formation from enoiier, anuier.[ ] "the german word for "boredom" expresses this: langeweile, a compound made of lange "long" and weile "while", which is in line with the common perception that when one is bored, time passes "tortuously" slowly.[ ] psychology boredom by gaston de la touche, a girl looking bored. different scholars use different definitions of boredom, which complicates research.[ ] boredom has been defined by cynthia d. fisher in terms of its main central psychological processes: "an unpleasant, transient affective state in which the individual feels a pervasive lack of interest and difficulty concentrating on the current activity."[ ] mark leary et al. describe boredom as "an affective experience associated with cognitive attentional processes."[ ] in positive psychology, boredom is described as a response to a moderate challenge for which the subject has more than enough skill.[ ][full citation needed] there are three types of boredom, all of which involve problems of engagement of attention. these include times when we are prevented from engaging in wanted activity, when we are forced to engage in unwanted activity, or when we are simply unable for some other reason to maintain engagement in an activity.[ ] boredom proneness is a tendency to experience boredom of all types. this is typically assessed by the boredom proneness scale.[ ] recent research has found that boredom proneness is clearly and consistently associated with failures of attention.[ ] boredom and its proneness are both theoretically and empirically linked to depression and similar symptoms.[ ][ ][ ] nonetheless, boredom proneness has been found to be as strongly correlated with attentional lapses as with depression.[ ] although boredom is often viewed as a trivial and mild irritant, proneness to boredom has been linked to a very diverse range of possible psychological, physical, educational, and social problems.[ ] absent-mindedness is where a person shows inattentive or forgetful behaviour.[ ] absent-mindedness is a mental condition in which the subject experiences low levels of attention and frequent distraction. absent-mindedness is not a diagnosed condition but rather a symptom of boredom and sleepiness which people experience in their daily lives. when suffering from absent-mindedness, people tend to show signs of memory lapse and weak recollection of recently occurring events. this can usually be a result of a variety of other conditions often diagnosed by clinicians such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and depression. in addition to absent-mindedness leading to an array of consequences affecting daily life, it can have as more severe, long-term problems. physical health lethargy is a state of tiredness, weariness, fatigue, or lack of energy. it can be accompanied by depression, decreased motivation, or apathy. lethargy can be a normal response to boredom, inadequate sleep, overexertion, overworking, stress, lack of exercise, or a symptom of a disorder. when part of a normal response, lethargy often resolves with rest, adequate sleep, decreased stress, and good nutrition.[ ][ ] philosophy boredom is a condition characterized by perception of one's environment as dull, tedious, and lacking in stimulation. this can result from leisure and a lack of aesthetic interests. labor and art may be alienated and passive, or immersed in tedium. there is an inherent anxiety in boredom; people will expend considerable effort to prevent or remedy it, yet in many circumstances, it is accepted as suffering to be endured. common passive ways to escape boredom are to sleep or to think creative thoughts (daydream). typical active solutions consist in an intentional activity of some sort, often something new, as familiarity and repetition lead to the tedious. rea irvin illustration depicting a bore putting her audience to sleep during the fin de siècle, the french term for the end of the th century in the west, some of the cultural hallmarks included "ennui", cynicism, pessimism, and "...a widespread belief that civilization leads to decadence."[ ] boredom also plays a role in existentialist thought. søren kierkegaard and friedrich nietzsche were two of the first philosophers considered fundamental to the existentialist movement. like pascal, they were interested in people's quiet struggle with the apparent meaninglessness of life and the use of diversion to escape from boredom. kierkegaard's either/or describes the rotation method, a method used by higher-level aesthetes in order to avoid boredom. the method is an essential hedonistic aspect of the aesthetic way of life. for the aesthete, one constantly changes what one is doing in order to maximize the enjoyment and pleasure derived from each activity. in contexts where one is confined, spatially or otherwise, boredom may be met with various religious activities, not because religion would want to associate itself with tedium, but rather, partly because boredom may be taken as the essential human condition, to which god, wisdom, or morality are the ultimate answers. many existentialist philosophers, like arthur schopenhauer, espouse this view. this view of religiosity among boredom does affect how often people are bored. people who had a higher religiosity while performing boring task, reported less boredom than people of less religiosity. people performing the meaningless task had to search less for meaning.[ ] martin heidegger wrote about boredom in two texts available in english, in the / semester lecture course the fundamental concepts of metaphysics, and again in the essay what is metaphysics? published in the same year. in the lecture, heidegger included about pages on boredom, probably the most extensive philosophical treatment ever of the subject. he focused on waiting at railway stations in particular as a major context of boredom.[ ] søren kierkegaard remarks in either/or that "patience cannot be depicted" visually, since there is a sense that any immediate moment of life may be fundamentally tedious. blaise pascal in the pensées discusses the human condition in saying "we seek rest in a struggle against some obstacles. and when we have overcome these, rest proves unbearable because of the boredom it produces", and later states that "only an infinite and immutable object—that is, god himself—can fill this infinite abyss."[ ] without stimulus or focus, the individual is confronted with nothingness, the meaninglessness of existence, and experiences existential anxiety. heidegger states this idea as follows: "profound boredom, drifting here and there in the abysses of our existence like a muffling fog, removes all things and men and oneself along with it into a remarkable indifference. this boredom reveals being as a whole."[ ] schopenhauer used the existence of boredom in an attempt to prove the vanity of human existence, stating, "...for if life, in the desire for which our essence and existence consists, possessed in itself a positive value and real content, there would be no such thing as boredom: mere existence would fulfil and satisfy us."[ ] erich fromm and other thinkers of critical theory speak of boredom as a common psychological response to industrial society, where people are required to engage in alienated labor. according to fromm, boredom is "perhaps the most important source of aggression and destructiveness today." for fromm, the search for thrills and novelty that characterizes consumer culture are not solutions to boredom, but mere distractions from boredom which, he argues, continues unconsciously.[ ] above and beyond taste and character, the universal case of boredom consists in any instance of waiting, as heidegger noted, such as in line, for someone else to arrive or finish a task, or while one is travelling somewhere. the automobile requires fast reflexes, making its operator busy and hence, perhaps for other reasons as well, making the ride more tedious despite being over sooner. interestingly, in some nguni languages such as zulu, boredom and loneliness are represented by the same word (isizungu). this adds a new dimension to the oft-quoted definition of ubuntu: "a person is a person through other people". causes and effects the princess who never smiled by viktor vasnetsov a bored cat lying on a couch. although it has not been widely studied, research on boredom suggests that boredom is a major factor impacting diverse areas of a person's life. people ranked low on a boredom-proneness scale were found to have better performance in a wide variety of aspects of their lives, including career, education, and autonomy.[ ] boredom can be a symptom of clinical depression. boredom can be a form of learned helplessness, a phenomenon closely related to depression. some philosophies of parenting propose that if children are raised in an environment devoid of stimuli, and are not allowed or encouraged to interact with their environment, they will fail to develop the mental capacities to do so. in a learning environment, a common cause of boredom is lack of understanding; for instance, if one is not following or connecting to the material in a class or lecture, it will usually seem boring. however, the opposite can also be true; something that is too easily understood, simple or transparent, can also be boring. boredom is often inversely related to learning, and in school it may be a sign that a student is not challenged enough, or too challenged. an activity that is predictable to the students is likely to bore them.[ ] a study indicated that an individual's impression of boredom may be influenced by the individual's degree of attention, as a higher acoustic level of distraction from the environment correlated with higher reportings of boredom.[ ] boredom has been studied as being related to drug abuse among teens.[ ] boredom has been proposed as a cause of pathological gambling behavior. a study found results consistent with the hypothesis that pathological gamblers seek stimulation to avoid states of boredom and depression.[ ] it has been suggested that boredom has an evolutionary basis that encourages humans to seek out new challenges. it may influence human learning and ingenuity.[ ] some recent studies have suggested that boredom may have some positive effects. a low-stimulus environment may lead to increased creativity and may set the stage for a "eureka moment".[ ] in the workplace main article: boreout boreout is a management theory that posits that lack of work, boredom, and consequent lack of satisfaction are a common malaise affecting individuals working in modern organizations, especially in office-based white collar jobs. this theory was first expounded in in diagnose boreout, a book by peter werder and philippe rothlin, two swiss business consultants. they claim the absence of meaningful tasks, rather than the presence of stress, is many workers' chief problem. a "banishment room" (also known as a "chasing-out-room" and a "boredom room") is a modern employee exit management strategy whereby employees are transferred to a department where they are assigned meaningless work until they become disheartened enough to quit.[ ][ ][ ] since the resignation is voluntary, the employee would not be eligible for certain benefits. the legality and ethics of the practice is questionable and may be construed as constructive dismissal by the courts in some regions. in popular culture "meh" is an interjection used as an expression of indifference or boredom. it may also mean "be it as it may".[ ] it is often regarded as a verbal shrug of the shoulders. the use of the term "meh" shows that the speaker is apathetic, uninterested, or indifferent to the question or subject at hand. it is occasionally used as an adjective, meaning something is mediocre or unremarkable.[ ] superfluous man a superfluous man (eugene onegin) idly polishing his fingernails. illustration by elena samokysh-sudkovskaya, . main article: superfluous man the superfluous man (russian: лишний человек, lishniy chelovek) is an s and s russian literary concept derived from the byronic hero.[ ] it refers to an individual, perhaps talented and capable, who does not fit into social norms. in most cases, this person is born into wealth and privilege. typical characteristics are disregard for social values, cynicism, and existential boredom; typical behaviors are gambling, drinking, smoking, sexual intrigues, and duels. he is often unempathetic and carelessly distresses others with his actions. existentialist fiction the bored antihero became prominent in early th century existentialist works such as franz kafka's the metamorphosis ( ),[ ] jean-paul sartre's la nausée ( ) (french for 'nausea'),[ ] and albert camus' l'Étranger ( ) (french for 'the stranger').[ ] the protagonist in these works is an indecisive central character who drifts through his life and is marked by ennui, angst, and alienation.[ ] grunge lit main article: grunge lit grunge lit is an australian literary genre of fictional or semi-autobiographical writing in the early s about young adults living in an "inner cit[y]" "...world of disintegrating futures where the only relief from...boredom was through a nihilistic pursuit of sex, violence, drugs and alcohol".[ ] often the central characters are disfranchised, lacking drive and determination beyond the desire to satisfy their basic needs. it was typically written by "new, young authors"[ ] who examined "gritty, dirty, real existences"[ ] of everyday characters. it has been described as both a sub-set of dirty realism and an offshoot of generation x literature.[ ] stuart glover states that the term "grunge lit" takes the term "grunge" from the "late s and early s—...seattle [grunge] bands".[ ] glover states that the term "grunge lit" was mainly a marketing term used by publishing companies; he states that most of the authors who have been categorized as "grunge lit" writers reject the label.[ ] see also 		wikiquote has quotations related to: boredom 		wikimedia commons has media related to boredom. 	apathy 	cabin fever 	drab (color) 	dysthymia 	motivation references 	^ koerth-baker, maggie ( ). 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you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 citeseerx — an integrative model of organizational trust 	 	 	documents 	authors 	tables 	log in 	sign up 	metacart 	dmca 	donate 	 			 		 documents: 		 		 		 advanced search include citations 		 	 	 	 authors: advanced search include citations | disambiguate 	 	 		 tables: 	dmca an integrative model of organizational trust ( ) cached 	 download links 	 [people.wku.edu] 	 [people.wku.edu] 	save to list 	add to collection 	correct errors 	monitor changes by roger c. mayer , james h. davis , f. david schoorman 	venue:	academy of management review 	citations:	 - self 	summary 	citations 	active bibliography 	co-citation 	clustered documents 	version history 		 bibtex @article{mayer anintegrative,     author = {roger c. mayer and james h. davis and f. david schoorman},     title = {an integrative model of organizational trust},     journal = {academy of management review},     year = { },     volume = { },     number = { },     pages = { -- } } share 				 	 		 			 		 openurl   abstract keyphrases integrative model    organizational trust    	 	 powered by: 	 	 	about citeseerx 	submit and index documents 	privacy policy 	help 	data 	source 	contact us 	developed at and hosted by the college of information sciences and technology 	© - the pennsylvania state university apa psycnet loading... citeseerx — contracting with uncertain level of trust 	 	 	documents 	authors 	tables 	log in 	sign up 	metacart 	dmca 	donate 	 			 		 documents: 		 		 		 advanced search include citations 		 	 	 	 authors: advanced search include citations | disambiguate 	 	 		 tables: 	dmca contracting with uncertain level of trust ( ) cached 	 download links 	 [www- .cs.cmu.edu] 	 [www.damas.ift.ulaval.ca] 	 [www.cs.cmu.edu] 	 [www- .cs.cmu.edu] other repositories/bibliography 	 dblp 	save to list 	add to collection 	correct errors 	monitor changes by sviatoslav braynov 	venue:	computational intelligence 	citations:	 - self 	summary 	citations 	active bibliography 	co-citation 	clustered documents 	version history 		 bibtex @article{braynov contractingwith,     author = {sviatoslav braynov},     title = {contracting with uncertain level of trust},     journal = {computational intelligence},     year = { },     volume = { },     pages = { -- } } share 				 	 		 			 		 openurl   abstract the paper investigates the impact of trust on market efficiency and bilateral contracts. we prove that a market in which agents are trusted to the degree they deserve to be trusted is as efficient as a market with complete trustworthiness. in other words, complete trustworthiness is not a necessary condition for market efficiency. we prove that distrust could significantly reduce market efficiency, and we show how to solve the problem by using appropriately designed multiagent contracts. the problem of trust is studied in the context of a bilateral negotiation game between a buyer and a seller. it is shown that if the seller’s trust equals the buyer’s trustworthiness, then the social welfare, the amount of trade, and the agents ’ utility functions are maximized. the paper also studies the efficiency of advance payment contracts as a tool for improving trustworthiness. it is proved that advance payment contracts maximize the social welfare and the amount of trade. finally, the paper studies the problem of how to make agents truthfully reveal their level of trustworthiness. an incentive-compatible contract is defined, in which agents do not benefit from lying about their trustworthiness. the analysis and the solutions proposed in this paper could help agent designers avoid many market failures and produce efficient interaction mechanisms. keyphrases uncertain level    market efficiency    social welfare    advance payment contract    complete trustworthiness    agent designer    many market failure    buyer trustworthiness    seller trust    necessary condition    efficient interaction mechanism    incentive-compatible contract    multiagent contract    bilateral contract    paper study    agent utility function    bilateral negotiation game    	 	 powered by: 	 	 	about citeseerx 	submit and index documents 	privacy policy 	help 	data 	source 	contact us 	developed at and hosted by the college of information sciences and technology 	© - the pennsylvania state university analysis paralysis - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	analysis paralysis 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		"overthinking" redirects here. for other uses, see overthinking (disambiguation). the thinker analysis paralysis (or paralysis by analysis) describes an individual or group process when overanalyzing or overthinking a situation can cause forward motion or decision-making to become "paralyzed", meaning that no solution or course of action is decided upon. a situation may be deemed as too complicated and a decision is never made, due to the fear that a potentially larger problem may arise. a person may desire a perfect solution, but may fear making a decision that could result in error, while on the way to a better solution. equally, a person may hold that a superior solution is a short step away, and stall in its endless pursuit, with no concept of diminishing returns. on the opposite end of the time spectrum is the phrase extinct by instinct, which is making a fatal decision based on hasty judgment or a gut reaction. analysis paralysis is when the fear of either making an error, or forgoing a superior solution, outweighs the realistic expectation or potential value of success in a decision made in a timely manner. this imbalance results in suppressed decision-making in an unconscious effort to preserve existing options. an overload of options can overwhelm the situation and cause this "paralysis", rendering one unable to come to a conclusion. it can become a larger problem in critical situations where a decision needs to be reached, but a person is not able to provide a response fast enough, potentially causing a bigger issue than they would have, had they made a decision.[ ] contents 	 history 	 software development 	 sports 	 games 	 adages 	 see also 	 references history[edit] the basic idea has been expressed through narrative a number of times. in one "aesop's fable" that is recorded even before aesop's time, the fox and the cat, the fox boasts of "hundreds of ways of escaping" while the cat has "only one". when they hear the hounds approaching, the cat scampers up a tree while "the fox in his confusion was caught up by the hounds". the fable ends with the moral, "better one safe way than a hundred on which you cannot reckon". related concepts are expressed by the centipede's dilemma, how unconscious activity is disrupted by conscious thought of it, and by the tale of buridan's ass, a paradox of rational decision with equal options. in shakespeare's hamlet, the main character, prince hamlet, is often said to have a mortal flaw of thinking too much, such that his youth and vital energy are "sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought".[ ] neema parvini explores some of hamlet's key decisions in the chapter "'and reason panders will': another look at hamlet's analysis paralysis".[ ] voltaire popularized an old italian proverb in french in the s of which an english variant is "perfect is the enemy of good". the meaning of "the perfect is the enemy of the good" is that one might never complete a task if one has decided not to stop until it is perfect: completing the project well is made impossible by striving to complete it perfectly. "analysis, paralysis" appeared together in an pronouncing dictionary and later editions stating how those words are pronounced similarly.[ ] the usage of rhyming words can make aphorisms sound more truthful and be more memorable by their usage of the rhyme-as-reason effect and ode mnemonics. in at the general convention of the episcopal church, reverend c. leslie glenn, national secretary for college work, spoke that the religious collegiate world was at risk of "paralysis by analysis" from being too speculative instead of definitive, needing real work instead of investigations.[ ][ ] during world war ii, winston churchill, after hearing that the landing craft designers were spending the majority of their time arguing over design changes, sent this message: "the maxim 'nothing avails but perfection' may be spelt shorter: 'paralysis.'"[ ] in , charles r. schwartz wrote the article "the return-on-investment concept as a tool for decision making" in changing patterns and concepts in management stating, "we will do less guessing; avoid the danger of becoming extinct by instinct; and, by the adoption of one uniform evaluation guide, escape succumbing to paralysis by analysis."[ ] in , h. igor ansoff wrote the book corporate strategy: an analytic approach to business policy for growth and expansion.[ ] he used the phrase "paralysis by analysis" in reference to those who used the approach to excess.[ ][ ] ansoff had referenced schwartz's paper in couple of his papers.[ ] in a paper published in , based on a speech in and other works, silver and hecker wrote: the duke group has used the term "analysis-paralysis" to point out that, if we wait until we have completely answered all the questions and solved all of the problems before training the personnel we need, we will never reach a solution. the insistent demands for further study and extensive evaluation suggested by some may only be a defense by those who do not wish to change or those who fear change.[ ] the oxford english dictionary says that the earliest uses of "analysis paralysis"[ ] found in the times were in the s. software development[edit] in software development, analysis paralysis typically manifests itself through the waterfall model with exceedingly long phases of project planning, requirements gathering, program design and data modeling, which can create little or no extra value by those steps and risk many revisions.[ ] when extended over too long a timeframe, such processes tend to emphasize the organizational (i.e., bureaucratic) aspect of the software project, while detracting from its functional (value-creating) portion. analysis paralysis can occur, when there is a lack of experience on the part of workers such as systems analysts, project managers or software developers, and could be due to a rigid and formal organizational culture. however, according to ram charan, indecision in businesses is usually the result of not enough people acting or speaking up about the inefficiencies of the company.[ ] analysis paralysis can also arise from extensive experience or expertise, which serves to increase the number of options and considerations that appear at every decision point. analysis paralysis is an example of an anti-pattern.[ ] agile software development methodologies explicitly seek to prevent analysis paralysis, by promoting an iterative work cycle that emphasizes working products over product specifications, but requires buy-in from the full project team. in some instances, agile software development ends up creating additional confusion in the project in the case where iterative plans are made with no intention on having the team following through. sports[edit] see also: choke (sports) and nervous nineties analysis paralysis is a critical problem in athletics. it can be explained in simple terms as "failure to react in response to overthought". a victim of sporting analysis paralysis will frequently think in complicated terms of "what to do next" while contemplating the variety of possibilities, and in doing so exhausts the available time in which to act. games[edit] games provide a microcosm for decision-making where there can be adversaries, hidden or missing information, random events, complex options, and consequences. in this context, analysis paralysis denotes a state where a player is so overwhelmed by the available moves and their implications that the player's turn takes an inordinate amount of time. this can be compounded in a losing position where the player is exhaustively searching for a win or purposely stalling to prevent officially losing the game. the connotation is often pejorative, implying that the slowing of the game diminished the enjoyment by other players.[ ] some games explicitly add time deadlines (e.g. with a chess clock or egg timer). in chess this slowing of play is referred to as kotov syndrome and, in timed chess matches, can result in time trouble. good game design can reduce the likelihood of analysis paralysis in gameplay.[ ] game design itself can also be susceptible to analysis paralysis.[ ] adages[edit] 	"better one safe way than a hundred on which you cannot reckon." — aesop's the fox and the cat 	"the perfect is the enemy of the good." — voltaire 	"the best thing is to do the right thing; the next best is to do the wrong thing; the worst thing of all things is to stand perfectly still" — alfred henry lewis (on theodore roosevelt and politics) 	"the maxim 'nothing avails but perfection' may be spelt shorter: 'paralysis.'" — winston churchill 	"give them the third best to go on with; the second best comes too late, the best never comes" — robert watson-watt 	"better a good decision quickly than the best decision too late." — harold geneen see also[edit] 	bounded rationality 	buyer's remorse 	criticism 	decision fatigue 	decisional balance 	existential crisis 	groupthink 	information overload 	obsessive–compulsive personality disorder 	opportunity cost 	overchoice 	the paradox of choice: why more is less 	perfect is the enemy of good 	perfectionism 	regret (decision theory) 	secretary problem 	thinking, fast and slow 	wicked problem 	writer's block 	yips references[edit] 	^ "analysis paralysis - crystalinks". www.crystalinks.com. retrieved - - . 	^ "shakespeare resource center - line analysis: hamlet". www.bardweb.net. 	^ parvini, neema ( ). "'and reason panders will': another look at hamlet's analysis paralysis". shakespeare and cognition: thinking fast and slow through character. palgrave macmillan uk. pp.  – . doi: . / _ . isbn  . 	^ walker, john ( ). a critical pronouncing dictionary, and expositor of the english language...: to which are prefixed, principles of english pronunciation…. budd and bartram. 	^ the spirit of missions. j. l. powell. . 	^ christian education. council of church boards of education in the united states of america. . 	^ roberts, lon (january–february ). "analysis paralysis: a case of terminological inexactitude" (pdf). defense at&l: – . archived from the original on november . retrieved may . 	^ schwartz, charles r. ( ). general management series pamphlet # : the return-on-investment concept as a tool for decision making. american management association. pp.  – . 	^ ansoff, h. igor ( ). corporate strategy: an analytic approach to business policy for growth and expansion. new york: mcgraw-hill. 	^ kennedy, carol ( ). guide to the management gurus : the best guide to business thinkers ( th ed.). london: random house business. isbn  - . 	^ "igor ansoff". the economist. 	^ ansoff, h. i. (july ). "a model for diversification". manag. sci. ( ): – . doi: . /mnsc. . . . issn  - . 	^ silver, henry k.; hecker, james a. (march ). "the pediatric nurse practitioner and the health associate: new types of health professionals". journal of medical education. : – . retrieved may . 	^ "analysis paralysis: definition of analysis paralysis in oxford dictionary (american english) (us)". oxford dictionaries. retrieved may . 	^ "managing analysis paralysis". business analyst learnings. retrieved may . 	^ charan, r. (april ). "conquering a culture of indecision". harvard business review. ( ): – , . issn  - . pmid  . 	^ "analysis paralysis". sourcemaking. retrieved may . 	^ "board game resource - how to deal with analysis paralysis?". board game resource. october . retrieved may . 	^ "designing games to prevent analysis paralysis - part | the best games are yet to be made". www.leagueofgamemakers.com. retrieved may . 	^ "gdc vault - overcoming analysis paralysis: experimenting with bears vs. art". www.gdcvault.com. retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=analysis_paralysis&oldid= " 		categories: 	agile software development 	anti-patterns 	decision analysis 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	Čeština 	deutsch 	español 	فارسی 	français 	magyar 	Русский 	தமிழ் 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 category:pages with missing isbns - wikipedia 	 	 	 	help 	 	category:pages with missing isbns 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 				this is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the wikipedia project. it is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. do not include this category in content categories. this is a tracking category. it builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. they are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. pages are added to this category by template:isbn missing. 	this category is hidden on its member pages—unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. 	these categories are used to track, build and organize lists of pages needing "attention en masse" (for example, pages using deprecated syntax), or that may need to be edited at someone's earliest convenience. 	these categories also serve to aggregate members of several lists or sub-categories into a larger, more efficient list (discriminated by classifications). 		administrators: please do not delete this category even if it is empty! this category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. contents 	top 	 – 	a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z pages in category "pages with missing isbns" the following pages are in this category, out of approximately total. this list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). 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additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 enfotu - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	enfotu 	 		de wikipedia 		 		 		 		 		saltar a navegación 		saltar a la gueta 			 	esti artículu o seición necesita referencies qu'apaezan nuna publicación acreditada, como revistes especializaes, monografíes, prensa diaria o páxines d'internet fiables. pues añadiles tu mesmu o avisar al autor principal del artículu na so páxina d'alderique pegando: {{subst:avisu referencies|enfotu}} ~~~~ en socioloxía y psicoloxía social, la enfotu ye la creencia en qu'una persona o grupu va ser capaz y va deseyar actuar de manera fayadiza nuna determinada situación y pensamientos. l'enfotu va vese más o menos reforzada en función de les aiciones. l'enfotu ye una hipótesis sobre la conducta futura del otru. ye una actitú que concierne'l futuru, na midida na que esti futuru depende de l'aición d'un otru. ye una especie d'apueste que consiste en nun esmolese del non control del otru y del tiempu. laurence cornu, l'enfotu nes rellaciones pedagóxiques l'enfotu ye la seguridá escontra una persona firme que daquién tien escontra otra persona o cosa. “tengo l'enfotu necesariu pa ganar al rival”. enfotu refierse, per otra parte, a la familiaridá nel tratu:“nun fai falta que te peñes cada vez que voi a la to casa, yá tenemos bastante enfotu”, “¿cómo te atreves a falame d'esa forma? nunca te di asemeyáu enfotu”. pa la psicoloxía social y la socioloxía, l'enfotu ye una hipótesis que se realiza sobre la conducta futura del próximu. trátase d'una creencia qu'envalora qu'una persona va ser capaz d'actuar d'una cierta manera frente a una determina situación: “voi cunta-y tou al mio padre, tengo enfotu en que m'entienda y ayúdeme”. nesti sentíu, l'enfotu puede reforzase o debilitase d'alcuerdu a les aiciones de la otra persona. nel exemplu anterior, si'l padre ayuda al so fíu, l'enfotu va salir fortalecida; pero de lo contrario, l'enfotu va vese traicionada y, nel futuru lo más probable ye que'l fíu nun actúe de la mesma forma. l'enfotu supón una suspensión, siquier temporal, de la incertidume al respective de les aiciones de los demás. cuando daquién confía nel otru, cree que puede predicir les sos aiciones y comportamientos. l'enfotu, poro, simplifica les rellaciones sociales. el términu confiabilidad ye usáu xeneralmente pa espresar un ciertu grau de seguridá de qu'un dispositivu o sistema opera exitosamente nun ambiente específico mientres un ciertu periodu. la moderna concepción cuantitativa de la confiabilidad tuvo los sos oríxenes na teunoloxía militar y espacial. sicasí, la medría na complexidá de los sistemes, la competitividá nel mercáu, y la creciente competencia por presupuestu y recursu aniciaron la espansión de la disciplina a munches otres árees. cuando la confiabilidad defínese cuantitativamente pue ser especificada, analizada, y conviértese nun parámetru del diseñu d'un sistema que compite contra otros parámetros tales como costo y funcionamientu. d'alcuerdu a la mayoría de les teoríes que la enceten, tratar d'una suspensión temporal de la situación básica d'incertidume alrodiu de les aiciones de los asemeyaos; gracies a ella, ye posible suponer un ciertu grau de regularidá y predictibilidad nes aiciones sociales, simplificando'l funcionamientu de la sociedá. esta esplicación, típicamente funcionalista, correspuende a la orientación teórica de la mayoría de los autores qu'encetaron la tema; na teoría estructural-funcionalista, l'enfotu considerar polo xeneral la base de toles instituciones, y funciona como axugu y contraste del poder, consistente na capacidá d'influyir na aición ayena pa forzala a afaese a les mesmes mires. el términu aplicar a estadístiques (valores d'enfotu o índiz d'enfotu) y tamién a midida y calibración de máquines destinaes a midir una magnitú (grau d'enfotu de la midida). el términu aplicáu a una organización o una empresa refléxase a base de dellos factores como la calidá cola que realiza los sos productos y por tantu de les evaluaciones calidable, de códigos éticos y de la so cultura o clima llaboral, pero percima de too ello refléxase por aciu el ethos de la empresa (vezos del so corazón), lo que define'l so calter y los traces que la estremen de cualesquier otra. bibliografía[editar | editar la fonte] 	gambetta, d. can we trust trust? [ ] enllaces esternos[editar | editar la fonte] 	 wikiquote tien frases célebres suyes o que faen referencia a enfotu. 	control d'autoridaes	 	proyeutos wikimedia 	 datos: q 	 multimedia: trust 	 cites famoses: confianza 	identificadores 	gnd: - 	lccn: sh 	diccionarios y enciclopedies 	britannica: url 	identificadores médicos 	mesh: d 	 datos: q 	 multimedia: trust 	 cites famoses: confianza sacáu de «https://ast.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=enfotu&oldid= » 		categoríes: 	sicoloxía social 	vida personal categoríes anubríes: 	wikipedia:artículos que necesiten referencies dende xunetu de 	wikipedia:tradubot 	wikipedia:revisar traducción 	wikipedia:artículos con identificadores gnd 	wikipedia:artículos con identificadores lccn 	 	 	menú de navegación 	 		 	 		ferramientes personales 	 	 			nun aniciasti sesión 	alderique 	contribuciones 	crear una cuenta 	entrar 		 	 		 			 	 		espacios de nome 	 	 			páxina 	alderique 		 	 			 	 	 		variantes 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		vistes 	 	 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enllaces 	 		 la última edición d'esta páxina foi el pay , a les : . 	el testu ta disponible baxo la llicencia creative commons reconocimientu/compartirigual . ; puen aplicase otres cláusules más. llei les condiciones d'usu pa más detalles. 		política d'intimidá 	tocante a wikipedia 	avisu llegal 	vista pa móvil 	desendolcadores 	estadístiques 	declaración de cookies 		 	 	 redirecting 		 	 	 	 confiança - viquipèdia, l'enciclopèdia lliure 	 	 	 	 	confiança 	 		de viquipèdia 		 		 		 		 		salta a la navegació 		salta a la cerca 			part de la sèrie d' 	emocions 	 	 	acceptació 	afecte 	alegria 	amor 	angst 	angoixa 	ansietat 	anticipació 	apatia 	penediment 	autoconfiança 	avorriment 	awe 	compassió 	confiança 	coratge 	culpabilitat 	curiositat 	decepció 	depressió 	desesperació 	desconfiança 	desig 	disgust 	dol 	dolor 	empatia 	entusiasme 	enuig 	enveja 	esperança 	eufòria 	excitació 	Èxtasi 	fàstic 	felicitat 	frustració 	gelosia 	gratitud 	horror 	hostilitat 	humiliació 	indignació 	interès 	luxúria 	menyspreu 	molèstia 	odi 	orgull 	pànic 	passió 	patiment 	pietat 	plaer 	por 	preocupació 	ràbia 	rebuig 	remordiment 	ressentiment 	satisfacció 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	soledat 	sorpresa 	timidesa 	tristesa 	vergonya 	xoc 		 la confiança[ ] és un sentiment cap a les altres persones que indica la creença que compliran els acords, tàcits o explícits, en què es basa la relació o que seran capaces de fer una tasca concreta. la societat es basa en uns lligams de confiança mínims que permeten la convivència i l'establiment de normes comunes. aquesta confiança també es dóna en altres espècies animals però no es considera com a tal perquè depèn de l'instint, no és conscient com en el cas dels humans. quan la confiança està més enllà de la racionalitat, això s'anomena fe. els individus capaços de generar confiança en els altres tenen més poder, ja que poden influir la resta de persones. sovint va associada a la predictibilitat de la conducta, a bones dots de comunicació i a la possibilitat de generar empatia. es reforça amb l'experiència, és a dir, una persona que ha demostrat ser digna de confiança, tendirà a suscitar major confiança en properes ocasions. això explica per què hi ha gent amb més problemes per a confiar en altres, segons les experiències passades. la confiança en un mateix és un dels components de l'autoestima i sorgeix amb el primer desenvolupament psicològic (segons erik erikson des del naixement amb el lligam amb els cuidadors del nadó). referències[modifica] 		a wikimedia commons hi ha contingut multimèdia relatiu a: confiança 	 	a viquidites hi ha citacions, dites populars i frases fetes relatives a confiança 	↑ «confiança». l'enciclopèdia.cat. barcelona: grup enciclopèdia catalana. 	registres d'autoritat	 	gnd: - 	lccn: sh viccionari obtingut de «https://ca.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=confiança&oldid= » 		categories: 	sentiments 	personalitat 	psicologia social categories ocultes: 	pàgines amb enllaç commonscat des de wikidata 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	Български 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	galego 	עברית 	hrvatski 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	日本語 	Қазақша 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		modifica els enllaços 	 		 la pàgina va ser modificada per darrera vegada el ago a les : . 	el text està disponible sota la llicència de creative commons reconeixement i compartir-igual; es poden aplicar termes addicionals. vegeu les condicions d'ús. wikipedia® (viquipèdia™) és una marca registrada de wikimedia foundation, inc. 		política de privadesa 	quant al projecte viquipèdia 	renúncies 	versió per a mòbils 	desenvolupadors 	estadístiques 	declaració de cookies 		 	 	 attachment theory - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	attachment theory 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		psychological ethological theory about human relationships for infants and toddlers, the "set-goal" of the behavioral system is to maintain or achieve proximity to attachment figures, usually the parents. attachment theory is a psychological, evolutionary and ethological theory concerning relationships between humans. the most important tenet is that young children need to develop a relationship with at least one primary caregiver for normal social and emotional development. the theory was formulated by psychiatrist and psychoanalyst john bowlby.[ ] within attachment theory, infant behaviour associated with attachment is primarily the seeking of proximity to an attachment figure in stressful situations. infants become attached to adults who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some months during the period from about six months to two years of age. during the latter part of this period, children begin to use attachment figures (familiar people) as a secure base to explore from and return to. parental responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment; these, in turn, lead to internal working models which will guide the individual's feelings, thoughts and expectations in later relationships.[ ] separation anxiety or grief following the loss of an attachment figure is considered to be a normal and adaptive response for an attached infant. these behaviours may have evolved because they increase the probability of survival of the child.[ ] research by developmental psychologist mary ainsworth in the s and s underpinned the basic concepts, introduced the concept of the "secure base" and developed a theory of a number of attachment patterns in infants: secure attachment, avoidant attachment and anxious attachment.[ ] a fourth pattern, disorganised attachment, was identified later. in the s, the theory was extended to attachments in adults.[ ] other interactions may be construed as including components of attachment behaviour; these include peer relationships at all ages, romantic and sexual attraction and responses to the care needs of infants or the sick and elderly. to formulate a comprehensive theory of the nature of early attachments, bowlby explored a range of fields, including evolutionary biology, object relations theory (a school of psychoanalysis), control systems theory, and the fields of ethology and cognitive psychology.[ ] after preliminary papers from onwards, bowlby published the full theory in the trilogy attachment and loss ( – ). in the early days of the theory, academic psychologists criticized bowlby, and the psychoanalytic community ostracised him for his departure from psychoanalytical doctrines;[ ] however, attachment theory has since become the dominant approach to understanding early social development, and has given rise to a great surge of empirical research into the formation of children's close relationships.[ ] later criticisms of attachment theory relate to temperament, the complexity of social relationships, and the limitations of discrete patterns for classifications. attachment theory has been significantly modified as a result of empirical research, but the concepts have become generally accepted.[ ] attachment theory has formed the basis of new therapies and informed existing ones, and its concepts have been used in the formulation of social and childcare policies to support the early attachment relationships of children.[ ] contents 	 attachment 	 . behaviours 	 . tenets 	 . cultural differences 	 attachment patterns 	 . secure attachment 	 . anxious-ambivalent attachment 	 . anxious-avoidant and dismissive-avoidant attachment 	 . disorganized/disoriented attachment 	 . categorization differences across cultures 	 . later patterns and the dynamic-maturational model 	 . significance of patterns 	 changes in attachment during childhood and adolescence 	 attachment in adults 	 history 	 . maternal deprivation 	 . formulation of the theory 	 . . ethology 	 . . psychoanalysis 	 . . internal working model 	 . . cybernetics 	 . . cognitive development 	 . . behaviorism 	 . . developments since s 	 biology of attachment 	 crime 	 . history 	 . age distribution of crime 	 . developmental perspectives 	 . life-course perspectives 	 . types of offenses 	 practical applications 	 . child care policies 	 . clinical practice in children 	 . . prevention and treatment 	 . . reactive attachment disorder and attachment disorder 	 . clinical practice in adults and families 	 criticism 	 see also 	 notes 	 references 	 further reading attachment[edit] although it is usual for the mother to be the primary attachment figure, infants will form attachments to any carer who is sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them. within attachment theory, attachment means an affectional bond or tie between an individual and an attachment figure (usually a caregiver). such bonds may be reciprocal between two adults, but between a child and a caregiver, these bonds are based on the child's need for safety, security, and protection, paramount in infancy and childhood. the theory proposes that children attach to carers instinctively,[ ] for the purpose of survival and, ultimately, genetic replication.[ ] the biological aim is survival and the psychological aim is security.[ ] attachment theory is not an exhaustive description of human relationships, nor is it synonymous with love and affection, although these may indicate that bonds exist. in child-to-adult relationships, the child's tie is called the "attachment" and the caregiver's reciprocal equivalent is referred to as the "care-giving bond".[ ] infants will form attachments to any consistent caregiver who is sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them. the quality of social engagement is more influential than the amount of time spent. the biological mother is the usual principal attachment figure, but the role can be taken by anyone who consistently behaves in a "mothering" way over a period of time. within attachment theory, this means a set of behaviours that involves engaging in lively social interaction with the infant and responding readily to signals and approaches.[ ] nothing in the theory suggests that fathers are not equally likely to become principal attachment figures if they provide most of the child care and related social interaction.[ ] some infants direct attachment behaviour (proximity seeking) towards more than one attachment figure almost as soon as they start to show discrimination between caregivers; most come to do so during their second year. these figures are arranged hierarchically, with the principal attachment figure at the top.[ ] the set-goal of the attachment behavioural system is to maintain a bond with an accessible and available attachment figure.[ ] "alarm" is the term used for activation of the attachment behavioural system caused by fear of danger. "anxiety" is the anticipation or fear of being cut off from the attachment figure. if the figure is unavailable or unresponsive, separation distress occurs.[ ] in infants, physical separation can cause anxiety and anger, followed by sadness and despair. by age three or four, physical separation is no longer such a threat to the child's bond with the attachment figure. threats to security in older children and adults arise from prolonged absence, breakdowns in communication, emotional unavailability or signs of rejection or abandonment.[ ] behaviours[edit] insecure attachment patterns can compromise exploration and the achievement of self-confidence. a securely attached baby is free to concentrate on their environment. the attachment behavioural system serves to achieve or maintain proximity to the attachment figure.[ ] pre-attachment behaviours occur in the first six months of life. during the first phase (the first eight weeks), infants smile, babble, and cry to attract the attention of potential caregivers. although infants of this age learn to discriminate between caregivers, these behaviours are directed at anyone in the vicinity. during the second phase (two to six months), the infant discriminates between familiar and unfamiliar adults, becoming more responsive toward the caregiver; following and clinging are added to the range of behaviours. the infant's behaviour toward the caregiver becomes organized on a goal-directed basis to achieve the conditions that make it feel secure.[ ] by the end of the first year, the infant is able to display a range of attachment behaviours designed to maintain proximity. these manifest as protesting the caregiver's departure, greeting the caregiver's return, clinging when frightened, and following when able.[ ] with the development of locomotion, the infant begins to use the caregiver or caregivers as a "safe base" from which to explore.[ ][ ]: infant exploration is greater when the caregiver is present because the infant's attachment system is relaxed and it is free to explore. if the caregiver is inaccessible or unresponsive, attachment behaviour is more strongly exhibited.[ ] anxiety, fear, illness, and fatigue will cause a child to increase attachment behaviours.[ ] after the second year, as the child begins to see the caregiver as an independent person, a more complex and goal-corrected partnership is formed.[ ] children begin to notice others' goals and feelings and plan their actions accordingly. for example, whereas babies cry because of pain, two-year-olds cry to summon their caregiver, and if that does not work, cry louder, shout, or follow.[citation needed] tenets[edit] modern attachment theory is based in three principles which include bonding as an intrinsic human need; regulation of emotion and fear to enhance vitality; and promoting adaptiveness and growth.[ ] common attachment behaviours and emotions, displayed in most social primates including humans, are adaptive. the long-term evolution of these species has involved selection for social behaviors that make individual or group survival more likely. the commonly observed attachment behaviour of toddlers staying near familiar people would have had safety advantages in the environment of early adaptation and has similar advantages today. bowlby saw the environment of early adaptation as similar to current hunter-gatherer societies.[ ] there is a survival advantage in the capacity to sense possibly dangerous conditions such as unfamiliarity, being alone, or rapid approach. according to bowlby, proximity-seeking to the attachment figure in the face of threat is the "set-goal" of the attachment behavioural system.[citation needed] bowlby's original account of a sensitivity period during which attachments can form of between six months and two to three years has been modified by later researchers. these researchers have shown there is indeed a sensitive period during which attachments will form if possible, but the time frame is broader and the effect less fixed and irreversible than first proposed.[citation needed] with further research, authors discussing attachment theory have come to appreciate social development is affected by later as well as earlier relationships. early steps in attachment take place most easily if the infant has one caregiver, or the occasional care of a small number of other people. according to bowlby, almost from the beginning, many children have more than one figure toward whom they direct attachment behaviour. these figures are not treated alike; there is a strong bias for a child to direct attachment behaviour mainly toward one particular person. bowlby used the term "monotropy" to describe this bias.[ ] researchers and theorists have abandoned this concept insofar as it may be taken to mean the relationship with the special figure differs qualitatively from that of other figures. rather, current thinking postulates definite hierarchies of relationships.[ ][ ] early experiences with caregivers gradually give rise to a system of thoughts, memories, beliefs, expectations, emotions, and behaviours about the self and others. this system, called the "internal working model of social relationships", continues to develop with time and experience.[ ] internal models regulate, interpret, and predict attachment-related behaviour in the self and the attachment figure. as they develop in line with environmental and developmental changes, they incorporate the capacity to reflect and communicate about past and future attachment relationships.[ ] they enable the child to handle new types of social interactions; knowing, for example, an infant should be treated differently from an older child, or that interactions with teachers and parents share characteristics. this internal working model continues to develop through adulthood, helping cope with friendships, marriage, and parenthood, all of which involve different behaviours and feelings.[ ][ ] the development of attachment is a transactional process. specific attachment behaviours begin with predictable, apparently innate, behaviours in infancy. they change with age in ways determined partly by experiences and partly by situational factors.[ ] as attachment behaviours change with age, they do so in ways shaped by relationships. a child's behaviour when reunited with a caregiver is determined not only by how the caregiver has treated the child before, but on the history of effects the child has had on the caregiver.[ ][ ] cultural differences[edit] in western culture child-rearing, there is a focus on single attachment to primarily the mother. this dyadic model is not the only strategy of attachment producing a secure and emotionally adept child. having a single, dependably responsive and sensitive caregiver (namely the mother) does not guarantee the ultimate success of the child. results from israeli, dutch and east african studies show children with multiple caregivers grow up not only feeling secure, but developed "more enhanced capacities to view the world from multiple perspectives."[ ] this evidence can be more readily found in hunter-gatherer communities, like those that exist in rural tanzania.[ ] in hunter-gatherer communities, in the past and present, mothers are the primary caregivers but share the maternal responsibility of ensuring the child's survival with a variety of different allomothers. so while the mother is important, she is not the only opportunity for relational attachment a child can make. several group members (with or without blood relation) contribute to the task of bringing up a child, sharing the parenting role and therefore can be sources of multiple attachment. there is evidence of this communal parenting throughout history that "would have significant implications for the evolution of multiple attachment."[ ] in "non-metropolis" india (where "dual income nuclear families" are more the norm and dyadic mother relationship is), where a family normally consists of generations (and if lucky : great-grandparents, grandparents, parents, and child or children), the child or children by default have four to six caregivers from whom to select their "attachment figure". and a child's "uncles and aunts" (father's siblings and their spouses) also contribute to the child's psycho-social enrichment.[citation needed] although it has been debated for years, and there are small differences amongst cultures, research shows that the three basic aspects of attachment theory are universal.[ ] the hypotheses are: ) that secure attachment is the most desirable state, and the most prevalent; ) maternal sensitivity influences infant attachment patterns; and ) specific infant attachments predict later social and cognitive competence.[ ] attachment patterns[edit] "the strength of a child's attachment behaviour in a given circumstance does not indicate the 'strength' of the attachment bond. some insecure children will routinely display very pronounced attachment behaviours, while many secure children find that there is no great need to engage in either intense or frequent shows of attachment behaviour."[ ] "individuals with different attachment styles have different beliefs about romantic love period, availability, trust capability of love partners and love readiness."[ ] secure attachment[edit] main article: secure attachment a toddler who is securely attached to his or her parent (or other familiar caregiver) will explore freely while the caregiver is present, typically engages with strangers, is often visibly upset when the caregiver departs, and is generally happy to see the caregiver return. the extent of exploration and of distress are affected, however, by the child's temperamental make-up and by situational factors as well as by attachment status. a child's attachment is largely influenced by their primary caregiver's sensitivity to their needs. parents who consistently (or almost always) respond to their child's needs will create securely attached children. such children are certain that their parents will be responsive to their needs and communications.[ ] in the traditional ainsworth et al. ( ) coding of the strange situation, secure infants are denoted as "group b" infants and they are further subclassified as b , b , b , and b .[ ] although these subgroupings refer to different stylistic responses to the comings and goings of the caregiver, they were not given specific labels by ainsworth and colleagues, although their descriptive behaviors led others (including students of ainsworth) to devise a relatively "loose" terminology for these subgroups. b 's have been referred to as "secure-reserved", b 's as "secure-inhibited", b 's as "secure-balanced", and b 's as "secure-reactive". however, in academic publications the classification of infants (if subgroups are denoted) is typically simply "b " or "b ", although more theoretical and review-oriented papers surrounding attachment theory may use the above terminology. secure attachment is the most common type of attachment relationship seen throughout societies.[citation needed] securely attached children are best able to explore when they have the knowledge of a secure base (their caregiver) to return to in times of need. when assistance is given, this bolsters the sense of security and also, assuming the parent's assistance is helpful, educates the child in how to cope with the same problem in the future. therefore, secure attachment can be seen as the most adaptive attachment style. according to some psychological researchers, a child becomes securely attached when the parent is available and able to meet the needs of the child in a responsive and appropriate manner. at infancy and early childhood, if parents are caring and attentive towards their children, those children will be more prone to secure attachment.[ ] anxious-ambivalent attachment[edit] anxious-ambivalent attachment is also misnamed as "resistant attachment".[ ] in general, a child with an anxious-ambivalent pattern of attachment will typically explore little (in the strange situation) and is often wary of strangers, even when the parent is present. when the caregiver departs, the child is often highly distressed. the child is generally ambivalent when the caregiver returns.[ ] the anxious-ambivalent strategy is a response to unpredictably responsive caregiving, and the displays of anger (ambivalent resistant) or helplessness (ambivalent passive) towards the caregiver on reunion can be regarded as a conditional strategy for maintaining the availability of the caregiver by preemptively taking control of the interaction.[ ][ ] the c (ambivalent resistant) subtype is coded when "resistant behavior is particularly conspicuous. the mixture of seeking and yet resisting contact and interaction has an unmistakably angry quality and indeed an angry tone may characterize behavior in the preseparation episodes".[ ] regarding the c (ambivalent passive) subtype, ainsworth et al. wrote: perhaps the most conspicuous characteristic of c infants is their passivity. their exploratory behavior is limited throughout the ss and their interactive behaviors are relatively lacking in active initiation. nevertheless, in the reunion episodes they obviously want proximity to and contact with their mothers, even though they tend to use signalling rather than active approach, and protest against being put down rather than actively resisting release ... in general the c baby is not as conspicuously angry as the c baby.[ ] research done by mccarthy and taylor ( ) found that children with abusive childhood experiences were more likely to develop ambivalent attachments. the study also found that children with ambivalent attachments were more likely to experience difficulties in maintaining intimate relationships as adults.[ ] anxious-avoidant and dismissive-avoidant attachment[edit] an infant with an anxious-avoidant pattern of attachment will avoid or ignore the caregiver—showing little emotion when the caregiver departs or returns. the infant will not explore very much regardless of who is there. infants classified as anxious-avoidant (a) represented a puzzle in the early s. they did not exhibit distress on separation, and either ignored the caregiver on their return (a subtype) or showed some tendency to approach together with some tendency to ignore or turn away from the caregiver (a subtype). ainsworth and bell theorized that the apparently unruffled behaviour of the avoidant infants was in fact a mask for distress, a hypothesis later evidenced through studies of the heart-rate of avoidant infants.[ ][ ] infants are depicted as anxious-avoidant when there is: ... conspicuous avoidance of the mother in the reunion episodes which is likely to consist of ignoring her altogether, although there may be some pointed looking away, turning away, or moving away ... if there is a greeting when the mother enters, it tends to be a mere look or a smile ... either the baby does not approach his mother upon reunion, or they approach in "abortive" fashions with the baby going past the mother, or it tends to only occur after much coaxing ... if picked up, the baby shows little or no contact-maintaining behavior; he tends not to cuddle in; he looks away and he may squirm to get down.[ ] ainsworth's narrative records showed that infants avoided the caregiver in the stressful strange situation procedure when they had a history of experiencing rebuff of attachment behaviour. the infant's needs were frequently not met and the infant had come to believe that communication of emotional needs had no influence on the caregiver. ainsworth's student mary main theorized that avoidant behaviour in the strange situation procedure should be regarded as "a conditional strategy, which paradoxically permits whatever proximity is possible under conditions of maternal rejection" by de-emphasising attachment needs.[ ] main proposed that avoidance has two functions for an infant whose caregiver is consistently unresponsive to their needs. firstly, avoidant behaviour allows the infant to maintain a conditional proximity with the caregiver: close enough to maintain protection, but distant enough to avoid rebuff. secondly, the cognitive processes organising avoidant behaviour could help direct attention away from the unfulfilled desire for closeness with the caregiver—avoiding a situation in which the child is overwhelmed with emotion ("disorganized distress"), and therefore unable to maintain control of themselves and achieve even conditional proximity.[ ] disorganized/disoriented attachment[edit] ainsworth herself was the first to find difficulties in fitting all infant behaviour into the three classifications used in her baltimore study. ainsworth and colleagues sometimes observed "tense movements such as hunching the shoulders, putting the hands behind the neck and tensely cocking the head, and so on. it was our clear impression that such tension movements signified stress, both because they tended to occur chiefly in the separation episodes and because they tended to be prodromal to crying. indeed, our hypothesis is that they occur when a child is attempting to control crying, for they tend to vanish if and when crying breaks through."[ ] such observations also appeared in the doctoral theses of ainsworth's students. crittenden, for example, noted that one abused infant in her doctoral sample was classed as secure (b) by her undergraduate coders because her strange situation behavior was "without either avoidance or ambivalence, she did show stress-related stereotypic headcocking throughout the strange situation. this pervasive behavior, however, was the only clue to the extent of her stress".[ ] beginning in , crittenden offered a/c and other new organized classifications (see below). drawing on records of behaviours discrepant with the a, b and c classifications, a fourth classification was added by ainsworth's colleague mary main.[ ] in the strange situation, the attachment system is expected to be activated by the departure and return of the caregiver. if the behaviour of the infant does not appear to the observer to be coordinated in a smooth way across episodes to achieve either proximity or some relative proximity with the caregiver, then it is considered 'disorganized' as it indicates a disruption or flooding of the attachment system (e.g. by fear). infant behaviours in the strange situation protocol coded as disorganized/disoriented include overt displays of fear; contradictory behaviours or affects occurring simultaneously or sequentially; stereotypic, asymmetric, misdirected or jerky movements; or freezing and apparent dissociation. lyons-ruth has urged, however, that it should be more widely "recognized that % of disorganized infants continue to approach the caregiver, seek comfort, and cease their distress without clear ambivalent or avoidant behavior".[ ] there is rapidly growing interest in disorganized attachment from clinicians and policy-makers as well as researchers.[ ] however, the disorganized/disoriented attachment (d) classification has been criticized by some for being too encompassing, including ainsworth herself.[ ] in , ainsworth put in print her blessing for the new 'd' classification, though she urged that the addition be regarded as "open-ended, in the sense that subcategories may be distinguished", as she worried that too many different forms of behaviour might be treated as if they were the same thing.[ ] indeed, the d classification puts together infants who use a somewhat disrupted secure (b) strategy with those who seem hopeless and show little attachment behaviour; it also puts together infants who run to hide when they see their caregiver in the same classification as those who show an avoidant (a) strategy on the first reunion and then an ambivalent-resistant (c) strategy on the second reunion. perhaps responding to such concerns, george and solomon have divided among indices of disorganized/disoriented attachment (d) in the strange situation, treating some of the behaviours as a 'strategy of desperation' and others as evidence that the attachment system has been flooded (e.g. by fear, or anger).[ ] crittenden also argues that some behaviour classified as disorganized/disoriented can be regarded as more 'emergency' versions of the avoidant and/or ambivalent/resistant strategies, and function to maintain the protective availability of the caregiver to some degree. sroufe et al. have agreed that "even disorganized attachment behaviour (simultaneous approach-avoidance; freezing, etc.) enables a degree of proximity in the face of a frightening or unfathomable parent".[ ] however, "the presumption that many indices of 'disorganization' are aspects of organized patterns does not preclude acceptance of the notion of disorganization, especially in cases where the complexity and dangerousness of the threat are beyond children's capacity for response."[ ] for example, "children placed in care, especially more than once, often have intrusions. in videos of the strange situation procedure, they tend to occur when a rejected/neglected child approaches the stranger in an intrusion of desire for comfort, then loses muscular control and falls to the floor, overwhelmed by the intruding fear of the unknown, potentially dangerous, strange person."[ ] main and hesse[ ] found most of the mothers of these children had suffered major losses or other trauma shortly before or after the birth of the infant and had reacted by becoming severely depressed.[ ] in fact, fifty-six per cent of mothers who had lost a parent by death before they completed high school had children with disorganized attachments.[ ] subsequent studies, whilst emphasising the potential importance of unresolved loss, have qualified these findings.[ ] for example, solomon and george found unresolved loss in the mother tended to be associated with disorganized attachment in their infant primarily when they had also experienced an unresolved trauma in their life prior to the loss.[ ] categorization differences across cultures[edit] across different cultures deviations from the strange situation protocol have been observed. a japanese study in (takahashi) studied japanese mother-infant pairs and compared them with ainsworth's distributional pattern. although the ranges for securely attached and insecurely attached had no significant differences in proportions, the japanese insecure group consisted of only resistant children, with no children categorized as avoidant. this may be because the japanese child rearing philosophy stressed close mother infant bonds more so than in western cultures. in northern germany, grossmann et al. (grossmann, huber, & wartner, ; grossmann, spangler, suess, & unzner, ) replicated the ainsworth strange situation with mother infant pairs and found a different distribution of attachment classifications with a high number of avoidant infants: % avoidant, % secure, and % resistant (grossmann et al., ). another study in israel found there was a high frequency of an ambivalent pattern, which according to grossman et al. ( ) could be attributed to a greater parental push toward children's independence. later patterns and the dynamic-maturational model[edit] techniques have been developed to allow verbal ascertainment of the child's state of mind with respect to attachment. an example is the "stem story", in which a child is given the beginning of a story that raises attachment issues and asked to complete it. for older children, adolescents and adults, semi-structured interviews are used in which the manner of relaying content may be as significant as the content itself.[ ] however, there are no substantially validated measures of attachment for middle childhood or early adolescence (approximately to years of age).[ ] some studies of older children have identified further attachment classifications. main and cassidy observed that disorganized behavior in infancy can develop into a child using caregiving-controlling or punitive behaviour in order to manage a helpless or dangerously unpredictable caregiver. in these cases, the child's behaviour is organized, but the behaviour is treated by researchers as a form of 'disorganization' (d) since the hierarchy in the family is no longer organized according to parenting authority.[ ] patricia mckinsey crittenden has elaborated classifications of further forms of avoidant and ambivalent attachment behaviour, as seen in her model the dynamic maturational model of attachment and adaptation (dmm). these include the caregiving and punitive behaviours also identified by main and cassidy (termed a and c respectively), but also other patterns such as compulsive compliance with the wishes of a threatening parent (a ).[ ] crittenden's ideas developed from bowlby's proposal that "given certain adverse circumstances during childhood, the selective exclusion of information of certain sorts may be adaptive. yet, when during adolescence and adulthood the situation changes, the persistent exclusion of the same forms of information may become maladaptive".[ ] crittenden proposed that the basic components of human experience of danger are two kinds of information:[ ] . 'affective information' – the emotions provoked by the potential for danger, such as anger or fear. crittenden terms this "affective information". in childhood this information would include emotions provoked by the unexplained absence of an attachment figure. where an infant is faced with insensitive or rejecting parenting, one strategy for maintaining the availability of their attachment figure is to try to exclude from consciousness or from expressed behaviour any emotional information that might result in rejection.[citation needed] . causal or other sequentially ordered knowledge about the potential for safety or danger. in childhood this would include knowledge regarding the behaviours that indicate an attachment figure's availability as a secure haven. if knowledge regarding the behaviours that indicate an attachment figure's availability as a secure haven is subject to segregation, then the infant can try to keep the attention of their caregiver through clingy or aggressive behaviour, or alternating combinations of the two. such behaviour may increase the availability of an attachment figure who otherwise displays inconsistent or misleading responses to the infant's attachment behaviours, suggesting the unreliability of protection and safety.[ ] crittenden proposes that both kinds of information can be split off from consciousness or behavioural expression as a 'strategy' to maintain the availability of an attachment figure (see section above on disorganized/disoriented attachment for distinction of "types"): "type a strategies were hypothesized to be based on reducing perception of threat to reduce the disposition to respond. type c was hypothesized to be based on heightening perception of threat to increase the disposition to respond."[ ] type a strategies split off emotional information about feeling threatened and type c strategies split off temporally-sequenced knowledge about how and why the attachment figure is available. by contrast, type b strategies effectively utilise both kinds of information without much distortion.[ ] for example: a toddler may have come to depend upon a type c strategy of tantrums in working to maintain the availability of an attachment figure whose inconsistent availability has led the child to distrust or distort causal information about their apparent behaviour. this may lead their attachment figure to get a clearer grasp on their needs and the appropriate response to their attachment behaviours. experiencing more reliable and predictable information about the availability of their attachment figure, the toddler then no longer needs to use coercive behaviours with the goal of maintaining their caregiver's availability and can develop a secure attachment to their caregiver since they trust that their needs and communications will be heeded.[citation needed] significance of patterns[edit] research based on data from longitudinal studies, such as the national institute of child health and human development study of early child care and the minnesota study of risk and adaption from birth to adulthood, and from cross-sectional studies, consistently shows associations between early attachment classifications and peer relationships as to both quantity and quality. lyons-ruth, for example, found that "for each additional withdrawing behavior displayed by mothers in relation to their infant's attachment cues in the strange situation procedure, the likelihood of clinical referral by service providers was increased by %."[ ] there is an extensive body of research demonstrating a significant association between attachment organizations and children's functioning across multiple domains.[ ] early insecure attachment does not necessarily predict difficulties, but it is a liability for the child, particularly if similar parental behaviours continue throughout childhood.[ ] compared to that of securely attached children, the adjustment of insecure children in many spheres of life is not as soundly based, putting their future relationships in jeopardy. although the link is not fully established by research and there are other influences besides attachment, secure infants are more likely to become socially competent than their insecure peers. relationships formed with peers influence the acquisition of social skills, intellectual development and the formation of social identity. classification of children's peer status (popular, neglected or rejected) has been found to predict subsequent adjustment.[ ] insecure children, particularly avoidant children, are especially vulnerable to family risk. their social and behavioural problems increase or decline with deterioration or improvement in parenting. however, an early secure attachment appears to have a lasting protective function.[ ] as with attachment to parental figures, subsequent experiences may alter the course of development.[ ] studies have suggested that infants with a high-risk for autism spectrum disorders (asd) may express attachment security differently from infants with a low-risk for asd.[ ] behavioral problems and social competence in insecure children increase or decline with deterioration or improvement in quality of parenting and the degree of risk in the family environment.[ ] some authors have questioned the idea that a taxonomy of categories representing a qualitative difference in attachment relationships can be developed. examination of data from , -month-olds showed that variation in attachment patterns was continuous rather than grouped.[ ] this criticism introduces important questions for attachment typologies and the mechanisms behind apparent types. however, it has relatively little relevance for attachment theory itself, which "neither requires nor predicts discrete patterns of attachment."[ ] there is some evidence that gender differences in attachment patterns of adaptive significance begin to emerge in middle childhood. insecure attachment and early psychosocial stress indicate the presence of environmental risk (for example poverty, mental illness, instability, minority status, violence). environmental risk can cause insecure attachment, while also favouring the development of strategies for earlier reproduction. different reproductive strategies have different adaptive values for males and females: insecure males tend to adopt avoidant strategies, whereas insecure females tend to adopt anxious/ambivalent strategies, unless they are in a very high risk environment. adrenarche is proposed as the endocrine mechanism underlying the reorganization of insecure attachment in middle childhood.[ ] changes in attachment during childhood and adolescence[edit] childhood and adolescence allows the development of an internal working model useful for forming attachments. this internal working model is related to the individual's state of mind which develops with respect to attachment generally and explores how attachment functions in relationship dynamics based on childhood and adolescent experience. the organization of an internal working model is generally seen as leading to more stable attachments in those who develop such a model, rather than those who rely more on the individual's state of mind alone in forming new attachments.[citation needed] age, cognitive growth, and continued social experience advance the development and complexity of the internal working model. attachment-related behaviours lose some characteristics typical of the infant-toddler period and take on age-related tendencies. the preschool period involves the use of negotiation and bargaining.[ ] for example, four-year-olds are not distressed by separation if they and their caregiver have already negotiated a shared plan for the separation and reunion.[ ] ideally, these social skills become incorporated into the internal working model to be used with other children and later with adult peers. as children move into the school years at about six years old, most develop a goal-corrected partnership with parents, in which each partner is willing to compromise in order to maintain a gratifying relationship.[ ] by middle childhood, the goal of the attachment behavioural system has changed from proximity to the attachment figure to availability. generally, a child is content with longer separations, provided contact—or the possibility of physically reuniting, if needed—is available. attachment behaviours such as clinging and following decline and self-reliance increases. by middle childhood (ages – ), there may be a shift toward mutual coregulation of secure-base contact in which caregiver and child negotiate methods of maintaining communication and supervision as the child moves toward a greater degree of independence.[ ] the attachment system used by adolescents is seen as a "safety regulating system" whose main function is to promote physical and psychological safety. there are different events that can trigger the attachment system. those triggers include, the presence of a potential danger or stress, internal and external, and a threat of accessibility and/or availability of an attachment figure. the ultimate goal of the attachment system is security, so during a time of danger or inaccessibility the behavioral system accepts felt security in the context of the availability of protection. by adolescence we are able to find security through a variety of things, such as food, exercise, and social media.[ ] felt security can be achieved through a number of ways, and often without the physical presence of the attachment figure. higher levels of maturity allows adolescent teens to more capably interact with their environment on their own because the environment is perceived as less threatening. adolescents teens will also see an increase in cognitive, emotional and behavioral maturity that dictates whether or not teens are less likely to experience conditions that activate their need for an attachment figure. for example, when teenagers get sick and stay home from school, surely they want their parents to be home so they can take care of them, but they are also able to stay home by themselves without experiencing serious amounts of distress.[ ] here are the attachment style differences during adolescence:[ ] 	secure adolescents are expected to hold their mothers at a higher rate than all other support figures, including father, significant others, and best friends. 	insecure adolescents identify more strongly with their peers than their parents as their primary attachment figures. their friends are seen as a significantly strong source of attachment support. 	dismissing adolescents rate their parents as a less significant source of attachment support and would consider themselves as their primary attachment figure. 	preoccupied adolescents would rate their parents as their primary source of attachment support and would consider themselves as a much less significant source of attachment support.[ ] attachment in adults[edit] main article: attachment in adults see also: attachment measures attachment theory was extended to adult romantic relationships in the late s by cindy hazan and phillip shaver.[ ] four styles of attachment have been identified in adults: secure, anxious-preoccupied, dismissive-avoidant and fearful-avoidant. these roughly correspond to infant classifications: secure, insecure-ambivalent, insecure-avoidant and disorganized/disoriented.[citation needed] securely attached adults have been “linked to a high need for achievement and a low fear of failure (elliot & reis, )”. they will positively approach a task with the goal of mastering it and have an appetite for exploration in achievement settings (elliot & reis, ). research shows that securely attached adults have a “low level of personal distress and high levels of concern for others”.[ ] due to their high rates of self-efficacy, securely attached adults typically do not hesitate to remove a person having a negative impact from problematic situations they are facing.[ ] this calm response is representative of the securely attached adult's emotionally regulated response to threats that many studies have supported in the face of diverse situations. adult secure attachment comes from an individual's early connection with their caregiver(s), genes and their romantic experiences.[ ] within romantic relationships, a securely attached adult will appear in the following ways: excellent conflict resolution, mentally flexible, effective communicators, avoidance of manipulation, comfortable with closeness without fearfulness of being enmeshed, quickly forgiving, viewing sex and emotional intimacy as one, believing they can positively impact their relationship, and caring for their partner how they want to be cared for. in summation, they are great partners who treat their spouses very well, as they are not afraid to give positively and ask for their needs to be met. securely attached adults believe that there are “many potential partners that would be responsive to their needs”, and if they come across an individual who is not meeting their needs, they will typically lose interest very quickly. in a study comparing secure-secure and secure-various attachment style relationships, there was no fluctuation in positive relational functioning. however, in any combination of two partners with attachment styles outside of secure, the relationships showed high levels of negative relationship functioning. this research indicates that it only takes one securely attached partner within a romantic relationship to maintain healthy, emotional relationship functioning.[ ] anxious-preoccupied adults seek high levels of intimacy, approval and responsiveness from partners, becoming overly dependent. they tend to be less trusting, have less positive views about themselves and their partners, and may exhibit high levels of emotional expressiveness, worry and impulsiveness in their relationships. the anxiety that adults feel prevents the establishment of satisfactory defense exclusion. thus, it is possible that individuals that have been anxiously attached to their attachment figure or figures have not been able to develop sufficient defenses against separation anxiety. because of their lack of preparation these individuals will then overreact to the anticipation of separation or the actual separation from their attachment figure. the anxiety comes from an individual's intense and/or unstable relationship that leave the anxious or preoccupied individual relatively defenseless.[ ] adults with this attachment style tend to look way too far into things, whether that's a text message or a face-to-face conversation. their thoughts and actions can lead to a painful cycle of self-fulfilling prophecies and even self-sabotage. they often seek a dismissive-avoidant partner.[ ] dismissive-avoidant adults desire a high level of independence, often appearing to avoid attachment altogether. they view themselves as self-sufficient, invulnerable to attachment feelings and not needing close relationships. they tend to suppress their feelings, dealing with conflict by distancing themselves from partners of whom they often have a poor opinion. adults lack the interest of forming close relationships and maintaining emotional closeness with the people around them. they have a great amount of distrust in others but at the same time possess a positive model of self, they would prefer to invest in their own ego skills. because of their distrust they cannot be convinced that other people have the ability to deliver emotional support. they try to create high levels of self-esteem by investing disproportionately in their abilities or accomplishments. these adults maintain their positive views of self, based on their personal achievements and competence rather than searching for and feeling acceptance from others. these adults will explicitly reject or minimize the importance of emotional attachment and passively avoid relationships when they feel as though they are becoming too close. they strive for self-reliance and independence. when it comes to the opinions of others about themselves, they are very indifferent and are relatively hesitant to positive feedback from their peers. dismissive avoidance can also be explained as the result of defensive deactivation of the attachment system to avoid potential rejection, or genuine disregard for interpersonal closeness.[ ] fearful-avoidant adults have mixed feelings about close relationships, both desiring and feeling uncomfortable with emotional closeness. they tend to mistrust their partners and view themselves as unworthy. like dismissive-avoidant adults, fearful-avoidant adults tend to seek less intimacy, suppressing their feelings.[ ][ ][ ][ ] sexually, securely attached individuals are less likely to be involved in one-night stands or sexual activity outside of the primary relationship, and more likely to report mutual initiation and enjoyment of sex.[citation needed] dismissive-avoidant individuals tend to report activities reflecting low psychological intimacy (one-night sex, extra-dyadic sex, sex without love), as well as less enjoyment of physical contact. research has demonstrated that for both sexes, insecure-ambivalent attachment was related to enjoyment of holding and caressing, but not of more clearly sexual behaviors.[citation needed] relationally, insecure individuals tend to be partnered with insecure individuals, and secure individuals with secure individuals. insecure relationships tend to be enduring but less emotionally satisfying compared to the relationship(s) of two securely attached individuals.[citation needed] attachment styles are activated from the first date onwards and impact relationship dynamics and how a relationship ends. secure attachment has been shown to allow for better conflict resolution in a relationship and for one's ability to exit an unsatisfying relationship compared to other attachment types. secure individuals authentic high self-esteem and positive view of others allows for this as they are confident that they will find another relationship. secure attachment has also shown to allow for the successful processing of relational losses (e.g. death, rejection, infidelity, abandonment etc.) attachment has also been shown to impact caregiving behavior in relationships, too (shaver & cassidy, ). two main aspects of adult attachment have been studied. the organization and stability of the mental working models that underlie the attachment styles is explored by social psychologists interested in romantic attachment.[ ][ ] developmental psychologists interested in the individual's state of mind with respect to attachment generally explore how attachment functions in relationship dynamics and impacts relationship outcomes. the organization of mental working models is more stable while the individual's state of mind with respect to attachment fluctuates more. some authors have suggested that adults do not hold a single set of working models. instead, on one level they have a set of rules and assumptions about attachment relationships in general. on another level they hold information about specific relationships or relationship events. information at different levels need not be consistent. individuals can therefore hold different internal working models for different relationships.[ ][ ] there are a number of different measures of adult attachment, the most common being self-report questionnaires and coded interviews based on the adult attachment interview. the various measures were developed primarily as research tools, for different purposes and addressing different domains, for example romantic relationships, platonic relationships, parental relationships or peer relationships. some classify an adult's state of mind with respect to attachment and attachment patterns by reference to childhood experiences, while others assess relationship behaviours and security regarding parents and peers.[ ] history[edit] main article: history of attachment theory maternal deprivation[edit] main article: maternal deprivation the early thinking of the object relations school of psychoanalysis, particularly melanie klein, influenced bowlby. however, he profoundly disagreed with the prevalent psychoanalytic belief that infants' responses relate to their internal fantasy life rather than real-life events. as bowlby formulated his concepts, he was influenced by case studies on disturbed and delinquent children, such as those of william goldfarb published in and .[ ][ ] prayer time in the five points house of industry residential nursery, . the maternal deprivation hypothesis published in spurred a shift away from the use of residential nurseries in favour of foster homes.[ ] bowlby's contemporary rené spitz observed separated children's grief, proposing that "psychotoxic" results were brought about by inappropriate experiences of early care.[ ][ ] a strong influence was the work of social worker and psychoanalyst james robertson who filmed the effects of separation on children in hospital. he and bowlby collaborated in making the documentary film a two-year old goes to the hospital which was instrumental in a campaign to alter hospital restrictions on visits by parents.[ ] in his monograph for the world health organization, maternal care and mental health, bowlby put forward the hypothesis that "the infant and young child should experience a warm, intimate, and continuous relationship with his mother in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment", the lack of which may have significant and irreversible mental health consequences. this was also published as child care and the growth of love for public consumption. the central proposition was influential but highly controversial.[ ] at the time there was limited empirical data and no comprehensive theory to account for such a conclusion.[ ] nevertheless, bowlby's theory sparked considerable interest in the nature of early relationships, giving a strong impetus to, (in the words of mary ainsworth), a "great body of research" in an extremely difficult, complex area.[ ] bowlby's work (and robertson's films) caused a virtual revolution in a hospital visiting by parents, hospital provision for children's play, educational and social needs, and the use of residential nurseries. over time, orphanages were abandoned in favour of foster care or family-style homes in most developed countries.[ ] formulation of the theory[edit] following the publication of maternal care and mental health, bowlby sought new understanding from the fields of evolutionary biology, ethology, developmental psychology, cognitive science and control systems theory. he formulated the innovative proposition that mechanisms underlying an infant's emotional tie to the caregiver(s) emerged as a result of evolutionary pressure. he set out to develop a theory of motivation and behaviour control built on science rather than freud's psychic energy model. bowlby argued that with attachment theory he had made good the "deficiencies of the data and the lack of theory to link alleged cause and effect" of maternal care and mental health.[ ] ethology[edit] bowlby's attention was drawn to ethology in the early s when he read konrad lorenz's work.[ ] other important influences were ethologists nikolaas tinbergen and robert hinde.[ ] bowlby subsequently collaborated with hinde.[ ] in bowlby stated "the time is ripe for a unification of psychoanalytic concepts with those of ethology, and to pursue the rich vein of research which this union suggests."[ ] konrad lorenz had examined the phenomenon of "imprinting", a behaviour characteristic of some birds and mammals which involves rapid learning of recognition by the young, of a conspecific or comparable object. after recognition comes a tendency to follow. this bottle-fed young moose has developed an attachment to its caregiver (at kostroma moose farm). certain types of learning are possible, respective to each applicable type of learning, only within a limited age range known as a critical period. bowlby's concepts included the idea that attachment involved learning from experience during a limited age period, influenced by adult behaviour. he did not apply the imprinting concept in its entirety to human attachment. however, he considered that attachment behaviour was best explained as instinctive, combined with the effect of experience, stressing the readiness the child brings to social interactions.[ ] over time it became apparent there were more differences than similarities between attachment theory and imprinting so the analogy was dropped.[ ] ethologists expressed concern about the adequacy of some research on which attachment theory was based, particularly the generalization to humans from animal studies.[ ][ ] schur, discussing bowlby's use of ethological concepts (pre- ) commented that concepts used in attachment theory had not kept up with changes in ethology itself.[ ] ethologists and others writing in the s and s questioned and expanded the types of behaviour used as indications of attachment.[ ] observational studies of young children in natural settings provided other behaviours that might indicate attachment; for example, staying within a predictable distance of the mother without effort on her part and picking up small objects, bringing them to the mother but not to others.[ ] although ethologists tended to be in agreement with bowlby, they pressed for more data, objecting to psychologists writing as if there were an "entity which is 'attachment', existing over and above the observable measures."[ ] robert hinde considered "attachment behaviour system" to be an appropriate term which did not offer the same problems "because it refers to postulated control systems that determine the relations between different kinds of behaviour."[ ] psychoanalysis[edit] evacuation of smiling japanese school children in world war ii from the book road to catastrophe psychoanalytic concepts influenced bowlby's view of attachment, in particular, the observations by anna freud and dorothy burlingham of young children separated from familiar caregivers during world war ii.[ ] however, bowlby rejected psychoanalytical explanations for early infant bonds including "drive theory" in which the motivation for attachment derives from gratification of hunger and libidinal drives. he called this the "cupboard-love" theory of relationships. in his view it failed to see attachment as a psychological bond in its own right rather than an instinct derived from feeding or sexuality.[ ] based on ideas of primary attachment and neo-darwinism, bowlby identified what he saw as fundamental flaws in psychoanalysis: the overemphasis of internal dangers rather than external threat, and the view of the development of personality via linear phases with regression to fixed points accounting for psychological distress. bowlby instead posited that several lines of development were possible, the outcome of which depended on the interaction between the organism and the environment. in attachment this would mean that although a developing child has a propensity to form attachments, the nature of those attachments depends on the environment to which the child is exposed.[ ] from early in the development of attachment theory there was criticism of the theory's lack of congruence with various branches of psychoanalysis. bowlby's decisions left him open to criticism from well-established thinkers working on similar problems.[ ][ ][ ] internal working model[edit] the philosopher kenneth craik had noted the ability of thought to predict events. he stressed the survival value of natural selection for this ability. a key component of attachment theory is the attachment behavior system where certain behaviors have a predictable outcome (i.e. proximity) and serve as self-preservation method (i.e. protection).[ ] all taking place outside of an individuals awareness, this internal working model allows a person to try out alternatives mentally, using knowledge of the past while responding to the present and future. bowlby applied craik's ideas to attachment, when other psychologists were applying these concepts to adult perception and cognition.[ ] infants absorb all sorts of complex social-emotional information from the social interactions that they observe. they notice the helpful and hindering behaviors of one person to another. from these observations they develop expectations of how two characters should behave, known as a "secure base script." these scripts provide as a template of how attachment related events should unfold and they are the building blocks of ones internal working models.[ ] infant's internal working model is developed in response to the infant's experience based internal working models of self, and environment, with emphasis on the caregiving environment and the outcomes of his or her proximity-seeking behaviors. theoretically, secure child and adult script, would allow for an attachment situation where one person successfully utilizes another as a secure base from which to explore and as a safe haven in times of distress. in contrast, insecure individuals would create attachment situations with more complications.[ ] for example, if the caregiver is accepting of these proximity-seeking behaviors and grants access, the infant develops a secure organization; if the caregiver consistently denies the infant access, an avoidant organization develops; and if the caregiver inconsistently grants access, an ambivalent organization develops.[ ] in retrospect, internal working models are constant with and reflect the primary relationship with our caregivers. childhood attachment has a direct impact on our adult relationships.[citation needed] a parent's internal working model that is operative in the attachment relationship with her infant can be accessed by examining the parent's mental representations.[ ][ ] recent research has demonstrated that the quality of maternal attributions as markers of maternal mental representations can be associated with particular forms of maternal psychopathology and can be altered in a relative short time-period by targeted psychotherapeutic intervention.[ ] cybernetics[edit] the theory of control systems (cybernetics), developing during the s and ' s, influenced bowlby's thinking.[ ] the young child's need for proximity to the attachment figure was seen as balancing homeostatically with the need for exploration. (bowlby compared this process to physiological homeostasis whereby, for example, blood pressure is kept within limits). the actual distance maintained by the child would vary as the balance of needs changed. for example, the approach of a stranger, or an injury, would cause the child exploring at a distance to seek proximity. the child's goal is not an object (the caregiver) but a state; maintenance of the desired distance from the caregiver depending on circumstances.[ ] cognitive development[edit] bowlby's reliance on piaget's theory of cognitive development gave rise to questions about object permanence (the ability to remember an object that is temporarily absent) in early attachment behaviours. an infant's ability to discriminate strangers and react to the mother's absence seemed to occur months earlier than piaget suggested would be cognitively possible.[ ] more recently, it has been noted that the understanding of mental representation has advanced so much since bowlby's day that present views can be more specific than those of bowlby's time.[ ] behaviorism[edit] in , gerwitz discussed how mother and child could provide each other with positive reinforcement experiences through their mutual attention, thereby learning to stay close together. this explanation would make it unnecessary to posit innate human characteristics fostering attachment.[ ] learning theory, (behaviorism), saw attachment as a remnant of dependency with the quality of attachment being merely a response to the caregiver's cues. behaviorists saw behaviors like crying as a random activity meaning nothing until reinforced by a caregiver's response. to behaviorists, frequent responses would result in more crying. to attachment theorists, crying is an inborn attachment behavior to which the caregiver must respond if the infant is to develop emotional security. conscientious responses produce security which enhances autonomy and results in less crying. ainsworth's research in baltimore supported the attachment theorists' view.[ ] in the last decade, behavior analysts have constructed models of attachment based on the importance of contingent relationships. these behavior analytic models have received some support from research[ ] and meta-analytic reviews.[ ] developments since s[edit] in the s, problems with viewing attachment as a trait (stable characteristic of an individual) rather than as a type of behaviour with organizing functions and outcomes, led some authors to the conclusion that attachment behaviours were best understood in terms of their functions in the child's life.[ ] this way of thinking saw the secure base concept as central to attachment theory's logic, coherence, and status as an organizational construct.[ ] following this argument, the assumption that attachment is expressed identically in all humans cross-culturally was examined.[ ] the research showed that though there were cultural differences, the three basic patterns, secure, avoidant and ambivalent, can be found in every culture in which studies have been undertaken, even where communal sleeping arrangements are the norm.the selection of the secure pattern is found in the majority of children across cultures studied. this follows logically from the fact that attachment theory provides for infants to adapt to changes in the environment, selecting optimal behavioural strategies.[ ] how attachment is expressed shows cultural variations which need to be ascertained before studies can be undertaken; for example gusii infants are greeted with a handshake rather than a hug. securely attached gusii infants anticipate and seek this contact. there are also differences in the distribution of insecure patterns based on cultural differences in child-rearing practices.[ ] the scholar michael rutter in studied the importance of distinguishing between the consequences of attachment deprivation upon intellectual retardation in children and lack of development in the emotional growth in children.[ ] rutter's conclusion was that a careful delineation of maternal attributes needed to be identified and differentiated for progress in the field to continue. the biggest challenge to the notion of the universality of attachment theory came from studies conducted in japan where the concept of amae plays a prominent role in describing family relationships. arguments revolved around the appropriateness of the use of the strange situation procedure where amae is practiced. ultimately research tended to confirm the universality hypothesis of attachment theory.[ ] most recently a study conducted in sapporo in japan found attachment distributions consistent with global norms using the six-year main and cassidy scoring system for attachment classification.[ ][ ] critics in the s such as j. r. harris, steven pinker and jerome kagan were generally concerned with the concept of infant determinism (nature versus nurture), stressing the effects of later experience on personality.[ ][ ][ ] building on the work on temperament of stella chess, kagan rejected almost every assumption on which attachment theory's cause was based. kagan argued that heredity was far more important than the transient developmental effects of early environment. for example, a child with an inherently difficult temperament would not elicit sensitive behavioural responses from a caregiver. the debate spawned considerable research and analysis of data from the growing number of longitudinal studies. subsequent research has not borne out kagan's argument, possibly suggesting that it is the caregiver's behaviours that form the child's attachment style, although how this style is expressed may differ with the child's temperament.[ ] harris and pinker put forward the notion that the influence of parents had been much exaggerated, arguing that socialization took place primarily in peer groups. h. rudolph schaffer concluded that parents and peers had different functions, fulfilling distinctive roles in children's development.[ ] psychoanalyst/psychologists peter fonagy and mary target have attempted to bring attachment theory and psychoanalysis into a closer relationship through cognitive science as mentalization. mentalization, or theory of mind, is the capacity of human beings to guess with some accuracy what thoughts, emotions and intentions lie behind behaviours as subtle as facial expression.[ ] it has been speculated that this connection between theory of mind and the internal working model may open new areas of study, leading to alterations in attachment theory.[ ] since the late s, there has been a developing rapprochement between attachment theory and psychoanalysis, based on common ground as elaborated by attachment theorists and researchers, and a change in what psychoanalysts consider to be central to psychoanalysis. object relations models which emphasise the autonomous need for a relationship have become dominant and are linked to a growing recognition in psychoanalysis of the importance of infant development in the context of relationships and internalized representations. psychoanalysis has recognized the formative nature of a child's early environment including the issue of childhood trauma. a psychoanalytically based exploration of the attachment system and an accompanying clinical approach has emerged together with a recognition of the need for measurement of outcomes of interventions.[ ] one focus of attachment research has been the difficulties of children whose attachment history was poor, including those with extensive non-parental child care experiences. concern with the effects of child care was intense during the so-called "day care wars" of the late- th century, during which some authors stressed the deleterious effects of day care.[ ] as a result of this controversy, training of child care professionals has come to stress attachment issues, including the need for relationship-building by the assignment of a child to a specific care-giver. although only high-quality child care settings are likely to provide this, more infants in child care receive attachment-friendly care than in the past.[ ] a natural experiment permitted extensive study of attachment issues as researchers followed thousands of romanian orphans adopted into western families after the end of the nicolae ceauşescu regime. the english and romanian adoptees study team, led by michael rutter, followed some of the children into their teens, attempting to unravel the effects of poor attachment, adoption, new relationships, physical problems and medical issues associated with their early lives. studies of these adoptees, whose initial conditions were shocking, yielded reason for optimism as many of the children developed quite well. researchers noted that separation from familiar people is only one of many factors that help to determine the quality of development.[ ] although higher rates of atypical insecure attachment patterns were found compared to native-born or early-adopted samples, % of later-adopted children exhibited no marked or severe attachment disorder behaviours.[ ] authors considering attachment in non-western cultures have noted the connection of attachment theory with western family and child care patterns characteristic of bowlby's time.[ ] as children's experience of care changes, so may attachment-related experiences. for example, changes in attitudes toward female sexuality have greatly increased the numbers of children living with their never-married mothers or being cared for outside the home while the mothers work. this social change has made it more difficult for childless people to adopt infants in their own countries. there has been an increase in the number of older-child adoptions and adoptions from third-world sources in first-world countries. adoptions and births to same-sex couples have increased in number and gained legal protection, compared to their status in bowlby's time.[ ] issues have been raised to the effect that the dyadic model characteristic of attachment theory cannot address the complexity of real-life social experiences, as infants often have multiple relationships within the family and in child care settings.[ ] it is suggested these multiple relationships influence one another reciprocally, at least within a family.[ ] principles of attachment theory have been used to explain adult social behaviours, including mating, social dominance and hierarchical power structures, in-group identification,[ ] group coalitions, membership in cults and totalitarian systems[ ] and negotiation of reciprocity and justice.[ ] those explanations have been used to design parental care training, and have been particularly successful in the design of child abuse prevention programmes.[ ] while a wide variety of studies have upheld the basic tenets of attachment theory, research has been inconclusive as to whether self-reported early attachment and later depression are demonstrably related.[ ] biology of attachment[edit] in addition to longitudinal studies, there has been psychophysiological research on the biology of attachment.[ ] research has begun to include neural development,[ ] behaviour genetics and temperament concepts.[ ] generally, temperament and attachment constitute separate developmental domains, but aspects of both contribute to a range of interpersonal and intrapersonal developmental outcomes.[ ] some types of temperament may make some individuals susceptible to the stress of unpredictable or hostile relationships with caregivers in the early years.[ ] in the absence of available and responsive caregivers it appears that some children are particularly vulnerable to developing attachment disorders.[ ] the quality of caregiving received at infancy and childhood directly affects an individual's neurological systems which controls stress regulation.[ ] in psychophysiological research on attachment, the two main areas studied have been autonomic responses, such as heart rate or respiration, and the activity of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, a system that is responsible for the body's reaction to stress.[ ] infants' physiological responses have been measured during the strange situation procedure looking at individual differences in infant temperament and the extent to which attachment acts as a moderator. recent studies convey that early attachment relationships become molecularly instilled into the being, thus affecting later immune system functioning.[ ] empirical evidence communicates that early negative experiences produce pro inflammatory phenotype cells in the immune system, which is directly related to cardiovascular disease, autoimmune diseases, and certain types of cancer.[ ] recent[when?] improvements involving methods of research have enabled researchers to further investigate the neural correlates of attachment in humans. these advances include identifying key brain structures, neural circuits, neurotransmitter systems, and neuropeptides, and how they are involved in attachment system functioning and can tell us more about a certain individual, even predict their behavior.[ ] there is initial evidence that caregiving and attachment involve both unique and overlapping brain regions.[ ] another issue is the role of inherited genetic factors in shaping attachments: for example one type of polymorphism of the gene coding for the d dopamine receptor has been linked to anxious attachment and another in the gene for the -ht a serotonin receptor with avoidant attachment.[ ] studies show that attachment in adulthood is simultaneously related to biomarkers of immunity. for example, individuals with an avoidance attachment style produce higher levels of the pro inflammatory cytokine interleukin- (il- ) when reacting to an interpersonal stressor,[ ] while individuals representing an anxious attachment style tend to have elevated cortisol production and lower numbers of t cells.[ ] although children vary genetically and each individual requires different attachment relationships, there is consistent evidence that maternal warmth during infancy and childhood creates a safe haven for individuals resulting in superior immune system functioning.[ ] one theoretical basis for this is that it makes biological sense for children to vary in their susceptibility to rearing influence.[ ] crime[edit] attachment theory has often been applied in the discipline of criminology. it has been used in an attempt to identify causal mechanisms in criminal behaviour – with uses ranging from offender profiling, better understanding types of offence and the pursuit of preventative policy. it has been found that disturbances early on in child-caregiver relationships are a risk factor in criminality. attachment theory in this context has been described as "perhaps the most influential of contemporary psychoanalytically oriented theories of crime".[ ] history[edit] in the s, cesare lombroso's "born criminal" theory, which posited that criminality was innate and inherited, had dominated thinking in criminology. the introduction of attachment theory in criminal theory created a shift away from seeing an individual as being "genetically doomed"[ ] to criminality, to instead studying criminal behaviour from a developmental perspective.[citation needed] the origins of attachment theory within criminology can be found in the work of august aichhorn. in applying psychoanalysis to pedagogy he argued that abnormal child development, stemming from relationship difficulties, underlies many instances of delinquency. he believed that within insecure child-parent relationships, socialisation may go awry, causing an arrest in the child's development allowing latent delinquency to become dominant.[ ] the intersection of crime and attachment theory was further researched by john bowlby. in his first published work, forty-four juvenile thieves, he studied a sample of children ( juvenile thieves and non-delinquent controls) to investigate the home life experiences of these two groups. it was identified that child-mother separation was a causative factor in delinquent character formation, particularly in the development of an "affectionless character" often seen in the persistent offender. of the juvenile thieves had been separated from their mothers for longer than six months during their first five years, and only children from the control group had such a separation. he also found that of the thieves were "affectionless characters" distinguishing them from others by their lack of affection, no emotional ties, no real friendships, and having "no roots in their relationships".[ ] he wrote: they have a remarkably distinctive early history—prolonged separations from their mothers or foster-mothers—the conclusion forces itself upon one that we have here not only a distinct clinical syndrome, that of the affectionless thief, but also an unusually clear example of the distorting influence of a bad early environment upon the development of personality.[ ] these 'affectionless' delinquents were children who, in the first months of life, either had formed a bond with their mother which had subsequently been disrupted, or failed to form a bond at all. of the affectionless delinquents had experienced multiple moves between caregivers. amongst the control group, there were no affectionless characters. he also noted that delinquents of an 'affectionless character' were far more likely to steal in a persistent and serious way than are delinquents of other types. age distribution of crime[edit] the relationship between age and crime is one of the most replicated findings in criminology. it has been named "one of the brute facts of criminology"[ ] claiming that "no fact about crime is more widely accepted."[ ] it has shown that the prevalence of offending increases during adolescence, peaks around the late teenage years and early twenties, and subsequently decreases sharply. whilst the age-crime curve is regarded as fact, the mechanisms driving it are largely disputed.[citation needed] the two main theories, developmental theory and life-course theory, have attachment theory in their origin. developmental perspectives place importance on the role of childhood experiences, and argue that this can determine criminal patterns later on i.e. individuals who have disrupted childhood attachments, amongst other factors, will have criminal careers that continue long into adulthood.[ ] life course perspectives do not entirely deny the importance of childhood experiences, but argue that developmental theory is too deterministic in nature. instead they argue that because humans have agency, every stage of the life course matters. early childhood experiences remain important, albeit within a framework of cumulative disadvantage, and attachments later on in life can determine whether an individual will be likely to offend or not.[ ] developmental perspectives[edit] the developmental perspective aims to explain the age-crime curve by two qualitatively distinct types of people and their behavioural trajectories; adolescence-limited (those who start their criminal career in adolescence and desist from crime before adulthood) and life-course persistent (those who begin anti-social behaviour in adolescence and continue this criminal behaviour into adulthood).[ ] attachment theory has been used to identify differences between these two trajectories. life-course persistent offenders start with disrupted attachment relationships in their childhood, which drives a disordered personality and long term antisocial behaviours and criminal careers. by contrast, adolescence-limited offenders do not have disrupted family bonds and are described as having healthy pre-delinquent development.[ ] life-course perspectives[edit] the life-course perspective argues that individuals are not automatically assigned to a category in a dual taxonomy. instead, there are within-individual changes in criminality, due to human agency. individuals who have insecure attachment styles in childhood can therefore later create meaningful social ties and thereby desist from crime, allowing changes to criminality at different stages in the life course.[ ] types of offenses[edit] since early childhood relationships can influence interpersonal relationships throughout the lifespan,[ ] attachment theory has been applied in research into particular crimes, particularly those which tend to occur within close relational ties. disrupted attachment patterns from childhood have been identified as a risk factor for domestic violence.[ ] these disruptions in childhood can prevent the formation of a secure attachment relationship, and in turn adversely affecting a healthy way to deal with stress.[ ] in adulthood, lack of coping mechanisms can result in intense conflict resulting in violent behaviour.[ ] bowlby's theory of functional anger states that children signal to their caregiver that their attachment needs are not being met by use of angry behaviour. this has been extended to theorise why domestic violence occurs; an adult with consistent experience of insecure attachment may use physical violence to express their attachment needs not being met by their partners. this perception of low support from partner has been identified as a strong predictor of male violence.  other predictors have been named as perceived deficiency in maternal love in childhood, low self-esteem.[ ] it has also been found that individuals with a dismissive attachment style, often seen in an antisocial/narcissistic-narcissistic subtype of offender, tend to be emotionally abusive as well as violent. individuals in the borderline/emotionally dependent subtype have traits which originate from insecure attachment in childhood, and tend to have high levels of anger.[ ] it has been found that sexual offenders have significantly less secure maternal and paternal attachments compared with non-offenders which suggests that insecure attachments in infancy persist into adulthood.[ ] in a recent study, % of sexual offenders were found to be of a preoccupied attachment style.[ ] there is also evidence that suggests subtypes of sexual crime can have different attachment styles. dismissive individuals tend to be hostile towards others, and are more likely to offend violently against adult women. by contrast, child abusers are more likely to have preoccupied attachment styles as the tendency to seek approval from others becomes distorted and attachment relationships become sexualised.[ ] practical applications[edit] as a theory of socioemotional development, attachment theory has implications and practical applications in social policy, decisions about the care and welfare of children and mental health. child care policies[edit] social policies concerning the care of children were the driving force in bowlby's development of attachment theory. the difficulty lies in applying attachment concepts to policy and practice.[ ] in c.h. zeanah and colleagues stated, "supporting early child-parent relationships is an increasingly prominent goal of mental health practitioners, community-based service providers and policy makers ... attachment theory and research have generated important findings concerning early child development and spurred the creation of programs to support early child-parent relationships."[ ] however, finding quality childcare while at work or school is an issue for many families. nihd recent study convey that top notch day care contributes to secure attachment relationships in children.[ ] people have commented on this matter stating that "legislative initiatives reflecting higher standards for credentialing and licensing childcare workers, requiring education in child development and attachment theory, and at least a two-year associate degree course as well as salary increases and increased stature for childcare positions".[ ] corporations should implement more flexible work arrangements that recognize child care as essential for all its employees. this includes re-examination of parental leave policies. too many parents are forced to return to work too soon post childbirth because of company policy or financial necessity. no matter the reason this inhibits early parent child bonding.[ ] in addition to this, there should be increased attention to the training and screening of childcare workers. in his article reviewing attachment theory, sweeney suggested, among several policy implications, "legislative initiatives reflecting higher standards for credentialing and licensing childcare workers, requiring education in child development and attachment theory, and at least a two-year associate degree course as well as salary increases and increased stature for childcare positions".[ ] historically, attachment theory had significant policy implications for hospitalized or institutionalized children, and those in poor quality daycare.[ ] controversy remains over whether non-maternal care, particularly in group settings, has deleterious effects on social development. it is plain from research that poor quality care carries risks but that those who experience good quality alternative care cope well although it is difficult to provide good quality, individualized care in group settings.[ ] attachment theory has implications in residence and contact disputes,[ ] and applications by foster parents to adopt foster children. in the past, particularly in north america, the main theoretical framework was psychoanalysis. increasingly attachment theory has replaced it, thus focusing on the quality and continuity of caregiver relationships rather than economic well-being or automatic precedence of any one party, such as the biological mother. rutter noted that in the uk, since , family courts have shifted considerably to recognize the complications of attachment relationships.[ ] children tend to have attachment relationships with both parents and often grandparents or other relatives. judgements need to take this into account along with the impact of step-families. attachment theory has been crucial in highlighting the importance of social relationships in dynamic rather than fixed terms.[ ] attachment theory can also inform decisions made in social work, especially in humanistic social work (petru stefaroi),[ ][ ] and court processes about foster care or other placements. considering the child's attachment needs can help determine the level of risk posed by placement options.[ ][ ] within adoption, the shift from "closed" to "open" adoptions and the importance of the search for biological parents would be expected on the basis of attachment theory. many researchers in the field were strongly influenced by it.[ ] clinical practice in children[edit] although attachment theory has become a major scientific theory of socioemotional development with one of the widest research lines in modern psychology, it has, until recently, been less used in clinical practice.[citation needed] the attachment theory focused on the attention of the child when the mother is there and the responses that the child shows when the mother leaves, which indicated the attachment and bonding of the mother and the child. the attention therapy is the done while the child is being restrained by the therapists and the responses displayed were noted. the tests were done to show the responses of the child.[citation needed] this may be partly due to lack of attention paid to clinical application by bowlby himself and partly due to broader meanings of the word 'attachment' used amongst practitioners. it may also be partly due to the mistaken association of attachment theory with the pseudoscientific interventions misleadingly known as "attachment therapy".[ ] prevention and treatment[edit] main article: attachment-based therapy (children) in , bowlby published a series of lectures indicating how attachment theory and research could be used in understanding and treating child and family disorders. his focus for bringing about change was the parents' internal working models, parenting behaviours and the parents' relationship with the therapeutic intervenor.[ ] ongoing research has led to a number of individual treatments and prevention and intervention programmes.[ ] in regards to personal development, children from all the age groups were tested to show the effectiveness of the theory that is being theorized by bowlby. they range from individual therapy to public health programmes to interventions designed for foster caregivers. for infants and younger children, the focus is on increasing the responsiveness and sensitivity of the caregiver, or if that is not possible, placing the child with a different caregiver.[ ][ ] an assessment of the attachment status or caregiving responses of the caregiver is invariably included, as attachment is a two-way process involving attachment behaviour and caregiver response. some programmes are aimed at foster carers because the attachment behaviours of infants or children with attachment difficulties often do not elicit appropriate caregiver responses. modern prevention and intervention programmes have proven successful.[ ] reactive attachment disorder and attachment disorder[edit] main articles: reactive attachment disorder and attachment disorder one atypical attachment pattern is considered to be an actual disorder, known as reactive attachment disorder or rad, which is a recognized psychiatric diagnosis (icd- f . / and dsm-iv-tr . ). against common misconception, this is not the same as 'disorganized attachment'. the essential feature of reactive attachment disorder is markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate social relatedness in most contexts that begins before age five years, associated with gross pathological care. there are two subtypes, one reflecting a disinhibited attachment pattern, the other an inhibited pattern. rad is not a description of insecure attachment styles, however problematic those styles may be; instead, it denotes a lack of age-appropriate attachment behaviours that may appear to resemble a clinical disorder.[ ] although the term "reactive attachment disorder" is now popularly applied to perceived behavioural difficulties that fall outside the dsm or icd criteria, particularly on the web and in connection with the pseudo-scientific attachment therapy, "true" rad is thought to be rare.[ ] "attachment disorder" is an ambiguous term, which may refer to reactive attachment disorder or to the more problematic insecure attachment styles (although none of these are clinical disorders). it may also be used to refer to proposed new classification systems put forward by theorists in the field,[ ] and is used within attachment therapy as a form of unvalidated diagnosis.[ ] one of the proposed new classifications, "secure base distortion" has been found to be associated with caregiver traumatization.[ ] clinical practice in adults and families[edit] as attachment theory offers a broad, far-reaching view of human functioning, it can enrich a therapist's understanding of patients and the therapeutic relationship rather than dictate a particular form of treatment.[ ] some forms of psychoanalysis-based therapy for adults—within relational psychoanalysis and other approaches—also incorporate attachment theory and patterns.[ ][ ] criticism[edit] 	 	this section needs expansion with: more points & references. two sentences & two references are not enough to balance the rest of the article. wp:npov is barely being followed.. you can help by adding to it. (march ) one criticism of attachment theory is that it represents the western middle-class perspective, ignoring the diverse caregiving values and practices in the majority of the world.[ ] other limitations are that it models based on stressful situations; and that it focuses heavily on attachment to the mother and doesn't value as much the attachments to other family members and peers.[ ] see also[edit] 	psychology portal 	zoology portal 	atlas personality 	attachment-based therapy (children) 	attachment measures 	attachment parenting 	attachment theory and psychology of religion 	fathers as attachment figures 	human bonding 	nurture kinship 	relationship science notes[edit] 	^ a b cassidy j ( ). "the nature of a child's ties". in cassidy j, shaver pr (eds.). handbook of attachment: theory, research and clinical applications. new york: guilford press. pp.  – . isbn  . 	^ a b bretherton i, munholland ka ( ). "internal working models in attachment relationships: a construct revisited". in cassidy j, shaver pr (eds.). handbook of attachment:theory, research and clinical applications. new york: guilford press. pp.  – . isbn  . 	^ a b prior & glaser , p.  . 	^ bretherton i ( ). "the origins of attachment theory: john bowlby and mary ainsworth". developmental psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . 	^ hazan c, shaver p (march ). "romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ simpson ja ( ). "attachment theory in modern evolutionary perspective". in cassidy j, shaver pr (eds.). handbook of attachment:theory, research and clinical applications. new york: guilford press. pp.  – . isbn  . 	^ a b c d rutter m (may ). "clinical implications of attachment concepts: retrospect and prospect". journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. pmid  . 	^ a b c d e schaffer r ( ). introducing child psychology. oxford: blackwell. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b berlin l, zeanah ch, lieberman af ( ). "prevention and intervention programs for supporting early attachment security". in cassidy j, shaver pr (eds.). handbook of attachment: theory, research and clinical applications. new york and london: guilford press. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ bretherton i ( ). "the origins of attachment theory: john bowlby and mary ainsworth". [bowlby] begin by noting that organisms at different levels of the phylogenetic scale regulate instinctive behavior in distinct ways, ranging from primitive reflex-like "fixed action patterns" to complex plan hierarchies with subgoals and strong learning components. in the most complex organisms, instinctive behaviors may be "goal-corrected" with continual on-course adjustments (such as a bird of prey adjusting its flight to the movements of the prey). the concept of cybernetically controlled behavioral systems organized as plan hierarchies (miller, galanter, and pribram, ) thus came to replace freud's concept of drive and instinct. such systems regulate behaviors in ways that need not be rigidly innate, but – depending on the organism – can adapt in greater or lesser degrees to changes in environmental circumstances, provided that these do not deviate too much from the organism's environment of evolutionary adaptedness. such flexible organisms pay a price, however, because adaptable behavioral systems can more easily be subverted from their optimal path of development. for humans, bowlby speculates, the environment of evolutionary adaptedness probably resembles that of present-day hunter-gatherer societies. 	^ a b prior and glaser p. . 	^ bowlby ( ) p. . 	^ holmes p. . 	^ bowlby ( ) nd ed. pp. – . 	^ a b kobak r, madsen s ( ). 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[one author] has coined the term 'ethologism' as a label for the present vogue [in ] ... for uncritically invoking the findings from ethological studies of other species as necessary and sufficient explanations ... theory based on superficial analogies between species has always impeded biological understanding ... we conclude that a valid ethology of man must be based primarily on data derived from man, and not on data obtained from fish, birds, or other primates 	^ schur m ( ). "discussion of dr. john bowlby's paper". the psychoanalytic study of the child. : – . doi: . / . . . pmid  . bowlby ... assumes the fully innate, unlearned character of most complex behavior patterns ... (whereas recent animal studies showed) ... both the early impact of learning and the great intricacy of the interaction between mother and litter" ... (and applies) ... 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( ): – . doi: . /annurev.psych. . . . pmid  . s cid  . references[edit] 	bowlby j ( ). child care and the growth of love. london: penguin books. isbn  - - - - . version of who publication maternal care and mental health published for sale to the general public. 	bowlby j ( ) [ ]. attachment and loss. vol. . attachment (pelican ed.). london: penguin books. isbn  . 	bowlby j ( ). the making and breaking of affectional bonds. london: tavistock publications. isbn  - - - - . 	bowlby j ( ). attachment and loss. vol. . attachment ( nd ed.). new york: basic books. isbn  - . lccn  . oclc  . nlm . 	bowlby j ( ) [ ]. attachment. attachment and loss vol. i ( nd ed.). new york: basic books. isbn  . lccn  . oclc  . nlm . 	craik k ( ) [ ]. the nature of explanation. cambridge: cambridge university press. isbn  - - - - . 	elliot aj, reis ht (august ). "attachment and exploration in adulthood". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	holmes j ( ). john bowlby & attachment theory. makers of modern psychotherapy. london: routledge. isbn  x. 	karen r ( ). becoming attached: first relationships and how they shape our capacity to love. oxford and new york: oxford university press. isbn  . 	mercer, j ( ). understanding attachment: parenting, child care, and emotional development. westport, ct: praeger publishers. isbn  - . lccn  . oclc  . 	prior v, glaser d ( ). understanding attachment and attachment disorders: theory, evidence and practice. child and adolescent mental health, rcprtu. london and philadelphia: jessica kingsley publishers. isbn  . 	tinbergen n ( ). the study of instinct. oxford: oxford university press. isbn  - - - - . further reading[edit] 	library resources about attachment theory 	 	resources in your library 	resources in other libraries 	schore an ( ). affect regulation and the origin of the self: the neurobiology of emotional development. hillsdale, n.j.: l. erlbaum associates. isbn  - - - - . 	karen r (february ). 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	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 trust (social science) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	trust (social science) 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		the printable version is no longer supported and may have rendering errors. please update your browser bookmarks and please use the default browser print function instead. assumption of and reliance on the honesty of another party for other types of trust, see trust (disambiguation). 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e trust in others in europe country-level estimates of trust share of people agreeing with the statement "most people can be trusted" trust exists in interpersonal relationships. humans have a natural disposition to trust and to judge trustworthiness. this can be traced to the neurobiological structure and activity of a human brain. some studies indicate that trust can be altered e.g. by the application of oxytocin.[ ][ ] in a social context, trust has several connotations.[ ] definitions of trust[ ][ ] typically refer to situations characterized by the following aspects: one party (trustor) is willing to rely on the actions of another party (trustee), and the situation is typically directed to the future. in addition, the trustor (voluntarily or forcedly) abandons control over the actions performed by the trustee. as a consequence, the trustor is uncertain about the outcome of the other's actions; the trustor can only develop and evaluate expectations. such expectations are formed with a view to the motivations of the trustee, dependent on their characteristics, the situation, and their interaction.[ ] the uncertainty stems from the risk of failure or harm to the trustor if the trustee does not behave as desired. when it comes to the relationship between people and technology, the attribution of trust is a matter of dispute. the intentional stance[ ] demonstrates that trust can be validly attributed to human relationships with complex technologies. one of the key current challenges in the social sciences is to rethink how the rapid progress of technology has impacted constructs such as trust. this is especially true for information technology that dramatically alters causation in social systems.[ ] in the social sciences, the subtleties of trust are a subject of ongoing research. in sociology and psychology, the degree to which one party trusts another is a measure of belief in the honesty, fairness, or benevolence of another party. the term "confidence" is more appropriate for a belief in the competence of the other party. a failure in trust may be forgiven more easily if it is interpreted as a failure of competence rather than a lack of benevolence or honesty.[ ] in economics, trust is often conceptualized as reliability in transactions. in all cases, trust is a heuristic decision rule, allowing the human to deal with complexities that would require unrealistic effort in rational reasoning.[ ] contents 	 sociology 	 types of social trust 	 . influence of ethnic diversity 	 psychology 	 . social identity approach 	 philosophy 	 economics 	 management and organization science 	 systems 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links sociology sociology claims trust is one of several social constructs; an element of the social reality.[ ] other constructs frequently discussed together with trust include control, confidence, risk, meaning and power. trust is naturally attributable to relationships between social actors, both individuals and groups (social systems). sociology is concerned with the position and role of trust in social systems. interest in trust has grown significantly since the early eighties, from the early works of luhmann,[ ] barber[ ] and giddens[ ] (see[ ] for a more detailed overview). this growth of interest in trust has been stimulated by ongoing changes in society, specifically known as late modernity and post-modernity. sviatoslav contended that society needs trust because it increasingly finds itself operating at the edge between confidence in what is known from everyday experience and contingency of new possibilities. without trust, one should always consider all contingent possibilities, leading to paralysis by analysis.[ ] in this sense, trust acts as a decisional heuristic, allowing the decision maker to overcome bounded rationality[ ] and process what would otherwise be an excessively complex situation. trust can be seen as a bet on one of many contingent futures, specifically, the one that appears to deliver the greatest benefits. once the bet is decided (i.e. trust is granted), the trustor suspends his or her disbelief, and the possibility of a negative course of action is not considered at all. hence trust acts as a reducing agent of social complexity, allowing for cooperation.[ ] sociology tends to focus on two distinct views: the macro view of social systems, and a micro view of individual social actors (where it borders with social psychology). similarly, views on trust follow this dichotomy. on one side, the systemic role of trust can be discussed with a certain disregard to the psychological complexity underpinning individual trust. the behavioral approach to trust is usually assumed[ ] while actions of social actors are measurable, leading to statistical modelling of trust. this systemic approach can be contrasted[ ] with studies on social actors and their decision-making process, in anticipation that understanding of such a process will explain (and allow to model) the emergence of trust. sociology acknowledges that the contingency of the future creates dependency between social actors, and specifically that the trustor becomes dependent on the trustee. trust is seen as one of the possible methods to resolve such a dependency, being an attractive alternative to control.[ ] trust is specifically valuable if the trustee is much more powerful than the trustor, yet the trustor is under social obligation to support the trustee.[ ] modern information technologies have not only facilitated the transition towards a post-modern society, but have also challenged traditional views on trust. information systems research has identified that individuals have evolved to trust in technology, demonstrated by two primary constructs. the first consists of human-like constructs including benevolence, honesty and competence, whilst the second employs system-like constructs such as usefulness, reliability and functionality.[ ] the discussion surrounding the relationship between information technologies and trust is still in progress as research remains in its infant stages. types of social trust four types of social trust are recognized:[ ] 	generalized trust, or trust in strangers, is an important form of trust in modern society, involving a large amount of social interactions among strangers. 	out-group trust is the trust an individual has in members of a different group. this could be members of a different ethnic group, or citizens of a different country, for example. 	in-group trust is that which is placed in members of one's own group. 	trust in neighbors considers the relationships between individuals who share a common residential environment. influence of ethnic diversity several dozen studies have examined the impact of ethnic diversity on social trust. research published in the annual review of political science[ ] concluded that there were three key debates on the subject: 	why does ethnic diversity modestly reduce social trust? 	can contact reduce the negative association between ethnic diversity and social trust? 	is ethnic diversity a stand-in for social disadvantage? the review's meta-analysis of studies showed a consistent, though modest, negative relationship between ethnic diversity and social trust. ethnic diversity has the strongest negative impact on neighbor trust, in-group trust, and generalized trust. it did not appear to have a significant impact on out-group trust. the limited size of the impact means apocalyptic claims about it are exaggerated.[ ] psychology in psychology, trust is believing that the person who is trusted will do what is expected. according to the psychoanalyst erik erikson, development of basic trust is the first state of psychosocial development occurring, or failing, during the first two years of life. success results in feelings of security and optimism, while failure leads towards an orientation of insecurity and mistrust[ ] possibly resulting in attachment disorders.[ ] a person's dispositional tendency to trust others can be considered a personality trait and as such is one of the strongest predictors of subjective well-being.[ ] trust increases subjective well-being because it enhances the quality of one's interpersonal relationships; happy people are skilled at fostering good relationships.[ ] trust is integral to the idea of social influence: it is easier to influence or persuade someone who is trusting. the notion of trust is increasingly adopted to predict acceptance of behaviors by others, institutions (e.g. government agencies) and objects such as machines. yet once again, perceptions of honesty, competence and value similarity[ ] (slightly similar to benevolence) are essential. there are three different forms of trust commonly studied in psychology. trust is being vulnerable to someone even when they are trustworthy. trustworthiness are the characteristics or behaviors of one person that inspire positive expectations in another person. trust propensity is the ability to rely on others.[ ] once trust is lost, by obvious violation of one of these three determinants, it is very hard to regain. thus there is clear asymmetry in the building versus destruction of trust. increasingly in recent times, research has been conducted regarding the notion of trust and its social implications: 	in her book,[ ] barbara misztal attempts to combine all notions of trust together. she describes three basic things that trust does in the lives of people: it makes social life predictable, it creates a sense of community, and it makes it easier for people to work together. 	in the context of sexual trust, riki robbins[ ] describes four stages. these consist of perfect trust, damaged trust, devastated trust and restored trust.[ ] 	in the context of information theory, ed gerck defines and contrasts trust with social functions such as power, surveillance, and accountability.[ ][ ] 	from a social identity perspective, the propensity to trust strangers (see in-group favoritism) arises from the mutual knowledge of a shared group membership,[ ][ ] stereotypes,[ ] or the need to maintain the group's positive distinctiveness.[ ] despite the centrality of trust to the positive functioning of humans and relationships, very little is known about how and why trust evolves, is maintained, and is destroyed.[ ] one factor that enhances trust among humans is facial resemblance. through digital manipulation of facial resemblance in a two-person sequential trust game, supporting evidence was found that having similar facial features (facial resemblance) enhanced trust in a subject's respective partner.[ ] though facial resemblance was shown to increase trust, it also had the effect of decreased sexual desire in a particular partner. in a series of tests, digitally manipulated faces were presented to subjects to be evaluated for attractiveness within the context of a long-term or short-term relationship. the results showed that within the context of a short-term relationship, which is dependent on sexual desire, similar facial features caused a decrease in desire. within the context of a long-term relationship, which is dependent on trust, similar facial features increased the attractiveness of an individual, leading one to believe that facial resemblance and trust have great effects on relationships.[ ] interpersonal trust literature[ ] suggests that trust-diagnostic situations provide a means by which individuals can gauge or alter the level of trust in relationships. trust-diagnostic situations refer to in trust or "strain-test"[ ] situations which test partners' ability to act in the best interests of the other individual or the relationship, simultaneously rejecting that option which is in one's personal self-interest. trust-diagnostic situations occur throughout the course of everyday life, though can be created by individuals wanting to test the current level of trust in a relationship.[ ] low trust relationships are occur where individuals have little confidence their partner is truly concerned about them or the relationship.[ ] those in low trust relationships tend to make distress-maintaining attributions[ ][ ] whereby the consequences of partner's negative behavior become of greatest focus, and any impacts of positive actions are minimized. this feeds into the overarching notion that the individual's partner is disinterested in the relationship, and any positive acts are met with skepticism, leading to further negative outcomes.[ ] distrusting individuals may not always engage in opportunities for trusting relationships. someone who was subject to an abusive childhood may have been deprived of any evidence that trust is warranted in future interpersonal relationships.[ ] an important key to treating sexual victimization of a child is the rebuilding of trust between parent and child. failure for the adults to validate the sexual abuse contributes to the child's difficulty towards trusting self and others.[ ] moreover, trust can often be affected by the erosion of a marriage.[ ] children of divorce do not exhibit less trust in mothers, partners, spouses, friends, and associates than their peers of intact families. the impact of parental divorce is limited to trust in the father.[ ] social identity approach the social identity approach explains trust in strangers as a function of group-based stereotypes or in-group favoring behaviors based on salient group memberships. with regard to ingroup favoritism, people generally think well of strangers but expect better treatment from in-group members in comparison to out-group members. this greater expectation then translates into a higher propensity to trust an in-group rather than out-group member.[ ][ ][ ] it has been pointed out that it is only advantageous to form such expectations of an in-group stranger if they too know the group membership of the recipient.[ ] there is considerable empirical activity related to the social identity approach. allocator studies have frequently been employed to understand group-based trust in strangers.[ ][ ][ ][ ] they may be operationalized as unilateral or bilateral relationships of exchange. general social categories such as university affiliation, course majors, and even ad-hoc groups have been used to distinguish between in-group and out-group members. in unilateral studies of trust, the participant is asked to choose between envelopes containing money that was previously allocated by an in-group or out-group member.[ ] they have no prior or future opportunities for interaction, simulating brewer's notion that group membership was sufficient in bringing about group-based trust and hence cooperation.[ ] participants could expect an amount ranging from nothing to the maximum value an allocator could give out. bilateral studies of trust have employed an investment game devised by berg and colleagues where individuals choose to give a portion or none of their money to another.[ ] any amount given would be tripled and the receiver would then decide whether they would return the favor by giving money back to the sender. trusting behavior on the part of the sender and the eventual trustworthiness of the receiver was exemplified through the giving of money.[ ][ ] empirical research has demonstrated that when group membership is made salient and known to both parties, trust is granted more readily to in-group members than out-group members.[ ][ ][ ] this occurred even when the in-group stereotype was comparatively less positive than an out-group's (e.g. psychology versus nursing majors),[ ] in the absence of personal identity cues,[ ] and when participants had the option of a sure sum of money (i.e. in essence opting out of the need to trust a stranger).[ ] in contrast, when only the recipient was made aware of group membership, trust becomes reliant upon group stereotypes.[ ][ ] the group with the more positive stereotype was trusted (e.g. one's university affiliation over another)[ ] even over that of the in-group (e.g. nursing over psychology majors).[ ] another reason for in-groups favoring behaviors in trust could be attributed to the need to maintain in-group positive distinctiveness, particularly in the presence of social identity threat.[ ] trust in out-group strangers increased when personal cues to identity were revealed.[ ] philosophy whilst many philosophers have written about different forms of trust, most would agree interpersonal trust is the foundation on which these forms can be modeled.[ ] for an act to be classed as an expression of trust, it must not betray the expectations of the trustee. in this sense, some philosophers such as lagerspetz argue that trust is a kind of reliance, though not merely reliance.[ ] gambetta argued it is the inherent belief that others generally have good intentions which is the foundation for our reliance on them.[ ] philosophers such as annette baier have contended this view, establishing a difference between trust and reliance by saying that trust can be betrayed, whilst reliance can only be disappointed (baier , ).[ ] carolyn mcleod explains baier's argument by giving the following examples: we can rely on our clock to give the time, but we do not feel betrayed when it breaks, thus, we cannot say that we trusted it; we are not trusting when we are suspicious of the other person, because this is in fact an expression of distrust (mcleod ).[ ] the violation of trust warrants this sense of betrayal.[ ] thus, trust is different from reliance in the sense that a trustor accepts the risk of being betrayed. karen jones proposed that there is an emotional aspect to trust, an element of optimism[ ] that the trustee will do the right thing by the trustor, also described as affective trust.[ ] though, in some circumstances, we trust others even without the optimistic expectation, instead hoping the mere recognition that the person is being trusted in itself will prompt the favorable action. this is known as therapeutic trust[ ][ ] and gives both the trustee a reason to be trustworthy, and the trustor a reason to believe they are trustworthy. in these situations, the sense of betrayal upon violation of trust is commonly warranted. the definition of trust as a belief in something or a confident expectation about something[ ] eliminates the notion of risk, because it does not include whether the expectation or belief is favorable or unfavorable. for example, to have an expectation of a friend arriving to dinner late because she has habitually arrived late for the last fifteen years, is a confident expectation (whether or not we agree with her annoying late arrivals). the trust is not about what we wish for, but rather it is in the consistency of the data of our habits. as a result, there is no risk or sense of betrayal because the data now exists as collective knowledge. faulkner[ ] contrasts such predictive trust with aforementioned affective trust, proposing predictive trust may only warrant disappointment as a consequence of an inaccurate prediction, not betrayal. economics see also: consumer confidence trust in economics is treated as an explanation for a difference between actual human behavior and the one that can be explained by the individual desire to maximize one's utility. in economic terms, trust can provide an explanation of a difference between nash equilibrium and the observed equilibrium. such an approach can be applied to individuals as well as societies. levels of trust are higher in more equal rich countries and in more equal us states[ ] trust is important to economists for many reasons. taking the "market for lemons" transaction popularized by george akerlof as an example,[ ] if a buyer of a car doesn't trust the seller to not sell a lemon, the transaction won't be entered into. the buyer won't enter into the transaction in the absence of trust, even if the product is of great value to the buyer. trust can act as an economic lubricant, reducing the cost of transactions between parties, enabling new forms of cooperation and generally furthering business activities;[ ][ ] employment and prosperity. this observation [ ] created a significant interest in considering trust as a form of social capital and has led research into closer understanding of the process of creation and distribution of such capital. it has been claimed that a higher level of social trust is positively correlated with economic development. even though the original concept of 'high trust' and 'low trust' societies may not necessarily hold, it has been widely accepted and demonstrated that social trust benefits the economy [ ] and that a low level of trust inhibits economic growth. the absence of trust restricts growth in employment, wages and profits, thus reducing the overall welfare of society.[ ] theoretical economical modelling[ ] demonstrates that the optimum level of trust that a rational economic agent should exhibit in transactions is equal to the trustworthiness of the other party. such a level of trust leads to an efficient market. trusting less leads to the loss of economic opportunities, while trusting more leads to unnecessary vulnerabilities and potential exploitation. economics is also interested in quantifying trust, usually in monetary terms. the level of correlation between an increase in profit margin[ ] or a decrease in transactional costs can be used as indicators of the economic value of trust. economic 'trust games' are popularly used to empirically quantify trust in relationships under laboratory conditions. there are several games and game-like scenarios related to trust that have been tried, with certain preferences to those that allow the estimation of confidence in monetary terms.[ ] games of trust are designed in a way such that the nash equilibrium differs from pareto optimum so that no player alone can maximize his own utility by altering his selfish strategy without cooperation. cooperating partners can also benefit. the classical version of the game of trust has been described[ ] as an abstracted investment game, using the scenario of an investor and a broker. the investor can invest a fraction of his money, and broker can return only part of his gains. if both players follow their economical best interest, the investor should never invest and the broker will never be able to repay anything. thus the flow of money flow, its volume and character is attributable entirely to the existence of trust. the game can be played as a once-off, or repeatedly, with the same or different sets of players to distinguish between a general propensity to trust and trust within particular relationships. several other variants of this game exist. reversing rules lead to the game of distrust, pre-declarations can be used to establish intentions of players,[ ] while alterations to the distribution of gains can be used to manipulate perception of both players. the game can be also played by several players on the closed market,[ ] with or without information about reputation. other interesting games are e.g. binary-choice trust games,[ ] the gift-exchange game[ ] and various other forms of social games. specifically games based on the prisoner's dilemma[ ] are popularly used to link trust with economic utility and demonstrate the rationality behind reciprocity. the popularization of e-commerce opened the discussion of trust in economy to new challenges while at the same time elevating the importance of trust, and desire to understand customer decision to trust.[ ] for example, interpersonal relationships between buyers and sellers have been disintermediated by the technology,[ ] and consequentially required improvement.[ ] websites can influence the buyer to trust the seller, regardless of the seller's actual trustworthiness (e.g.[ ]). reputation-based systems improved on trust assessment by allowing to capture the collective perception of trustworthiness, generating significant interest in various models of reputation.[ ] management and organization science in management and organization science, trust is studied as a factor that can be managed and influenced by organizational actors. scholars have paid particular attention to how trust develops across individual and organizational levels of analysis.[ ] they suggest a reciprocal process where organizational structures influence individuals’ trust and, at the same time, individuals’ trust manifests in organizational structures. trust is also one of the conditions of an organizational culture that supports knowledge sharing.[ ] an organizational culture that supports knowledge sharing allows employees to feel secure and comfortable to share their knowledge, their work and their expertise.[ ][ ] structure often creates trust in a person that encourages them to feel comfortable and excel in the workplace; it makes an otherwise stressful environment manageable. by having a conveniently organized area to work on, concentration will increase as well as effort. management and organization science scholars have also paid attention to how trust is influenced by contracts and how trust interacts with formal mechanisms.[ ][ ] parallel to the very large interest in trust, scholars in management and related disciplines have made the case for the importance of distrust as a related but distinct construct. since the mid- s, a substantial body of organizational research has fallen into one of two distinct but nonexclusive paradigms of trust research.[ ] the first paradigm distinguishes between two major dimensions of trust. trust in another can be characterized as cognition-based trust (i.e., based on rational calculation) and affect-based trust (i.e., based on emotional attachment).[ ] for example, trust in an auto repair shop could come in the form of an assessment of the capabilities of the shop to do a good job repairing one's car (cognition-based trust) or having a longstanding relationship with the shop's owner (affect-based trust). the second paradigm distinguishes between the trustworthiness factors that give rise to trust (i.e., one’s perceived ability, benevolence, and integrity) and trust itself.[ ] together, these paradigms are useful for predicting how different dimensions of trust form in organizations via the demonstration of various trustworthiness attributes.[ ] systems in systems, a trusted component has a set of properties which another component can rely on. if a trusts b, a violation in those properties of b might compromise the correct operation of a. observe that those properties of b trusted by a might not correspond quantitatively or qualitatively to b's actual properties. this occurs when the designer of the overall system does not take the relation into account. in consequence, trust should be placed to the extent of the component's trustworthiness. the trustworthiness of a component is thus, not surprisingly, defined by how well it secures a set of functional and non-functional properties, deriving from its architecture, construction, and environment, and evaluated as appropriate.[ ] see also 	attachment theory 	credulity 	gullibility 	intimacy 	misplaced trust 	personal boundaries 	position of trust 	source criticism 	swift trust theory 	trust metric 	trusted system 	trust in computing references 	^ kosfeld, m.; heinrichs, m.; zak, p. j.; fischbacher, u.; fehr, e. 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"trust and responsiveness in strain-test situations: a dyadic perspective". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /a . issn  - . pmid  . 	^ a b rempel, john k.; ross, michael; holmes, john g. ( ). "trust and communicated attributions in close relationships". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . issn  - . pmid  . 	^ collins, nancy l. ( ). "working models of attachment: implications for explanation, emotion, and behavior". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . issn  - . pmid  . 	^ holtzworth-munroe, amy; jacobson, neil s. ( ). "causal attributions of married couples: when do they search for causes? what do they conclude when they do?". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . issn  - . pmid  . 	^ timmons-mitchell, jane. treating sexual victimization: developing trust-based relating in the mother-daughter dyad[isbn missing][page needed] 	^ brinig, margaret f. ( ). "belonging and trust: divorce and social capital". ssrn electronic journal. doi: . /ssrn. . issn  - . 	^ king, valarie (august ). "parental divorce and interpersonal trust in adult offspring". journal of marriage and family. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. jstor  . 	^ a b c d e f new issues and paradigms in research on social dilemmas. biel, anders., eek, daniel., gärling, tommy., gustafsson, mathias. [new york, n.y.]: springer. . isbn  - - - - . oclc  .cs maint: others (link) 	^ a b c guth, w.; levati, m.v.; ploner, m. ( ). "social identity and trust – an experimental investigation". the journal of socio-economics. ( ): – . doi: . /j.socec. . . . 	^ brewer, m.b. ( ). "the psychology of prejudice: ingroup love or outgroup hate?". journal of social issues. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . 	^ berg, j., dickhaut, j., & mccabe, k. ( ). "trust, reciprocity, and social history". games and economic behaviour, , – 	^ a b mcleod, carolyn ( ). zalta, edward n. (ed.). the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. metaphysics research lab, stanford university. retrieved october – via stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. 	^ lagerspetz, olli ( ). "trust: the tacit demand". library of ethics and applied philosophy. . doi: . / - - - - . isbn  - - - - . issn  - . 	^ gambetta, diego ( ). "can we trust trust?". trust: making and breaking cooperative relations. department of sociology, university of oxford: – . 	^ baier, annette ( ). "trust and antitrust". ethics. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . s cid  . 	^ hawley, katherine ( - - ). "trust, distrust and commitment". noûs. ( ): – . doi: . /nous. . hdl: / . issn  - . 	^ jones, karen ( ), "trust as an affective attitude", personal virtues, london: palgrave macmillan uk, pp.  – , doi: . / - - - - _ , isbn  - - - - , retrieved - - 	^ a b faulkner, paul ( ). knowledge on trust. oxford university press. doi: . /acprof:oso/ . . . isbn  - - - - . 	^ horsburgh, h. j. n. ( - - ). "the ethics of trust". the philosophical quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . jstor  . 	^ pettit, philip ( ). "the cunning of trust". philosophy & public affairs. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. issn  - . jstor  . 	^ "trust." online etymology dictionary. douglas harper, historian. may. . 	^ the spirit level: why more equal societies almost always do better. london, allen lane ( ). isbn  - - - - uk paperback edition isbn  - - - - ( ) 	^ akerlof, george a. ( ). "the market for "lemons": quality uncertainty and the market mechanism". the quarterly journal of economics. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ morgan, robert; hunt, s. (july ). "the commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing". the journal of marketing. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ zheng, j.; roehrich, j.k.; lewis, m.a. ( ). "the dynamics of contractual and relational governance: evidence from long-term public-private procurement arrangements". journal of purchasing and supply management. ( ): – . doi: . /j.pursup. . . . s cid  . 	^ fukuyama, f. ( ) trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity, touchstone books. 	^ zak, p. j., and knack, s. ( ) "trust and growth". economic journal, : – . 	^ pollitt, michael ( ). "the economics of trust, norms and networks". business ethics: a european review. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ braynov, s.; sandholm, t. ( ). "contracting with uncertain level of trust". computational intelligence. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / - . . s cid  . 	^ resnick, p. "the value of reputation on ebay: a controlled experiment". experimental economics, volume , issue , jun , pp. – . 	^ keser, c. ( ) "experimental games for the design of reputation management systems". ibm systems j., vol. , no. . 	^ berg, j., dickhaut, j., and mccabe, k. ( ) "trust, reciprocity, and social history", games and economic behavior , – . abstract. 	^ airiau, s., and sen, s. ( ) "learning to commit in repeated games". in: proc. of the fifth int. joint conf. on autonomous agents and multiagent systems (aamas ). 	^ bolton, g. e., katok, e., and ockenfels, a. ( ) "how effective are electronic reputation mechanisms? an experimental investigation". 	^ camerer, c.; weigelt, k. ( ). "experimental tests of a sequential equilibrium reputation model". econometrica. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ fehr, e., kirchsteiger, g., and riedl, a.. "does fairness prevent market clearing? an experimental investigation". quarterly journal of economics (may ), pp. – . 	^ poundstone, w. ( ). prisoner's dilemma. doubleday, ny. 	^ mcknight, d., h., chervany, n. l. ( ) "conceptualizing trust: a typology and e-commerce customer relationships model". proc. of the th hawaii int. conf. on system sciences. 	^ giddens, a. ( ) modernity and self-identity: self and society in the late modern age. polity press. 	^ golbeck, j. ( ). computing with social trust. springer. 	^ egger, f. n. "from interactions to transactions: designing the trust experience for business-to-consumer electronic commerce". phd thesis, eindhoven university of technology (the netherlands). 	^ chang, e., dillion, t., hussain, f. k. ( ) trust and reputation for service-oriented environments: technologies for building business intelligence and consumer confidence. john wiley & sons, ltd. 	^ fulmer, c. ashley; gelfand, michele j. ( - - ). "at what level (and in whom) we trust: trust across multiple organizational levels". journal of management. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ a b dalkir, kimiz ( ). knowledge management in theory and practice. cambridge, massachusetts: mit press. isbn  . 	^ vanhala, mika; puumalainen, kaisu; blomqvist, kirsimarja ( ). "impersonal trust: the development of the construct and the scale". personnel review. : – . 	^ poppo, laura; zenger, todd ( ). "do formal contracts and relational governance function as substitutes or complements?". strategic management journal. ( ): – . doi: . /smj. . issn  - . 	^ cao, zhi; lumineau, fabrice ( ). "revisiting the interplay between contractual and relational governance: a qualitative and meta-analytic investigation". journal of operations management. - ( ): – . doi: . /j.jom. . . . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ a b tomlinson, edward; schnackenberg, andrew; dawley, david; ash, steven ( ). "revisiting the trustworthiness-trust relationship: exploring the differential predictors of cognition- and affect-based trust". journal of organizational behavior. ( ): – . doi: . /job. . 	^ mcallister, daniel ( ). "affect-and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizations". academy of management journal. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ paulo verissimo, miguel correia, nuno f. neves, paulo sousa. "intrusion-resilient middleware design and validation". in annals of emerging research in information assurance, security and privacy services, h. raghav rao and shambhu upadhyaya (eds.), elsevier, to appear. . further reading 	bachmann, reinhard and zaheer, akbar (eds) ( ). handbook of trust research. cheltenham: edward elgar.[isbn missing] 	bicchieri, cristina, duffy, john and tolle, gil ( ). "trust among strangers", philosophy of science : – . 	marková, i., linell, p & gillespie, a. ( ). "trust and distrust in society". in marková, i. and gillespie, a. (eds.) trust and distrust: socio-cultural perspectives. greenwich, ct: information age publishing, inc. 	kelton, kari; fleischmann, kenneth r. & wallace, william a. ( ). "trust in digital information". journal of the american society for information science and technology, ( ): – . 	kini, a., & choobineh, j. (january ). "trust in electronic commerce: definition and theoretical considerations". paper presented at the thirty-first hawaii international conference on system sciences, kohala coast, hi. 	gillespie, a. ( ). "the intersubjective dynamics of trust, distrust and manipulation". in markova and gillespie (eds), trust & distrust: socio-cultural perspectives. charlotte, nc: info age. 	maister, david h., green, charles h. & galford, robert m. ( ). the trusted advisor. free press, new york[isbn missing] external links 		look up trustworthy in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiversity has learning resources about earning trust 		wikimedia commons has media related to trust. 	trust at philpapers 	trust at the indiana philosophy ontology project 	zalta, edward n. (ed.). "trust". stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. 	trust building activities 	trust: making and breaking cooperative relations, edited by diego gambetta 	am i trustworthy? ( ) educational video clip 	stony brook university weekly seminars on the issue of trust in the personal, religious, social, and scientific realms 	world database of trust harvey s. james, jr., ph.d (updated august ) a variety of definitions of trust are collected and listed. 	authority control 	 	gnd: - 	lccn: sh retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=trust_(social_science)&oldid= " 		categories: 	interpersonal relationships 	reputation management 	concepts in ethics 	accountability 	social constructionism 	social epistemology 	sociological terminology 	emotions 	moral psychology hidden categories: 	webarchive template wayback links 	cs maint: multiple names: authors list 	pages with missing isbns 	wikipedia articles needing page number citations from december 	cs maint: others 	cs : long volume value 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	commons category link is on wikidata 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	wikipedia articles with lccn identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	chishona 	dansk 	deutsch 	eesti 	español 	esperanto 	euskara 	français 	frysk 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	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e awe is an emotion comparable to wonder[ ] but less joyous. on robert plutchik's wheel of emotions[ ] awe is modeled as a combination of surprise and fear. one dictionary definition is "an overwhelming feeling of reverence, admiration, fear, etc., produced by that which is grand, sublime, extremely powerful, or the like: in awe of god; in awe of great political figures."[ ] another dictionary definition is a "mixed emotion of reverence, respect, dread, and wonder inspired by authority, genius, great beauty, sublimity, or might: we felt awe when contemplating the works of bach. the observers were in awe of the destructive power of the new weapon."[ ] in general, awe is directed at objects considered to be more powerful than the subject, such as the great pyramid of giza, the grand canyon, the vastness of the cosmos, or god.[ ][ ] contents 	 definitions 	 etymology 	 theories 	 . evolutionary theories 	 . non-evolutionary theories 	 research 	 . precipitants 	 . emotional experience 	 . physical displays 	 . personality and awe 	 . social consequences 	 awe and aweism 	 further reading 	 see also 	 references definitions[edit] awe is difficult to define, and the meaning of the word has changed over time. related concepts are wonder, admiration, elevation, and the sublime. in awe: the delights and dangers of our eleventh emotion, neuropsychologist and positive psychology guru pearsall presents a phenomenological study of awe. he defines awe as an "overwhelming and bewildering sense of connection with a startling universe that is usually far beyond the narrow band of our consciousness." pearsall sees awe as the th emotion, beyond those now scientifically accepted (i.e., love, fear, sadness, embarrassment, curiosity, pride, enjoyment, despair, guilt, and anger).”[ ] most definitions allow for awe to be a positive or a negative experience, but when asked to describe events that elicit awe, most people only cite positive experiences.[ ] etymology[edit] this atlanta lightning strike may have inspired awe. the term awe stems from the old english word ege, meaning “terror, dread, awe,” which may have arisen from the greek word áchos, meaning “pain.”[ ] the word awesome originated from the word awe in the late th century, to mean “filled with awe.”[ ] the word awful also originated from the word awe, to replace the old english word egeful (“dreadful”).[ ] theories[edit] evolutionary theories[edit] awe reinforces social hierarchies keltner and haidt[ ] proposed an evolutionary explanation for awe. they suggested that the current emotion of awe originated from feelings of primordial awe – a hard-wired response that low-status individuals felt in the presence of more powerful, high-status individuals, which would have been adaptive by reinforcing social hierarchies. this primordial awe would have occurred only when the high-status person had characteristics of vastness (in size, fame, authority, or prestige) that required the low-status individual to engage in piagetian accommodation (changing one’s mental representation of the world to accommodate the new experience). keltner and haidt propose that this primordial awe later generalized to any stimulus that is both vast and that requires accommodation. these stimuli still include being in the presence of a more powerful other (prototypical primordial awe), but also spiritual experiences, grand vistas, natural forces/disasters, human-made works, music, or the experience of understanding a grand scientific theory. keltner and haidt propose that awe can have both positive and negative connotations, and that there are five additional features of awe that can color one’s experience of the emotion: threat, beauty, ability, virtue, and the supernatural. awe is a sexually-selected characteristic keltner and haidt’s model has been critiqued by some researchers, including by psychologist vladimir j. konečni.[ ] konečni argued that people can experience awe, especially aesthetic awe (of which, according to him, a "sublime stimulus-in-context" is the principal cause) only when they are not in actual physical danger. konečni postulated that the evolutionary origins of awe are from unexpected encounters with natural wonders, which would have been sexually selected for because reverence, intellectual sensitivity, emotional sensitivity, and elite membership would have been attractive characteristics in a mate, and these characteristics would also have given individuals greater access to awe-inspiring situations. since high-status people are more likely to be safe from danger and to have access to awe-inspiring situations, konečni argued that high-status people should feel awe more often than low-status people. however, this hypothesis has yet to be tested and verified. awe increases systematic processing a third evolutionary theory is that awe serves to draw attention away from the self and toward the environment.[ ][ ][ ] this occurs as a way to build informational resources when in the presence of novel and complex stimuli that cannot be assimilated by current knowledge structures. in other words, awe functions to increase systematic, accommodative processing, and this would have been adaptive for survival. this hypothesis is the most recent and has received the most empirical support, as described in the section on social consequences of awe. non-evolutionary theories[edit] sundararajan's awe humanistic/forensic psychologist louis sundararajan[ ] also critiqued keltner and haidt’s model by arguing that being in the presence of a more powerful other elicits admiration, but does not require mental accommodation because admiration merely reinforces existing social hierarchies. sundararajan expanded upon keltner and haidt’s model by arguing that first, an individual must be confronted with perceived vastness. if an individual can assimilate this perceived vastness into her or his existing mental categories, s/he will not experience awe. if an individual cannot assimilate the perceived vastness, then s/he will need to accommodate to the new information (change her or his mental categories). if this is not accomplished, an individual will experience trauma, such as developing ptsd. if an individual can accommodate, s/he will experience awe and wonder. by this model, the same vast experience could lead to increased rigidity (when assimilation succeeds), increased flexibility (when assimilation fails but accommodation succeeds), or psychopathology (when both assimilation and accommodation fail). sundararajan did not speculate on the evolutionary origins of awe. research[edit] despite the meaningfulness that feelings of awe can bring, it has rarely been scientifically studied. as richard lazarus ( ) wrote in his book on emotions, “given their [awe and wonder’s] importance and emotional power, it is remarkable that so little scientific attention has been paid to aesthetic experience as a source of emotion in our lives” (p.  ). research on awe is in its infancy and has primarily focused on describing awe (e.g., physical displays of awe and who is likely to experience awe) and the social consequences of awe (e.g., helping behavior and susceptibility to persuasion by weak messages). precipitants[edit] shiota, keltner, and mossman ( )[ ] had participants write about a time they felt awe and found that nature and art/music were frequently cited as the eliciting stimulus. although most definitions allow for awe to be positive or negative, participants described only positive precipitants to awe, and it is therefore possible that positive awe and awe+fear (i.e., horror) are distinctly different emotions. emotional experience[edit] in the same set of experiments by shiota, keltner, and mossman ( ),[ ] the researchers had participants write about a time they recently experienced natural beauty (awe condition) or accomplishment (pride condition). when describing the experience of natural beauty, participants were more likely to report that they felt unaware of day-to-day concerns, felt the presence of something greater, didn't want the experience to end, felt connected with the world, and felt small or insignificant. it is not yet known whether awe is experienced differently in different cultures.[ ] physical displays[edit] researchers have also attempted to observe the physical, non-verbal reactions to awe by asking participants to remember a time they felt awe and to express the emotion nonverbally.[ ] using this method, researchers observed that awe is often displayed through raised inner eyebrows ( %), widened eyes ( %), and open, slightly drop-jawed mouths ( %). a substantial percent of people also display awe by slightly jutting forward their head ( %) and visibly inhaling ( %), but smiling is uncommon ( %). cross-cultural research is needed to determine whether physical displays of awe differ by culture. personality and awe[edit] some individuals may be more prone to experiencing awe. using self- and peer-reports, researchers[ ] found that regularly experiencing awe was associated with openness to experience (self and peer-ratings) and extroversion (self-ratings). later studies[ ] also found that people who regularly experience awe ("awe-prone") have lower need for cognitive closure and are more likely to describe themselves in oceanic (e.g. "i am an inhabitant of the planet earth"), individuated, and universal terms, as opposed to more specific terms (e.g. "i have blonde hair"). social consequences[edit] a more recent study found that experiencing awe increased perceptions of time and led to a greater willingness to donate time, but not to donate money.[ ] the greater willingness to donate time appeared to be driven by decreased impatience after experiencing awe. experiencing awe also led participants to report greater momentary life satisfaction and stronger preferences for experiential versus material goods (e.g. prefer a massage to a watch).[ ] awe, unlike most other positive emotions, has been shown to increase systematic processing, rather than heuristic processing, leading participants who experience awe to become less susceptible to weak arguments.[ ] awe and aweism[edit] awe has recently become a topic of interest in atheist groups, in response to statements from some religious individuals who say that atheists do not experience awe, or that experiencing awe makes one spiritual or religious, rather than an atheist. for example, see oprah's comment that she would not consider swimmer diana nyad an atheist because nyad experiences awe, as well as the response to this video by interfaith activist chris stedman.[ ] awe is often tied to religion, but awe can also be secular. for more examples, see the writings on being an "aweist"[ ] by sociologist and atheist phil zuckerman, the book religion for atheists[ ] by author alain de botton, and the video on how secular institutions should inspire awe by performance philosopher jason silva.[ ] further reading[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: awe 		look up awe in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	pearsall, paul ( ). awe: the delights and dangers of our eleventh emotion. health communications, inc. 	de botton, alain ( ). religion for atheists: a non-believer's guide to the uses of religion. vintage. 	schneider, kirk j. ( ). awakening to awe: personal stories of profound transformation. jason aronson, inc. 	schneider, kirk j. ( ). rediscovery of awe: splendor, mystery and the fluid center of life. paragon house. see also[edit] 	oceanic feeling references[edit] 	^ a b keltner, d.; haidt, j. ( ). "approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. cognition and emotion" (pdf) ( ): – . cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ plutchik, r. "the nature of emotions". american scientist. archived from the original on july , . retrieved april . 	^ "awe zw ". dictionary. reference.com. 	^ "awe". the free dictionary. 	^ russell, james a. ( october ). pleasure. psychology press. isbn  . retrieved october – via google books. 	^ greidanus, sidney ( may ). preaching christ from ecclesiastes: foundations for expository sermons. wm. b. eerdmans publishing. isbn  . retrieved october – via google books. 	^ pearsall, paul ( ). awe: the delights and dangers of our eleventh emotion. health communications, inc. isbn  - . 	^ a b c d e shiota, michelle; keltner, dacher; mossman, amanda ( ). "the nature of awe: elicitors, appraisals, and effects on self-concept". cognition and emotion. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ "awe etymology". dictionary. 	^ "awesome". oxford dictionaries. 	^ "awful". dictionary.com. 	^ konečni, vladimir ( ). "the aesthetic trinity: awe, being moved, thrills. bulletin of psychology and the arts" (pdf). cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ a b shiota, michelle; keltner, dacher; john, oliver ( ). "positive emotion dispositions differentially associated with big five personality and attachment style". the journal of positive psychology. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ a b griskevicius, vladus; shiota, michelle; neufeld, samantha ( ). "influence of different positive emotions on persuasion processing: a functional evolutionary approach". emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ sundararajan, louise ( ). "religious awe: potential contributions of negative theology to psychology, "positive" or otherwise" (pdf). cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ "apa psycnet". psycnet.apa.org. retrieved - - . 	^ shiota, michelle; campos, belinda; keltner, dacher ( ). "the faces of positive emotion: prototype displays of awe, amusement, and pride". annals of the new york academy of sciences. ( ): – . doi: . /annals. . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ a b rudd, melanie; vohs, kathleen; aaker, jennifer ( ). "awe expands people's perception of time, alters decision making, and enhances well-being". psychological science. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ stedman, chris (october , ). "what oprah gets wrong about atheism". cnn belief blog. 	^ "aweism". atheist nexus. september , . 	^ de botton, alain ( ). religion for atheists. penguin uk. isbn  . 	^ silva, jason (august , ). "how can secular institutions inspire the same awe of religious ones?". the s.p.a.c.e. program. archived from the original on december , . retrieved november , . 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 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is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 attachment disorder - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	attachment disorder 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 			attachment disorder 	specialty	psychiatry attachment disorder is a broad term intended to describe disorders of mood, behavior, and social relationships arising from unavailability of normal socializing care and attention from primary care giving figures in early childhood. such a failure would result from unusual early experiences of neglect, abuse, abrupt separation from caregivers between three months and three years of age, frequent change or excessive numbers of caregivers, or lack of caregiver responsiveness to child communicative efforts resulting in a lack of basic trust.[ ] a person's attachment style is permanently established before the age of three.[citation needed] a problematic history of social relationships occurring after about age three may be distressing to a child, but does not result in attachment disorder. the term attachment disorder is used to describe emotional and behavioral problems of young children, and also applied to school-age children, teenagers and adults. the specific difficulties implied depend on the age of the individual being assessed, and a child's attachment-related behaviors may be very different with one familiar adult than with another, suggesting that the disorder is within the relationship and interactions of the two people rather than an aspect of one or the other personality.[ ] no list of symptoms can legitimately be presented but generally the term attachment disorder refers to the absence or distortion of age appropriate social behaviors with adults. for example, in a toddler, attachment-disordered behavior could include a failure to stay near familiar adults in a strange environment or to be comforted by contact with a familiar person, whereas in a six-year-old attachment-disordered behavior might involve excessive friendliness and inappropriate approaches to strangers. there are currently two main areas of theory and practice relating to the definition and diagnosis of attachment disorder, and considerable discussion about a broader definition altogether. the first main area, based on scientific enquiry, is found in academic journals and books and pays close attention to attachment theory. it is described in icd- as reactive attachment disorder, or "rad" for the inhibited form, and disinhibited attachment disorder, or "dad" for the disinhibited form. in dsm-iv-tr both comparable inhibited and disinhibited types are called reactive attachment disorder or "rad".[ ] the second area is linked to the use of pseudoscientific attachment therapies to treat children seen to be exhibiting “attachment disorders”.[ ][ ] these therapies are controversial and have been linked to the documented deaths of at least six children during therapy.[ ] this approach to the diagnosis and treatment of attachment disorders is considered pseudoscientific.[ ] it can be found in clinical practice, on websites and in books and publications, but has little or no evidence base. it makes controversial claims relating to a basis in attachment theory.[ ] some authors have suggested that attachment, as an aspect of emotional development, is better assessed along a spectrum than considered to fall into two non-overlapping categories. this spectrum would have at one end the characteristics called secure attachment; midway along the range of disturbance would be insecure or other undesirable attachment styles; at the other extreme would be non-attachment.[ ] agreement has not yet been reached with respect to diagnostic criteria.[ ] finally, the term is also sometimes used to cover a third area addressing difficulties arising in relation to various attachment styles which may not be disorders in the clinical sense. contents 	 attachment and attachment disorder 	 boris and zeanah's typology 	 problems of attachment style 	 possible mechanisms 	 diagnosis 	 . classification 	 treatment 	 pseudoscientific diagnoses and treatment 	 see also 	 notes 	 references 	 further reading attachment and attachment disorder[edit] main articles: attachment theory and attachment in children attachment theory is primarily an evolutionary and ethological theory. in relation to infants, it primarily consists of proximity seeking to an attachment figure in the face of threat, for the purpose of survival.[ ] although an attachment is a "tie," it is not synonymous with love and affection, despite their often going together and a healthy attachment is considered to be an important foundation of all subsequent relationships. infants become attached to adults who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with the infant, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some time. parental responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment which in turn lead to 'internal working models' which will guide the individual's feelings, thoughts and expectations in later relationships.[ ] a fundamental aspect of attachment is called basic trust. basic trust is a broader concept than attachment in that it extends beyond the infant-caregiver relationship to "... the wider social network of trustable and caring others."[ ] and "... links confidence about the past with faith about the future."[ ] "erikson argues that the sense of trust in oneself and others is the foundation of human development"[ ] and with a balance of mistrust produces hope. in the clinical sense, a disorder is a condition requiring treatment as opposed to risk factors for subsequent disorders.[ ] there is a lack of consensus about the precise meaning of the term 'attachment disorder' although there is general agreement that such disorders only arise following early adverse caregiving experiences. reactive attachment disorder indicates the absence of either or both the main aspects of proximity seeking to an identified attachment figure. this can occur either in institutions, or with repeated changes of caregiver, or from extremely neglectful primary caregivers who show persistent disregard for the child's basic attachment needs after the age of months. current official classifications of rad under dsm-iv-tr and icd- are largely based on this understanding of the nature of attachment. the words attachment style or pattern refer to the various types of attachment arising from early care experiences, called secure, anxious-ambivalent, anxious-avoidant, (all organized), and disorganized. some of these styles are more problematic than others, and, although they are not disorders in the clinical sense, are sometimes discussed under the term 'attachment disorder'. discussion of the disorganized attachment style sometimes includes this style under the rubric of attachment disorders because disorganized attachment is seen as the beginning of a developmental trajectory that will take the individual ever further from the normal range, culminating in actual disorders of thought, behavior, or mood.[ ] early intervention for disorganized attachment, or other problematic styles, is directed toward changing the trajectory of development to provide a better outcome later in the person's life. zeanah and colleagues proposed an alternative set of criteria (see below) of three categories of attachment disorder, namely "no discriminated attachment figure", "secure base distortions" and "disrupted attachment disorder". these classifications consider that a disorder is a variation that requires treatment rather than an individual difference within the normal range.[ ] boris and zeanah's typology[edit] many leading attachment theorists, such as zeanah and leiberman, have recognized the limitations of the dsm-iv-tr and icd- criteria and proposed broader diagnostic criteria. there is as yet no official consensus on these criteria. the apsac taskforce recognised in its recommendations that "attachment problems extending beyond rad, are a real and appropriate concern for professionals working with children", and set out recommendations for assessment.[ ] boris and zeanah ( ),[ ] have offered an approach to attachment disorders that considers cases where children have had no opportunity to form an attachment, those where there is a distorted relationship, and those where an existing attachment has been abruptly disrupted. this would significantly extend the definition beyond the icd- and dsm-iv-tr definitions because those definitions are limited to situations where the child has no attachment or no attachment to a specified attachment figure. boris and zeanah use the term "disorder of attachment" to indicate a situation in which a young child has no preferred adult caregiver. such children may be indiscriminately sociable and approach all adults, whether familiar or not; alternatively, they may be emotionally withdrawn and fail to seek comfort from anyone. this type of attachment problem is parallel to reactive attachment disorder as defined in dsm and icd in its inhibited and disinhibited forms as described above. boris and zeanah also describe a condition they term "secure base distortion". in this situation, the child has a preferred familiar caregiver, but the relationship is such that the child cannot use the adult for safety while gradually exploring the environment. such children may endanger themselves, may cling to the adult, may be excessively compliant, or may show role reversals in which they care for or punish the adult. the third type of disorder discussed by boris and zeanah is termed "disrupted attachment". this type of problem, which is not covered under other approaches to disordered attachment, results from an abrupt separation or loss of a familiar caregiver to whom attachment has developed. the young child's reaction to such a loss is parallel to the grief reaction of an older person, with progressive changes from protest (crying and searching) to despair, sadness, and withdrawal from communication or play, and finally detachment from the original relationship and recovery of social and play activities. most recently, daniel schechter and erica willheim have shown a relationship between maternal violence-related posttraumatic stress disorder and secure base distortion (see above) which is characterized by child recklessness, separation anxiety, hypervigilance, and role-reversal.[ ] problems of attachment style[edit] main articles: attachment theory and attachment in children the majority of -year-old children can tolerate brief separations from familiar caregivers and are quickly comforted when the caregivers return. these children also use familiar people as a "secure base" and return to them periodically when exploring a new situation. such children are said to have a secure attachment style, and characteristically continue to develop well both cognitively and emotionally. smaller numbers of children show less positive development at age months. their less desirable attachment styles may be predictors of poor later social development. although these children's behavior at months is not a serious problem, they appear to be on developmental trajectories that will end in poor social skills and relationships. because attachment styles may serve as predictors of later development, it may be appropriate to think of certain attachment styles as part of the range of attachment disorders. insecure attachment styles in toddlers involve unusual reunions after separation from a familiar person. the children may snub the returning caregiver, or may go to the person but then resist being picked up. they may reunite with the caregiver, but then persistently cling to the caregiver, and fail to return to their previous play. these children are more likely to have later social problems with peers and teachers, but some of them spontaneously develop better ways of interacting with other people. a small group of toddlers show a distressing way of reuniting after a separation. called a disorganized/disoriented style, this reunion pattern can involve looking dazed or frightened, freezing in place, backing toward the caregiver or approaching with head sharply averted, or showing other behaviors that seem to imply fearfulness of the person who is being sought.[ ] disorganized attachment has been considered a major risk factor for child psychopathology, as it appears to interfere with regulation or tolerance of negative emotions and may thus foster aggressive behavior.[ ] disorganized patterns of attachment have the strongest links to concurrent and subsequent psychopathology, and considerable research has demonstrated both within-the-child and environmental correlates of disorganized attachment.[ ] possible mechanisms[edit] one study has reported a connection between a specific genetic marker and disorganized attachment (not rad) associated with problems of parenting.[ ] another author has compared atypical social behavior in genetic conditions such as williams syndrome with behaviors symptomatic of rad.[ ] typical attachment development begins with unlearned infant reactions to social signals from caregivers. the ability to send and receive social communications through facial expressions, gestures and voice develops with social experience by seven to nine months. this makes it possible for an infant to interpret messages of calm or alarm from face or voice. at about eight months, infants typically begin to respond with fear to unfamiliar or startling situations, and to look to the faces of familiar caregivers for information that either justifies or soothes their fear. this developmental combination of social skills and the emergence of fear reactions results in attachment behavior such as proximity-seeking, if a familiar, sensitive, responsive, and cooperative adult is available. further developments in attachment, such as negotiation of separation in the toddler and preschool period, depend on factors such as the caregiver's interaction style and ability to understand the child's emotional communications.[ ] with insensitive or unresponsive caregivers, or frequent changes, an infant may have few experiences that encourage proximity seeking to a familiar person. an infant who experiences fear but who cannot find comforting information in an adult's face and voice may develop atypical ways of coping with fearfulness such as the maintenance of distance from adults, or the seeking of proximity to all adults. these symptoms accord with the dsm criteria for reactive attachment disorder.[ ] either of these behavior patterns may create a developmental trajectory leading ever farther from typical attachment processes such as the development of an internal working model of social relationships that facilitates both the giving and the receiving of care from others.[ ][ ] atypical development of fearfulness, with a constitutional tendency either to excessive or inadequate fear reactions, might be necessary before an infant is vulnerable to the effects of poor attachment experiences.[ ] alternatively, the two variations of rad may develop from the same inability to develop "stranger-wariness" due to inadequate care. appropriate fear responses may only be able to develop after an infant has first begun to form a selective attachment. an infant who is not in a position to do this cannot afford not to show interest in any person as they may be potential attachment figures. faced with a swift succession of carers the child may have no opportunity to form a selective attachment until the possible biologically-determined sensitive period for developing stranger-wariness has passed. it is thought this process may lead to the disinhibited form.[ ] in the inhibited form infants behave as if their attachment system has been "switched off". however the innate capacity for attachment behavior cannot be lost. this may explain why children diagnosed with the inhibited form of rad from institutions almost invariably go on to show formation of attachment behavior to good carers. however children who suffer the inhibited form as a consequence of neglect and frequent changes of caregiver continue to show the inhibited form for far longer when placed in families.[ ] additionally, the development of theory of mind may play a role in emotional development. theory of mind is the ability to know that the experience of knowledge and intention lies behind human actions such as facial expressions. although it is reported that very young infants have different responses to humans than to non-human objects, theory of mind develops relatively gradually and possibly results from predictable interactions with adults. however, some ability of this kind must be in place before mutual communication through gaze or other gesture can occur, as it does by seven to nine months. some neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism, have been attributed to the absence of the mental functions that underlie theory of mind. it is possible that the congenital absence of this ability, or the lack of experiences with caregivers who communicate in a predictable fashion, could underlie the development of reactive attachment disorder.[ ][ ] diagnosis[edit] main article: attachment measures recognised assessment methods of attachment styles, difficulties or disorders include the strange situation procedure (mary ainsworth),[ ][ ][ ] the separation and reunion procedure and the preschool assessment of attachment ("paa"),[ ] the observational record of the caregiving environment ("orce")[ ] and the attachment q-sort ("aq-sort").[ ] more recent research also uses the disturbances of attachment interview or "dai" developed by smyke and zeanah, ( ).[ ] this is a semi-structured interview designed to be administered by clinicians to caregivers. it covers items, namely having a discriminated, preferred adult, seeking comfort when distressed, responding to comfort when offered, social and emotional reciprocity, emotional regulation, checking back after venturing away from the care giver, reticence with unfamiliar adults, willingness to go off with relative strangers, self endangering behavior, excessive clinging, vigilance/hypercompliance and role reversal. classification[edit] main article: reactive attachment disorder icd- describes reactive attachment disorder of childhood, known as rad, and disinhibited disorder of childhood, less well known as dad. dsm-iv-tr also describes reactive attachment disorder of infancy or early childhood. it divides this into two subtypes, inhibited type and disinhibited type, both known as rad. the two classifications are similar and both include: 	markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate social relatedness in most contexts, 	the disturbance is not accounted for solely by developmental delay and does not meet the criteria for pervasive developmental disorder, 	onset before years of age, 	requires a history of significant neglect, and 	implicit lack of identifiable, preferred attachment figure. icd- includes in its diagnosis psychological and physical abuse and injury in addition to neglect. this is somewhat controversial, being a commission rather than omission and because abuse in and of itself does not lead to attachment disorder. the inhibited form is described as "a failure to initiate or respond ... to most social interactions, as manifest by excessively inhibited responses" and such infants do not seek and accept comfort at times of threat, alarm or distress, thus failing to maintain 'proximity', an essential element of attachment behavior. the disinhibited form shows "indiscriminate sociability ... excessive familiarity with relative strangers" (dsm-iv-tr) and therefore a lack of 'specificity', the second basic element of attachment behavior. the icd- descriptions are comparable. 'disinhibited' and 'inhibited' are not opposites in terms of attachment disorder and can co-exist in the same child. the inhibited form has a greater tendency to ameliorate with an appropriate caregiver whilst the disinhibited form is more enduring.[ ] while rad is likely to occur following neglectful and abusive childcare, there should be no automatic diagnosis on this basis alone as children can form stable attachments and social relationships despite marked abuse and neglect. abuse can occur alongside the required factors but on its own does not explain attachment disorder. experiences of abuse are associated with the development of disorganised attachment, in which the child prefers a familiar caregiver, but responds to that person in an unpredictable and somewhat bizarre way. within official classifications, attachment disorganization is a risk factor but not in itself an attachment disorder. further, although attachment disorders tend to occur in the context of some institutions, repeated changes of primary caregiver, or extremely neglectful identifiable primary caregivers who show persistent disregard for the child's basic attachment needs, not all children raised in these conditions develop an attachment disorder.[ ] treatment[edit] main article: attachment-based therapy (children) there are a variety of mainstream prevention programs and treatment approaches for attachment disorder, attachment problems and moods or behaviors considered to be potential problems within the context of attachment theory. all such approaches for infants and younger children concentrate on increasing the responsiveness and sensitivity of the caregiver, or if that is not possible, changing the caregiver.[ ][ ][ ][ ] such approaches include 'watch, wait and wonder,'[ ] manipulation of sensitive responsiveness,[ ][ ] modified 'interaction guidance,'.[ ] 'preschool parent psychotherapy,'.[ ] circle of security',[ ][ ] attachment and biobehavioral catch-up (abc),[ ] the new orleans intervention,[ ][ ][ ] and parent-child psychotherapy.[ ] other known treatment methods include developmental, individual-difference, relationship-based therapy (dir) (also referred to as floor time) by stanley greenspan, although dir is primarily directed to treatment of pervasive developmental disorders[ ] some of these approaches, such as that suggested by dozier, consider the attachment status of the adult caregiver to play an important role in the development of the emotional connection between adult and child. this includes foster parents, as children with poor attachment experiences often do not elicit appropriate caregiver responses from their attachment behaviors despite 'normative' care.[ ] treatment for reactive attachment disorder for children usually involves a mix of therapy, counseling, and parenting education. these must be designed to make sure the child has a safe environment to live in and to develop positive interactions with caregivers and improves their relationships with their peers. medication can be used as a way to treat similar conditions, like depression, anxiety, or hyperactivity; however, there is no quick fix for treating reactive attachment disorder. a pediatrician may recommend a treatment plan. for example, a mix of family therapy, individual psychological counseling, play therapy, special education services and parenting skills classes.[ ] pseudoscientific diagnoses and treatment[edit] main article: attachment therapy in the absence of officially recognized diagnostic criteria, and beyond the ambit of the discourse on a broader set of criteria discussed above, the term attachment disorder has been increasingly used by some clinicians to refer to a broader set of children whose behavior may be affected by lack of a primary attachment figure, a seriously unhealthy attachment relationship with a primary caregiver, or a disrupted attachment relationship.[ ] although there are no studies examining diagnostic accuracy, concern is expressed as to the potential for over-diagnosis based on broad checklists and 'snapshots'.[ ] this form of therapy, including diagnosis and accompanying parenting techniques, is scientifically unvalidated and is not considered to be part of mainstream psychology or, despite its name, to be based on attachment theory, with which it is considered incompatible.[ ][ ] it has been described as potentially abusive and a pseudoscientific intervention, that has resulted in tragic outcomes for children.[ ] a common feature of this form of diagnosis within attachment therapy is the use of extensive lists of "symptoms" which include many behaviours that are likely to be a consequence of neglect or abuse, but are not related to attachment, or not related to any clinical disorder at all. such lists have been described as "wildly inclusive".[ ] the apsac taskforce ( ) gives examples of such lists ranging across multiple domains from some elements within the dsm-iv criteria to entirely non-specific behavior such as developmental lags, destructive behaviors, refusal to make eye contact, cruelty to animals and siblings, lack of cause and effect thinking, preoccupation with fire, blood and gore, poor peer relationships, stealing, lying, lack of a conscience, persistent nonsense questions or incessant chatter, poor impulse control, abnormal speech patterns, fighting for control over everything, and hoarding or gorging on food. some checklists suggest that among infants, "prefers dad to mom" or "wants to hold the bottle as soon as possible" are indicative of attachment problems. the apsac taskforce expresses concern that high rates of false positive diagnoses are virtually certain and that posting these types of lists on web sites that also serve as marketing tools may lead many parents or others to conclude inaccurately that their children have attachment disorders."[ ] there is also a considerable variety of treatments for alleged attachment disorders diagnosed on the controversial alternative basis outlined above, popularly known as attachment therapy. these therapies have little or no evidence base and vary from talking or play therapies to more extreme forms of physical and coercive techniques, of which the best known are holding therapy, rebirthing, rage-reduction and the evergreen model. in general these therapies are aimed at adopted or fostered children with a view to creating attachment in these children to their new caregivers. critics maintain these therapies are not based on an accepted version of attachment theory.[ ] the theoretical base is broadly a combination of regression and catharsis, accompanied by parenting methods which emphasise obedience and parental control.[ ] these therapies concentrate on changing the child rather than the caregiver.[ ] an estimated six children have died as a consequence of the more coercive forms of such treatments and the application of the accompanying parenting techniques.[ ][ ][ ] two of the most well-known cases are those of candace newmaker in and the gravelles in through . following the associated publicity, some advocates of attachment therapy began to alter views and practices to be less potentially dangerous to children. this change may have been hastened by the publication of a task force report on the subject in january , commissioned by the american professional society on the abuse of children (apsac) which was largely critical of attachment therapy, although these practices continue.[ ] in april , attach, an organisation originally set up by attachment therapists, formally adopted a white paper stating its unequivocal opposition to the use of coercive practices in therapy and parenting.[ ] see also[edit] 	adult attachment disorder 	complex post-traumatic stress disorder 	dead mother complex 	emotional dysregulation 	john bowlby notes[edit] 	^ fonagy, peter. attachment theory and psychoanalysis. other professional, . print. 	^ zeanah, 	^ a b chaffin et al. ( ) p 	^ a b c berlin lj, et al. ( ). "preface". in berlin lj, ziv y, amaya-jackson l, greenberg mt (eds.). enhancing early attachments: theory, research, intervention and policy. duke series in child development and public policy. guilford press. pp. xvii. isbn  - - - - . 	^ berlin lj, et al. ( ), "preface", in berlin lj, ziv y, amaya-jackson l, greenberg mt (eds.), enhancing early attachments: theory, research, intervention and policy, duke series in child development and public policy, guilford press, pp. xvii, isbn  - - - - 	^ prior & glaser p 	^ o'connor & zeanah, ( ) 	^ chaffin et al. p. ( ) 	^ bowlby ( ) p 	^ bretherton & munholland ( ) p 	^ a b newman, barbara m., and philip r. newman. development through life: a psychosocial approach. th ed. stamford: cenage learning, . . print. isbn  	^ kail, robert v., and john c. cavanaugh. human development: a life-span view. th ed. australia: wadsworth cengage learning, . . print. 	^ aacap , p 	^ levy k.n. et al. ( ) 	^ prior & glaser ( ) p 	^ chaffin ( ) p 	^ boris & zeannah ( ) 	^ schechter ds, willheim e ( ). disturbances of attachment and parental psychopathology in early childhood. infant and early childhood mental health issue. child and adolescent psychiatry clinics of north america, ( ), - . 	^ mercer, j ( ) p 	^ vanijzendoorn & bakermans-kranenburg ( ) 	^ zeanah et al. ( ) 	^ van ijzendoorn mh, bakermans-kranenburg mj ( ). "drd -repeat polymorphism moderates the association between maternal unresolved loss or trauma and infant disorganization". attach hum dev. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ zeanah ch ( ). "reactive attachment disorder". in narrow we, first mb et al. (eds.) gender and age consideration in psychiatric diagnosis. washington, dc: american psychiatric association. isbn  - - - . 	^ dozier m, stovall kc, albus ke, bates b ( ). "attachment for infants in foster care: the role of caregiver state of mind". child dev. 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( ) p 	^ o'connor tg, zeanah ch ( ). "attachment disorders: assessment strategies and treatment approaches". attach hum dev. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ ziv y ( ). "attachment-based intervention programs: implications for attachment theory and research". in berlin lj, ziv y, amaya-jackson l, greenberg mt (eds.). enhancing early attachments. theory, research, intervention and policy. duke series in child development and public policy. guilford press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ prior & glaser ( ) p - 	^ chaffin ( ) p 	^ prior & glaser ( ) p 	^ chaffin et al. , p. – . the apsac taskforce report. 	^ chaffin et al. ( ) p 	^ boris 	^ mercer, sarner & rosa 	^ zeanah 	^ chaffin et al. ( ) 	^ "attach white paper on coercion" (pdf). attach. . archived from the original (pdf) on - - . retrieved - - . references[edit] 	ainsworth. mary d., blehar, m., waters, e., &b wall, s. ( ). patterns of attachment: a psychological study of the strange situation. lawrence erlbaum associates. isbn  - - - . 	american academy of child and adolescent psychiatry (aacap)( ). practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with reactive attachment disorder of infancy and early childhood.(pdf). boris, n. & zeanah, c. journal of the american academy of child and adolescent psychiatry, nov; : – (guideline at [ ]) 	bakermans-kranenburg m.; van ijzendoorn m.; juffer f. ( ). "less is more: meta-analyses of sensitivity and attachment interventions in early childhood" (pdf). psychological bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	benoit d.; madigan s.; lecce s.; shea b.; goldberg s. ( ). "atypical maternal behaviour toward feeding disordered infants before and after intervention". infant mental health journal. ( ): – . doi: . /imhj. . 	boris n.w.; zeanah c.h. ( ). "disturbance and disorders of attachment in infancy: an overview". infant mental health journal. : – . doi: . /(sici) - ( ) : < ::aid-imhj > . .co; -v. 	boris nw ( ). "attachment, aggression and holding: a cautionary tale". attach hum dev. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . 	bowlby j [ ] nd edition ( ). attachment, attachment and loss (vol. ), new york: basic books. lccn  - ; nlm . isbn  - - - (pbk). oclc  . 	bretherton, i. and munholland, k., a. ( ). internal working models in attachment relationships: a construct revisited. in cassidy, j. and shaver, p., r. (eds.) handbook of attachment: theory, research and clinical applications..pp.  – . guilford press isbn  - - - . 	chaffin m, hanson r, saunders be, et al. ( ). "report of the apsac task force on attachment therapy, reactive attachment disorder, and attachment problems". child maltreat. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . 	cohen n., muir e., lojkasek m., muir r., parker c., barwick m., brown m. ( ). "watch, wait and wonder: testing the effectiveness of a new approach to mother-infant psychotherapy". infant mental health journal. ( ): – . doi: . /(sici) - ( ) : < ::aid-imhj > . .co; -q. s cid  .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	cooper, g., hoffman, k., powell, b. and marvin, r. ( ). the circle of security intervention; differential diagnosis and differential treatment. in berlin, l.j., ziv, y., amaya-jackson, l. and greenberg, m.t. (eds.) enhancing early attachments; theory, research, intervention, and policy. the guilford press. duke series in child development and public policy. pp – . isbn  - - - . 	crittenden p. m. ( ). "quality of attachment in the preschool years". development and psychopathology. ( ): – . doi: . /s . archived from the original on - - . 	dozier, m., lindheim, o. and ackerman, j., p. 'attachment and biobehavioral catch-up: an intervention targeting empirically identified needs of foster infants'. in berlin, l.j., ziv, y., amaya-jackson, l. and greenberg, m.t. (eds) enhancing early attachments; theory, research, intervention, and policy the guilford press. duke series in child development and public policy. pp – . ( ) isbn  - - - (pbk) 	interdisciplinary council on developmental & learning disorders. ( ). dir/floortime model. 	zeanah ch, larrieu ja ( ). "intensive intervention for maltreated infants and toddlers in foster care". child adolesc psychiatr clin n am. ( ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . pmid  . 	larrieu, j.a., & zeanah, c.h. ( ). treating infant-parent relationships in the context of maltreatment: an integrated, systems approach. in a.saner, s. mcdonagh, & k. roesenblaum (eds.) treating parent-infant relationship problems (pp.  – ). new york: guilford press isbn  - - - 	levy kn, meehan kb, weber m, reynoso j, clarkin jf ( ). "attachment and borderline personality disorder: implications for psychotherapy". psychopathology. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	lieberman, a.f., silverman, r., pawl, j.h. ( ). infant-parent psychotherapy. in c.h. zeanah, jr. (ed.) handbook of infant mental health ( nd ed.) (p.  ). new york: guilford press. isbn  - - - 	main, m. and solomon, j. ( ). discovery of an insecure disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern: procedures, findings and implications for the classification of behavior. in t. braxelton and m.yogman (eds) affective development in infancy, (pp.  – ). norwood, nj: ablex isbn  - - - 	main, m. and solomon, j. ( ). procedures for identifying infants as disorganized/disoriented during the ainsworth strange situation. in m. greenberg, d. cicchetti and e. cummings (eds) attachment in the preschool years: theory, research and intervention, (pp.  – ). chicago: university of chicago press. isbn  - - - . 	mercer, j., sarner, l., & rosa, l. ( ). attachment therapy on trial: the torture and death of candace newmaker. westport, ct: praeger publishers/greenwood publishing group, inc. isbn  - - - 	mercer, j ( ) understanding attachment: parenting, child care and emotional development. westport, ct: praeger isbn  - - - 	marvin, r., cooper, g., hoffman, k. and powell, b. the circle of security project: attachment-based intervention with caregiver – pre-school child dyads. attachment & human development vol no april – . 	health child, human ( ). "characteristics of infant child care: factors contributing to positive caregiving". early childhood research quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . 	o'connor tg, zeanah ch ( ). "attachment disorders: assessment strategies and treatment approaches". attach hum dev. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	prior, v., glaser, d. understanding attachment and attachment disorders: theory, evidence and practice ( ). child and adolescent mental health series. jessica kingsley publishers london isbn  - - - oclc  	schechter, d.s., willheim, e. ( ). disturbances of attachment and parental psychopathology in early childhood. infant and early childhood mental health issue. child and adolescent psychiatry clinics of north america, ( ), - . 	smyke, a. and zeanah, c. ( ). disturbances of attachment interview. available on the journal of the american academy of child and adolescent psychiatry website at [ ][permanent dead link] 	toth s.; maughan a.; manly j.; spagnola m.; cicchetti d. ( ). "the relative efficacy of two in altering maltreated preschool children's representational models: implications for attachment theory". development and psychopathology. ( ): – . doi: . /s x. pmid  . s cid  . 	van den boom d ( ). "the influence of temperament and mothering on attachment and exploration: an experimental manipulation of sensitive responsiveness among lower-class mothers with irritable infants". child development. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . pmid  . 	van den boom dc ( ). "do first-year intervention effects endure? follow-up during toddlerhood of a sample of dutch irritable infants". child dev. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . pmid  . 	van ijzendoorn m, bakermans-kranenburg ( ). "similar and different". attachment & human development. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	waters, e. and deane, k ( ). defining and assessing individual differences in attachment relationships: q-methodology and the organization of behavior in infancy and early childhood. in i. bretherton and e. waters (eds) growing pains of attachment theory and research: monographs of the society for research in child development , serial no. ( – ), – [ ] 	o'connor tg, zeanah ch ( ). "attachment disorders: assessment strategies and treatment approaches". attach hum dev. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	zeanah ch, keyes a, settles l ( ). "attachment relationship experiences and childhood psychopathology". ann. n. y. acad. sci. ( ): – . bibcode: nyasa ... z. doi: . /annals. . . pmid  . [permanent dead link] 	zeanah, c., h. and smyke, a., t. "building attachment relationships following maltreatment and severe deprivation" in berlin, l., j., ziv, y., amaya-jackson, l. and greenberg, m., t. enhancing early attachments; theory, research, intervention, and policy the guilford press, pps - isbn  - - - (pbk) further reading[edit] 	mills, jon. ( ). treating attachment pathology. lanham, md: aronson/rowman & littlefield. isbn  - 	holmes, j ( ). the search for the secure base. philadelphia: brunner-routledge. isbn  - - - 	cassidy, j; shaver, p (eds.) ( ). handbook of attachment: theory, research, and clinical applications. new york: guilford press. isbn  - - - . 	zeanah, ch (ed.) ( ). handbook of infant mental health. new york: guilford press. isbn  - - - 	bowlby, j ( ). a secure base: parent-child attachment and healthy human development. london: routledge; new york: basic books. isbn  - - - . 		v 	t 	e mental and behavioral disorders 	 	adult personality and behavior 	 	gender dysphoria	 	ego-dystonic sexual orientation 	paraphilia 	fetishism 	voyeurism 	sexual maturation disorder 	sexual relationship disorder 	other	 	factitious disorder 	munchausen syndrome 	intermittent explosive disorder 	dermatillomania 	kleptomania 	pyromania 	trichotillomania 	personality disorder 	 	childhood and learning 	 	emotional and behavioral	 	adhd 	conduct disorder 	odd 	emotional and behavioral disorders 	separation anxiety disorder 	movement disorders 	stereotypic 	social functioning 	dad 	rad 	selective mutism 	speech 	stuttering 	cluttering 	tic disorder 	tourette syndrome 	intellectual disability	 	x-linked intellectual disability 	lujan–fryns syndrome 	psychological 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seasons between january  and november  . based on the film the emperor's new groove, the series centers on kuzco, who must graduate from kuzco academy to become emperor of the inca empire, with the help of the villager pacha and fellow student malina. the series combines physical comedy with a self-aware tone. j. p. manoux replaced david spade as the voice actor for kuzco. new school used traditional d animation to preserve elements of the film's distinctive art style. the high-school setting provided storylines based on the everyday challenges of adolescence. new school received mixed reviews from critics; several praised the voice acting of eartha kitt (pictured) but others found the characters unlikable. the series was also criticized for its minimal educational value and frequent displays of socially aggressive behavior. 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(previous page) (next page)¡ 	¡que vida! . 	...like clockwork 	. winchester 	. winchester magnum ' 	'abd al-ilah 	battle of 'auja " 	"helen butte" vs. masonna pussy badsmell ( 	( ) fv 	( ) en 	( ) dn 	(e)-stilbene 	(n-acetylneuraminyl)-galactosylglucosylceramide n-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase 	(r)-benzylsuccinyl-coa dehydrogenase 	(rs)-mcpg 	(rs)-norcoclaurine -o-methyltransferase 	(s)-norcoclaurine synthase + 	+incinerate – 	 - - 	 - - 	 - - 	 - - + - - 	 - - 	 - - 	 - - - 	 - - 	i brigade, royal horse artillery (t.f.) 	 st cavalry division (united kingdom) 	 corinthians 	 corinthians 	 corinthians 	 corinthians 	 peter 	 peter 	 peter 	 -aminocyclopropane- -carboxylate synthase 	 , , -benzothiadiazole 	 , , -triazole 	 , -diphenylisobenzofuran 	 st (risalpur) cavalry brigade 	 st airborne command control squadron 	 st airborne division (united kingdom) 	 st arkansas day volunteer regiment 	 st armoured brigade (australia) 	 st armoured regiment (australia) 	 st australian civil affairs unit 	 st australian task force 	 st australian wireless signal squadron 	 st battalion (australia) 	 st battalion, royal australian regiment 	 st battlecruiser squadron 	 st cavalry brigade (united kingdom) 	 st close health battalion (australia) 	 st combat evaluation group 	 st division (australia) 	 st division (royal navy) 	 st eastern provincial council 	 st expeditionary rescue group 	 st general assembly of newfoundland 	 st light horse brigade 	 st louisiana regulars 	 st machine-gun squadron (new zealand) 	 st manitoba legislature 	 st michigan volunteer sharpshooters regiment 	 st military district (australia) 	 st mountain battery (australia) 	 st northern provincial council 	 st operations group 	 st pioneer battalion (australia) 	 st proving ground group 	 st regiment, royal australian artillery 	 st tactical missile squadron 	 st vermont infantry regiment 	 nd marine regiment 	 / st battalion (australia) 	 / st pioneer battalion (australia) 	 / nd battalion (australia) 	 / nd commando squadron (australia) 	 / nd field regiment (australia) 	 / nd machine gun battalion (australia) 	 / nd pioneer battalion (australia) 	 / rd battalion (australia) 	 / rd commando squadron (australia) 	 / rd machine gun battalion (australia) 	 / th machine gun battalion (australia) 	 / th pioneer battalion (australia) 	 / th cavalry commando regiment (australia) 	 / th commando squadron (australia) 	 / th field regiment (australia) 	 / th battalion (australia) 	 / th battalion (australia) 	 / th battalion (australia) 	 / th field regiment (australia) 	 / th battalion (australia) 	 / th field regiment (australia) 	 / th battalion (australia) 	 / th battalion (australia) 	 / th battalion (australia) 	 / th battalion (australia) 	 / th battalion (australia) 	 / st battalion (australia) 	 / th battalion (australia) 	 / th battalion (australia) 	 / th battalion (australia) 	 / rd battalion (australia) 	 / th battalion 	 / rd battalion (australia) 	ii brigade, royal horse artillery (t.f.) 	 corinthians 	 corinthians 	 ft gauge railways in australia 	 nd infantry division (united kingdom) 	list of orders of battle for the british nd division 	list of senior officers of british nd division 	 intelligence company 	 peter 	 - - 	 - - 	 - - + - - 	 - - 	 - - + - - 	 - - 	 - - - 	 - - - 	 - - - 	 - - 	 - - 	 - - + - - 	 - - 	 - - 	 - - 	 -methyl- -(phenylethynyl)pyridine 	 -norbornyl cation 	 -picolylamine 	 -pyridone 	 – – tree 	 , , , -tetrachlorodibenzodioxin 	 , -dienoyl-coa reductase 	 , , -trichlorophenol 	 / nd anti-tank regiment (australia) 	 / th field regiment (australia) 	 a self-cleaving peptides 	 d bombardment squadron 	 d combat bombardment wing 	 k mars 	 nd air refueling squadron 	 nd arizona territorial legislature 	 nd arkansas infantry regiment 	 nd armoured brigade (australia) 	 nd armoured division (australia) 	 nd battalion (australia) 	 nd battalion, royal australian regiment 	 nd brigade (australia) 	 nd cavalry brigade (united kingdom) 	 nd cavalry division (united kingdom) 	 nd commando regiment (australia) 	 nd division (australia) 	 nd division (royal navy) 	 nd eastern provincial council 	 nd general assembly of newfoundland 	 nd guards tank army 	 nd infantry regiment of the lithuanian grand duke algirdas 	 nd light horse brigade 	 nd light horse regiment (australia) 	 nd machine gun battalion (australia) 	 nd manitoba legislature 	 nd massachusetts volunteer infantry regiment ( ) 	 nd military district (australia) 	 nd new york cavalry regiment 	 nd parachute brigade (united kingdom) 	 nd pioneer battalion (australia) 	 nd portuguese india armada (cabral, ) 	 nd pursuit group 	 nd reserve division (people's republic of china) 	 nd rifle corps 	 nd saskatchewan legislature 	 nd special operations squadron 	 nd ss panzer division das reich 	 nd troop carrier squadron 	 nd vermont infantry regiment 	iii brigade, royal horse artillery 	iii brigade, royal horse artillery (t.f.) 	 -deoxyglucosone 	 -hydroxy- -methylglutaryl-coa lyase 	 . cm pak 	 d printing processes 	 d sound synthesis 	 d special operations squadron 	 d troop carrier squadron 	 rd (lahore) division 	 rd (meerut) cavalry brigade 	 rd and th divisions (royal navy) 	 rd battalion (australia) 	 rd brigade (australia) 	 rd cavalry brigade (united kingdom) 	 rd combat engineer regiment (australia) 	 rd field ambulance (australia) 	 rd fighter training squadron 	 rd general assembly of newfoundland 	 rd general assembly of nova scotia 	 rd guards anti-aircraft artillery division (previous page) (next page) media in category "cs : long volume value" the following files are in this category, out of total. a 	file:aldford house plans.gif c 	file:caproni ca. front.jpg e 	file:elema dance mask from new guinea.jpg 	file:ewart's improved cattle gauge.png i 	file:ibm advert .jpg j 	file:john lennox monteith.jpg k 	file:karamagara bridge, cappadocia, turkey. pic .jpg 	file:keller us nedu.jpg l 	file:london hay-cart.png p 	file:paratarsotomus macropalpis palps, claws and mandibles.png 	file:pc- advert june .jpg r 	file:ralph patt.jpg 	file:rosemary branch tavern.png s 	file:savoia-marchetti s. .jpg 	file:savoia-marchetti s. .jpg t 	file:tk- advert sep .jpg 	file:trussing tools.png 	file:turnstiles in agas map of london .png retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=category:cs :_long_volume_value&oldid= " 		hidden categories: 	hidden categories 	tracking categories 	template large category toc via catautotoc on category with over , pages 	catautotoc generates large category toc 	cs properties 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			category 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	भोजपुरी 	cymraeg 	ilokano 	Македонски 	മലയാളം 	ଓଡ଼ିଆ 	scots 	shqip 	සිංහල 	simple english 	slovenščina 	tagalog 	粵語 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on october , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 apa psycnet loading... trust (social science) - wikipedia 	 		 		 			 				 					 					open main menu 					 		 			 home 			 	 			 random 			 	 			 nearby 			 		 			 log in 			 		 			 settings 			 		 			 donate 			 		 			 about wikipedia 			 	 			 disclaimers 			 					 				 				 					 						 						 					 				 				 					 				 				 					search 					 				 			 		 		 			 			 			 			 			 				 					trust (social science) 					 				 				 		 				language 		 	 				watch 		 	 				edit 		 				 				 				 			 			 for other types of trust, see trust (disambiguation). trust exists in interpersonal relationships. humans have a natural disposition to trust and to judge trustworthiness. this can be traced to the neurobiological structure and activity of a human brain. some studies indicate that trust can be altered e.g. by the application of oxytocin.[ ][ ] trust in others in europe country-level estimates of trust share of people agreeing with the statement "most people can be trusted" in a social context, trust has several connotations.[ ] definitions of trust[ ][ ] typically refer to situations characterized by the following aspects: one party (trustor) is willing to rely on the actions of another party (trustee), and the situation is typically directed to the future. in addition, the trustor (voluntarily or forcedly) abandons control over the actions performed by the trustee. as a consequence, the trustor is uncertain about the outcome of the other's actions; the trustor can only develop and evaluate expectations. such expectations are formed with a view to the motivations of the trustee, dependent on their characteristics, the situation, and their interaction.[ ] the uncertainty stems from the risk of failure or harm to the trustor if the trustee does not behave as desired. when it comes to the relationship between people and technology, the attribution of trust is a matter of dispute. the intentional stance[ ] demonstrates that trust can be validly attributed to human relationships with complex technologies. one of the key current challenges in the social sciences is to rethink how the rapid progress of technology has impacted constructs such as trust. this is especially true for information technology that dramatically alters causation in social systems.[ ] in the social sciences, the subtleties of trust are a subject of ongoing research. in sociology and psychology, the degree to which one party trusts another is a measure of belief in the honesty, fairness, or benevolence of another party. the term "confidence" is more appropriate for a belief in the competence of the other party. a failure in trust may be forgiven more easily if it is interpreted as a failure of competence rather than a lack of benevolence or honesty.[ ] in economics, trust is often conceptualized as reliability in transactions. in all cases, trust is a heuristic decision rule, allowing the human to deal with complexities that would require unrealistic effort in rational reasoning.[ ] contents 	 sociology 	 types of social trust 	 . influence of ethnic diversity 	 psychology 	 . social identity approach 	 philosophy 	 economics 	 management and organization science 	 systems 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links sociologyedit sociology claims trust is one of several social constructs; an element of the social reality.[ ] other constructs frequently discussed together with trust include control, confidence, risk, meaning and power. trust is naturally attributable to relationships between social actors, both individuals and groups (social systems). sociology is concerned with the position and role of trust in social systems. interest in trust has grown significantly since the early eighties, from the early works of luhmann,[ ] barber[ ] and giddens[ ] (see[ ] for a more detailed overview). this growth of interest in trust has been stimulated by ongoing changes in society, specifically known as late modernity and post-modernity. sviatoslav contended that society needs trust because it increasingly finds itself operating at the edge between confidence in what is known from everyday experience and contingency of new possibilities. without trust, one should always consider all contingent possibilities, leading to paralysis by analysis.[ ] in this sense, trust acts as a decisional heuristic, allowing the decision maker to overcome bounded rationality[ ] and process what would otherwise be an excessively complex situation. trust can be seen as a bet on one of many contingent futures, specifically, the one that appears to deliver the greatest benefits. once the bet is decided (i.e. trust is granted), the trustor suspends his or her disbelief, and the possibility of a negative course of action is not considered at all. hence trust acts as a reducing agent of social complexity, allowing for cooperation.[ ] sociology tends to focus on two distinct views: the macro view of social systems, and a micro view of individual social actors (where it borders with social psychology). similarly, views on trust follow this dichotomy. on one side, the systemic role of trust can be discussed with a certain disregard to the psychological complexity underpinning individual trust. the behavioral approach to trust is usually assumed[ ] while actions of social actors are measurable, leading to statistical modelling of trust. this systemic approach can be contrasted[ ] with studies on social actors and their decision-making process, in anticipation that understanding of such a process will explain (and allow to model) the emergence of trust. sociology acknowledges that the contingency of the future creates dependency between social actors, and specifically that the trustor becomes dependent on the trustee. trust is seen as one of the possible methods to resolve such a dependency, being an attractive alternative to control.[ ] trust is specifically valuable if the trustee is much more powerful than the trustor, yet the trustor is under social obligation to support the trustee.[ ] modern information technologies have not only facilitated the transition towards a post-modern society, but have also challenged traditional views on trust. information systems research has identified that individuals have evolved to trust in technology, demonstrated by two primary constructs. the first consists of human-like constructs including benevolence, honesty and competence, whilst the second employs system-like constructs such as usefulness, reliability and functionality.[ ] the discussion surrounding the relationship between information technologies and trust is still in progress as research remains in its infant stages. types of social trustedit four types of social trust are recognized:[ ] 	generalized trust, or trust in strangers, is an important form of trust in modern society, involving a large amount of social interactions among strangers. 	out-group trust is the trust an individual has in members of a different group. this could be members of a different ethnic group, or citizens of a different country, for example. 	in-group trust is that which is placed in members of one's own group. 	trust in neighbors considers the relationships between individuals who share a common residential environment. influence of ethnic diversityedit several dozen studies have examined the impact of ethnic diversity on social trust. research published in the annual review of political science[ ] concluded that there were three key debates on the subject: 	why does ethnic diversity modestly reduce social trust? 	can contact reduce the negative association between ethnic diversity and social trust? 	is ethnic diversity a stand-in for social disadvantage? the review's meta-analysis of studies showed a consistent, though modest, negative relationship between ethnic diversity and social trust. ethnic diversity has the strongest negative impact on neighbor trust, in-group trust, and generalized trust. it did not appear to have a significant impact on out-group trust. the limited size of the impact means apocalyptic claims about it are exaggerated.[ ] psychologyedit in psychology, trust is believing that the person who is trusted will do what is expected. according to the psychoanalyst erik erikson, development of basic trust is the first state of psychosocial development occurring, or failing, during the first two years of life. success results in feelings of security and optimism, while failure leads towards an orientation of insecurity and mistrust[ ] possibly resulting in attachment disorders.[ ] a person's dispositional tendency to trust others can be considered a personality trait and as such is one of the strongest predictors of subjective well-being.[ ] trust increases subjective well-being because it enhances the quality of one's interpersonal relationships; happy people are skilled at fostering good relationships.[ ] trust is integral to the idea of social influence: it is easier to influence or persuade someone who is trusting. the notion of trust is increasingly adopted to predict acceptance of behaviors by others, institutions (e.g. government agencies) and objects such as machines. yet once again, perceptions of honesty, competence and value similarity[ ] (slightly similar to benevolence) are essential. there are three different forms of trust commonly studied in psychology. trust is being vulnerable to someone even when they are trustworthy. trustworthiness are the characteristics or behaviors of one person that inspire positive expectations in another person. trust propensity is the ability to rely on others.[ ] once trust is lost, by obvious violation of one of these three determinants, it is very hard to regain. thus there is clear asymmetry in the building versus destruction of trust. increasingly in recent times, research has been conducted regarding the notion of trust and its social implications: 	in her book,[ ] barbara misztal attempts to combine all notions of trust together. she describes three basic things that trust does in the lives of people: it makes social life predictable, it creates a sense of community, and it makes it easier for people to work together. 	in the context of sexual trust, riki robbins[ ] describes four stages. these consist of perfect trust, damaged trust, devastated trust and restored trust.[ ] 	in the context of information theory, ed gerck defines and contrasts trust with social functions such as power, surveillance, and accountability.[ ][ ] 	from a social identity perspective, the propensity to trust strangers (see in-group favoritism) arises from the mutual knowledge of a shared group membership,[ ][ ] stereotypes,[ ] or the need to maintain the group's positive distinctiveness.[ ] despite the centrality of trust to the positive functioning of humans and relationships, very little is known about how and why trust evolves, is maintained, and is destroyed.[ ] one factor that enhances trust among humans is facial resemblance. through digital manipulation of facial resemblance in a two-person sequential trust game, supporting evidence was found that having similar facial features (facial resemblance) enhanced trust in a subject's respective partner.[ ] though facial resemblance was shown to increase trust, it also had the effect of decreased sexual desire in a particular partner. in a series of tests, digitally manipulated faces were presented to subjects to be evaluated for attractiveness within the context of a long-term or short-term relationship. the results showed that within the context of a short-term relationship, which is dependent on sexual desire, similar facial features caused a decrease in desire. within the context of a long-term relationship, which is dependent on trust, similar facial features increased the attractiveness of an individual, leading one to believe that facial resemblance and trust have great effects on relationships.[ ] interpersonal trust literature[ ] suggests that trust-diagnostic situations provide a means by which individuals can gauge or alter the level of trust in relationships. trust-diagnostic situations refer to in trust or "strain-test"[ ] situations which test partners' ability to act in the best interests of the other individual or the relationship, simultaneously rejecting that option which is in one's personal self-interest. trust-diagnostic situations occur throughout the course of everyday life, though can be created by individuals wanting to test the current level of trust in a relationship.[ ] low trust relationships are occur where individuals have little confidence their partner is truly concerned about them or the relationship.[ ] those in low trust relationships tend to make distress-maintaining attributions[ ][ ] whereby the consequences of partner's negative behavior become of greatest focus, and any impacts of positive actions are minimized. this feeds into the overarching notion that the individual's partner is disinterested in the relationship, and any positive acts are met with skepticism, leading to further negative outcomes.[ ] distrusting individuals may not always engage in opportunities for trusting relationships. someone who was subject to an abusive childhood may have been deprived of any evidence that trust is warranted in future interpersonal relationships.[ ] an important key to treating sexual victimization of a child is the rebuilding of trust between parent and child. failure for the adults to validate the sexual abuse contributes to the child's difficulty towards trusting self and others.[ ] moreover, trust can often be affected by the erosion of a marriage.[ ] children of divorce do not exhibit less trust in mothers, partners, spouses, friends, and associates than their peers of intact families. the impact of parental divorce is limited to trust in the father.[ ] social identity approachedit the social identity approach explains trust in strangers as a function of group-based stereotypes or in-group favoring behaviors based on salient group memberships. with regard to ingroup favoritism, people generally think well of strangers but expect better treatment from in-group members in comparison to out-group members. this greater expectation then translates into a higher propensity to trust an in-group rather than out-group member.[ ][ ][ ] it has been pointed out that it is only advantageous to form such expectations of an in-group stranger if they too know the group membership of the recipient.[ ] there is considerable empirical activity related to the social identity approach. allocator studies have frequently been employed to understand group-based trust in strangers.[ ][ ][ ][ ] they may be operationalized as unilateral or bilateral relationships of exchange. general social categories such as university affiliation, course majors, and even ad-hoc groups have been used to distinguish between in-group and out-group members. in unilateral studies of trust, the participant is asked to choose between envelopes containing money that was previously allocated by an in-group or out-group member.[ ] they have no prior or future opportunities for interaction, simulating brewer's notion that group membership was sufficient in bringing about group-based trust and hence cooperation.[ ] participants could expect an amount ranging from nothing to the maximum value an allocator could give out. bilateral studies of trust have employed an investment game devised by berg and colleagues where individuals choose to give a portion or none of their money to another.[ ] any amount given would be tripled and the receiver would then decide whether they would return the favor by giving money back to the sender. trusting behavior on the part of the sender and the eventual trustworthiness of the receiver was exemplified through the giving of money.[ ][ ] empirical research has demonstrated that when group membership is made salient and known to both parties, trust is granted more readily to in-group members than out-group members.[ ][ ][ ] this occurred even when the in-group stereotype was comparatively less positive than an out-group's (e.g. psychology versus nursing majors),[ ] in the absence of personal identity cues,[ ] and when participants had the option of a sure sum of money (i.e. in essence opting out of the need to trust a stranger).[ ] in contrast, when only the recipient was made aware of group membership, trust becomes reliant upon group stereotypes.[ ][ ] the group with the more positive stereotype was trusted (e.g. one's university affiliation over another)[ ] even over that of the in-group (e.g. nursing over psychology majors).[ ] another reason for in-groups favoring behaviors in trust could be attributed to the need to maintain in-group positive distinctiveness, particularly in the presence of social identity threat.[ ] trust in out-group strangers increased when personal cues to identity were revealed.[ ] philosophyedit whilst many philosophers have written about different forms of trust, most would agree interpersonal trust is the foundation on which these forms can be modeled.[ ] for an act to be classed as an expression of trust, it must not betray the expectations of the trustee. in this sense, some philosophers such as lagerspetz argue that trust is a kind of reliance, though not merely reliance.[ ] gambetta argued it is the inherent belief that others generally have good intentions which is the foundation for our reliance on them.[ ] philosophers such as annette baier have contended this view, establishing a difference between trust and reliance by saying that trust can be betrayed, whilst reliance can only be disappointed (baier , ).[ ] carolyn mcleod explains baier's argument by giving the following examples: we can rely on our clock to give the time, but we do not feel betrayed when it breaks, thus, we cannot say that we trusted it; we are not trusting when we are suspicious of the other person, because this is in fact an expression of distrust (mcleod ).[ ] the violation of trust warrants this sense of betrayal.[ ] thus, trust is different from reliance in the sense that a trustor accepts the risk of being betrayed. karen jones proposed that there is an emotional aspect to trust, an element of optimism[ ] that the trustee will do the right thing by the trustor, also described as affective trust.[ ] though, in some circumstances, we trust others even without the optimistic expectation, instead hoping the mere recognition that the person is being trusted in itself will prompt the favorable action. this is known as therapeutic trust[ ][ ] and gives both the trustee a reason to be trustworthy, and the trustor a reason to believe they are trustworthy. in these situations, the sense of betrayal upon violation of trust is commonly warranted. the definition of trust as a belief in something or a confident expectation about something[ ] eliminates the notion of risk, because it does not include whether the expectation or belief is favorable or unfavorable. for example, to have an expectation of a friend arriving to dinner late because she has habitually arrived late for the last fifteen years, is a confident expectation (whether or not we agree with her annoying late arrivals). the trust is not about what we wish for, but rather it is in the consistency of the data of our habits. as a result, there is no risk or sense of betrayal because the data now exists as collective knowledge. faulkner[ ] contrasts such predictive trust with aforementioned affective trust, proposing predictive trust may only warrant disappointment as a consequence of an inaccurate prediction, not betrayal. economicsedit see also: consumer confidence trust in economics is treated as an explanation for a difference between actual human behavior and the one that can be explained by the individual desire to maximize one's utility. in economic terms, trust can provide an explanation of a difference between nash equilibrium and the observed equilibrium. such an approach can be applied to individuals as well as societies.     levels of trust are higher in more equal rich countries and in more equal us states[ ] trust is important to economists for many reasons. taking the "market for lemons" transaction popularized by george akerlof as an example,[ ] if a buyer of a car doesn't trust the seller to not sell a lemon, the transaction won't be entered into. the buyer won't enter into the transaction in the absence of trust, even if the product is of great value to the buyer. trust can act as an economic lubricant, reducing the cost of transactions between parties, enabling new forms of cooperation and generally furthering business activities;[ ][ ] employment and prosperity. this observation [ ] created a significant interest in considering trust as a form of social capital and has led research into closer understanding of the process of creation and distribution of such capital. it has been claimed that a higher level of social trust is positively correlated with economic development. even though the original concept of 'high trust' and 'low trust' societies may not necessarily hold, it has been widely accepted and demonstrated that social trust benefits the economy [ ] and that a low level of trust inhibits economic growth. the absence of trust restricts growth in employment, wages and profits, thus reducing the overall welfare of society.[ ] theoretical economical modelling[ ] demonstrates that the optimum level of trust that a rational economic agent should exhibit in transactions is equal to the trustworthiness of the other party. such a level of trust leads to an efficient market. trusting less leads to the loss of economic opportunities, while trusting more leads to unnecessary vulnerabilities and potential exploitation. economics is also interested in quantifying trust, usually in monetary terms. the level of correlation between an increase in profit margin[ ] or a decrease in transactional costs can be used as indicators of the economic value of trust. economic 'trust games' are popularly used to empirically quantify trust in relationships under laboratory conditions. there are several games and game-like scenarios related to trust that have been tried, with certain preferences to those that allow the estimation of confidence in monetary terms.[ ] games of trust are designed in a way such that the nash equilibrium differs from pareto optimum so that no player alone can maximize his own utility by altering his selfish strategy without cooperation. cooperating partners can also benefit. the classical version of the game of trust has been described[ ] as an abstracted investment game, using the scenario of an investor and a broker. the investor can invest a fraction of his money, and broker can return only part of his gains. if both players follow their economical best interest, the investor should never invest and the broker will never be able to repay anything. thus the flow of money flow, its volume and character is attributable entirely to the existence of trust. the game can be played as a once-off, or repeatedly, with the same or different sets of players to distinguish between a general propensity to trust and trust within particular relationships. several other variants of this game exist. reversing rules lead to the game of distrust, pre-declarations can be used to establish intentions of players,[ ] while alterations to the distribution of gains can be used to manipulate perception of both players. the game can be also played by several players on the closed market,[ ] with or without information about reputation. other interesting games are e.g. binary-choice trust games,[ ] the gift-exchange game[ ] and various other forms of social games. specifically games based on the prisoner's dilemma[ ] are popularly used to link trust with economic utility and demonstrate the rationality behind reciprocity. the popularization of e-commerce opened the discussion of trust in economy to new challenges while at the same time elevating the importance of trust, and desire to understand customer decision to trust.[ ] for example, interpersonal relationships between buyers and sellers have been disintermediated by the technology,[ ] and consequentially required improvement.[ ] websites can influence the buyer to trust the seller, regardless of the seller's actual trustworthiness (e.g.[ ]). reputation-based systems improved on trust assessment by allowing to capture the collective perception of trustworthiness, generating significant interest in various models of reputation.[ ] management and organization scienceedit in management and organization science, trust is studied as a factor that can be managed and influenced by organizational actors. scholars have paid particular attention to how trust develops across individual and organizational levels of analysis.[ ] they suggest a reciprocal process where organizational structures influence individuals’ trust and, at the same time, individuals’ trust manifests in organizational structures. trust is also one of the conditions of an organizational culture that supports knowledge sharing.[ ] an organizational culture that supports knowledge sharing allows employees to feel secure and comfortable to share their knowledge, their work and their expertise.[ ][ ] structure often creates trust in a person that encourages them to feel comfortable and excel in the workplace; it makes an otherwise stressful environment manageable. by having a conveniently organized area to work on, concentration will increase as well as effort. management and organization science scholars have also paid attention to how trust is influenced by contracts and how trust interacts with formal mechanisms.[ ][ ] parallel to the very large interest in trust, scholars in management and related disciplines have made the case for the importance of distrust as a related but distinct construct. since the mid- s, a substantial body of organizational research has fallen into one of two distinct but nonexclusive paradigms of trust research.[ ] the first paradigm distinguishes between two major dimensions of trust. trust in another can be characterized as cognition-based trust (i.e., based on rational calculation) and affect-based trust (i.e., based on emotional attachment).[ ] for example, trust in an auto repair shop could come in the form of an assessment of the capabilities of the shop to do a good job repairing one's car (cognition-based trust) or having a longstanding relationship with the shop's owner (affect-based trust). the second paradigm distinguishes between the trustworthiness factors that give rise to trust (i.e., one’s perceived ability, benevolence, and integrity) and trust itself.[ ] together, these paradigms are useful for predicting how different dimensions of trust form in organizations via the demonstration of various trustworthiness attributes.[ ] systemsedit in systems, a trusted component has a set of properties which another component can rely on. if a trusts b, a violation in those properties of b might compromise the correct operation of a. observe that those properties of b trusted by a might not correspond quantitatively or qualitatively to b's actual properties. this occurs when the designer of the overall system does not take the relation into account. in consequence, trust should be placed to the extent of the component's trustworthiness. the trustworthiness of a component is thus, not surprisingly, defined by how well it secures a set of functional and non-functional properties, deriving from its architecture, construction, and environment, and evaluated as appropriate.[ ] see alsoedit 	attachment theory 	credulity 	gullibility 	intimacy 	misplaced trust 	personal boundaries 	position of trust 	source criticism 	swift trust theory 	trust metric 	trusted system 	trust in computing referencesedit 	^ 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( ). computing with social trust. springer. 	^ egger, f. n. "from interactions to transactions: designing the trust experience for business-to-consumer electronic commerce". phd thesis, eindhoven university of technology (the netherlands). 	^ chang, e., dillion, t., hussain, f. k. ( ) trust and reputation for service-oriented environments: technologies for building business intelligence and consumer confidence. john wiley & sons, ltd. 	^ fulmer, c. ashley; gelfand, michele j. ( - - ). "at what level (and in whom) we trust: trust across multiple organizational levels". journal of management. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ a b dalkir, kimiz ( ). knowledge management in theory and practice. cambridge, massachusetts: mit press. isbn  . 	^ vanhala, mika; puumalainen, kaisu; blomqvist, kirsimarja ( ). "impersonal trust: the development of the construct and the scale". personnel review. : – . 	^ poppo, laura; zenger, todd ( ). "do formal contracts and relational governance function as substitutes or complements?". strategic management journal. ( ): – . doi: . /smj. . issn  - . 	^ cao, zhi; lumineau, fabrice ( ). "revisiting the interplay between contractual and relational governance: a qualitative and meta-analytic investigation". journal of operations management. - ( ): – . doi: . /j.jom. . . . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ a b tomlinson, edward; schnackenberg, andrew; dawley, david; ash, steven ( ). "revisiting the trustworthiness-trust relationship: exploring the differential predictors of cognition- and affect-based trust". journal of organizational behavior. ( ): – . doi: . /job. . 	^ mcallister, daniel ( ). "affect-and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizations". academy of management journal. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ paulo verissimo, miguel correia, nuno f. neves, paulo sousa. "intrusion-resilient middleware design and validation". in annals of emerging research in information assurance, security and privacy services, h. raghav rao and shambhu upadhyaya (eds.), elsevier, to appear. . further readingedit 	bachmann, reinhard and zaheer, akbar (eds) ( ). handbook of trust research. cheltenham: edward elgar.[isbn missing] 	bicchieri, cristina, duffy, john and tolle, gil ( ). "trust among strangers", philosophy of science : – . 	marková, i., linell, p & gillespie, a. ( ). "trust and distrust in society". in marková, i. and gillespie, a. (eds.) trust and distrust: socio-cultural perspectives. greenwich, ct: information age publishing, inc. 	kelton, kari; fleischmann, kenneth r. & wallace, william a. ( ). "trust in digital information". journal of the american society for information science and technology, ( ): – . 	kini, a., & choobineh, j. (january ). "trust in electronic commerce: definition and theoretical considerations". paper presented at the thirty-first hawaii international conference on system sciences, kohala coast, hi. 	gillespie, a. ( ). "the intersubjective dynamics of trust, distrust and manipulation". in markova and gillespie (eds), trust & distrust: socio-cultural perspectives. charlotte, nc: info age. 	maister, david h., green, charles h. & galford, robert m. ( ). the trusted advisor. free press, new york[isbn missing] external linksedit 	look up trustworthy in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	wikiversity has learning resources about earning trust 	wikimedia commons has media related to trust. 	trust at philpapers 	trust at the indiana philosophy ontology project 	zalta, edward n. (ed.). "trust". stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. 	trust building activities 	trust: making and breaking cooperative relations, edited by diego gambetta 	am i trustworthy? ( ) educational video clip 	stony brook university weekly seminars on the issue of trust in the personal, religious, social, and scientific realms 	world database of trust harvey s. james, jr., ph.d (updated august ) a variety of definitions of trust are collected and listed. retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=trust_(social_science)&oldid= " 			 			 			 		 		 		 	 		 		 				last edited on december , at : 		 		 	 			 			 	 			 			content is available under cc by-sa . unless otherwise noted. 				 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 				privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	terms of use 	desktop 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 			 		 	 důvěra – wikipedie 	 	 	 	 	důvěra 	 		z wikipedie, otevřené encyklopedie 		 		 		 		 		skočit na navigaci 		skočit na vyhledávání 		důvěra (ze stč. do-vierie) je ochota jedné osoby spoléhat se na jinou osobu, resp. ochota entity nechat ohrozit budoucnost (ve smyslu dobrého jména) takové své vlastnosti, které si entita cení, subjektem, nad jehož chováním entita nemá úplnou kontrolu nebo jehož činnost pro ni není zcela transparentní. typickými vlastnostmi, jež jsou vkládáním důvěry vystavovány riziku, jsou čest, spolehlivost nebo (vlastní) důvěryhodnost. projevy důvěry jsou motivovány možností získání nějaké výhody, např. nabytí informace nebo přijetí zaměstnance pro práci, která vyžaduje nakládání s utajovanými skutečnostmi. oběma entitami ve vztahu důvěry mohou být jak bytosti, používající přirozenou inteligenci, tak umělé systémy; příkladem případu, ve kterém jsou obě strany reprezentovány umělými systémy, je důvěra webového prohlížeče v certifikační autoritu. spoléhání na druhou stranu (člověka, instituci, věc, …) je odvozováno od vnímání jejích schopností a její věrohodnosti. důvěra se vždy vztahuje k budoucnosti, a musí se tedy opírat o věci, které nelze bezpečně vědět; vždy je tedy spojena s nejistotou a rizikem. obsah 	 problematika definice 	 vývoj pojmu 	 . lingvistické hledisko 	 . sociologické koncepce 	 kategorizace důvěry 	 . sebedůvěra 	 . interpersonální důvěra 	 . systémová důvěra 	 . . důvěra ve společnost jako celek 	 . . politologický koncept 	 . další přístupy k dělení 	 důvěra a genderové rozdíly 	 odkazy 	 . reference 	 . související články 	 . literatura 	 . externí odkazy 	 . . anglicky problematika definice[editovat | editovat zdroj] jelikož pojem důvěra zasahuje do mnoha vědeckých oblastí, jako je sociologie, psychologie, ekonomie, politologie či filosofie, existuje tak i několik náhledů na jeho vymezení, odvíjející se nejenom od studijních oborů, ale i od teoretiků samotných (viz vývoj pojmu). původně byl pojem důvěra pojímán jako součást víry. modernější chápání důvěry můžeme spatřit u francouzského myslitele blaise pascala v  .století, který ji pojímá jako spojení víry a rizika.[ ] velký sociologický slovník vymezuje důvěru jako „typ postoje a zároveň mezilidského vztahu, který vyvolává pocit jistoty plynoucí z přesvědčení, že partner komunikace (osoba, instituce) splní určitá očekávání“.[ ] různých výměrů pojmu je celá řada, všechny se ale shodují v tom, že se jedná o pocitový vztah k okolí, který se zakládá na předpokladu, že okolí dodrží námi očekávané modely chování a jednání. vývoj pojmu[editovat | editovat zdroj] lingvistické hledisko[editovat | editovat zdroj] význam slova důvěra se v různých jazycích liší a v průběhu času proměňuje. anglický výraz (trust) pochází původně z dánštiny či norštiny, kde označuje pomoc, podporu, pravdu a pohodlí. jako ekvivalenty důvěry uvádí oxfordský etymologický slovník jistotu, spolehlivost, poctivost, věrnost či závazek vůči někomu. naproti tomu ve francouzštině vychází důvěra (confiance) od slova víra (foi) a významově se blíží naději, afektivní či vášnivé víře. tyto charakteristiky poukazují na rozdílné pojetí důvěry v anglosaské a románské kultuře: anglický výraz klade důraz na racionalitu a praktičnost, kdežto z francouzštiny je cítit silnější intuitivnost, citlivost, až naivita.[ ] sociologické koncepce[editovat | editovat zdroj] problematika důvěry má v rámci sociologie dlouhou tradici.  v souvislosti s utvářením společnosti se jí zabývali například angličtí filozofové thomas hobbes , který ve spisu leviathan tvrdí, že v přirozeném stavu panuje mezi lidmi nedůvěra a strach, tudíž je dobře, že je uzavřena společenská smlouva a stát vede autoritativní vládce,[ ] nebo john locke. locke vyzdvihuje význam důvěry mezi občany jakožto předpoklad k fungující společnosti[ ]. mezi klasiky sociologie pak fenomén důvěry zkoumal alexis de tocqueville ve spojitosti s důležitostí občanského sdružování pro demokracii nebo emile durkheim. durkheimova teorie uvádí, že důvěra je spojena s tím, na jaké úrovní je společnost rozvinuta z hlediska dělby práce. tam, kde se dělba práce nerozvinula, převládá pouze mechanická solidarita daná podobností lidí. ve společnostech s diferenciací práce dochází k pravé důvěře mezi lidmi, která je založena na nutné závislosti jednoho člověka na druhém.[ ] prvním, kdo uvažoval o důvěře jako o samostatném tématu, byl až německý sociolog georg simmel. důvěru zkoumal v souvislosti se sociálními vztahy a společností, kterou vnímal jako neustálý proces fungující na principu reciprocity. simmel ovšem nestudoval fenomén důvěry jen v oblasti mezilidských vztahů, tedy jako interpersonální důvěru.[ ] zabýval se zároveň institucí peněz (kniha philosophie des gelsdes), díky čemuž posunul důvěru do oblasti neosobních vazeb, tedy k důvěře v makrosociální entity. proces směny je dle simmela ovlivněn veřejnou důvěrou ve vládu, která peníze vydává, a důvěrou v trvalost, určitou stabilitu a budoucí směnitelnost peněz. německý sociolog také významně přispěl k definování důvěry z funkcionalistického hlediska, když ji označil za určitého prostředníka mezi věděním a nevěděním. právě v situaci polovědomí, kdy jedinec nezná veškeré informace o druhé straně, je nezbytný akt důvěry, kterým se jedinec dokáže přenést přes neznámé a vztah navázat.[ ] na simmela navazuje svou ucelenou koncepcí německý sociolog niklas luhmann, který zdůrazňuje nárůst důležitosti důvěry s rozvojem moderní společnosti.  soustřeďuje se především na roli důvěry v rámci komunikace a její odlišení od pojmu důvěřivost. důvěřivost na rozdíl od důvěry nevyžaduje angažovanost a týká se vztahu aktérů k funkčním systémům, například ekonomickým či politickým.[ ] na tuto koncepci později kriticky navazuje britský sociolog anthony giddens,[ ] který zkoumá fenomén důvěry jako typický rys pozdně moderní doby, přičemž tvrdí, že celý institucionální aparát modernity závisí právě na důvěře. na rozdíl od luhmanna, který spojuje důvěru s konkrétními okolnostmi, ve kterých jedinci vědomě zvažují alternativní jednání, vidí giddens důvěru jako kontinuální stav. podle luhmana: “když se zdržíš jednání, nevystavuješ se riziku.”[ ] giddens v opozici navrhuje nevztahovat pojem k přítomnosti času a prostoru, jelikož existence důvěry vychází z nedostatku úplných informací. giddensovy úvahy ovšem, jak sám přiznává, vycházejí z tzv. utopického realizmu, ve svém pojetí totiž pracuje s ideální představu důvěry a zapomíná na mnohá úskalí či možnosti zneužití. mezi další teoretiky důvěry druhé poloviny . století patří americký politický ekonom francis fukuyama, který považuje důvěru za nezbytnou podmínku ekonomické prosperity,[ ] dále pak americký sociolog adam b. seligman, který analyzuje fenomén důvěry z historického hlediska souvisejícího s procesem diferenciace rolí či polský sociolog piotr sztompka, který klade důraz na kulturní dimenzi důvěry.[ ] kategorizace důvěry[editovat | editovat zdroj] v sociologickém diskurzu existuje mnoho náhledů na dělení důvěry, jednou zmožných klasifikací je dělení dle typu objektu, ke kterému se důvěra vztahuje. podle tohoto přístupu se důvěra rozděluje na intrapersonální (sebedůvěru), interpersonální (mezilidská důvěra) a důvěru systémovou, která se dále dělí, podle jednotlivých systémů. sebedůvěra[editovat | editovat zdroj] pojem sebedůvěra lze definovat jako spoléhání na sebe sama. sebehodnocení, sebereflexe, na co věříme, že máme. zintenzivnění osobní důvěry probíhá prostřednictvím sebezkoumání. podle giddense[ ] se tak objevování sebe sama stává projektem zahrnutým reflexivity modernity, kdy jednotlivec hledá sebepojetí ve světě abstraktních systémů. zaujetí rozvojem sebe sama může být chápáno jako narcistní a hédonistické. takové zaujetí může pramenit z rozpadu starých pospolitních řádů ve společnosti či být důsledkem sociální manipulace. na druhou stranu je starost o naplnění osobní identity také pozitivním osvojením okolností, vznikající působením globálních vlivů na každodenní život. abraham maslow, americký psycholog, označil seberealizace jako existenční potřebu naplnit své schopnosti a snažit se být nejlepším, jakým jen individuum může být. mimo jiné definoval seberealizované osoby schopností vnitřní etiky, která není závislá na vnějším systému, autoritě.[ ] interpersonální důvěra[editovat | editovat zdroj] silná psychologická potřeba nacházet druhé, kterým můžeme důvěřovat, ovlivňuje jedince. potřeba lidského individua důvěřovat je podle neopsychoanalytika erika eriksona[ ] nejintenzivněji utvářena v období kojeneckého věku. tehdy v závislosti na okolních faktorech, jako je mentální nastavení matky či stabilita stimulů, buď vzniká, anebo nevzniká důvěra v sebe sama, v okolí a také důvěra k blízkým. mezi pospolité vztahy stavějící na důvěře a vzájemnosti můžeme řadit: vztahy samy o sobě, příbuzenské svazky, vztahy fungující na intimitě sobě rovných (přátelství) a vztahy založené na sexuální intimitě, tedy vztahy partnerské. kvůli urychlující se globalizaci se zesílilo propojení intimních záležitostí každodenního života s abstraktní mi systémy. důvěra na osobní úrovni se tak stává projektem, na kterém by zúčastněné strany měli pracovat,[ ] prostřednictvím otevřenosti, laskavosti a vřelosti, tedy vzájemném procesu sebeotvírání. německý sociolog ferdinand tönnies rozvíjí problematiku lidského soužití a potvrzuje, že růst individualismu je negativním důsledkem civilizačního pokroku ve společnosti. také přichází s pojmy gemeinschaft a gesellschaft, čímž proti sobě staví pospolitý charakter tradiční společnosti, ve kterém funguje sociální důvěra, a neosobnost moderního života.[ ] systémová důvěra[editovat | editovat zdroj] kromě důvěry mezi jednotlivci, která předpokládá dlouhodobou známost a tím vzniklou odůvodněnou důvěrnou znalost, existuje i důvěra v abstraktní systémy. tato důvěra je nastolována mezi laickou veřejností a představiteli abstraktních systémů pomocí přístupových bodů, kde se setkávají tzv. tvářné a beztvářné závazky. k této koncepci dospěl při svých úvahách o vztahu mezi interpersonální a systémovou důvěrou anthony giddens.[ ] tvářné závazky se dle něj týkají důvěry v konkrétní osoby, tedy vztahů, v nichž se aktéři setkávají tváří v tvář, kdežto netvářné závazky se vztahují k neosobním principům a abstraktním systémům. v jistých případech se kontakt mezi jednotlivci a skupinami, představujícími tyto systémy, ani nepředpokládá. tomuto procesu se říká vyvázání, kdy dochází k vytržení sociálního vztahu z místního kontextu. abstraktní systémy se dají rozdělit na symbolické znaky, jako jsou například peníze či expertní systémy. důvěra v expertní systémy je utvářena především v raném věku pomocí „skrytých učebních osnov“. dítěti je předáván nejen obsah technických poznatků, ale i bezpodmínečná úcta k technickému vědění. jedna z příčin důvěry ve vědu je její spolehlivá pověst vědění. postoje důvěry jsou ovlivňovány zkušenostmi v přístupových bodech a aktualizovaným věděním například prostřednictvím médií. důvěra ve společnost jako celek[editovat | editovat zdroj] mezi nejdůležitější prostředky, jimiž společnosti důvěru podporují, patří slib a přísaha, společenský mrav, právo a peníze. dodržování daného slova, slibu a přísahy se ve všech známých společnostech vysoce hodnotí a jejich porušení se může trestat. zásada „sliby je třeba dodržovat“ (pacta sunt servanda) se od římských dob pokládá za základ práva. právo sice nemůže zločinům úplně zabránit, jeho smysl je však podle německého sociologa n. luhmanna v tom, že podporuje důvěru ve společnost a očekávání spravedlnosti. moderní ekonomie objevila význam očekávání a důvěry pro hospodářství[ ] a finanční krize jsou do značné míry krizemi důvěry v instituce a investice. moderní peníze (fiduciární peníze, angl. fiat money) nemají žádnou materiální hodnotu a jsou založeny pouze na důvěře.[ ] politologický koncept[editovat | editovat zdroj] z politologického pohledu je s důvěrou nejvýrazněji spojena demokracie. na rozdíl od diktatury nebo monarchie, kde se o vládě rozhoduje jinak, v demokracii rozhodují o oprávnění vládnout občané tím, že se sami rozhodují, komu tuto důvěru dají. vládnout bude člověk nebo skupina, které dal důvěru největší počet voličů. na druhé straně se demokratická vláda legitimuje právě a pouze tím, že získala důvěru voličů. ani sebe dokonalejší volební procedura však nemůže zaručit, že volební kandidáti své voliče neoklamou falešnými sliby a podobně. proto se i zde hovoří o důvěře, která nikdy není jistotou.     další přístupy k dělení[editovat | editovat zdroj] další možnou klasifikaci důvěry nabízí americký sociolog orlando patterson který nerozlišuje pouze mezi důvěrou osobní a neosobní, ale i mezi důvěrou přímou a nepřímou. přímá důvěra dle pattersona souvisí primárně se vztahem mezi dvěma lidmi, ale může exisovat i ve větší skupině, jejíž členové se rozhodli vložit důvěru v jedinou, známou osobu. nepřímá důvěra pak odkazuje na vztah, v němž figuruje třetí strana, která nemusí být aktérovi, jenž vkládá důvěru, známá.[ ] odlišnou kategorizaci uvádí francouzští sociologové phillippe bernoux a jean-michel servet,[ ] kteří rozlišují mezi důvěrou vertikální a horizontální. vertikální důvěra se objevuje v hierarchických vztazích mezi nadřízenými a podřízenými a to buď v určité komunitě, organizaci nebo v celé společnosti. kdežto horizontální důvěra je důvěrou mezi sobě rovnými.[ ] důvěru lze také dělit podle poměru důvěřivých prvků ku celku na všeobecnou (druhé straně bezmezně věříme) či specifickou, která je omezena na určité oblasti schopností či vlastností druhé strany. jednotlivec může například důvěřovat lékařovi v jeho odborných znalostech, ale již méně jeho schopnosti hrát na klavír. důvěra a genderové rozdíly[editovat | editovat zdroj] v roce vydali s. e. cross a l. madson publikaci models of the self: self-counstruals and gender, ve které tvrdí, že na mezilidské vztahy a důvěru se od nich se odvíjející může mít vliv i naše pohlaví. zatímco muži sami sebe vnímají a o sobě často referují jako o nezávislých, ženy samy sebe rády definují v rámci větších celků. Ženy rády hovoří o skupinách, do kterých patří, a často se ztotožňují s vlastnostmi oněch větších celků. na rozdíl od toho muži spíše hovoří o jejich oddělenosti od větších skupin. Ženy kladou větší důraz na blízkost a intimitu vztahů s jednotlivými členy skupiny, muži zase na celkovou identitu a cíle skupiny. podle toho se odvíjejí i rozdíly mezi důvěrou mužů a žen. podle výzkumu, který proběhl v roce na univerzitě v americkém ohiu mezi studenty (z toho mužů, žen) za pomocí kladení otázek mířených na zjištění míru důvěry ve skupinách v kontextu genderových rozdílů, se došlo k závěru, že ženy výrazně více důvěřují jednotlivým členům skupiny, se kterými mají dobré vztahy, a již ne tolik zbytku skupiny, zatímco muži věří skupině a všem jejím členům více. na individuální vztahy tolik důrazu ani důvěry nekladou.  z toho se dá vyvodit závěr, že ženy jsou celkově více nedůvěřivé k cizím lidem, než jsou muži. na druhou stranu ženy vkládají silnou důvěru do lidí, které znají.[ ][ ] odkazy[editovat | editovat zdroj] reference[editovat | editovat zdroj] 	↑ a b c d sedlÁČkovÁ, markéta. důvěra a demokracie: přehled sociologických teorií důvěry od tocquevilla po transformaci v postkomunistických zemích. praha: sociologické nakladatelství (slon), , s. . 	↑ velký sociologický slovník. . vyd. praha: karolinum, . s. . 	↑ macek, petr; markovÁ, ivana. trust and distrust in old and new democracies. in: proceedings-british academy. oxford university press inc., . s. - . 	↑ hobbes, thomas. leviathan. oxford: oxford university press, .  	↑ locke, john. druhé pojednání o vládě. praha: svoboda, .  	↑ durkheim, emile. de la division du travail social. paříž: alcan, .  	↑ simmel, georg; wolff, kurt h. the sociology of georg simmel. simon and schuster, . 	↑ a b luhmann, niklas. trust and power. chichecter: wiley, . 	↑ a b c d giddens, anthony důsledky modernity. . vyd. praha: slon, . post. s. - 	↑ fukuyama, francis. velký rozvrat: lidská přirozenost a rekonstrukce společenského řádu. praha: academia, . 	↑ maslow, abraham. o psychologii bytí. praha: portál, . klasici. 	↑ erikson, erik. Životní cyklus rozšířený a dokončený: devět věků člověka. praha: portál, . 	↑ tÖnnies, ferdinand. community and society. new brunswick: transaction publishers, . 	↑ fukuyama, francis. trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity. london: penguin books, . 	↑ sokol, jan. moc, peníze a právo. plzeň: aleš Čeněk . s. 	↑ patterson, orlando. liberty against the democratic state: on the historical and contemporary sources of american distrust. in: warren, mark democracy and trust. cambridge university press, . s. - 	↑ bernoux, philippe; servet, jean-michel. la construction sociale de la confiance. paris, montchrestien:  association d'économie financière, . 	↑ cross, madson. models of the self: self-construals and gender. psychological bulletin. Čís. , s. - .  	↑ maddux, william. gender differences in the relational and collective bases for trust. group processes & intergroup relations. , roč. , čís. , s. - . dostupné online.  související články[editovat | editovat zdroj] 	Čest 	emoce 	poctivost 	trusted platform module 	víra literatura[editovat | editovat zdroj] 	f. fukuyama, trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity. london: penguin books, - s. isbn - - - 	f. fukuyama, velký rozvrat: lidská přirozenost a rekonstrukce společenského řádu. praha: academia, - s. cm isbn - - - 	j. sokol, moc, peníze a právo. plzeň: aleš Čeněk . s. isbn - - - - 	a. giddens, důsledky modernity. praha: sociologické nakladatelství, - s. 	velký sociologický slovník. praha: karolinum, - s. isbn - - - externí odkazy[editovat | editovat zdroj] 	 obrázky, zvuky či videa k tématu důvěra ve wikimedia commons 	 slovníkové heslo důvěra ve wikislovníku 	 téma důvěra ve wikicitátech anglicky[editovat | editovat zdroj] 	stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, heslo trust 	trust building activities 	trust: making and breaking cooperative relations 	stony brook university seminars on trust 	various definitions of trust portály: filosofie | sociologie autoritní data: gnd: - | lccn: sh | worldcatid: lccn-sh citováno z „https://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=důvěra&oldid= “ 		kategorie: 	filosofické pojmy 	etické pojmy 	emoce 	sociologie náboženství 	sociologické pojmy 	sociologie skrytá kategorie: 	monitoring:Články s autoritní kontrolou 	 	 	navigační menu 	 		 	 		osobní nástroje 	 	 			nejste přihlášen(a) 	diskuse 	příspěvky 	vytvoření účtu 	přihlášení 		 	 		 			 	 		jmenné prostory 	 	 			Článek 	diskuse 		 	 			 	 	 		varianty 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		zobrazení 	 	 			Číst 	editovat 	editovat zdroj 	zobrazit historii 		 	 			 	 	 		více 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		hledání 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigace 	 	 			hlavní strana 	nápověda 	potřebuji pomoc 	nejlepší články 	náhodný článek 	poslední změny 	komunitní portál 	pod lípou 	podpořte wikipedii 		 	 	 	 		nástroje 	 	 			odkazuje sem 	související změny 	načíst soubor 	speciální stránky 	trvalý odkaz 	informace o stránce 	citovat stránku 	položka wikidat 		 	 	 		tisk/export 	 	 			vytvořit knihu 	stáhnout jako pdf 	verze k tisku 		 	 	 		na jiných projektech 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikicitáty 		 	 	 	 		v jiných jazycích 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	galego 	עברית 	hrvatski 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	日本語 	Қазақша 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		upravit odkazy 	 		 stránka byla naposledy editována . . v : . 	text je dostupný pod licencí creative commons uveďte autora – zachovejte licenci, případně za dalších podmínek. podrobnosti naleznete na stránce podmínky užití. 		ochrana osobních údajů 	o wikipedii 	vyloučení odpovědnosti 	kontaktujte wikipedii 	mobilní verze 	vývojáři 	statistiky 	prohlášení o cookies 		 	 	 know what to expect! the stages of social development in children skip to content 	home 	about	media contact 	legal & policies 	about 	privacy policy 	refund policy 	contact us 	add – adhd 	expert parenting articles 	expert articles	add-adhd 	the ages and stages of child development 	child development 	child psychology and mental health 	child-teen health 	learning 	how to be a parent 	living happily as a family 	children media safety 	child development 	blog menu 	home 	about	media contact 	legal & policies 	about 	privacy policy 	refund policy 	contact us 	add – adhd 	expert parenting articles 	expert articles	add-adhd 	the ages and stages of child development 	child development 	child psychology and mental health 	child-teen health 	learning 	how to be a parent 	living happily as a family 	children media safety 	child development 	blog search 	home 	about	media contact 	legal & policies 	about 	privacy policy 	refund policy 	contact us 	add – adhd 	expert parenting articles 	expert articles	add-adhd 	the ages and stages of child development 	child development 	child psychology and mental health 	child-teen health 	learning 	how to be a parent 	living happily as a family 	children media safety 	child development 	blog menu 	home 	about	media contact 	legal & policies 	about 	privacy policy 	refund policy 	contact us 	add – adhd 	expert parenting articles 	expert articles	add-adhd 	the ages and stages of child development 	child development 	child psychology and mental health 	child-teen health 	learning 	how to be a parent 	living happily as a family 	children media safety 	child development 	blog search new ebook: reduce screen time and increase family fun, fitness and connectedness buy now erik erikson’s stages of social-emotional development   this page presents an overview of the developmental tasks involved in the social and emotional development of children and teenagers which continues into adulthood. the presentation is based on the eight stages of development developed by the psychiatrist, erik erikson in . according to erikson, the socialization process consists of eight phases – the “eight stages of man.” his eight stages of man were formulated, not through experimental work, but through wide-ranging experience in psychotherapy, including extensive experience with children and adolescents from low – as well as upper – and middle – social classes. each stage is regarded by erikson as a “psychosocial crisis,” which arises and demands resolution before the next stage can be satisfactorily negotiated. these stages are conceived in an almost architectural sense: satisfactory learning and resolution of each crisis is necessary if the child is to manage the next and subsequent ones satisfactorily, just as the foundation of a house is essential to the first floor, which in turn must be structurally sound to support and the second story, and so on. [click here for more details on how to follow and encourage your child’s or teen’s social development] erikson’s eight stages of development . learning basic trust versus basic mistrust (hope) chronologically, this is the period of infancy through the first one or two years of life. the child, well – handled, nurtured, and loved, develops trust and security and a basic optimism. badly handled, he becomes insecure and mistrustful. . learning autonomy versus shame (will) the second psychosocial crisis, erikson believes, occurs during early childhood, probably between about months or years and ½ to years of age. the “well – parented” child emerges from this stage sure of himself, elated with his new found control, and proud rather than ashamed. autonomy is not, however, entirely synonymous with assured self – possession, initiative, and independence but, at least for children in the early part of this psychosocial crisis, includes stormy self – will, tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism. for example, one sees may year olds resolutely folding their arms to prevent their mothers from holding their hands as they cross the street. also, the sound of “no” rings through the house or the grocery store. . learning initiative versus guilt (purpose) erikson believes that this third psychosocial crisis occurs during what he calls the “play age,” or the later preschool years (from about ½ to, in the united states culture, entry into formal school). during it, the healthily developing child learns: ( ) to imagine, to broaden his skills through active play of all sorts, including fantasy ( ) to cooperate with others ( ) to lead as well as to follow. immobilized by guilt, he is: ( ) fearful ( ) hangs on the fringes of groups ( ) continues to depend unduly on adults and ( ) is restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination. . industry versus inferiority (competence) erikson believes that the fourth psychosocial crisis is handled, for better or worse, during what he calls the “school age,” presumably up to and possibly including some of junior high school. here the child learns to master the more formal skills of life: ( ) relating with peers according to rules ( ) progressing from free play to play that may be elaborately structured by rules and may demand formal teamwork, such as baseball and ( ) mastering social studies, reading, arithmetic. homework is a necessity, and the need for self-discipline increases yearly. the child who, because of his successive and successful resolutions of earlier psychosocial crisis, is trusting, autonomous, and full of initiative will learn easily enough to be industrious. however, the mistrusting child will doubt the future. the shame – and guilt-filled child will experience defeat and inferiority. . learning identity versus identity diffusion (fidelity) during the fifth psychosocial crisis (adolescence, from about or to about ) the child, now an adolescent, learns how to answer satisfactorily and happily the question of “who am i?” but even the best – adjusted of adolescents experiences some role identity diffusion: most boys and probably most girls experiment with minor delinquency; rebellion flourishes; self – doubts flood the youngster, and so on. erikson believes that during successful early adolescence, mature time perspective is developed; the young person acquires self-certainty as opposed to self-consciousness and self-doubt. he comes to experiment with different – usually constructive – roles rather than adopting a “negative identity” (such as delinquency). he actually anticipates achievement, and achieves, rather than being “paralyzed” by feelings of inferiority or by an inadequate time perspective. in later adolescence, clear sexual identity – manhood or womanhood – is established. the adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him), and gradually develops a set of ideals (socially congruent and desirable, in the case of the successful adolescent). erikson believes that, in our culture, adolescence affords a “psychosocial moratorium,” particularly for middle – and upper-class american children. they do not yet have to “play for keeps,” but can experiment, trying various roles, and thus hopefully find the one most suitable for them. . learning intimacy versus isolation (love) the successful young adult, for the first time, can experience true intimacy – the sort of intimacy that makes possible good marriage or a genuine and enduring friendship. . learning generativity versus self-absorption (care) in adulthood, the psychosocial crisis demands generativity, both in the sense of marriage and parenthood, and in the sense of working productively and creatively. . integrity versus despair (wisdom) if the other seven psychosocial crisis have been successfully resolved, the mature adult develops the peak of adjustment; integrity. he trusts, he is independent and dares the new. he works hard, has found a well – defined role in life, and has developed a self-concept with which he is happy. he can be intimate without strain, guilt, regret, or lack of realism; and he is proud of what he creates – his children, his work, or his hobbies. if one or more of the earlier psychosocial crises have not been resolved, he may view himself and his life with disgust and despair. these eight stages of man, or the psychosocial crises, are plausible and insightful descriptions of how personality develops but at present they are descriptions only. we possess at best rudimentary and tentative knowledge of just what sort of environment will result, for example, in traits of trust versus distrust, or clear personal identity versus diffusion. helping the child through the various stages and the positive learning that should accompany them is a complex and difficult task, as any worried parent or teacher knows. search for the best ways of accomplishing this task accounts for much of the research in the field of child development. socialization, then is a learning – teaching process that, when successful, results in the human organism’s moving from its infant state of helpless but total egocentricity to its ideal adult state of sensible conformity coupled with independent creativity. subscribe subscribe to child development institute so you never miss out on a mustread article.​ name email subscribe categories categoriesselect category activities for kids babies behavior    manners bullying child development child development books for parents child health news child psychology    add-adhd    anxiety    stress children media safety chores communication coronavirus craft – hobby projects dad’s corner discipline divorce drugs electronics expert parenting articles family building family finances fitness for kids & teens fun family activites grieving healthy meals for kids holiday holiday – seasonal articles home homework help learning mom’s corner news media party planning reading comprehension responsibility safety issues school 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machines drained of oil. many institutions, from science to religion, have been shaken recently by controversies involving trust. yet trust is difficult to examine in a comprehensive and systematic way. the trust institute at stony brook seeks to carry out an innovative and interdisciplinary look at a central issue of modern social life. central to the institute's mission is the templeton research lecture series, administered by the metanexus institute on behalf of the john templeton foundation.           | stony brook university home page | search stony brook |   category:articles with short description - wikipedia 	 	 	 	help 	 	category:articles with short description 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 				this is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the wikipedia project. it is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. do not include this category 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(album) 	?corporel . 	...aval! 	...es la diferencia 	. network 	. % 	. caliber 	. ilarco 	. caliber 	. caliber 	. special 	. super 	. calibre war 	. colt 	. bmg 	. remington 	. remington 	. legend 	. sig 	. de 	.amazon 	.amsterdam 	.art (domain extension) 	.ds store 	.dwg 	.gay 	.google 	.hack 	.hack//g.u. trilogy 	.hack (video game series) 	.hack//g.u. 	.istanbul 	.net core 	.net framework 	.net remoting 	.ovh 	.sch (file extension) 	.scot 	timeline of women in science 	.video 	.wiki 	.wps 	.мкд ' 	'a'akapa 	ʻaiga 	'ain mallaha 	'amanave 	'aoa 	'arsh 	'asir province 	ʻatā 	'ayy 	'encore' mandarin 	'eua fo'ou 	'eua motu'a 	'ili'ili 	'izbān 	"lockkeeper's" house 	'no way to prevent this,' says only nation where this regularly happens 	'nzuddi 	's lands hospitaal 	ʽurjan al gharbiyah ’ 	’ " 	"rags" scheuermann field at kirsch-rooney stadium ( 	( ) (album) 	( ) (film) 	(-)-alpha-pinene synthase 	(+)-copalyl-diphosphate diphosphate-lyase 	(+)-sabinene -hydroxylase 	( , '-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene)palladium(ii) dichloride 	( e, e)-farnesyl-diphosphate diphosphate-lyase 	( e, e)-farnesyl-diphosphate:isopentenyl-diphosphate farnesyltranstransferase 	( z, e)-farnesyl-diphosphate diphosphate-lyase 	( z, z)-farnesyl diphosphate lyase 	( z, z)-farnesyl diphosphate synthase 	( s)- , -epoxy- , -dihydrosqualene mutase 	(glutamate—ammonia-ligase) adenylyltransferase 	(i would do) anything for you 	(r)-oxynitrilase 	(s)-corytuberine synthase 	(s)-methylmalonyl-coa hydrolase 	(s)-squalene- , -epoxide hydro-lyase [ 	+ + § 	§ @ 	fucking smilers * 	comparison of relational database management systems 	*** (novel) 	the **** of the mothers 	* (album) 	*asttecs / 	/film # 	 pieces on paul klee 	 (demy album) 	 (fischerspooner album) 	 (suburban kids with biblical names ep) 	 (suburban kids with biblical names ep) 	 (shakespears sister album) 	 (suburban kids with biblical names album) 	 (the script album) 	 (flow album) 	 magazine 	 (george strait album) 	 (j. j. cale album) 	 (edmond leung album) 	 (song) 	 (song) 	babae ako movement 	backoffindia 	blackaf 	black love ( tv series) 	byefelicia 	code (web series) 	cookie jar (ep) 	getitright 	hashtag like 	list of the characters + 	+ - 	+ (song) 	+incinerate − 	− ∔ 	∔ ∾ 	∾ ≂ 	≂ ≬ 	≬ ⊏ 	⊏ ⊐ 	⊐ ⊑ 	⊑ 	⋢ ⊒ 	⊒ 	⋣ ⊓ 	⊓ ⊝ 	⊝ ⊢ 	⊬ ⊩ 	⊮ ⊪ 	⊪ ⊫ 	⊫ 	⊯ ⊶ 	⊶ ⊷ 	⊷ ⊺ 	⊺ ⋇ 	⋇ ⋐ 	⋐ ⋑ 	⋑ ⋒ 	⋒ ⋓ 	⋓ ⋤ 	⋤ ⋥ 	⋥ ⋲ 	⋲ ⋳ 	⋳ ⋴ 	⋴ ⋶ 	⋶ ⋷ 	⋷ ⋸ 	⋸ ⋹ 	⋹ ⋺ 	⋺ ⋻ 	⋻ ⋼ 	⋼ ♯ 	♯p – 	 (album) 	 	 a.d. (video game) 	Ø choir 	 + = 	 + = ½ 	 schneider – jagd auf nihil baxter 	 series shinkansen 	 to no aida 	 - - - 	 - - 	 - - t 	 - - (previous page) (next page) retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=category:articles_with_short_description&oldid= " 		categories: 	article namespace categories hidden categories: 	hidden categories 	template large category toc via catautotoc on category with over , pages 	catautotoc generates large category toc 	pages with short description 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			category 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	भोजपुरी 	한국어 	bahasa indonesia 	bahasa melayu 	日本語 	ଓଡ଼ିଆ 	shqip 	simple english 	tagalog 	Тоҷикӣ 	türkçe 	اردو 	yorùbá 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on august , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 trust and trustworthiness - russell hardin - google books search images maps play youtube news gmail drive more » sign in books try the new google books check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features try it now no thanks try the new google books 	try the new google books 	my library 	help 	advanced book search buy ebook - $ . get this book in print 	russell sage foundation 	amazon.com 	barnes&noble.com - $ . 	books-a-million 	indiebound 	 	find in a library 	all sellers » 	 	 reviewswrite review trust and trustworthiness by russell hardin 		  	 about this book terms of service 	pages displayed by permission of russell sage foundation. copyright.  			page ix	 	 	  		 		 	 category:concepts in ethics - wikipedia 	 	 	 	help 	 	category:concepts in ethics 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 				wikimedia commons has media related to concepts in ethics. 	 	 ethics 	 	normative ethics 	meta-ethics 	applied ethics 	 	ethicists 	ethics literature 	concepts in ethics 	ethics theories 	 	 philosophical concepts 	 	aesthetic concepts 	epistemological concepts 	ethical concepts 	 	logical concepts 	metaphysical concepts 	social concepts 	 	philosophers 	literature 	theories the main article for this category is ethics. subcategories this category has the following subcategories, out of total. a 	► amorality‎ ( p) 	► concepts in ancient greek ethics‎ ( p) 	► authority‎ ( c, p) d 	► dilemmas‎ ( c, p) h 	► holiness‎ ( c, p) 	► human rights concepts‎ ( p) m 	► morality‎ ( c, p) p 	► pleasure‎ ( c, p) 	► principles‎ ( c, p) 	► prudishness‎ ( c, p) r 	► rights‎ ( c, p) s 	► suffering‎ ( c, p) t 	► thought experiments in ethics‎ ( p) u 	► utility‎ ( c, p) v 	► value (ethics)‎ ( c, p) 	► virtue‎ ( c, p) pages in category "concepts in ethics" the following pages are in this category, out of total. this list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). a 	ahimsa 	akrasia 	all men are created equal 	altruistic suicide 	amor fati 	amorality 	phronesis 	arationality 	autonomy 	axiology b 	bad faith 	basic goodness 	benevolent suicide 	betrayal c 	class society 	commensurability (ethics) 	common good 	conscience 	consent 	consilience 	cornelian dilemma 	corporate social responsibility 	corruption 	critical thinking d 	desert (philosophy) 	distrust 	dynamic consent e 	empathy 	endowment (philosophy) 	equiveillance 	essentialism 	ethical dualism 	ethics of care 	eudaimonia f 	face-to-face (philosophy) 	false pleasure 	family values 	form of the good 	free will 	free, prior and informed consent g 	good 	good and evil 	greed h 	happiness 	heterogony of ends 	higher good 	the holy state and the profane state 	human rights in dubai i 	ideal (ethics) 	incontinence (philosophy) 	informed consent 	injustice 	instrumental and intrinsic value 	intellect 	intellectualism 	intrinsic value (ethics) 	is–ought problem j 	just war theory l 	li (confucianism) 	liberty m 	maxim (philosophy) 	mental reservation 	might makes right 	mimpathy 	moral authority 	moral blindness 	moral conversion 	moral equivalence 	moral evil 	moral imperative 	moral intellectualism 	moral rationalism 	moral responsibility 	moral supervenience 	moral universalism 	moral universalizability 	moral universe n 	natural order (philosophy) 	natural rights and legal rights 	necessary evil 	norm (philosophy) o 	objectivity (philosophy) 	obligation 	occam's razor 	open-question argument 	ought implies can p 	perception 	permission (philosophy) 	person 	point of view (philosophy) 	possession is nine-tenths of the law 	potential person 	practical reason 	prescriptivity 	primary goods 	principle q 	quality (philosophy) r 	rational agent 	rationality 	reason 	reflective equilibrium 	ren (confucianism) 	respect 	ressentiment (scheler) 	reverence for life 	righteousness 	rights 	ring of gyges 	rule of three (wicca) s 	gadfly (philosophy and social science) 	spite (sentiment) 	supererogation 	synderesis t 	theory of forms 	throffer 	trust (social science) 	truthmaker theory u 	Übermensch 	unintended consequences 	universalizability v 	value (ethics) 	value judgment 	virtue 	virtue ethics w 	wrongdoing y 	yi (philosophy) retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=category:concepts_in_ethics&oldid= " 		categories: 	concepts by field 	ethics 	philosophical concepts hidden categories: 	commons category link is on wikidata 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			category 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	azərbaycanca 	বাংলা 	Башҡортса 	Беларуская 	Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ 	Ελληνικά 	español 	esperanto 	euskara 	فارسی 	ГӀалгӀай 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	हिन्दी 	hrvatski 	ido 	ilokano 	bahasa indonesia 	ქართული 	Кыргызча 	Македонски 	مصرى 	日本語 	norsk bokmål 	norsk nynorsk 	português 	română 	Русский 	scots 	Српски / srpski 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	svenska 	தமிழ் 	ไทย 	Тоҷикӣ 	türkçe 	Українська 	اردو 	tiếng việt 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on august , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie 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	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 category:short description matches wikidata - wikipedia 	 	 	 	help 	 	category:short description matches wikidata 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 				this is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the wikipedia project. it is not part of the encyclopedia and 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pe pj po pt • q qa qe qj qo qt • r ra re rj ro rt • s sa se sj so st • t ta te tj to tt • u ua ue uj uo ut • v va ve vj vo vt • w wa we wj wo wt • x xa xe xj xo xt • y ya ye yj yo yt • z za ze zj zo zt pages in category "short description matches wikidata" the following pages are in this category, out of approximately , total. this list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page)- 	(− , , ) pretzel knot 	- - 	-eaux 	-ista (suffix) 	-lock 	-logy 	-ly 	-ose 	-yne : 	musherib-class offshore patrol vessel ! 	! (cláudia pascoal album) 	! (the song formerly known as) ? 	? (film) 	the '?' motorist 	?corporel . 	...aval! 	. network 	. ilarco 	. calibre war 	. remington 	. de 	.amazon 	.amsterdam 	.art (domain extension) 	.ds store 	.dwg 	.google 	.hack 	.hack (video game series) 	.istanbul 	.net framework 	.net remoting 	.ovh 	.scot 	.video ' 	ʻaiga 	'ain mallaha 	'ayy 	'eua motu'a 	"lockkeeper's" house 	'no way to prevent this,' says only nation where this regularly happens 	'nzuddi " 	"rags" scheuermann field at kirsch-rooney stadium ( 	(-)-alpha-pinene synthase 	( , '-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene)palladium(ii) dichloride 	(glutamate—ammonia-ligase) adenylyltransferase 	(s)-corytuberine synthase 	(s)-methylmalonyl-coa hydrolase @ 	fucking smilers * 	comparison of relational database management systems 	*** (novel) 	*asttecs # 	 magazine 	 (song) 	 (song) 	babae ako movement 	backoffindia 	black love ( tv series) 	code (web series) 	hashtag like + 	+ (song) ♯ 	♯p – 	 a.d. (video game) 	 - - - 	 - - 	 - - t 	 - - 	 . 	 . ... 	 x c 	 st marine regiment 	 st saskatchewan legislature 	i corps (united states) 	illinois route 	w- -class minesweeper 	+ (film) 	 (new york city subway service) 	 	 + + + + ⋯ 	 − + − + ⋯ 	u.s. route alternate (baltimore, maryland) 	 st (united kingdom) division 	 bc 	 by two 	 cassiopeiae 	 st cavalry division (united kingdom) 	 corinthians 	i corps (german empire) 	 º de mayo (seville metro) 	nanosecond 	femtosecond 	attosecond 	 geminorum 	the in club 	 is one 	 life live 	 litre no namida (tv series) 	 memorial drive 	 /n expansion 	 night in san diego 	 november reconnaissance sortie over japan 	 november stadium (algiers) 	 of the girls (group) 	 pace plaza 	 palace green 	 % (film) 	 % rule (internet culture) 	 peter 	 + =paradise 	 point player 	 sgm 	 st shorty awards 	 street southwest station 	 st tank division (imperial japanese army) 	 thessalonians 	 thessalonians 	 thessalonians 	 thessalonians 	 timothy 	 treasury place 	 vs. (american game show) 	 vs. (australian game show) 	 william street, brisbane 	one world trade center 	 yen coin 	a road (great britain) 	 - - - go! records 	m motorway (great britain) 	a road (england) 	a road (england) 	 – series (cta) 	a road 	 - suicide 	 - - - (song) 	 - -get-thin 	a road 	a road 	 -bit computing 	 -ichi 	 -inch nordenfelt gun 	 -up studio 	 -wire 	 , step 	 , , dayz up 	london buses route 	 , guineas trial stakes 	 , -dce 	 : nenokkadine 	 : radio-controlled off-road buggy 	 : concert 	 . deild kvinnur 	 . sk prostějov 	 . . (song) 	 . . 	 . 	 .cuz 	 + (tv channel) 	 + international 	 a (radio program) 	 & ionos 	 cak 	 daylater 	 e 	 st carabinier regiment 	 er bataillon de fusiliers marins commandos 	 lib ref 	 life healthcare 	 live 	 malaysia 	 malaysia development berhad 	 malaysia development berhad scandal 	 malaysia for youth 	 p-eth-lad 	 password 	 pw heavyweight championship 	 pw openweight championship 	 pw tag team championship 	 q 	 rph 	 sports 	 st (risalpur) cavalry brigade 	 st/ th battalion, royal new south wales regiment 	 st aacta awards 	 st aiba african olympic qualifying tournament 	 st aiba european olympic qualifying tournament 	 st air base group 	 st airborne corps (soviet union) 	 st airborne task force (allied) 	 st airlift squadron 	 st alabama cavalry regiment (union) 	 st and th missouri infantry regiment (consolidated) 	 st anti-aircraft division (united kingdom) 	 st arizona territorial legislature 	 st arkansas cavalry battalion (stirman's) 	 st armored regiment (italy) 	 st armoured brigade (australia) 	 st armoured division (australia) 	 st armoured regiment (australia) 	 st army (kingdom of yugoslavia) 	 st army group (kingdom of yugoslavia) (previous page) (next page) retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=category:short_description_matches_wikidata&oldid= " 		categories: 	wikiproject short descriptions hidden categories: 	hidden categories 	template large category toc via catautotoc on category with over , pages 	catautotoc generates large category toc 	articles with short description 	wikipedia categories tracking data same as wikidata 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			category 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			bahasa indonesia 	bahasa melayu 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 mis research center | carlson school of management skip to main content go to the u of m home page 	one stop 	myu: for students, faculty, and staff 	 academics 	 undergraduate 	 undergraduate overview 	 majors and minors 	 mba 	 mba overview 	 full-time mba 	 part-time mba 	 online mba 	 executive mba 	 global mbas 	 executive mba - 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# m.s. in business analytics in the u.s., qs world university ranking # management information systems specialty, u.s. news and world report 	 		 misrc launches effort to collect covid- data the medical industry leadership institute (mili) and the management information systems research center (misrc) at the carlson school of management have launched a "covid- hospitalization tracking project" on march th to consistently track and report daily hospitalizations from all the states of the united states.  as the covid- pandemic unfolds across the us, one of the greatest barriers we are encountering is the absence of credible and consistent data. currently, the only reliable daily data point available from all states is the number of deaths and tests. while important, these metrics do not provide an adequate lens into the impact of the crisis on our healthcare infrastructure. tracking daily hospitalization data is a major step forward in quantifying the current impact on local hospital systems, modeling and forecasting future utilization needs, and tracking the rate of change in the disease severity. we made a call to action in health affairs and have been in contact with various state agencies to collect this type of data. a university press release on this project can be found here. visit project 	 industry partners thank you to the following companies for their generous support of the mis research center. industry partners make various student and research programs possible. 	 		become a partner engaging with the mis research center allows companies access to unique benefits: 	recruit top talent from the carlson school’s undergraduate and graduate programs in mis and business analytics 	connect with faculty scholars conducting cutting-edge research, and access a global network of expertise 	expand your analytics bandwidth and get data-driven solutions to real business problems through the carlson analytics lab 	develop your team with rich educational opportunities that foster talent  explore ways to engage 	 		 		 		 		 		 		 		 		 		 		 		 birthplace of mis the university of minnesota and the carlson school have been at the forefront of the management information systems field since .  history 		 		 		 		 contact the mis research center to learn more about misrc, our research, and partnership opportunities, contact: soumya sen | director of research | ( ) - | ssen@umn.edu tim olson | ( ) - | olson @umn.edu an outreach initiative of the carlson school's information & decision sciences department carlson school of management th avenue south minneapolis, mn - - · - - csom@umn.edu footer menu 	 directions & parking 	 contact carlson school 	 faculty directory 	 media inquiries 	 university system footer second 	 covid- updates 	 current students 	 current undergrad students 	 faculty & staff 	 recruiters & corporations connect with carlson school 	 	 	 	 	 for students, faculty, and staff 	one stop 	myu © regents of the university of minnesota. all rights reserved. the university of minnesota is an equal opportunity educator and employer. privacy statement report web disability-related issue category:trust - wikimedia commons 	 	 	 	help 	 	category:trust 	 		from wikimedia commons, the free media repository 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		confianza (es); bizalom (hu); konfiantza (eu); enfotu (ast); confiança (ca); vertrauen (de); muinín (ga); поверење (sr-ec); 信任 (zh); fertrouwen (fy); güven (sosyoloji) (tr); 信頼 (ja); dôvera (sk); אמון (he); 信任 (zh-hant); 信任 (zh-cn); 신뢰 (ko); Тәрбиедегі сенім (kk); fido (eo); důvěra (cs); povjerenje (bs); fiducia (it); confiance (fr); confianza (gl); давер (be-tarask); εμπιστοσύνη (el); luottamus (fi); povjerenje (hr); poverenje (sh); Довіра (uk); poverenje (sr-el); confiança (pt); förtroende (sv); uzticība (lv); vertrouwen (nl); поверење (sr); доверие (ru); Доверие — Недоверие (bg); ruvimbo (sn); 信任 (zh-hk); kepercayaan (id); zaufanie (pl); Վստահություն (hy); 信任 (zh-tw); اعتماد (fa); Давер (be); ನಂಬಿಕೆ (kn); usaldus (et); trust (en); ثقة (ar); 信任 (zh-hans); tillid (da) seguridad en algo o alguien que se piensa que actuaría de bien (es); concept sociologique (fr); konsep dalam ilmu sosial (id); מונח פסיכולוגי (he); использование чужой истины до её обоснования (ru); subjektive Überzeugung von der richtigkeit (de); confiança (pt); assumption of and reliance on the honesty of another party (en); tunne tai varmuus siitä, että johonkin voi luottaa (fi); спадзяваньня на шчырасьць іншага боку (be-tarask) iontaoibh, trust (ga); 信賴(社會學), 信賴的價值 (zh); faith (en) trust 	assumption of and reliance on the honesty of another party 	upload media 	  wikipedia   wikiquote 	instance of	positive emotion, basic emotion, core concept (religion) 	subclass of	belief (honesty, good, capability) 	part of	psychology terminology 	different from		vertrauen 	conviction 		authority control 	 q gnd id: - library of congress authority id: sh bncf thesaurus id: 	 	reasonator 	petscan 	scholia 	statistics 	openstreetmap 	locator tool 	search depicted 	 subcategories this category has the following subcategories, out of total. b 	► betrayal in art‎ ( c, f) s 	► sculptures of trust‎ ( c) media in category "trust" the following files are in this category, out of total. 	 			 			 a cat expresses her love.jpg , × , ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 acrobatics in the circus.jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 buceo .jpg × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 country-level estimates of trust, owid.svg × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 credibility trust provenace data.svg × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 dandelion sisters.jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 embassy inn.jpg × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 fig - can most people be trusted.jpg × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 somebody's darling long ago (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 somebody's darling long ago (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 somebody's darling long ago (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 somebody's darling long ago (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 somebody's darling long ago (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i've waited, honey, waited long for you (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 i love you and you love me (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 here's to your eyes sweetheart (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 here's to your eyes sweetheart (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 here's to your eyes sweetheart (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 here's to your eyes sweetheart (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 believe (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 my girl's true blue (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 my girl's true blue (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 my girl's true blue (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 my girl's true blue (nypl hades- - ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 hands-dangling-keys-silhouette.svg × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 handshake- .jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 hardwick hall - flickr - killamarshianuk.jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 gustav adolph hennig - the artist's daughters on the way to school.jpg , × , ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 htf logo.png × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 htfeveny - .jpg × , ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 interpersonal trust vs. income inequality, owid.svg × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 jai mahasakthi.jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 levels of trust are higher in more equal rich countries.jpg , × , ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 levels of trust are higher in more equal us states.jpg , × , ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 logo .jpg × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 msd-based trust.png × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 n c t.jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 national trust camp.jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 national trust india.jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 national trust organ donaters.jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 national trust organ donation.jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 national trust pallavaram camp.jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 national trust pallavaram.jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 national trust sathish kumar.jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 national trust.jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 nct.jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 pierre-auguste renoir - confidences.jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 robert c. robertson.png × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 robert vins.jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 sai guru trust sai mandir .png × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 sai guru trust sai mandir .png × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 sai guru trust sai mandir .png × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 sai guru trust sai mandir .png × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 sai guru trust sai mandir .png , × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 sai guru trust sai mandir .png × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 sai guru trust sai mandir .png × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 sai guru trust sai mandir .png × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 sai guru trust sai mandir .jpg , × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 sai guru trust sai mandir .png × , ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 sai guru trust sai mandir .png , × ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 sai guru trust sai mandir .jpg × , ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 sai guru trust sai mandir .png , × ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 sai guru trust sai mandir .png × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 sai guru trust sai mandir .jpg × , ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 share of people agreeing with the statement "most people can be trusted", owid.svg × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 shree dev group of institution.png × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 sunaina samriddhi foundation - head office - pmkvy . .jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 sunaina samriddhi foundation - ho - pmkvy . .jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 sunaina samriddhi foundation, pmkvy . , pmkvy - , nsdc.jpg × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 sunderwala mahal.jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 the subtle signaling strength of smells - a masked odor enhances interpersonal trust.pdf , × , , pages; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 tmsourcing - fibras - grafico ( may ).jpg × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 trust ( ).jpg , × , ; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 trust - panoramio.jpg , × , ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 trust in others in europe, owid.svg × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 trust in others vs. trust in police, europe, owid.svg × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 trust tst logo.png × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 trust yer neighbor but brand yer cattle ( ).jpg , × , ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 trust youth !.jpg , × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 trust-balance-help.pdf , × , , pages; kb 			 		 	 			 			 trust-related word grid.jpg , × , ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 trust.jpg , × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 trust.jpg , × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 trusteesdiagram l.png × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 userpages-thekeytoenterprisewikis.pdf , × , , pages; . mb 			 		 	 			 			 web of trust-en.svg × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 web of trust.svg × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 white trust with red banners in back.png × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 california - pacific grove - nara - .jpg , × , ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 नृपावर्त (nripwrt).jpg , × , ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 울프독 .jpg × ; kb 			 		 	 			 			 울프독 .jpg × ; kb 			 		 retrieved from "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=category:trust&oldid= " 		categories: 	ethics 	emotions non-topical/index: 	uses of wikidata infobox 	uses of wikidata infobox with no image 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			english 	not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			category 	discussion 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			view 	edit 	history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigate 	 	 			main page 	welcome 	community portal 	village pump 	help center 		 	 	 	 		participate 	 	 			upload file 	recent changes 	latest files 	random file 	contact us 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			create a book 	download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikipedia 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		in wikipedia 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	galego 	עברית 	hrvatski 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	日本語 	Қазақша 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on july , at : . 	files are available under licenses specified on their description page. all structured data from the file and property namespaces is available under the creative commons cc license; all unstructured text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and the privacy policy. 		privacy policy 	about wikimedia commons 	disclaimers 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 view source for trust (social science) - 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wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	anticipation 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		emotion involving pleasure or anxiety in considering or awaiting an expected event this article is about the emotion. for other uses, see anticipation (disambiguation). 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e anticipation is an emotion involving pleasure or anxiety in considering or awaiting an expected event. contents 	 as a defence mechanism 	 desire 	 in music 	 in phenomenology 	 in pop culture 	 see also 	 references 	 external links as a defence mechanism[edit] excited man has been anticipating seeing a movie. robin skynner considered anticipation as one of "the mature ways of dealing with real stress.... you reduce the stress of some difficult challenge by anticipating what it will be like and preparing for how you are going to deal with it".[ ] there is evidence that "the use of mature defenses (sublimation, anticipation) tended to increase with age".[ ] desire[edit] "anticipation is the central ingredient in sexual desire."[ ][attribution needed] as "sex has a major cognitive component — the most important element for desire is positive anticipation".[ ][attribution needed] one name for pleasurable anticipation is excitement.[attribution needed][citation needed] more broadly, anticipation is a central motivating force in everyday life — "the normal process of imaginative anticipation of, or speculation about, the future".[ ] to enjoy one's life, "one needs a belief in time as a promising medium to do things in; one needs to be able to suffer the pains and pleasures of anticipation and deferral".[ ][attribution needed] in music[edit] there are several theories explaining anticipation in music. two prominent theories are the neurological theories of chase that attribute expectation building and anticipation both to inherent neurological pitch evolution (darwinian selection as pitch/rhythm/harmony communication response expectation) and the related skillful use of chord sequences (holding v until expectations are met with e, a, b , or the well known am/d /g tease-satisfy sequence, with variations in the wheel of fifths). a second well-accepted theory is huron's "itpra" module theory of expectation, where previous imaginative tension hits the event onset/horizon, with prediction and reaction oscillating (alternating) in the response system, and resulting in appraisal feedback.[ ][ ] from a global perspective, even given thousands of varying scale types worldwide, there is a universal human sense of satisfaction in the return to that scale's tonic (for example, c, in the major scale, key, and tonic of c major).[ ] in the context of the broader topic of music and emotion, juslin & västfjäll's brecvem model includes, as its seventh element, musical expectation.[ ] technically, anticipation also refers specifically to a type of nonchord tone. note: this section refers to the process of generating the thought or feeling of anticipation in music. for titles of songs with the word anticipation, see anticipation (disambiguation). in phenomenology[edit] for phenomenological philosopher edmund husserl, anticipation is an essential feature of human action. "in every action we know the goal in advance in the form of an anticipation that is 'empty', in the sense of vague...and [we] seek by our action to bring it step by step to concrete realization".[ ] anticipation can be shown in many ways; for example, some people seem to smile uncontrollably during this period, while others seem ill or sick. it is not uncommon for the brain to be so focused on an event, that the body is affected in such a way. stage fright is a type of anticipation, stemming from the actor or actress hoping that they perform well.[ ] in pop culture[edit] the musical the rocky horror show and subsequent film use the phrase in a literal way, with dr. frank-n-furter saying "i see you shiver with antici.......pation" (holding the breath between antici- and -pation for several seconds) during "sweet transvestite". since the movie became a cult film, it has become one of the most iconic and highly quoted lines.[citation needed] see also[edit] 	prediction 	expectation (epistemic) 	hope 	optimism 	faith 	confidence 	delayed gratification references[edit] 	^ robin skynner/john cleese, life and how to survive it (london ) p. 	^ hope r.conte/robert plutchik, ego defenses ( ) p. 	^ barry and emily mccarthy, rekindling desire ( ) p. 	^ mccarthy, p. 	^ colin campbell, the romantic ethic and the spirit of modern consumerism ( ) p. 	^ adam phillips, on flirtation (london ) p. 	^ wayne chase, "how music really works" (vancouver, ), isbn  - - - , pp. , 	^ david huron,"sweet anticipation, music and the psychology of expectation" (cambridge, ), isbn  - - - - , p. 	^ michael hewitt,"musical scales of the world" (london, ), isbn  - - - , p. et. al 	^ juslin, liljeström, västfjäll, & lundqvist. ( ). how does music evoke emotions? exploring the underlying mechanisms. in p.n. juslin & j. sloboda (eds.), handbook of music and emotion: theory, research, and applications (pp. - ). oxford: oxford university press, isbn  - . 	^ "robert plutchik's psychoevolutionary theory of basic emotions" (pdf). adliterate.com. retrieved - - . 	^ jonathan turner ( june ). on the origins of human emotions: a sociological inquiry into the evolution of human affect. stanford university press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ atifa athar; m. saleem khan; khalil ahmed; aiesha ahmed; nida anwar (june ). "a fuzzy inference system for synergy estimation of simultaneous emotion dynamics in agents". international journal of scientific & engineering research. ( ). 	^ e. husserl, in alfred schutz, the phenomenology of the social world (illinois ), p. 	^ "understanding stage fright". www.roadreadycases.com. retrieved march . external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: anticipation 		wikimedia commons has media related to anticipation. 	anticipation: getting ahead of the curve 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 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	distortion 	foreclosure or repudiation (german: verwerfung) 	extreme projection 	identification with the aggressor 	splitting 	level : immature	 	acting out 	fantasy 	idealization 	introjection 	passive-aggression 	projection 	projective identification 	somatization 	level : neurotic	 	displacement 	dissociation 	hypochondriasis 	intellectualization 	isolation 	rationalization 	reaction formation 	regression 	repression (german: verdrängung) 	undoing 	level : mature	 	altruism 	anticipation 	humour 	identification 	sublimation 	suppression 	other mechanisms	 	compartmentalization 	defensive pessimism 	exaggeration 	minimisation 	postponement of affect 	see also	 	narcissistic defences 	censorship (psychoanalysis) retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=anticipation&oldid= " 		categories: 	defence mechanisms 	emotions hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	all wikipedia articles needing words, phrases or 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as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			azərbaycanca 	català 	Čeština 	deutsch 	esperanto 	한국어 	italiano 	עברית 	magyar 	português 	română 	Русский 	Српски / srpski 	svenska 	தமிழ் 	türkçe 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 download as pdf - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	download as pdf 	 		 		trust (social science) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 download as pdf trust_(social_science).pdf download retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:downloadaspdf" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			special page 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			upload file 	special pages 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 category:emotions - wikipedia 	 	 	 	help 	 	category:emotions 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 				wikimedia commons has media related to emotions. this category includes articles about specific emotions. for articles about other subjects related to emotion, see category:emotion and its other subcategories. contents 	top 	 – 	a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z subcategories this category has the following subcategories, out of total. a 	► affection‎ ( c, p) 	► anxiety‎ ( c, p) d 	► depression (mood)‎ ( c, p) 	► doubt‎ ( c, p) f 	► fear‎ ( c, p, f) g 	► gratitude‎ ( c, p) 	► grief‎ ( c, p) 	► guilt‎ ( p) h 	► happiness‎ ( c, p) 	► hatred‎ ( c, p) j 	► jealousy‎ ( p) k 	► kindness‎ ( c, p) l 	► love‎ ( c, p) m 	► melancholia‎ ( c, p) n 	► nostalgia‎ ( c, p) p 	► pride‎ ( c, p) r 	► rage (emotion)‎ ( p) 	► romance‎ ( c, p) s 	► seduction‎ ( c, p) 	► sexual emotions‎ ( c, p) 	► suffering‎ ( c, p) pages in category "emotions" the following pages are in this category, out of total. this list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). a 	acceptance 	acedia 	admiration 	adoration 	affect labeling 	affect regulation 	affection 	ambivalence 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	animal grief 	annoyance 	anticipation 	antipathy 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attractiveness 	aversion to happiness 	awe b 	boredom 	broken heart c 	calmness 	comfort 	compassion 	confidence 	confusion 	contempt 	contentment 	contrition 	courage 	creepiness 	curiosity 	cute aggression d 	defeatism 	depression (mood) 	desire 	despair 	differential emotions scale 	disappointment 	disgust 	doubt 	dysphoria e 	ecstasy (emotion) 	embarrassment 	emotional security 	empathy 	emptiness 	enthusiasm 	envy 	epiphany (feeling) 	euphoria 	exhilaration f 	fear 	forgiveness 	frustration g 	gloom 	gratitude 	grief 	guilt (emotion) h 	happiness 	hatred 	homesickness 	hope 	hostility 	humiliation 	hysteria i 	indignation 	infatuation 	insignificance 	insult 	interest (emotion) 	invidia 	irritability 	isolation (psychology) j 	jealousy 	joy k 	kindness l 	limerence 	loneliness 	love 	loyalty 	lust m 	malaise 	melancholia 	mimpathy 	miscarriage and grief 	mono no aware 	mudita 	museum fatigue n 	nostalgia 	nostophobia o 	outrage (emotion) p 	panic 	passion (emotion) 	patience 	pessimism 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	emotional promiscuity r 	rage (emotion) 	reasonable person model 	regret 	relaxation (psychology) 	relief (emotion) 	remorse 	resentment 	reverence (emotion) 	ridiculous 	righteous indignation 	romance (love) s 	sadness 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-pity 	self-righteousness 	sentimentality 	seriousness 	shame 	acute stress disorder 	shyness 	silliness 	social alienation 	social emotions 	solitude 	sorrow (emotion) 	spite (sentiment) 	subjective well-being 	surprise (emotion) 	suspense 	suspicion (emotion) 	sympathy t 	trust (social science) u 	unipolar emotions v 	valence (psychology) 	vicarious embarrassment w 	wonder (emotion) 	worry z 	zest (positive psychology) retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=category:emotions&oldid= " 		categories: 	emotion 	psychological concepts hidden categories: 	commons category link from wikidata 	template category 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have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: 	your ip address is in a range that has been blocked on all wikimedia foundation wikis. the block was made by jon kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). the reason given is open proxy: webhost: contact stewards if you are affected . 	start of block: : , july 	expiry of block: : , january your current ip address is . . . and the blocked range is . . . / . please include all above details in any queries you make. if you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the no open proxies global policy. otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on meta-wiki or send an email to the stewards otrs queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 	 you are currently unable to edit wikipedia. you are still able to view pages, but you are not currently able to edit, move, or create them. editing from . . . / has been blocked (disabled) by ‪sql‬ for the following 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at least contacting the blocking administrator. this block has been set to expire: : , june . even if blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page and email other editors and administrators. other useful links: blocking policy · username policy ·   appealing blocks: policy and guide if the block notice is unclear, or it does not appear to relate to your actions, please ask for assistance as described at help:i have been blocked. you can view and copy the source of this page: ==further reading== * [[reinhard bachmann|bachmann, reinhard]] and zaheer, akbar (eds) ( ). ''handbook of trust research''. cheltenham: edward elgar.{{isbn?}} * [[cristina bicchieri|bicchieri, cristina]], duffy, john and tolle, gil ( ). "trust among strangers", ''philosophy of science'' : – . * marková, i., linell, p & gillespie, a. ( ). [https://lse.academia.edu/alexgillespie/papers/ /trust_and_distrust_in_society "trust and distrust in society"]. in marková, i. and gillespie, a. (eds.) ''trust and distrust: socio-cultural perspectives''. greenwich, ct: information age publishing, inc. * kelton, kari; fleischmann, kenneth r. & wallace, william a. ( ). "trust in digital information". ''journal of the american society for information science and technology'', ( ): – . * kini, a., & choobineh, j. (january ). "trust in electronic commerce: definition and theoretical considerations". paper presented at the thirty-first hawaii international conference on system sciences, kohala coast, hi. * gillespie, a. ( ). [https://lse.academia.edu/alexgillespie/papers/ /the_intersubjective_dynamics_of_trust_distrust_and_manipulation "the intersubjective dynamics of trust, distrust and manipulation"]. in markova and gillespie (eds), ''trust & distrust: socio-cultural perspectives''. charlotte, nc: info age. * maister, david h., green, charles h. & galford, robert m. ( ). ''the trusted advisor''. free press, new york{{isbn?}} return to trust (social science). retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/trust_(social_science)" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 annoyance - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	annoyance 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		an unpleasant mental state that is characterized by irritation and distraction "annoy" redirects here. for the minesweeper, see uss annoy (am- ). for the comedy club, see annoyance theatre. photomaton by marie-paule haar [fr] 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e annoyance is an unpleasant mental state that is characterized by irritation and distraction from one's conscious thinking. it can lead to emotions such as frustration and anger. the property of being easily annoyed is called irritability. contents 	 psychology 	 english law 	 see also 	 references psychology various reasons exist for why one finds particular stimuli annoying. measurement of annoyance is highly subjective. as an attempt at measurement, psychological studies on annoyance often rely on their subjects' own ratings of levels of annoyance on a scale. any kind of stimuli can cause annoyance, such as getting poked in the side or listening to a song repeatedly. many stimuli that one is at first neutral to, or even finds pleasant, can turn into annoyances from repeated continued exposure. one can often encounter annoyance factors in media, including popular music, memes, commercials, and advertising jingles, which by their very nature are continually repeated over a period of weeks or months. a study published in the international journal of conflict management found that one's response to an annoyance, at least when the perceived cause is another person, escalate to more extreme levels as they go unresolved.[ ] it also found that one was more likely to blame the party who was causing the annoyance in the study, rather than one's self, for the annoyance as it escalated. psychological warfare can involve creating annoyances to distract and wear down the resistance of the target. for example, in , the united states' federal bureau of investigation (fbi) played music "specifically selected for its irritation ability" on loudspeakers outside the branch davidian church in waco, texas in an attempt to bring about the surrender of david koresh and his followers.[ ] english law in the sense of "nuisance", the noun "annoyance" is found in the english "jury of annoyance" appointed by an act of to report upon obstructions in the highways.[ ] see also 		look up annoyance in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	agitation 	distraction 	frustration 	pet peeve 	social alienation references 	^ dean g pruitt, john c parker, joseph m mikolic. "escalation as a reaction to persistent annoyance.", international journalists of conflict management. bowling green: july , vol , issue ; pg. 	^ mark potok. "fbi grinds away at cult", usa today, april , , pg. a. 	^  one or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: chisholm, hugh, ed. ( ). "annoy". encyclopædia britannica. ( th ed.). cambridge university press. p.  . 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 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	magyar 	Русский 	ไทย 	Тыва дыл 	Українська 	tiếng việt 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on february , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 happy as an extraverted clam? | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . / - . corpus id: happy as an extraverted clam? @article{deneve happyaa, title={happy as an extraverted clam?}, author={k. deneve}, journal={current directions in psychological science}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	k. deneve 	published 	psychology 	current directions in psychological science personality characteristics, especially the traits of extraversion and neuroticism, have been proposed as the primary determinant of subjective wellbeing (swb). meta-analytic evidence presented here suggests that personality is indeed strongly related with swb, and that only health is more strongly correlated with swb. in a study of personality traits that have been correlated with swb, neuroticism was one of the strongest negative correlates of swb. however, extraversion was not the… continue reading view on sage save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationshighly influencial citations background citations methods citations results citations view all citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency not restricted by their personality: balanced time perspective moderates well-established relationships between personality traits and well-being 	m. stolarski 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed social connectedness, extraversion, and subjective well-being: testing a mediation model 	r. m. lee, brooke l. dean, kyoung rae jung 	psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed psycho-social predictors of happiness disposition in the genders 	anita sharma, d. malhotra 	psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed subjective wellbeing: an assessment of competing theories 	daniel blore 	psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed well-being and perceived health in multiple sclerosis (ms): the role of personality 	l. strober 	psychology 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed the role of adolescent neuroticism for adult partner relationships and happiness 	nanette s. danielsson 	psychology 	 save alert research feed personality, relationships with others and psychological well-being: a pilot study on the gabonese older people 	charlay indoumou peppe, e. altıntaş, eleonore ngoma voumbi, alain guerrien 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed the conceptual and relational structure of subjective well-being, neuroticism, and extraversion: once again, neuroticism is the important predictor of happiness 	j. vittersø, f. nilsen 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed the role of personality factors in the dynamics of context and psychological well-being 	q. temane, m. wissing 	psychology 	 	 	highly influenced 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed mental health: a personality analysis exploring the influence of neuroticism 	d. damodaran, bipin p varghese, bipin p varghese, varghese k. paul 	psychology 	 save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	 	 	› references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency the happy personality: a meta-analysis of personality traits and subjective well-being. 	k. deneve, h. cooper 	psychology, medicine 	psychological bulletin 	 	 , 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background and methods save alert research feed adding liebe und arbeit: the full five-factor model and well-being 	r. mccrae, p. costa 	psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed traits can be powerful, but are not enough: lessons from subjective well-being 	e. diener 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed on traits and temperament: general and specific factors of emotional experience and their relation to the five-factor model. 	d. watson, l. clark 	psychology, medicine 	journal of personality 	 	 , 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed who is happy? 	d. myers, e. diener 	psychology 	 	 , 	pdf save alert research feed hedonic consequences of social comparison: a contrast of happy and unhappy people. 	s. lyubomirsky, l. ross 	medicine, psychology 	journal of personality and social psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt save alert research feed subjective well-being. 	e. diener 	psychology, medicine 	psychological bulletin 	 	 , 	highly influential 	view excerpts, references background and methods save alert research feed subjective well-being: three decades of progress 	e. diener, e. suh, r. lucas, h. smith 	psychology 	 	 , 	pdf save alert research feed happiness is a stochastic phenomenon 	d. lykken, a. tellegen 	psychology 	 	 , 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed desire for control and the use of attribution processes 	j. burger, lawton t. hemans 	psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	› related papers 	abstract 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. 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psychology, trust is believing that the person who is trusted will do what is expected. according to the [[psychoanalysis|psychoanalyst]] [[erik erikson]], development of basic trust is the [[erikson's stages of psychosocial development|first state of psychosocial development]] occurring, or failing, during the first two years of life. success results in feelings of security and optimism, while failure leads towards an orientation of insecurity and mistrust<ref>{{cite web|author=child development institute parenting today |url=http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/erickson.shtml |title=stages of social-emotional development in children and teenagers |publisher=childdevelopmentinfo.com |accessdate= - - |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/erickson.shtml |archive-date=october , }}</ref> possibly resulting in [[attachment disorder]]s.<ref>fonagy, peter ( ). ''attachment theory and psychoanalysis''. other press professional, {{isbn| }}</ref> a person's dispositional tendency to trust others can be considered a personality trait and as such is one of the strongest predictors of subjective well-being.<ref name="deneve&cooper">{{cite journal|last=deneve|first=kristina m.|author =cooper, harris |title=the happy personality: a meta-analysis of personality traits and subjective well-being|journal=psychological bulletin|year= |volume= |pages= – |url=http://www.subjectpool.com/ed_teach/y _id/personality/wellbeing/ _deneve_cooper_psych_bull.pdf|doi= . / - . . . |pmid= |issue= }}</ref> trust increases subjective well-being because it enhances the quality of one's interpersonal relationships; happy people are skilled at fostering good relationships.<ref name="deneve ">{{cite journal|last=deneve|first=kristina m. |s cid= |title=happy as an extraverted clam? the role of personality for subjective well-being |journal=current directions in psychological science |year= |volume= |pages= – |issue= |doi= . / - . }}</ref> trust is integral to the idea of [[social influence]]: it is easier to influence or persuade someone who is trusting. the notion of trust is increasingly adopted to predict acceptance of behaviors by others, [[institutional trust|institution]]s (e.g. [[government agency|government agencies]]) and objects such as machines. yet once again, perceptions of honesty, competence and value similarity<ref>{{cite journal|last =garcia-retamero|first =rocio|last =müller|first =stephanie m.|last =rousseau|first =david l.|date= - - |title=the impact of value similarity and power on the perception of threat|url=http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x|journal=political psychology|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /j. - . . .x|issn= - x}}</ref> (slightly similar to benevolence) are essential. there are three different forms of trust commonly studied in psychology. trust is being vulnerable to someone even when they are trustworthy. trustworthiness are the characteristics or behaviors of one person that inspire positive expectations in another person. trust propensity is the ability to rely on others.<ref>{{cite web|title=psycnet|url=http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=main.showcontent&view=fulltext&format=html&id= - - |accessdate= october |website=psycnet.apa.org}}</ref> once trust is lost, by obvious violation of one of these three determinants, it is very hard to regain. thus there is clear asymmetry in the building versus destruction of trust. increasingly in recent times, research has been conducted regarding the notion of trust and its social implications: * in her book,<ref name="barbaramisztal">barbara misztal, ''trust in modern societies: the search for the bases of social order'', polity press, {{isbn| - - - }}</ref> barbara misztal attempts to combine all notions of trust together. she describes three basic things that trust does in the lives of people: it makes social life predictable, it creates a sense of [[community]], and it makes it easier for people to work together. * in the context of sexual trust, riki robbins<ref name="rikirobbins">riki robbins, ''betrayed!: how you can restore sexual trust and rebuild your life'', adams media corporation, {{isbn| - - - }}</ref> describes four stages. these consist of perfect trust, damaged trust, devastated trust and restored trust.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.innerself.com/relationships/four_stages_of_trust.htm |title=four stages of trust |publisher=innerself.com |accessdate= - - |date= - - }}</ref> * in the context of [[information theory]], ed gerck defines and contrasts trust with social functions such as [[power (philosophy)|power]], surveillance, and [[accountability]].<ref name="ed gerck">ed gerck, ''trust points'', digital certificates: applied internet security by j. feghhi, j. feghhi and p. williams, addison-wesley, {{isbn| - - - }}, .</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=ed gerck |url=http://mcwg.org/mcg-mirror/trustdef.htm |title=definition of trust |publisher=mcwg.org |date= - - |accessdate= - - }}</ref> * from a [[social identity]] perspective, the propensity to trust strangers (see [[in-group favoritism]]) arises from the mutual knowledge of a shared group membership,<ref name="platow ">{{cite journal |last =platow |first =m. j. |last =foddy |first =m. |last =yamagishi |first =t. |last =lim |first =l. |last =chow |first =a. |year= |title=two experimental tests of trust in in-group strangers: the moderating role of common knowledge of group membership |journal=european journal of social psychology |volume= |pages= – |doi= . /ejsp. }}</ref><ref name="foddy " /> [[stereotype|stereotypes]],<ref name="foddy ">{{cite journal |last =foddy |first =m. |last =platow |first =m.j. |last =yamagishi |first =t. |s cid= |year= |title=group-based trust in strangers: the role of stereotypes and expectations |journal=psychological science |volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /j. - . . .x|pmid= }}</ref> or the need to maintain the group's positive distinctiveness.<ref name="tanis " /> despite the centrality of trust to the positive functioning of humans and relationships, very little is known about how and why trust evolves, is maintained, and is destroyed.<ref name=": ">{{cite journal|last=simpson|first=jeffry a.|date= - - |title=psychological foundations of trust|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/ . /j. - . . .x|journal=current directions in psychological science|volume= |issue= |pages= – |language=en|doi= . /j. - . . .x|s cid= |issn= - }}</ref> one factor that enhances trust among humans is facial resemblance. through digital manipulation of facial resemblance in a two-person sequential trust game, supporting evidence was found that having similar [[facial feature]]s (facial resemblance) enhanced trust in a subject's respective partner.<ref>{{cite journal|author=lisa m. debruine|date= july |title=facial resemblance enhances trust|journal=proceedings of the royal society of london. series b: biological sciences|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /rspb. . |pmc= |pmid= }}</ref> though facial resemblance was shown to increase trust, it also had the effect of decreased [[sexual desire]] in a particular partner. in a series of tests, digitally manipulated faces were presented to subjects to be evaluated for attractiveness within the context of a long-term or short-term relationship. the results showed that within the context of a short-term relationship, which is dependent on sexual desire, similar facial features caused a decrease in desire. within the context of a long-term relationship, which is dependent on trust, similar facial features increased the attractiveness of an individual, leading one to believe that facial resemblance and trust have great effects on relationships.<ref>{{cite journal|last=debruine|first=lisa|date= november |title=trustworthy but not lust-worthy: context-specific effects of facial resemblance|journal=[[proceedings of the royal society b]]|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /rspb. . |jstor= |pmc= |pmid= }}</ref> interpersonal trust literature<ref name=": " /> suggests that trust-diagnostic situations provide a means by which individuals can gauge or alter the level of trust in relationships. trust-diagnostic situations refer to in trust or "strain-test"<ref>{{cite journal|last =shallcross|first =sandra l.|last =simpson|first =jeffry a.|date= |title=trust and responsiveness in strain-test situations: a dyadic perspective.|url=http://dx.doi.org/ . /a |journal=journal of personality and social psychology|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /a |pmid= |issn= - }}</ref> situations which test partners' ability to act in the best interests of the other individual or the relationship, simultaneously rejecting that option which is in one's personal [[self-interest]]. trust-diagnostic situations occur throughout the course of everyday life, though can be created by individuals wanting to test the current level of trust in a relationship.<ref name=": " /> low trust relationships are occur where individuals have little confidence their partner is truly concerned about them or the relationship.<ref name=": ">{{cite journal|last =rempel|first =john k.|last =ross|first =michael|last =holmes|first =john g.|date= |title=trust and communicated attributions in close relationships.|url=http://dx.doi.org/ . / - . . . |journal=journal of personality and social psychology|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / - . . . |pmid= |issn= - }}</ref> those in low trust relationships tend to make distress-maintaining attributions<ref>{{cite journal|last=collins|first=nancy l.|date= |title=working models of attachment: implications for explanation, emotion, and behavior.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi= . / - . . . |journal=journal of personality and social psychology|language=en|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / - . . . |pmid= |issn= - }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last =holtzworth-munroe|first =amy|last =jacobson|first =neil s.|date= |title=causal attributions of married couples: when do they search for causes? what do they conclude when they do?|url=http://dx.doi.org/ . / - . . . |journal=journal of personality and social psychology|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / - . . . |pmid= |issn= - }}</ref> whereby the consequences of partner's negative behavior become of greatest focus, and any impacts of positive actions are minimized. this feeds into the overarching notion that the individual's partner is disinterested in the relationship, and any positive acts are met with [[skepticism]], leading to further negative outcomes.<ref name=": " /> distrusting individuals may not always engage in opportunities for trusting relationships. someone who was subject to an abusive childhood may have been deprived of any evidence that trust is warranted in future interpersonal relationships.<ref name=": " /> an important key to treating [[sexual victimization]] of a child is the rebuilding of trust between parent and child. failure for the adults to validate the [[sexual abuse]] contributes to the child's difficulty towards trusting self and others.<ref>timmons-mitchell, jane. ''treating sexual victimization: developing trust-based relating in the mother-daughter dyad{{isbn?}}{{page?|date=december }}''</ref> moreover, trust can often be affected by the [[marital breakdown|erosion of a marriage]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=brinig|first=margaret f.|date= |title=belonging and trust: divorce and social capital|url=http://dx.doi.org/ . /ssrn. |journal=ssrn electronic journal|doi= . /ssrn. |issn= - }}</ref> children of [[divorce]] do not exhibit less trust in mothers, partners, spouses, friends, and associates than their peers of intact families. the impact of parental divorce is limited to trust in the father.<ref name="king ">{{cite journal|author=king, valarie|title=parental divorce and interpersonal trust in adult offspring|journal=journal of marriage and family|volume= |issue= |date=august |pages= – |doi= . /j. - . . .x|jstor= }}</ref> ===social identity approach=== the [[social identity approach]] explains trust in strangers as a function of group-based stereotypes or [[ingroup favoritism|in-group favoring]] behaviors based on [[self-categorization theory|salient group memberships]]. with regard to ingroup favoritism, people generally think well of strangers but expect better treatment from in-group members in comparison to out-group members. this greater expectation then translates into a higher propensity to trust an in-group rather than out-group member.<ref name="platow " /><ref name="tanis " /><ref name="foddy " /> it has been pointed out that it is only advantageous to form such expectations of an in-group stranger if they too know the group membership of the recipient.<ref name="foddy " /> there is considerable empirical activity related to the social identity approach. allocator studies have frequently been employed to understand group-based trust in strangers.<ref name="platow " /><ref name="foddy " /><ref name="foddy ">{{cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ |title=new issues and paradigms in research on social dilemmas|date= |publisher=springer|others=biel, anders., eek, daniel., gärling, tommy., gustafsson, mathias.|isbn= - - - - |location=[new york, n.y.]|oclc= }}</ref><ref name="guth ">{{cite journal | last = guth | first = w. | last = levati | first = m.v. | last = ploner | first = m. | year = | title = social identity and trust – an experimental investigation | url = http://edoc.mpg.de/ | journal = the journal of socio-economics | volume = | issue = | pages = – | doi = . /j.socec. . . }}</ref> they may be operationalized as [[unilateralism|unilateral]] or [[bilateral]] relationships of exchange. general social categories such as university affiliation, course majors, and even ad-hoc groups have been used to distinguish between in-group and out-group members. in unilateral studies of trust, the participant is asked to choose between envelopes containing money that was previously allocated by an in-group or out-group member.<ref name="foddy " /> they have no prior or future opportunities for interaction, simulating [[marilynn brewer|brewer's]] notion that group membership was sufficient in bringing about group-based trust and hence cooperation.<ref name="brewer ">{{cite journal | last = brewer | first = m.b. | year = | title = the psychology of prejudice: ingroup love or outgroup hate? | journal = journal of social issues | volume = | issue = | pages = – | doi= . / - . }}</ref> participants could expect an amount ranging from nothing to the maximum value an allocator could give out. bilateral studies of trust have employed an investment game devised by berg and colleagues where individuals choose to give a portion or none of their money to another.<ref name="berg ">berg, j., dickhaut, j., & mccabe, k. ( ). "trust, reciprocity, and social history". ''games and economic behaviour'', , – </ref> any amount given would be tripled and the receiver would then decide whether they would return the favor by giving money back to the sender. trusting behavior on the part of the sender and the eventual trustworthiness of the receiver was exemplified through the giving of money.<ref name="tanis ">{{cite journal |last =tanis |first =m. |last =postmes |first =t. |year= |title=a social identity approach to trust: interpersonal perception, group membership and trusting behaviour |url=https://research.vu.nl/ws/files/ / .pdf|journal=european journal of social psychology |volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /ejsp. }}</ref><ref name="foddy " /> empirical research has demonstrated that when group membership is made salient and known to both parties, trust is granted more readily to in-group members than out-group members.<ref name="foddy " /><ref name="foddy " /><ref name="guth " /> this occurred even when the in-group stereotype was comparatively less positive than an out-group's (e.g. psychology versus nursing majors),<ref name="foddy " /> in the absence of personal identity cues,<ref name="tanis " /> and when participants had the option of a sure sum of money (i.e. in essence opting out of the need to trust a stranger).<ref name="platow " /> in contrast, when only the recipient was made aware of group membership, trust becomes reliant upon group stereotypes.<ref name="foddy " /><ref name="tanis " /> the group with the more positive stereotype was trusted (e.g. one's university affiliation over another)<ref name="tanis " /> even over that of the in-group (e.g. nursing over psychology majors).<ref name="foddy " /> another reason for in-groups favoring behaviors in trust could be attributed to the need to maintain in-group [[social identity theory#positive distinctiveness|positive distinctiveness]], particularly in the presence of social identity threat.<ref name="guth " /> trust in out-group strangers increased when personal cues to identity were revealed.<ref name="tanis " /> return to trust (social science). retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/trust_(social_science)" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 account creation error - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	account creation error 	 		 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		your ip address is in a range that has been blocked on all wikimedia foundation wikis. the block was made by jon kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). the reason given is open proxy: webhost: contact stewards if you are affected . 	start of block: : , july 	expiry of block: : , january your current ip address is . . . and the blocked range is . . . / . please include all above details in any queries you make. if you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the no open proxies global policy. otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on meta-wiki or send an email to the stewards otrs queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. return to trust (social science). retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:createaccount" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			special page 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			upload file 	special pages 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 annette baier - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	annette baier 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		new zealand philosopher 	annette baier 	born	annette claire stoop october new zealand 	died	 november ( - - ) (aged  ) dunedin, new zealand 	alma mater	university of otago somerville college, oxford 	 	era	contemporary philosophy 	region	western philosophy 	school	analytic philosophy 	main interests 	ethics, feminist philosophy, philosophy of mind 	notable ideas 	giving trust a significant role in ethics 	 influences 	david hume, wilfrid sellars 	 annette claire baier (née stoop; october – november )[ ][ ] was a new zealand philosopher and hume scholar, focused in particular on hume's moral psychology. she was well known also for her contributions to feminist philosophy and to the philosophy of mind, where she was strongly influenced by her former colleague, wilfrid sellars. contents 	 biography 	 ethics 	 bibliography 	 . books 	 . chapters in books 	 references 	 external links biography[edit] baier studied at the university of otago and from onwards at somerville college, oxford, where she met fellow philosophers philippa foot and g.e.m. anscombe. for most of her career she taught in the philosophy department at the university of pittsburgh, having moved there from carnegie mellon university. she retired to her native dunedin, new zealand, where she graduated from the university of otago. she was former president of the eastern division of the american philosophical association, an office reserved for the elite of her profession. baier received an honorary doctor of literature from the university of otago in . her husband was the philosopher kurt baier. ethics[edit] baier's approach to ethics is that women and men make their decisions about right and wrong based on different value systems: men take their moral decisions according to an idea of justice, while women are motivated by a sense of trust or caring. the history of philosophy having been overwhelmingly compiled by men, she suggests, leads to a body of thought which apparently ignores the role of nurture and trust in human philosophy.[ ] bibliography[edit] books[edit] 	baier, annette ( ). postures of the mind: essays on mind and morals. 	baier, annette ( ). a progress of sentiments: reflections on hume's treatise. 	baier, annette ( ). moral prejudices. , including especially "what do women want in an ethical theory?" and "the need for more than justice". 	baier, annette ( ). the commons of the mind. paul carus lectures. 	baier, annette ( ). death and character: further reflections on hume. harvard university press. 	baier, annette ( ). reflections on how we live. oxford university press. 	baier, annette ( ). the pursuits of philosophy: an introduction to the life and thought of david hume. harvard university press. chapters in books[edit] 	baier, annette ( ), "knowing our place in the animal world", in miller, harlan b.; williams, william h. (eds.), ethics and animals, clifton, new jersey: humana press, pp.  – , isbn  - - - - . 	baier, annette ( ), "the need for more than justice", in cudd, ann e.; andreasen, robin o. (eds.), feminist theory: a philosophical anthology, oxford, uk malden, massachusetts: blackwell publishing, pp.  – , isbn  .cs maint: ref=harv (link) references[edit] 	^ "obituary: annette c. baier". university times. university of pittsburgh. november . retrieved april . 	^ "archives: in memoriam, - ". hume society. archived from the original on october . retrieved april . 	^ annette baier ( -) from open .net external links[edit] 	trust tanner lecture by annette baier 	obituary: annette c. baier in the university times of the university of pittsburgh 	annette baier, - in memoriam posted by the hume society 		wikiquote has quotations related to: annette baier 	authority control 	 	bnf: cb z (data) 	isni: 	lccn: n 	nkc: jn 	nlk: kac 	nta: 	snac: w t 	sudoc: 	viaf: 	 worldcat identities: lccn-n retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=annette_baier&oldid= " 		categories: 	 births 	 deaths 	 th-century american philosophers 	 st-century american philosophers 	moral philosophers 	people from dunedin 	new zealand philosophers 	university of otago alumni 	alumni of somerville college, oxford 	hume scholars 	moral psychologists 	new zealand women philosophers 	animal welfare scholars 	philosophers from pennsylvania 	new zealand writers 	new zealand women writers hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	use dmy dates from july 	articles with hcards 	cs maint: ref=harv 	wikipedia articles with bnf identifiers 	wikipedia articles with isni identifiers 	wikipedia articles with lccn identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nkc identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nlk identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nta identifiers 	wikipedia articles with snac-id identifiers 	wikipedia articles with sudoc identifiers 	wikipedia articles with viaf identifiers 	wikipedia articles with worldcatid identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	português 	Русский 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 view source for trust (social science) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	view source for trust (social science) 	 		 		← trust (social science) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		you do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: 	your ip address is in a range that has been blocked on all wikimedia foundation wikis. the block was made by jon kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). the reason given is open proxy: webhost: contact stewards if you are affected . 	start of block: : , july 	expiry of block: : , january your current ip address is . . . and the blocked range is . . . / . please include all above details in any queries you make. if you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the no open proxies global policy. otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on meta-wiki or send an email to the stewards otrs queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 	 you are currently unable to edit wikipedia. you are still able to view pages, but you are not currently able to edit, move, or create them. editing from . . . / has been blocked (disabled) by ‪sql‬ for the following reason(s): 	 the ip address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. to prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing wikipedia. 	you will not be able to edit wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider. since the web host acts like a proxy or vpn, because it hides your ip address, it has been blocked. we recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. for example, if you use a proxy or vpn to connect to the internet, turn it off when editing wikipedia. if you edit using a mobile connection, try using a wi-fi connection, and vice versa. if you have a wikipedia account, please log in. if you do not have any other way to edit wikipedia, you will need to request an ip block exemption. if you do not believe you are using a web host, you may appeal this block by adding the following text on your talk page: {{unblock|reason=caught by a colocation web host block but this host or ip is not a web host. my ip address is _______. place any further information here. ~~~~}}. you must fill in the blank with your ip address for this block to be investigated. your ip address can be determined using whatismyip.com. alternatively, if you wish to keep your ip address private you can use the unblock ticket request system. if you are using a wikipedia account, you will need to request an ip block exemption by either using the unblock template or by submitting an appeal using the unblock ticket request system. administrators: the ip block exemption user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. if you intend to give the ipbe user right, a checkuser needs to take a look at the account. this can be requested most easily at spi quick checkuser requests. unblocking an ip or ip range with this template is highly discouraged without at least contacting the blocking administrator. this block has been set to expire: : , june . even if blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page and email other editors and administrators. other useful links: blocking policy · username policy ·   appealing blocks: policy and guide if the block notice is unclear, or it does not appear to relate to your actions, please ask for assistance as described at help:i have been blocked. you can view and copy the source of this page: ===social identity approach=== the [[social identity approach]] explains trust in strangers as a function of group-based stereotypes or [[ingroup favoritism|in-group favoring]] behaviors based on [[self-categorization theory|salient group memberships]]. with regard to ingroup favoritism, people generally think well of strangers but expect better treatment from in-group members in comparison to out-group members. this greater expectation then translates into a higher propensity to trust an in-group rather than out-group member.<ref name="platow " /><ref name="tanis " /><ref name="foddy " /> it has been pointed out that it is only advantageous to form such expectations of an in-group stranger if they too know the group membership of the recipient.<ref name="foddy " /> there is considerable empirical activity related to the social identity approach. allocator studies have frequently been employed to understand group-based trust in strangers.<ref name="platow " /><ref name="foddy " /><ref name="foddy ">{{cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ |title=new issues and paradigms in research on social dilemmas|date= |publisher=springer|others=biel, anders., eek, daniel., gärling, tommy., gustafsson, mathias.|isbn= - - - - |location=[new york, n.y.]|oclc= }}</ref><ref name="guth ">{{cite journal | last = guth | first = w. | last = levati | first = m.v. | last = ploner | first = m. | year = | title = social identity and trust – an experimental investigation | url = http://edoc.mpg.de/ | journal = the journal of socio-economics | volume = | issue = | pages = – | doi = . /j.socec. . . }}</ref> they may be operationalized as [[unilateralism|unilateral]] or [[bilateral]] relationships of exchange. general social categories such as university affiliation, course majors, and even ad-hoc groups have been used to distinguish between in-group and out-group members. in unilateral studies of trust, the participant is asked to choose between envelopes containing money that was previously allocated by an in-group or out-group member.<ref name="foddy " /> they have no prior or future opportunities for interaction, simulating [[marilynn brewer|brewer's]] notion that group membership was sufficient in bringing about group-based trust and hence cooperation.<ref name="brewer ">{{cite journal | last = brewer | first = m.b. | year = | title = the psychology of prejudice: ingroup love or outgroup hate? | journal = journal of social issues | volume = | issue = | pages = – | doi= . / - . }}</ref> participants could expect an amount ranging from nothing to the maximum value an allocator could give out. bilateral studies of trust have employed an investment game devised by berg and colleagues where individuals choose to give a portion or none of their money to another.<ref name="berg ">berg, j., dickhaut, j., & mccabe, k. ( ). "trust, reciprocity, and social history". ''games and economic behaviour'', , – </ref> any amount given would be tripled and the receiver would then decide whether they would return the favor by giving money back to the sender. trusting behavior on the part of the sender and the eventual trustworthiness of the receiver was exemplified through the giving of money.<ref name="tanis ">{{cite journal |last =tanis |first =m. |last =postmes |first =t. |year= |title=a social identity approach to trust: interpersonal perception, group membership and trusting behaviour |url=https://research.vu.nl/ws/files/ / .pdf|journal=european journal of social psychology |volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /ejsp. }}</ref><ref name="foddy " /> empirical research has demonstrated that when group membership is made salient and known to both parties, trust is granted more readily to in-group members than out-group members.<ref name="foddy " /><ref name="foddy " /><ref name="guth " /> this occurred even when the in-group stereotype was comparatively less positive than an out-group's (e.g. psychology versus nursing majors),<ref name="foddy " /> in the absence of personal identity cues,<ref name="tanis " /> and when participants had the option of a sure sum of money (i.e. in essence opting out of the need to trust a stranger).<ref name="platow " /> in contrast, when only the recipient was made aware of group membership, trust becomes reliant upon group stereotypes.<ref name="foddy " /><ref name="tanis " /> the group with the more positive stereotype was trusted (e.g. one's university affiliation over another)<ref name="tanis " /> even over that of the in-group (e.g. nursing over psychology majors).<ref name="foddy " /> another reason for in-groups favoring behaviors in trust could be attributed to the need to maintain in-group [[social identity theory#positive distinctiveness|positive distinctiveness]], particularly in the presence of social identity threat.<ref name="guth " /> trust in out-group strangers increased when personal cues to identity were revealed.<ref name="tanis " /> return to trust (social science). retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/trust_(social_science)" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 view source for trust (social science) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	view source for trust (social science) 	 		 		← trust (social science) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		you do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: 	your ip address is in a range that has been blocked on all wikimedia foundation wikis. the block was made by jon kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). the reason given is open proxy: webhost: contact stewards if you are affected . 	start of block: : , july 	expiry of block: : , january your current ip address is . . . and the blocked range is . . . / . please include all above details in any queries you make. if you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the no open proxies global policy. otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on meta-wiki or send an email to the stewards otrs queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 	 you are currently unable to edit wikipedia. you are still able to view pages, but you are not currently able to edit, move, or create them. editing from . . . / has been blocked (disabled) by ‪sql‬ for the following reason(s): 	 the ip address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. to prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing wikipedia. 	you will not be able to edit wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider. since the web host acts like a proxy or vpn, because it hides your ip address, it has been blocked. we recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. for example, if you use a proxy or vpn to connect to the internet, turn it off when editing wikipedia. if you edit using a mobile connection, try using a wi-fi connection, and vice versa. if you have a wikipedia account, please log in. if you do not have any other way to edit wikipedia, you will need to request an ip block exemption. if you do not believe you are using a web host, you may appeal this block by adding the following text on your talk page: {{unblock|reason=caught by a colocation web host block but this host or ip is not a web host. my ip address is _______. place any further information here. ~~~~}}. you must fill in the blank with your ip address for this block to be investigated. your ip address can be determined using whatismyip.com. alternatively, if you wish to keep your ip address private you can use the unblock ticket request system. if you are using a wikipedia account, you will need to request an ip block exemption by either using the unblock template or by submitting an appeal using the unblock ticket request system. administrators: the ip block exemption user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. if you intend to give the ipbe user right, a checkuser needs to take a look at the account. this can be requested most easily at spi quick checkuser requests. unblocking an ip or ip range with this template is highly discouraged without at least contacting the blocking administrator. this block has been set to expire: : , june . even if blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page and email other editors and administrators. other useful links: blocking policy · username policy ·   appealing blocks: policy and guide if the block notice is unclear, or it does not appear to relate to your actions, please ask for assistance as described at help:i have been blocked. you can view and copy the source of this page: ==economics== {{see also|consumer confidence}} trust in economics is treated as an explanation for a difference between actual human behavior and the one that can be explained by the individual desire to maximize one's utility. in economic terms, trust can provide an explanation of a difference between [[nash equilibrium]] and the observed equilibrium. such an approach can be applied to individuals as well as societies. {{multiple image | width = | image = levels of trust are higher in more equal rich countries.jpg | alt = | image = levels of trust are higher in more equal us states.jpg | alt = | footer = levels of trust are higher in more [[economic inequality|equal]] rich countries and in more equal us states<ref>the spirit level: why more equal societies almost always do better. london, allen lane ( ). {{isbn| - - - - }} uk paperback edition {{isbn| - - - - }} ( )</ref> }} trust is important to economists for many reasons. taking the "[[the market for lemons|market for lemons]]" transaction popularized by [[george akerlof]] as an example,<ref>{{cite journal|last=akerlof|first=george a.|date= |title=the market for "lemons": quality uncertainty and the market mechanism|url=https://academic.oup.com/qje/article-lookup/doi/ . / |journal=the quarterly journal of economics|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / |jstor= }}</ref> if a buyer of a car doesn't trust the seller to not sell a lemon, the transaction won't be entered into. the buyer won't enter into the transaction in the absence of trust, even if the product is of great value to the buyer. trust can act as an economic lubricant, reducing the cost of transactions between parties, enabling new forms of cooperation and generally furthering business activities;<ref name="morgan – ">{{cite journal|last=morgan|first=robert|author =hunt, s. |author-link =shelby d. hunt |title=the commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing|journal=the journal of marketing|date=july |volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / |jstor= }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author =zheng, j.|author =roehrich, j.k.|author =lewis, m.a.|s cid= |date= |title=the dynamics of contractual and relational governance: evidence from long-term public-private procurement arrangements|journal=journal of purchasing and supply management|volume= | issue = |pages= – |url=https://www.scopus.com/record/display.url?eid= -s . - &origin=inward&txgid=yxivjq aspq yydqfjmjlca% a |doi= . /j.pursup. . . }}</ref> employment and prosperity. this observation <ref>fukuyama, f. ( ) trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity, touchstone books.</ref> created a significant interest in considering trust as a form of [[social capital]] and has led research into closer understanding of the process of creation and distribution of such capital. it has been claimed that a higher level of social trust is positively correlated with [[economic development]]. even though the original concept of 'high trust' and 'low trust' societies may not necessarily hold, it has been widely accepted and demonstrated that social trust benefits the economy <ref>zak, p. j., and knack, s. ( ) "trust and growth". ''economic journal'', : [https://www.jstor.org/pss/ ]– .</ref> and that a low level of trust inhibits [[economic growth]]. the absence of trust restricts growth in employment, wages and profits, thus reducing the overall welfare of society.<ref>{{cite journal|last=pollitt|first=michael|date= |title=the economics of trust, norms and networks|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/ . / - . |journal=business ethics: a european review|language=en|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / - . |s cid= |issn= - }}</ref> theoretical economical modelling<ref>{{cite journal | last = braynov | first = s. | last = sandholm | first = t. | year = | title = contracting with uncertain level of trust | journal = computational intelligence | volume = | issue = | pages = – | doi= . / - . | citeseerx = . . . . | s cid = }}</ref> demonstrates that the optimum level of trust that a rational economic agent should exhibit in transactions is equal to the trustworthiness of the other party. such a level of trust leads to an efficient market. trusting less leads to the loss of economic opportunities, while trusting more leads to unnecessary vulnerabilities and potential exploitation. economics is also interested in quantifying trust, usually in monetary terms. the level of correlation between an increase in [[profit margin]]<ref>resnick, p. "the value of reputation on ebay: a controlled experiment". ''experimental economics'', volume , issue , jun , pp. – .</ref> or a decrease in transactional costs can be used as indicators of the economic value of trust. economic 'trust games' are popularly used to empirically quantify trust in relationships under laboratory conditions. there are several games and game-like scenarios related to trust that have been tried, with certain preferences to those that allow the estimation of confidence in monetary terms.<ref>keser, c. ( ) "experimental games for the design of reputation management systems". ''ibm systems j.'', vol. , no. .</ref> games of trust are designed in a way such that the nash equilibrium differs from [[pareto efficiency|pareto optimum]] so that no player alone can maximize his own utility by altering his selfish strategy without cooperation. cooperating partners can also benefit. the classical version of the game of trust has been described<ref>berg, j., dickhaut, j., and mccabe, k. ( ) "trust, reciprocity, and social history", ''games and economic behavior'' , – . [https://archive.today/ /http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=articleurl&_udi=b wfw- njfpr- &_user= &_coverdate= / / &_rdoc= &_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_rerunorigin=scholar.google&_acct=c &_version= &_urlversion= &_userid= &md = c b d b f ffd &searchtype=a abstract.]</ref> as an abstracted investment game, using the scenario of an investor and a broker. the investor can invest a fraction of his money, and broker can return only part of his gains. if both players follow their economical best interest, the investor should never invest and the broker will never be able to repay anything. thus the flow of money flow, its volume and character is attributable entirely to the existence of trust. the game can be played as a once-off, or repeatedly, with the same or different sets of players to distinguish between a general propensity to trust and trust within particular relationships. several other variants of this game exist. reversing rules lead to the game of distrust, pre-declarations can be used to establish intentions of players,<ref>airiau, s., and sen, s. ( ) "learning to commit in repeated games". in: ''proc. of the fifth int. joint conf. on autonomous agents and multiagent systems'' (aamas ).</ref> while alterations to the distribution of gains can be used to manipulate perception of both players. the game can be also played by several players on the closed market,<ref>bolton, g. e., katok, e., and ockenfels, a. ( ) "how effective are electronic reputation mechanisms? an experimental investigation".</ref> with or without information about reputation. other interesting games are e.g. binary-choice trust games,<ref>{{cite journal | last = camerer | first = c. | last = weigelt | first = k. | year = | title = experimental tests of a sequential equilibrium reputation model | journal = econometrica | volume = | issue = | pages = – | doi= . / | citeseerx = . . . . | jstor = }}</ref> the gift-exchange game<ref>fehr, e., kirchsteiger, g., and riedl, a.. "does fairness prevent market clearing? an experimental investigation". ''quarterly journal of economics'' (may ), pp. – .</ref> and various other forms of social games. specifically games based on the [[prisoner's dilemma]]<ref>poundstone, w. ( ). ''prisoner's dilemma''. doubleday, ny.</ref> are popularly used to link trust with economic utility and demonstrate the rationality behind reciprocity. the popularization of [[e-commerce]] opened the discussion of trust in economy to new challenges while at the same time elevating the importance of trust, and desire to understand customer decision to trust.<ref>mcknight, d., h., chervany, n. l. ( ) "conceptualizing trust: a typology and e-commerce customer relationships model". ''proc. of the th hawaii int. conf. on system sciences''.</ref> for example, interpersonal relationships between buyers and sellers have been disintermediated by the technology,<ref>giddens, a. ( ) ''modernity and self-identity: self and society in the late modern age''. polity press.</ref> and consequentially required improvement.<ref>golbeck, j. ( ). ''computing with social trust''. springer.</ref> websites can influence the buyer to trust the seller, regardless of the seller's actual trustworthiness (e.g.<ref>egger, f. n. "from interactions to transactions: designing the trust experience for business-to-consumer electronic commerce". phd thesis, eindhoven university of technology (the netherlands).</ref>). reputation-based systems improved on trust assessment by allowing to capture the collective perception of trustworthiness, generating significant interest in various models of reputation.<ref>chang, e., dillion, t., hussain, f. k. ( ) ''trust and reputation for service-oriented environments: technologies for building business intelligence and consumer confidence''. john wiley & sons, ltd.</ref> return to trust (social science). retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/trust_(social_science)" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 view source for trust (social science) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	view source for trust (social science) 	 		 		← trust (social science) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		you do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: 	your ip address is in a range that has been blocked on all wikimedia foundation wikis. the block was made by jon kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). the reason given is open proxy: webhost: contact stewards if you are affected . 	start of block: : , july 	expiry of block: : , january your current ip address is . . . and the blocked range is . . . / . please include all above details in any queries you make. if you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the no open proxies global policy. otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on meta-wiki or send an email to the stewards otrs queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 	 you are currently unable to edit wikipedia. you are still able to view pages, but you are not currently able to edit, move, or create them. editing from . . . / has been blocked (disabled) by ‪sql‬ for the following reason(s): 	 the ip address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. to prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing wikipedia. 	you will not be able to edit wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider. since the web host acts like a proxy or vpn, because it hides your ip address, it has been blocked. we recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. for example, if you use a proxy or vpn to connect to the internet, turn it off when editing wikipedia. if you edit using a mobile connection, try using a wi-fi connection, and vice versa. if you have a wikipedia account, please log in. if you do not have any other way to edit wikipedia, you will need to request an ip block exemption. if you do not believe you are using a web host, you may appeal this block by adding the following text on your talk page: {{unblock|reason=caught by a colocation web host block but this host or ip is not a web host. my ip address is _______. place any further information here. ~~~~}}. you must fill in the blank with your ip address for this block to be investigated. your ip address can be determined using whatismyip.com. alternatively, if you wish to keep your ip address private you can use the unblock ticket request system. if you are using a wikipedia account, you will need to request an ip block exemption by either using the unblock template or by submitting an appeal using the unblock ticket request system. administrators: the ip block exemption user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. if you intend to give the ipbe user right, a checkuser needs to take a look at the account. this can be requested most easily at spi quick checkuser requests. unblocking an ip or ip range with this template is highly discouraged without at least contacting the blocking administrator. this block has been set to expire: : , june . even if blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page and email other editors and administrators. other useful links: blocking policy · username policy ·   appealing blocks: policy and guide if the block notice is unclear, or it does not appear to relate to your actions, please ask for assistance as described at help:i have been blocked. you can view and copy the source of this page: == management and organization science == in management and organization science, trust is studied as a factor that can be managed and influenced by organizational actors. scholars have paid particular attention to how trust develops across individual and organizational levels of analysis.<ref>{{cite journal|last =fulmer|first =c. ashley|last =gelfand|first =michele j.|s cid= |date= - - |title=at what level (and in whom) we trust: trust across multiple organizational levels|journal=journal of management|language=en|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / |issn= - }}</ref> they suggest a reciprocal process where organizational structures influence individuals’ trust and, at the same time, individuals’ trust manifests in organizational structures. trust is also one of the conditions of an [[organizational culture]] that supports [[knowledge sharing]].<ref name=": ">{{cite book|last=dalkir|first=kimiz|title=knowledge management in theory and practice|publisher=mit press|year= |isbn= |location=cambridge, massachusetts}}</ref> an organizational culture that supports knowledge sharing allows employees to feel secure and comfortable to share their knowledge, their work and their expertise.<ref name=": " /><ref>{{cite journal|last=vanhala|first=mika|last =puumalainen|first =kaisu|last =blomqvist|first =kirsimarja|date= |title=impersonal trust: the development of the construct and the scale|journal=personnel review|volume= |pages= - }}</ref> structure often creates trust in a person that encourages them to feel comfortable and excel in the workplace; it makes an otherwise stressful environment manageable. by having a conveniently organized area to work on, concentration will increase as well as effort. management and organization science scholars have also paid attention to how trust is influenced by contracts and how trust interacts with formal mechanisms.<ref>{{cite journal|last =poppo|first =laura|last =zenger|first =todd|date= |title=do formal contracts and relational governance function as substitutes or complements?|journal=strategic management journal|language=en|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /smj. |issn= - }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last =cao|first =zhi|last =lumineau|first =fabrice|s cid= |date= |title=revisiting the interplay between contractual and relational governance: a qualitative and meta-analytic investigation|journal=journal of operations management|language=en|volume= - |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /j.jom. . . |issn= - }}</ref> parallel to the very large interest in trust, scholars in management and related disciplines have made the case for the importance of distrust as a related but distinct construct. since the mid- s, a substantial body of organizational research has fallen into one of two distinct but nonexclusive paradigms of trust research.<ref name="tomlinson">{{cite journal|last =tomlinson|first =edward|last =schnackenberg|first =andrew|last =dawley|first =david|last =ash|first =steven|date= |title=revisiting the trustworthiness-trust relationship: exploring the differential predictors of cognition- and affect-based trust|journal=journal of organizational behavior|language=en|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . /job. }}</ref> the first paradigm distinguishes between two major dimensions of trust. trust in another can be characterized as cognition-based trust (i.e., based on rational calculation) and affect-based trust (i.e., based on emotional attachment).<ref>{{cite journal|last =mcallister|first =daniel|date= |title= affect-and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizations|journal=academy of management journal|language=en|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / }}</ref> for example, trust in an auto repair shop could come in the form of an assessment of the capabilities of the shop to do a good job repairing one's car (cognition-based trust) or having a longstanding relationship with the shop's owner (affect-based trust). the second paradigm distinguishes between the trustworthiness factors that give rise to trust (i.e., one’s perceived ability, benevolence, and integrity) and trust itself.<ref name="mayer"/> together, these paradigms are useful for predicting how different dimensions of trust form in organizations via the demonstration of various trustworthiness attributes.<ref name="tomlinson"/> return to trust (social science). retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/trust_(social_science)" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact 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wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 view source for trust (social science) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	view source for trust (social science) 	 		 		← trust (social science) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		you do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: 	your ip address is in a range that has been blocked on all wikimedia foundation wikis. the block was made by jon kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). the reason given is open proxy: webhost: contact stewards if you are affected . 	start of block: : , july 	expiry of block: : , january your current ip address is . . . and the blocked range is . . . / . please include all above details in any queries you make. if you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the no open proxies global policy. otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on meta-wiki or send an email to the 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usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. if you intend to give the ipbe user right, a checkuser needs to take a look at the account. this can be requested most easily at spi quick checkuser requests. unblocking an ip or ip range with this template is highly discouraged without at least contacting the blocking administrator. this block has been set to expire: : , june . even if blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page and email other editors and administrators. other useful links: blocking policy · username policy ·   appealing blocks: policy and guide if the block notice is unclear, or it does not appear to relate to your actions, please ask for assistance as described at help:i have been blocked. you can view and copy the source of this page: === influence of ethnic diversity === several dozen studies have examined the impact of [[ethnic diversity]] on social trust. research published in the [[annual review of political science]]<ref name="dinesen" /> concluded that there were three key debates on the subject: # why does ethnic diversity modestly reduce social trust? # can [[contact hypothesis|contact]] reduce the negative association between ethnic diversity and social trust? # is ethnic diversity a stand-in for social disadvantage? the review's [[meta-analysis]] of studies showed a consistent, though modest, negative relationship between ethnic diversity and social trust. ethnic diversity has the strongest negative impact on neighbor trust, in-group trust, and generalized trust. it did not appear to have a significant impact on out-group trust. the limited size of the impact means apocalyptic claims about it are exaggerated.<ref name="dinesen" /> return to trust (social science). retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/trust_(social_science)" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 oxytocin increases trust in humans | nature skip to main content thank you for visiting nature.com. you are using a browser version with limited support for css. to obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in internet explorer). in the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and javascript. advertisement 	 view all nature research journals 	 search 	 my account login 	 explore our content 	 journal information 	 subscribe 	nature 	letters 	article 	published: june oxytocin increases trust in humans 	michael kosfeld  na , 	markus heinrichs  na , 	paul j. zak , 	urs fischbacher & 	ernst fehr ,   nature volume  , pages – ( )cite this article 	 accesses 	 citations 	 altmetric 	 metrics details abstract trust pervades human societies , . trust is indispensable in friendship, love, families and organizations, and plays a key role in economic exchange and politics . in the absence of trust among trading partners, market transactions break down. in the absence of trust in a country's institutions and leaders, political legitimacy breaks down. much recent evidence indicates that trust contributes to economic, political and social success , . little is known, however, about the biological basis of trust among humans. here we show that intranasal administration of oxytocin, a neuropeptide that plays a key role in social attachment and affiliation in non-human mammals , , , causes a substantial increase in trust among humans, thereby greatly increasing the benefits from social interactions. we also show that the effect of oxytocin on trust is not due to a general increase in the readiness to bear risks. on the contrary, oxytocin specifically affects an individual's willingness to accept social risks arising through interpersonal interactions. these results concur with animal research suggesting an essential role for oxytocin as a biological basis of prosocial approach behaviour. access through your institution buy or subscribe access through your institution change institution buy or subscribe access options subscribe to journal get full journal access for year $ . only $ . per issue subscribe all prices are net prices. vat will be added later in the checkout. rent or buy article get time limited or full article access on readcube. from$ . rent or buy all prices are net prices. additional access options: 	 log in 	 access through your institution 	 learn about institutional subscriptions figure : the trust game. figure : transfers in the trust and the risk experiment. figure : average back transfer of trustees to their investors. references 	 luhmann, n. trust and power (wiley, new york, ) google scholar  	 coleman, j. foundations of social theory – (belknap press of harvard univ. press, cambridge, ) google scholar  	 arrow, k. gifts and exchanges. phil. publ. affairs , – ( ) google scholar  	 knack, s. & keefer, p. does social capital have an economic payoff? a cross-country investigation. q. j. econ. , – ( ) article  google scholar  	 zak, p. j. & knack, s. trust and growth. econ. j. , – ( ) article  google scholar  	 carter, c. s. neuroendocrine perspectives on social attachment and love. psychoneuroendocrinology , – ( ) cas  article  google scholar  	 uvnas-moberg, k. oxytocin may 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steyer, r., schwenkmezger, p., notz, p. & eid, m. der mehrdimensionale befindlichkeitsfragebogen (mdbf) [multidimensional mood questionnaire] (hogrefe, göttingen, ) google scholar  	 gintis, h., bowles, s., boyd, r. & fehr, e. explaining altruistic behavior in humans. evol. hum. behav. , – ( ) article  google scholar  	 engelmann, d. & strobel, m. inequality aversion, efficiency, and maximin preferences in simple distribution experiments. am. econ. rev. , – ( ) article  google scholar  	 kendrick, k. m. et al. neural control of maternal behaviour and olfactory recognition of offspring. brain res. bull. , – ( ) cas  article  google scholar  	 fischbacher, u. z-tree. zurich toolbox for readymade economic experiments (working paper no. , institute for empirical research in economics, univ., zurich, ) google scholar  download references acknowledgements this paper is part of the research priority program ‘foundations of human social behaviour—altruism versus egoism’ at the university of zurich. financial support from the macarthur foundation (network on economic environments and the evolution of individual preferences and social norms) and the cogito foundation is gratefully acknowledged. m.h. also acknowledges support from the swiss national science foundation. we thank f. heusi, a. enzler, s. gilomen, e. götz, m. koenigsberg, k. korsunsky, s. krammer, s. lauber, p. obrist-rybar, m. schellhammer, b. studer, r. stünzi and m. trottmann for research assistance. author information author notes	michael kosfeld and markus heinrichs: *these authors contributed equally to this work affiliations 	university of zurich, institute for empirical research in economics, blumlisalpstrasse , ch- , zurich, switzerland michael kosfeld, urs fischbacher & ernst fehr 	department of clinical psychology and psychotherapy, university of zurich, zurichbergstrasse , ch- , zurich, switzerland markus heinrichs 	center for neuroeconomics studies, claremont graduate university, claremont, california, - , usa paul j. zak 	collegium helveticum, schmelzbergstrasse , ch- , zurich, switzerland ernst fehr authors	michael kosfeldview author publications you can also search for this author in pubmed google scholar 	markus heinrichsview author publications you can also search for this author in pubmed google scholar 	paul j. zakview author publications you can also search for this author in pubmed google scholar 	urs fischbacherview author publications you can also search for this author in pubmed google scholar 	ernst fehrview author publications you can also search for this author in pubmed google scholar corresponding authors correspondence to markus heinrichs or ernst fehr. ethics declarations competing interests reprints and permissions information is available at npg.nature.com/reprintsandpermissions. the authors declare no competing financial interests. rights and permissions reprints and permissions about this article cite this article kosfeld, m., heinrichs, m., zak, p. et al. oxytocin increases trust in humans. nature , – ( ). https://doi.org/ . /nature download citation 	received: april 	accepted: may 	issue date: june 	doi: https://doi.org/ . /nature further reading 	 relation of promoter methylation of the oxytocin gene to stressful life events and depression severity 	simon sanwald 	, maximilian gahr 	, katharina widenhorn-müller 	, carlos schönfeldt-lecuona 	, kerstin richter 	, bernhard j. connemann 	, thomas kammer 	, christian montag 	 & markus kiefer journal of molecular neuroscience ( ) 	 consistency and efficacy of two methods of intranasal oxytocin application in dogs 	f.s. schaebs 	, t. deschner 	, f. range 	, s. karl 	 & s. marshall-pescini domestic animal endocrinology ( ) 	 oxytocin administration modulates rats’ helping behavior depending on social context 	atsuhito yamagishi 	, maya okada 	, masatoshi masuda 	 & nobuya sato neuroscience research ( ) 	 the evolution of trust and trustworthiness 	aanjaneya kumar 	, valerio capraro 	 & matjaž perc journal of the royal society interface ( ) 	 the awareness of the scared - context dependent influence of oxytocin on brain function 	linda baettig 	, andreas baeumelt 	, jutta ernst 	, heinz boeker 	, simone grimm 	 & andre richter brain imaging and behavior ( ) comments by submitting a comment you agree to abide by our terms and community guidelines. if you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate. access through your institution buy or subscribe access through your institution change institution buy or subscribe associated content nature | news & views brain trust 	antonio damasio explore our content 	 research 	 news 	 opinion 	 research analysis 	 careers 	 books and culture 	 podcasts 	 videos 	 current issue 	 browse issues 	 browse articles 	 browse collections 	 browse subjects 	 sign up for alerts 	 rss feed journal information 	 about the journal 	 for authors 	 for referees 	 awards 	 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"trust (social science)." wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, dec. . web. dec. . mhra style wikipedia contributors, 'trust (social science)', wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, december , : utc, <https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=trust_(social_science)&oldid= > [accessed december ] chicago style wikipedia contributors, "trust (social science)," wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=trust_(social_science)&oldid= (accessed december , ). cbe/cse style wikipedia contributors. trust (social science) [internet]. wikipedia, the free encyclopedia; dec , : utc [cited dec ]. available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=trust_(social_science)&oldid= . bluebook style trust (social science), https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=trust_(social_science)&oldid= (last visited dec. , ). ama style wikipedia contributors. trust (social science). wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. december , , : utc. available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=trust_(social_science)&oldid= . accessed december , . bibtex entry @misc{ wiki:xxx, author = "{wikipedia contributors}", title = "trust (social science) --- {wikipedia}{,} the free encyclopedia", year = " ", url = "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=trust_(social_science)&oldid= ", note = "[online; accessed -december- ]" } when using the latex package url (\usepackage{url} somewhere in the preamble), which tends to give much more nicely formatted web addresses, the following may be preferred: @misc{ wiki:xxx, author = "{wikipedia contributors}", title = "trust (social science) --- {wikipedia}{,} the free encyclopedia", year = " ", howpublished = "\url{https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=trust_(social_science)&oldid= }", note = "[online; accessed -december- ]" } wikipedia talk pages 	markup 	[[trust (social science)]] ([[special:permalink/ |this version]]) 	result 	trust (social science) (this version)   retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:citethispage" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			special page 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			upload file 	special pages 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 "technology, humanness, and trust: rethinking trust in technology" by nancy k. lankton, d. harrison mcknight et al. 	 	 		 	home 	 search 	browse all content 	my account 	about 	 digital commons network™ 	 		skip to main content 					 			 				 					 					 				 					 						 						 				 			 					 			 				 	elibrary login 	faq 	about 	home 			 		 		 			 				 		  	  	 		 		 		 		 			home 		 		 		 		 		 		 		 		 		 > 			journals 		 		 		 		 		 		 > 			ais journals 		 		 		 		 		 		 > 			jais 		 		 		 		 > 			vol. 		 		 		 		 		 		 		 > 			iss. ( ) 		 		 		 		 		 	   	 	 	 		 		 				 		 	 article title technology, humanness, and trust: rethinking trust in technology authors nancy k. lankton, marshall universityfollow d. harrison mcknight, michigan state universityfollow john tripp, baylor universityfollow abstract information systems (is) research has demonstrated that humans can and do trust technology. the current trust in technology literature employs two different types of trust in technology constructs. some researchers use human-like trust constructs (e.g., benevolence, integrity, and ability), while other researchers use system-like trust constructs (e.g., helpfulness, reliability, and functionality). interestingly, past research shows that both sets of measures influence important dependent variables, but the literature does not explain when one type should be used instead of the other type. in this paper, we use trust, social presence, and affordance theories to shed light on this research problem. we report on two studies. in study , we argue first that technologies vary in their perceived “humanness”. second, we argue that, because users perceive two technologies to differ in humanness, they will develop trust in each technology differently (i.e., along more human-like criteria or more system-like criteria). we study two technologies that vary in humanness to explore these differences theoretically and empirically. we demonstrate that, when the trust construct used aligns well with how human the technology is, it produces stronger effects on selected outcome variables than does a misaligned trust construct. in study , we assess whether these technologies differ in humanness based on social presence, social affordances, and affordances for sociality. we find that these factors do distinguish whether technology is more human-like or system-like. we provide implications for trust-in-technology research. recommended citation lankton, nancy k.; mcknight, d. harrison; and tripp, john ( ) "technology, humanness, and trust: rethinking trust in technology," journal of the association for information systems: vol. : iss. , article . doi: . / jais. available at: https://aisel.aisnet.org/jais/vol /iss / doi . / jais. 	 	 download 	 downloads since october , 	 share 	 		 		 		 		 		 	 	 	 coins   						 	  	  				 					 						 	 		follow 	 	journal home 	about this journal 	information for authors 	jais policy 	editorial board 	forthcoming papers 	awards and honors 	special issues 	submit an author-video here 	most popular papers 	browse by volume select an issue: all issues vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss.   enter search terms: select context to search: in this journal in this repository across all repositories advanced search   issn: -   							  					 			 			 				 	 	 	 	digital commons 		 			 					home 			 | 			 					about 			 | 			 					faq 			 | 			editor login | 			 					accessibility statement 			 		 				 			 privacy 			 			 copyright 				 		 		 	 					 		 	 a_fuzzy_inference_system_for_synergy_estimation_of_simultaneous_emotion_dynamics_in_agents international journal of scientific & engineering research volume , issue , june- issn - a fuzzy inference system for synergy estimation of simultaneous emotion dynamics in agents atifa athar, m. saleem khan, khalil ahmed, aiesha ahmed and nida anwar abstract— this paper presents that emotions manifest the information processing mechanism of human mind that infers the synergic effect of simultaneous emotions to achieve focused communication and decision making. this proposed work considers integration mechanism of complex emotional dynamics for agents to communicate reason and decide in conflicting situations like humans. the proposed inference system is used to estimate the blended effect of simultaneously activated emotions in agents using fuzzy logic as it is an unsurpassed choice to deal with uncertain information and classification of non- deterministic events. index terms— fuzzy inference, simultaneous emotion dynamics, synergy estimation, blended emotions, pad, w heel of emotions, social cohorts. introduction —————————— • —————————— motional intelligence corresponds to the awareness and usage of emotions to make smart decisions in different situations. the segregation between an intelligent and non-intelligent mind is based on awareness that is an out- come of inference and regarding psychological viewpoint emotions are well thought out as inferential shortcuts [ ]. an emotion is not an isolated feature of human mind; it is to be considered as a variable in nature. it grows or decays temporally due to the change in the environmen- tal information absorbed by mind. since this information is not always discrete and certain thus it may cause simul- taneous emotion activation in mind. the dynamic me- chanism of human mind can have a variety of emotional states simultaneously and can convey their shared or di- verse effect [ ]. to infer these effects it is required to blend these simultaneously active emotions. there could be one of the four varieties i.e. quick succession, superpo- sition, masking and suppression that are plausible to the phenomenon of blended emotions [ ]. to measure the blended effect of simultaneous emo- tions it is important to capture their properties. each emo- tion is unique and can be distinguished in terms of their ———————————————— • ms. atifa athar is working as a faculty member at the school of computer science, ncba&e lahore, pakistan. she is a research fellow at scs, ncba&e (e-mail: atifaathar@yahoo.com) • dr. m. saleem khan is with the computer science department as director in gc university lahore, pakistan (e-mail: mskgcu@yahoo.com). • dr. khalil ahmed is with the school of computer science at ncba&e lahore, pakistan, he is an expert academician and passionately engaged in research. (e-mail: drk@ncbae.edu.pk). • ms. aiesha ahmad is with computer science department as research fellow at ncba&e lahore, pakistan (e-mail: aiesha@ncbae.edu.pk). • ms. nida anwar is with computer science department as research fellow at ncba&e lahore, pakistan. she is currently working as faculty member in vu, lahore, pakistan (e-mail: nidaanwar @gmail.com) dynamic properties i.e. intensity, valence and dominance. therefore, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust are nega- tive primary emotions while happiness and surprise are positive ones. scherer modeled emotions as a continuous progression in three-dimensional space that consists of pleasure/valence (p), representing the overall valence information, arousal (a), accounting for the degree of activeness of an emotion, and dominance/ power (d), describing the experienced “control” over the emotion itself or the situational context [ ]. the association between primary emotions caters the possibility of complex or secondary emotions. the dynamics of secondary emotions emerged from the asso- ciation of primary emotions and experience [ ], which are possible to be mapped along the pad coordinates for example, smugness might be considered a blend of the two elemental emotions: happiness, and contempt [ ]. the fuzzy theory has been used recently by different researchers in emotion modeling for artificial agents. arief has discussed visualization of emotional facial ex- pression using naive bayes and fuzzy logic [ ]. elisabetta presented an embodied conversational agent to show complex emotional facial expression[ ]. emotions are an important feature of non-verbal hci. ayesha has presented her research work in this area us- ing rough fuzzy sets to resolve the complexity [ ]. a fuzzy emotion model visber is presented by natascha that is applicable for the real time facial emotion recogni- tion in agents [ ]. one of the advantages of fuzzy logic includes that it captures the changes smoothly from the environment and generate even output instead of crisp values [ ]. this research paper proposes an inference system us- ing the fuzzy logic to process the dynamics of simulta- neously active emotions and estimates their mixed effects ijser © http://www.ijser.org international journal of scientific & engineering research volume , issue , june- issn - or transitional succession. the output of the system could be used in artificial agency for the decision making etc. the emotionless agents are simply considered as ma- chines and not trustworthy for humans [ ]. therefore, in accordance with human psychology, the role of agents as our future social cohorts suggests that these are required to be equipped with integrated mechanism of complex emotional dynamics to communicate reason and decide in conflicting situations like humans. this paper is structured as follows: section elaborates the approach adopted for emotion blends. section ex- plains the fuzzy logic scheme. section argues about the fuzzy rule base scheme to infer the blended effect of si- multaneous emotions. section provides the comparison of matlab simulated and calculated results. section con- cludes this work and suggests some possible future direc- tions. aproach for emotion blend in psychology according to evolutionary and developmental psycholo- gy it is known that a human mind may not experience just one basic emotion at a time rather it feels simultane- ous or complex emotions while sensing the environmen- tal events. the term “basic” has been used to describe elements that combine to form more complex or com- pound emotions for example, smugness might be consi- dered a blend of the two elemental emotions, happiness, and contempt.[ ] considering psycho-evolutionary theory of emotions articulated by plutchik there are eight primary emotions in humans i.e. anger, anticipation, joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness and disgust,. fig presents the plutchik’s complete scheme of human emotions hav- ing eight basic emotions as “wheel of emotions”. [ ] figure : wheel of emotions nations of neighboring pairs of emotion on the wheel e.g. trust and fear leads to submission. the primary blend of eight basic emotions is presented in table i. table i: primary level blended emotions likewise secondary dyad combines two emotions with the gap of one emotion on the wheel and produces the complex emotions from primary ones as presented in ta- ble ii. table ii: secondary level blended emotions the tertiary dyad combines emotions with the gap of two emotions on the wheel, presented in table iii. table iii: tertiary level blended emotions the blend of emotions at three different levels could be achieved through primary, secondary and tertiary dyads on the wheel. [ ] each primary dyad shows the combi- ijser © http://www.ij international journal of scientific & engineering research volume , issue , june- issn - fuzzy logic scheme fuzzy logic is based on boolean logic and works with partially true or false values. the fuzzy systems deals with the truth values in fuzzy logic or membership val- ues in fuzzy sets that are indicated by a value on the range [ . , . ], with . representing absolute falseness and . representing absolute truth.[ ] fuzzy inference system for synergy estimation of simultaneous emotions from the literature it is clear that an emotion’s attributes are usually not represented by crisp values rather these have fuzzy boundaries. therefore, we propose a fuzzy inference system with the classification of primary emo- tional states that blends their intensities together and con- stitute the secondary emotion. the design of proposed system is represented in fig. . figure : system design . fuzzification of emotion intensities the fuzzification process is used to transform the crisp values of emotion intensities into degrees of membership for linguistic terms of fuzzy sets. we are considering the primary emotion identified by plutchik represented in table iv as input to the proposed fuzzy inference system. in the proposed scheme, we are assuming that the in- tensity of an emotion can be mapped to the interval [ , ]. the following linguistic variables have been chosen for fuzzification of input intensities and divided into three types based on probability values of intensities of all eight primary emotions. a. low: . – . b. medium: . – . c. high: . – . these linguistic variables are used to decide the degree of membership in fuzzification set. the plot of member- ship functions for one of the fuzzy input variables is represented in fig. . figure : membership function plot for input variable e the three membership functions, f [ ] for low, f [ ] for medium, and f [ ] for high are used to show the var- ious ranges of input fuzzy variable “e ” in a plot consist- ing of two regions as shown in fig. . the number of membership functions and range values for each of the fuzzy input variables are taken same as e ,……..,e are representing the intensity of primary emotions. figure : membership function plot for output variable e table iv: fuzzy input and output variables http://www.ijser.org international journal of scientific & engineering research volume , issue , june- issn - for generalization, the range values of each output membership function plot are taken same. therefore, the shape of the plot for each output variable, used in design is the same and shown in fig. .the proposed system consists of eight input variables and their values may lie in any one of the two regions as listed in table v. the linguistic values are the plotting values of the fuzzy input variables with the membership functions employed in different regions. as eight variables are used, therefore sixteen linguistic values are represented in fig. . figure : block diagram of fuzzifier the mapping of input fuzzy variables with the mem- bership functions in two regions is listed in table v. table v: linguistic values of fuzzifier outputs in two regions both of the regions are divided in two halves and each region consists of two membership functions at a time. . fuzzy inference engine after determining the degree of membership in the fuzzi- fication process the subsequent step is to make linguistic rules to decide that which secondary emotion will be gen- erated in response to the inputs provided to the system. in inference process the value of intensity given to each emotion synergies and estimates the intensity of the sec- ondary emotion produced with the help of inference rules. on the basis of number of inputs and linguistic va- riables, the number of fuzzy rules is determined. in reference to the “wheel of emotions” it is observed that secondary emotions cannot be highly intense rather these could be produced with medium intensity by blend- ing two highly intense primary emotions. and if primary emotions are blended with medium intensity then the secondary emotion produced is comparatively less in- tense. figure : block diagram of fuzzy inference process in our proposed system there are input variables i.e. e , e , ………, e and linguistic variables therefore by using and connector it is possible to have rules, but in reference to the combinations of emotions presented in table i, ii, iii only combinations i.e. e . . . . . . . e presented in table iv have been chosen to design the infe- rence rules. these combinations cater the blend of only two primary emotions at three different levels. the fuzzified intensity of emotions e …… e is pro- vided as input to each rule and the intensity of one of the relevant secondary emotion provided in table is pro- duced. ijser © http://www.ijser.org international journal of scientific & engineering research volume , issue , june- issn - for example the inference rules could be • if e is medium and e is medium then e is low • if e is high and e is high then e is me- dium there are rules that has been used for combina- tions because of the usage of and connector that caters the minimum value of variables. the inference engine contains and gates, it accepts sixteen inputs from the fuzzifier and produce r values by applying min-max composition. each rule takes two in- put values, synergies these and inferences the final output using min-and operation. following is the calculation of r values from some of the selected rules out of rules with the values e = . , e = . , e = . , e = . in region . = = . . = . = = . . = . = = . . = . = = . . = . by applying the mamdani-min process we get the min- imum value from the membership function values using and operation. the sign ^ between the membership function values represents the min-anding process. . rule selector the rule base works with eight crisp input values, di- viding the universe of discourse into two regions, each containing two fuzzy variables, fires the rules, and gives the output singleton values corresponding to each output variable as presented in fig. . the rule selector for the proposed system receives eight crisp values from the input variables. it provides singleton values of output functions according to the for- ty eight rules. according to the division of the regions for each output variables there are forty eight singleton val- ues s , s , s , ……., s . . defuzzification after the estimation of inputs the defuzzification process generates the crisp values for output variables. in the proposed system there are inputs that are provided to each of defuzzifiers, forty eight values of r ,r ,……..,r from the outputs of inference engine and forty eight singleton values s , s , ………,s from the rule selector as shown in fig. . each defuzzifier estimates the crisp value output according to the center of average (c.o.a) method using the mathematical expression, l: si * ri i l: ri, where i = to . s = . s = . s = . figure : block diagram of defuzzifier the design formation of defuzzifier is represented in fig. . each defuzzifier consists of multipliers for one adder to sum up, one adder for and one divider for to provide the final estimated output crisp value. figure : block diagram of rule base ijser © http://www.ijser.org international journal of scientific & engineering research volume , issue , june- issn - figure : defuzzifier design . comparison of simulated and calculated results the results calculated from the fuzzy inference engine + two output variables e and e have been chosen for the comparisons. the crisp values for e and e are determined using mathematical expression l: si *ri i l: ri from the values of the input variables that are provided in the fuzzy inference process. these calculated results according to the system design are compared with the results according to the matlab simulation in table vi and found correct. fig. represents the input variables & fig. represents the output variables from the rule viewer in matlab. table vi: comparison of simulated and calcu- lated results figure : matlab rule viewer for input va- riables figure : matlab rule viewer for output va- riables ijser © http://www.ijser.org international journal of scientific & engineering research volume , issue , june- issn - . simulated graphs following is one of the simulated graphs for output e for the proposed inference system according to the values of e and e provided for inference process mentioned above. figure : plot between e and e . conclusion there are several emotion inference systems presented by researchers but these do not infer and verify the coex- istence of numerous emotions and their blends according to plutchik theory of emotional blend. however our pro- posed fuzzy inference system estimates the synergy of two emotions that activates simultaneously quite effi- ciently. the comparisons between calculated and simulated values afford it a role in estimation authenticity for blended emotions. the proposed system design and simulation work could also lead to the new avenues in the field of model- ing complex emotion dynamics for agency. references [ ] p. scaruffi. the nature of consciouss. , isbn [ ] g-y. park, s-i. lee w-y. kwon and j-b. kim. “neurocogni- tive affective system for an emotive robot”. proceedings of ieee/rsj international conference on intelligent robot and systems (pp. - ). beijing: ieee, china, . [ ] s. buisine, s. abrilian, r. niewiadomski, j. martin, l. devillers, and c. pelachaud, “perception of blended emotions: from vid- eo corpus to expressive agent”. proceedings of th international conference on intelligent virtual agents (iva ). / , pp. - . marina del rey, ca, usa: springer berlin / hei- delberg, august , . [ ] c. becker-asano, i. wachsmuth. “virtual humans growing up: from primary toward secondary emotion”. autonomous agents and multi-agent systems, ( ), pp. – , . [ ] l.custodio, r.ventura, and c. p.ferreira. “artificial emotions and emotion-based control systems.” proceedings of th ieee international conference on emerging technologies and factory au- tomation .( etfa), , pp. - . barcelona . [ ] p. ekman. basic emotions. in handbook of cognition and emotion. sussex, u.k.: john wiley & sons, . [ ] m. arief, m. i. wardhana, s. sumpeno, and m. hariad. “emo- tion expression of three dimensional face model using naive bayes and fuzzy logic.” international journal of computer science and network security (ijcsns), ( ), may . [ ] e. bevacqua, m. mancini, r. niewiadomski and c. pelachaud. “an expressive eca showing complex emotions.” proceedings of artificial and ambient intelligence.(aisb, ). newcastle uni- versity, newcastle upon tyne, uk, . [ ] a. butalia, a. r ramani, and p. kulkarni. “emotional recogni- tion and towards context based decision.” international jour- nal of computer applications, ( ), pp. – , november . [ ] n. esau, e. wetzel, l. kleinjohann, b. kleinjohann, “real-time facial expression recognition using a fuzzy emotion model." ieee international conference in fuzzy systems, (pp. - ), . [ ] h. mobahi, s. ansari. “fuzzy perception, emotion and expres- sion for interactive robots.” ieee international conference on systems, man and cybernetics, . [ ] l .pourmohammadbagher. “intelligent agent system simula- tion using fear emotion.” world academy of science, engi- neering and technology , . [ ] r. plutchik and h. kellerman. emotion: theory, research, and experience. newyork, usa: academic press, . [ ] j. turner. origin of human emotions: a sociological inquiry into the evolution of human affect, stanford university press, . [ ] m. hellmann. fuzzy logic introduction. epsilon nought radar remote sensing tutorials, . ijser © http://www.ijser.org angst - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	angst 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		intense feeling of apprehension, anxiety, or inner turmoil for other uses, see angst (disambiguation). 	 	this article needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "angst" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (september ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e edvard munch tried to represent "an infinite scream passing through nature" in the scream ( ). angst means fear or anxiety (anguish is its latinate equivalent, and the words anxious and anxiety are of similar origin). the dictionary definition for angst is a feeling of anxiety, apprehension, or insecurity.[ ] contents 	 etymology 	 existentialist angst 	 music 	 see also 	 references 	 external links etymology[edit] the word angst was introduced into english from the danish, norwegian, and dutch word angst and the german word angst. it is attested since the th century in english translations of the works of kierkegaard and freud.[ ][ ][ ] it is used in english to describe an intense feeling of apprehension, anxiety, or inner turmoil. in other languages, having the meaning of the latin word pavor for "fear", the derived words differ in meaning; for example, as in the french anxiété and peur. the word angst has existed since the th century, from the proto-indo-european root *anghu-, "restraint" from which old high german angust developed.[ ] it is pre-cognate with the latin angustia, "tensity, tightness" and angor, "choking, clogging"; compare to the ancient greek ἄγχω (ánkhō) "strangle". existentialist angst[edit] see also: philosophy of søren kierkegaard § dread or anxiety in existentialist philosophy, the term angst carries a specific conceptual meaning. the use of the term was first attributed to danish philosopher søren kierkegaard ( – ). in the concept of anxiety (also known as the concept of dread, depending on the translation), kierkegaard used the word angest (in common danish, angst, meaning "dread" or "anxiety") to describe a profound and deep-seated condition. where non-human animals are guided solely by instinct, said kierkegaard, human beings enjoy a freedom of choice that we find both appealing and terrifying.[ ][ ] it is the anxiety of understanding of being free when considering undefined possibilities of one's life and the immense responsibility of having the power of choice over them.[ ][ ] kierkegaard's concept of angst reappeared in the works of existentialist philosophers who followed, such as friedrich nietzsche, jean-paul sartre, and martin heidegger, each of whom developed the idea further in individual ways. while kierkegaard's angst referred mainly to ambiguous feelings about moral freedom within a religious personal belief system, later existentialists discussed conflicts of personal principles, cultural norms, and existential despair. ludger gerdes, angst, music[edit] existential angst makes its appearance in classical musical composition in the early twentieth century as a result of both philosophical developments and as a reflection of the war-torn times. notable composers whose works are often linked with the concept include gustav mahler, richard strauss (operas elektra and salome), claude-achille debussy (opera pelleas et melisande, ballet jeux, other works), jean sibelius (especially the fourth symphony), arnold schoenberg (a survivor from warsaw, other works), alban berg, francis poulenc (opera dialogues of the carmelites), dmitri shostakovich (opera lady macbeth of the mtsensk district, symphonies and chamber music), béla bartók (opera bluebeard's castle, other works), and krzysztof penderecki (especially threnody to the victims of hiroshima). angst began to be discussed in reference to popular music in the mid- to late s amid widespread concerns over international tensions and nuclear proliferation. jeff nuttall's book bomb culture ( ) traced angst in popular culture to hiroshima. dread was expressed in works of folk rock such as bob dylan's masters of war ( ) and a hard rain's a-gonna fall. the term often makes an appearance in reference to punk rock, grunge, nu metal, and works of emo where expressions of melancholy, existential despair, or nihilism predominate. see also[edit] 	anger – intense hostile emotional state 	byronic hero – type of antihero often characterized by isolation and contemplation 	emotion – subjective, conscious experience characterised primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, and mental states 	existentialism – philosophical study that begins with the acting, feeling, living human individual 	kafkaesque 	emotion classification#lists of emotions – contrast of one emotion from another 	fear of death – anxiety caused by thoughts of death 	sehnsucht – german noun for an emotion of longing 	alienation – condition in social relationships 	sturm und drang – proto-romantic movement in german literature and music 	terror management theory – social and evolutionary psychology theory 	weltschmerz – german word for deep sadness about the state of the world references[edit] 	^ a b "angst". merriam-webster. retrieved december , . 	^ "angst". dictionary.com. 	^ "angst". online etymology dictionary. 	^ a b "angst". the free dictionary. 	^ a b marino, gordon (march , ). "the danish doctor of dread". the new york times. new york city. retrieved may , . 	^ backhouse, stephen ( ). kierkegaard: a single life. harpercollins christian publishing. isbn  . retrieved july , . external links[edit] 	 the dictionary definition of angst at wiktionary 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion 	 	v 	t 	e søren kierkegaard 	 – 	 	on the concept of irony with continual reference to socrates 	either/or 	de omnibus dubitandum est: everything must be doubted 	two upbuilding discourses, 	repetition 	three upbuilding discourses, 	fear and trembling 	four upbuilding discourses, 	sermon preached at trinity church, 	two upbuilding discourses, 	three upbuilding discourses, 	philosophical fragments 	prefaces 	the concept of anxiety 	four upbuilding discourses, 	eighteen upbuilding discourses 	three discourses on imagined occasions 	stages on life's way 	concluding unscientific postscript to philosophical fragments 	two ages: a literary review 	 – 	 	edifying discourses in diverse spirits 	works of love 	christian discourses 	the crisis and a crisis in the life of an actress 	the lily of the field and the bird of the air 	two minor ethical-religious essays 	the sickness unto death 	three discourses at the communion on fridays 	practice in christianity 	two discourses at the communion on fridays 	the book on adler 	for self-examination 	attack upon christendom 	posthumous	 	the point of view of my work as an author 	judge for yourselves! 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the suppression of emotions for other uses, see apathy (disambiguation). mental state in terms of challenge level and skill level, according to csikszentmihalyi's flow model.[ ] (click on a fragment of the image to go to the appropriate article) 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e apathy is a lack of feeling, emotion, interest, or concern about something. it is a state of indifference, or the suppression of emotions such as concern, excitement, motivation, or passion. an apathetic individual has an absence of interest in or concern about emotional, social, spiritual, philosophical, virtual, or physical life and the world. the apathetic may lack a sense of purpose, worth, or meaning in their life. and may also exhibit insensibility or sluggishness. in positive psychology, apathy is described as a result of the individuals feeling they do not possess the level of skill required to confront a challenge (i.e. "flow"). it may also be a result of perceiving no challenge at all (e.g. the challenge is irrelevant to them, or conversely, they have learned helplessness). apathy is something that all people face in some capacity and is a natural response to disappointment, dejection, and stress. as a response, apathy is a way to forget about these negative feelings.[citation needed] this type of common apathy is usually felt only in the short term, but sometimes it becomes a long-term or even lifelong state, often leading to deeper social and psychological issues. apathy should be distinguished from reduced affect display, which refers to reduced emotional expression but not necessarily reduced emotion. pathological apathy, characterised by extreme forms of apathy, is now known to occur in many different brain disorders,[ ] including neurodegenerative conditions often associated with dementia such as alzheimer's disease,[ ] and psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia.[ ] although many patients with pathological apathy also suffer from depression, several studies have shown that the two syndromes are dissociable: apathy can occur independently of depression and vice versa.[ ] contents 	 etymology 	 history and other views 	 . technology 	 . social origin 	 . in the school system 	 . bystander 	 . communication 	 measurement of apathy 	 . apathy evaluation scale 	 . apathy motivation index 	 . dimensional apathy scale 	 medical aspects | pathological apathy 	 . depression 	 . alzheimer's disease 	 . anxiety 	 . other 	 see also 	 notes 	 references 	 external links etymology[edit] although the word apathy was first used in [ ] and is derived from the greek ἀπάθεια (apatheia), from ἀπάθης (apathēs, "without feeling" from a- ("without, not") and pathos ("emotion")),[ ] it is important not to confuse the two terms. also meaning "absence of passion," "apathy" or "insensibility" in greek, the term apatheia was used by the stoics to signify a (desirable) state of indifference towards events and things which lie outside one's control (that is, according to their philosophy, all things exterior, one being only responsible for one's own representations and judgments).[ ] in contrast to apathy, apatheia is considered a virtue, especially in orthodox monasticism.[citation needed] in the philokalia the word dispassion is used for apatheia, so as not to confuse it with apathy.[citation needed] history and other views[edit] christians have historically condemned apathy as a deficiency of love and devotion to god and his works.[ ] this interpretation of apathy is also referred to as sloth and is listed among the seven deadly sins. clemens alexandrinus used the term to draw to christianity philosophers who aspired after virtue. the modern concept of apathy became more well known after world war i, when it was one of the various forms of "shell shock". soldiers who lived in the trenches amidst the bombing and machine gun fire, and who saw the battlefields strewn with dead and maimed comrades, developed a sense of disconnected numbness and indifference to normal social interaction when they returned from combat. in , us novelist john dos passos wrote: "apathy is one of the characteristic responses of any living organism when it is subjected to stimuli too intense or too complicated to cope with. the cure for apathy is comprehension." technology[edit] apathy is a normal way for humans to cope with stress. being able to "shrug off" disappointments is considered an important step in moving people forward and driving them to try other activities and achieve new goals. coping seems to be one of the most important aspects of getting over a tragedy and an apathetic reaction may be expected. with the addition of the handheld device and the screen between people, apathy has also become a common occurrence on the net as users observe others being bullied, slandered, threatened or sent disturbing images. the bystander effect grows to an apathetic level as people lose interest in caring for others who are not in their "circle" and may even participate in their harassment. social origin[edit] there may be other factors contributing to a person's apathy. activist david meslin argues that people often care, and that apathy is often the result of social systems actively obstructing engagement and involvement. he describes various obstacles that prevent people from knowing how or why they might get involved in something. meslin focuses on design choices that unintentionally or intentionally exclude people. these include: capitalistic media systems that have no provisions for ideas that are not immediately (monetarily) profitable, government and political media (e.g. notices) that make it difficult for potentially interested individuals to find relevant information, and media portrayals of heroes as "chosen" by outside forces rather than self-motivated. he moves that we redefine social apathy to think of it, not as a population that is stupid or lazy, but as a result of poorly designed systems that fail to invite others to participate.[ ][ ] apathy has been socially viewed as worse than things such as hate or anger. not caring whatsoever, in the eyes of some, is even worse than having distaste for something. author leo buscaglia is quoted as saying "i have a very strong feeling that the opposite of love is not hate-it's apathy. it's not giving a damn." helen keller claimed that apathy is the "worst of them all" when it comes to the various evils of the world. french social commentator and political thinker charles de montesquieu stated that "the tyranny of a prince in an oligarchy is not so dangerous to the public welfare as the apathy of a citizen in the democracy."[ ] as can be seen by these quotes and various others, the social implications of apathy are great. many people believe that not caring at all can be worse for society than individuals who are overpowering or hateful. in the school system[edit] 	 	this section relies largely or entirely upon a single source. relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. find sources: "apathy" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (march ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) apathy in students, especially those in high school, is a growing problem .[citation needed] apathy in schools is most easily recognized by students being unmotivated or, quite commonly, being motivated by outside factors. for example, when asked about their motivation for doing well in school, fifty percent of students cited outside sources such as "college acceptance" or "good grades". on the contrary, only fourteen percent cited "gaining an understanding of content knowledge or learning subject material" as their motivation to do well in school. as a result of these outside sources, and not a genuine desire for knowledge, students often do the minimum amount of work necessary to get by in their classes.[citation needed] this then leads to average grades and test grades but no real grasping of knowledge.[citation needed] many students cited that "assignments/content was irrelevant or meaningless" and that this was the cause of their apathetic attitudes toward their schooling. these apathetic attitudes lead to teacher and parent frustration.[ ] other causes of apathy in students include situations within their home life, media influences, peer influences, and school struggles and failures. some of the signs for apathetic students include declining grades, skipping classes, routine illness, and behavioral changes both in school and at home. bystander[edit] also known as the bystander effect, bystander apathy occurs when, during an emergency, those standing by do nothing to help but instead stand by and watch. sometimes this can be caused by one bystander observing other bystanders and imitating their behavior. if other people are not acting in a way that makes the situation seem like an emergency that needs attention, often other bystanders will act in the same way.[ ] the diffusion to responsibility can also be to blame for bystander apathy. the more people that are around in emergency situations, the more likely individuals are to think that someone else will help so they do not need to. this theory was popularized by social psychologists in response to the kitty genovese murder. the murder took place in new york and the victim, genovese, was stabbed to death as bystanders reportedly stood by and did nothing to stop the situation or even call the police.[ ] latane and darley are the two psychologists who did research on this theory. they performed different experiments that placed people into situations where they had the opportunity to intervene or do nothing. the individuals in the experiment were either by themselves, with a stranger(s), with a friend, or with a confederate. the experiments ultimately led them to the conclusion that there are many social and situational factors that are behind whether a person will react in an emergency situation or simply remain apathetic to what is occurring. communication[edit] apathy is one psychological barrier to communication. an apathetic listener creates a communication barrier by not caring or paying attention to what they are being told. an apathetic speaker, on the other hand, tends to not relate information well and, in their lack of interest, may leave out key pieces of information that need to be communicated. within groups, an apathetic communicator can be detrimental. their lack of interest or passion can inhibit the other group members in what they are trying to accomplish. within interpersonal communication, an apathetic listener can make the other feel that they are not cared for or about. overall, apathy is a dangerous barrier to successful communication. apathetic speakers and listeners are individuals that have no care for what they are trying to communicate, or what is being communicated to them. measurement of apathy[edit] several different questionnaires and clinical interview instruments have been used to measure pathological apathy or, more recently, apathy in healthy people. apathy evaluation scale[edit] developed by robert marin in , the apathy evaluation scale (aes) was the first method developed to measure apathy in clinical populations. centered around evaluation, the scale can either be self-informed or other-informed. the three versions of the test include self, informant such as a family member, and clinician. the scale is based around questionnaires that ask about topics including interest, motivation, socialization, and how the individual spends their time. the individual or informant answers on a scale of "not at all", "slightly", "somewhat" or "a lot". each item on the evaluation is created with positive or negative syntax and deals with cognition, behavior, and emotion. each item is then scored and, based on the score, the individual's level of apathy can be evaluated.[ ] apathy motivation index[edit] the apathy motivation index (ami) was developed to measure different dimensions of apathy in healthy people. factor analysis identified three distinct axes of apathy: behavioural, social and emotional.[ ] the ami has since been used to examine apathy in patients with parkinson's disease who, overall, showed evidence of behavioural and social apathy, but not emotional apathy.[ ] dimensional apathy scale[edit] the dimensional apathy scale (das) is a multidimensional apathy instrument for measuring subtypes of apathy in different clinical populations and healthy adults. it was developed using factor analysis, quantifying executive apathy (lack of motivation for planning, organising and attention), emotional apathy (emotional indifference, neutrality, flatness or blunting) and initiation apathy (lack of motivation for self-generation of thought/action). there is a self-rated version of the das[ ] and an informant/carer-rated version of the das.[ ] further a clinical brief das has also been developed.[ ] it has been validated for use in motor neurone disease, dementia and parkinson's disease, showing to differentiate profiles of apathy subtypes between these conditions[ ] medical aspects | pathological apathy[edit] depression[edit] main article: major depressive disorder mental health journalist and author john mcmanamy argues that although psychiatrists do not explicitly deal with the condition of apathy, it is a psychological problem for some depressed people, in which they get a sense that "nothing matters", the "lack of will to go on and the inability to care about the consequences".[ ] he describes depressed people who "...cannot seem to make [themselves] do anything", who "can't complete anything", and who do not "feel any excitement about seeing loved ones".[ ] he acknowledges that the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders does not discuss apathy. in a journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences article from , robert marin, md, claimed that pathological apathy occurs due to brain damage or neuropsychiatric illnesses such as alzheimer's, parkinson's, or huntington's disease, stroke. marin argues that apathy is a syndrome associated with many different brain disorders.[ ] this has now been shown to be the case across a range of neurological and psychiatric conditions.[ ] a review article by robert van reekum, md, et al. from the university of toronto in the journal of neuropsychiatry ( ) claimed that an obvious relationship between depression and apathy exists in some populations.[ ] however, although many patients with depression suffer from apathy, several studies have shown that apathy can occur independently of depression, and vice versa.[ ] apathy can be associated with depression, a manifestation of negative disorders in schizophrenia, or a symptom of various somatic and neurological disorders.[ ][ ] alzheimer's disease[edit] depending upon how it has been measured, apathy affects – % percent of individuals with alzheimer's disease (mean prevalence of % across different studies).[ ] it is a neuropsychiatric symptom associated with functional impairment. brain imaging studies have demonstrated changes in the anterior cingulate cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and ventral striatum in alzheimer's patients with apathy.[ ] cholinesterase inhibitors, used as the first line of treatment for the cognitive symptoms associated with dementia, have also shown some modest benefit for behavior disturbances such as apathy.[ ] the effects of donepezil, galantamine and rivastigmine have all been assessed but, overall, the findings have been inconsistent, and it is estimated that apathy in ~ % of alzheimer's patients does not respond to treatment with these drugs.[ ] methylphenidate, a dopamine and noradrenaline reuptake blocker, has received increasing interest for the treatment of apathy. management of apathetic symptoms using methylphenidate has shown promise in randomized placebo controlled trials of alzheimer's patients.[ ][ ][ ] a phase iii multi-centered randomized placebo-controlled trial of methylphenidate for the treatment of apathy is currently underway and planned for completion in august .[ ] anxiety[edit] while apathy and anxiety may appear to be separate, and different, states of being, there are many ways that severe anxiety can cause apathy. first, the emotional fatigue that so often accompanies severe anxiety leads to one's emotions being worn out, thus leading to apathy. second, the low serotonin levels associated with anxiety often lead to less passion and interest in the activities in one's life which can be seen as apathy. third, negative thinking and distractions associated with anxiety can ultimately lead to a decrease in one's overall happiness which can then lead to an apathetic outlook about one's life. finally, the difficulty enjoying activities that individuals with anxiety often face can lead to them doing these activities much less often and can give them a sense of apathy about their lives. even behavioral apathy may be found in individuals with anxiety in the form of them not wanting to make efforts to treat their anxiety.[ ] other[edit] often, apathy is felt after witnessing horrific acts, such as the killing or maiming of people during a war, e.g. posttraumatic stress disorder. it is also known to be a distinct psychiatric syndrome[citation needed] that is associated with many conditions, some of which are: cadasil syndrome, depression, alzheimer's disease, chagas disease, creutzfeldt–jakob disease, dementia (and dementias such as alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, and frontotemporal dementia), korsakoff's syndrome, excessive vitamin d, hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, general fatigue, huntington's disease, pick's disease, progressive supranuclear palsy (psp), brain damage, schizophrenia, schizoid personality disorder, bipolar disorder,[citation needed] autism spectrum disorders, adhd, and others. some medications and the heavy use of drugs such as opiates or gaba-ergic drugs may bring apathy as a side effect.[citation needed] see also[edit] 	callous and unemotional traits 	compassion fatigue 	detachment (philosophy) 	reduced affect display notes[edit] 	^ csikszentmihalyi, m., finding flow, , p. . 	^ a b c d e husain, masud; roiser, jonathan p. ( june ). "neuroscience of apathy and anhedonia: a transdiagnostic approach". nature reviews neuroscience. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ a b c nobis, lisa; husain, masud ( ). "apathy in alzheimer's disease". current opinion in behavioral sciences. : – . doi: . /j.cobeha. . . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ bortolon, c.; macgregor, a.; capdevielle, d.; raffard, s. ( ). "apathy in schizophrenia: a review of neuropsychological and neuroanatomical studies". neuropsychologia. (pt b): – . doi: . /j.neuropsychologia. . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ "apathy - definition and more from the free merriam-webster dictionary". merriam-webster.com. retrieved february . 	^ "henry george liddell, robert scott, a greek-english lexicon, ἀπάθ-εια". perseus.tufts.edu. retrieved february . 	^ william fleming ( ). the vocabulary of philosophy, mental, moral, and metaphysical. p.& . reprinted by kessinger publishing as paperback ( ; isbn  - - - - ) and in hardcover ( ; isbn  - - - - ). 	^ "greek lexicon :: g (kjv)". v .blueletterbible.org. archived from the original on october . retrieved february . 	^ "dave meslin: the antidote to apathy | video on". ted.com. retrieved february . 	^ "dave meslin | profile on". ted.com. july . retrieved february . 	^ " famous quotes about apathy". psysci.co. april . archived from the original on may . retrieved april . 	^ "finding the root cause of student apathy". pan.intrasun.tcnj.edu. archived from the original on march . retrieved february . 	^ "latane and darley: bystander apathy". faculty.babson.edu. retrieved february . 	^ "bystander effect". psychology today. archived from the original on november . retrieved february . 	^ "apathy evaluation scale (self rated)" (pdf). dementia-assessment.com.au. archived from the original (pdf) on january . retrieved february . 	^ ang, y.s.; lockwood, p.; apps, m.a.; muhammed, k.; husain, m. ( ). "distinct subtypes of apathy revealed by the apathy motivation index". plos one. ( ): e . bibcode: ploso.. a. doi: . /journal.pone. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ ang, y.s.; lockwood, p.l.; kienast, a.; plant, o.; drew, d.; slavkova, e.; tamm, m.; husain, m. ( ). "differential impact of behavioral, social, and emotional apathy on parkinson's disease". annals of clinical and translational neurology. ( ): – . doi: . /acn . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ radakovic, r.; abrahams, s. ( ). "developing a new apathy measurement scale: das" (pdf). psychiatry research. ( ): – . doi: . /j.psychres. . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ radakovic, r.; stephenson, l.; colville, s.; swingler, r.; chandran, s.; abrahams, s. ( ). "multidimensional apathy in als: validation of the dimensional apathy scale" (pdf). journal of neurology, neurosurgery & psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . /jnnp- - . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ radakovic, r.; mcgrory, s.; chandran, s.; swingler, r.; pal, s.; stephenson, l.; colville, s.; newton, j.; starr, j.m.; abrahams, s. ( ). "the brief dimensional apathy scale: a short clinical assessment of apathy" (pdf). the clinical neuropsychologist. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ radakovic, r.; abrahams, s. ( ). "multidimensional apathy: evidence from neurodegenerative disease" (pdf). current opinion in behavioral sciences. : – . doi: . /j.cobeha. . . . s cid  . 	^ a b c john mcmanamy. "apathy matters - apathy and depression: psychiatry may not care about apathy, but that doesn't mean you shouldn't archived august at the wayback machine".[self-published source?] 	^ van reekum, robert; stuss, donald t.; ostrander, laurie (february ). "apathy: why care?". the journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences. ( ): – . doi: . /jnp. . . . pmid  . 	^ andersson, s.; krogstad, j. m.; finset, a. ( march ). "apathy and depressed mood in acquired brain damage: relationship to lesion localization and psychophysiological reactivity". psychological medicine. ( ): – . doi: . /s . pmid  . 	^ le heron, campbell; apps, matthew; husain, masud ( ). "the anatomy of apathy: a neurocognitive framework for amotivated behaviour". neuropsychologia. (pt b): – . doi: . /j.neuropsychologia. . . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ malloy, paul f. ( november ). "apathy and its treatment in alzheimer's disease and other dementias". psychiatric times. 	^ herrmann, nathan; rothenburg, lana s.; black, sandra e.; ryan, michelle; liu, barbara a.; busto, usoa e.; lanctôt, krista l. (june ). "methylphenidate for the treatment of apathy in alzheimer disease". journal of clinical psychopharmacology. ( ): – . doi: . /jcp. b e b . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ rosenberg, paul b.; lanctôt, krista l.; drye, lea t.; herrmann, nathan; scherer, roberta w.; bachman, david l.; mintzer, jacobo e.; admet, investigators ( august ). "safety and efficacy of methylphenidate for apathy in alzheimer's disease". the journal of clinical psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . /jcp. m . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ lanctôt, krista l.; chau, sarah a.; herrmann, nathan; drye, lea t.; rosenberg, paul b.; scherer, roberta w.; black, sandra e.; vaidya, vijay; bachman, david l.; mintzer, jacobo e. ( october ). "effect of methylphenidate on attention in apathetic ad patients in a randomized, placebo-controlled trial". international psychogeriatrics. ( ): – . doi: . /s . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ clinical trial number nct for "apathy in dementia methylphenidate trial (admet )" at clinicaltrials.gov 	^ "apathy: anxiety's unusual symptom". calm clinic. retrieved february . references[edit] 	 this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: chambers, ephraim, ed. 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	self-serving bias 	spoiled child 	the culture of narcissism 	workplace bullying retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=apathy&oldid= " 		categories: 	abnormal psychology 	emotions 	mental states in csikszentmihalyi's flow model 	narcissism 	psychological attitude hidden categories: 	webarchive template wayback links 	all articles with self-published sources 	articles with self-published sources from march 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	use dmy dates from november 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from april 	articles containing ancient greek (to )-language text 	articles with unsourced statements from april 	articles needing additional references from march 	all articles needing additional references 	articles with unsourced statements from march 	articles with unsourced statements from january 	articles with unsourced statements from january 	articles with unsourced 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	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 annual review of political science - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	annual review of political science 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		academic journal academic journal annual review of political science  	 	discipline	political science 	language	english 	edited by	margaret levi nancy l. rosenblum 	publication details 	history	 –present, years old 	publisher	annual reviews (us) 	frequency	annually 	impact factor 	 . [ ] ( ) 	standard abbreviations iso (alt) · bluebook (alt  · alt ) nlm (alt) · mathscinet (alt ) 	iso 	annu. rev. political sci. 	indexing coden · jstor (alt) · lccn (alt) miar · nlm (alt) · scopus 	issn	 -  (print) -  (web) 	lccn	 	oclc no.	 	links 	 	journal homepage annual review of political science is an annual peer-reviewed academic journal published by annual reviews, covering significant developments in the field of political science, including political theory and philosophy, international relations, political economy, political behavior, american and comparative politics, public administration and policy, and methodology.[ ] it was established in and its editors-in-chief are margaret levi (center for advanced study in the behavioral sciences, stanford university) and nancy rosenblum (harvard university).[ ] according to the journal citation reports, the journal has a impact factor of . , ranking it eighth out of journals in the category "political science".[ ] contents 	 history 	 editorial processes 	 see also 	 references history[edit] the annual review of political science published its first volume in ; the first editor was nelson w. polsby.[ ] upon polsby's death in , editorship passed to margaret levi.[ ] in , nancy l. rosenblum became co-editor with levi.[ ] until , the journal was published both in print and online.[ ] beginning in , it is only published online.[ ] under annual reviews's "subscribe to open" publishing model, the volume of the annual review of political science was published open access, a first for the journal.[ ][ ] the journal covers significant developments in political science, including political philosophy, international relations, political behavior, political economy, comparative politics, politics of the united states, and content relating to the policy and methodology of public administration.[ ] as of , journal citation reports lists the journal's impact factor as . , ranking it eighth of journal titles in the category "political science".[ ] editorial processes[edit] the annual review of political science is helmed by the editors. the editors are assisted by the editorial committee, which includes associate editors, regular members, and occasionally guest editors. guest members participate at the invitation of the editors, and serve terms of one year. all other members of the editorial committee are appointed by the annual reviews board of directors and serve five-year terms. the editorial committee determines which topics should be included in each volume and solicits reviews from qualified authors.[ ] unsolicited manuscripts are not accepted. peer review of accepted manuscripts is undertaken by the editorial committee.[ ] see also[edit] 	annual reviews:list of titles 	list of political science journals references[edit] 	^ a b c "journal impact factors". annual reviews. retrieved october . 	^ "journal home: about this journal". annualreviews.org. annual reviews. retrieved january . 	^ "editorial committee members for political science". annualreviews.org. annual reviews. retrieved january . 	^ polsby, nelson w. ( ). "preface by nelson w. polsby". annual review of political science. . doi: . /annurev.pl. . . . 	^ "nelson w. polsby ( – )". annual review of political science. . . doi: . /annurev.pl. . . . 	^ "nancy lipton rosenblum" (pdf). scholars at harvard. . retrieved october . 	^ "expected publication dates". annual reviews. archived from the original on may . retrieved october . 	^ "expected publication dates". annual reviews. archived from the original on august . retrieved october . 	^ "jisc supports pioneering open access model subscribe to open". march . retrieved october . 	^ "annual review of cancer biology". uksg enews . march . retrieved october . 	^ "annual review of political science". annual reviews. retrieved october . 	^ "editorial principles and policies". annual reviews. retrieved october . 	^ "information for unsolicited authors and reviewers". annual reviews. retrieved october . retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=annual_review_of_political_science&oldid= " 		categories: 	annual reviews academic journals 	annual journals 	publications established in 	english-language journals 	political science journals hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	annual journals (infobox) 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			polski 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on october , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 category:commons category link is on wikidata - wikipedia 	 	 	 	help 	 	category:commons category link is on wikidata 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 				administrators: please do not delete this category even if it is empty! this category may be empty occasionally or even most of the time. 		this is a maintenance category, used for maintenance of the wikipedia project. it is not part of the encyclopedia and contains non-article pages, or groups articles by status rather than subject. do not include this category in content categories. this is a tracking category. it builds and maintains a list of pages primarily for the sake of the list itself. they are not part of the encyclopedia's categorization scheme. pages are added to this category by template:commons category. it tracks cases where we have a locally defined link to commons, and it's the same as wikidata. 	this category is hidden on its member pages—unless the corresponding user preference (appearance → show hidden categories) is set. 	these categories are used to track, build and organize lists of pages needing "attention en masse" (for example, pages using deprecated syntax), or that may need to be edited at someone's earliest convenience. 	these categories also serve to aggregate members of several lists or sub-categories into a larger, more efficient list (discriminated by classifications). contents: top – a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z * # • a aa ae aj ao at • b ba be bj bo bt • c ca ce cj co ct • d da de dj do dt • e ea ee ej eo et • f fa fe fj fo ft • g ga ge gj go gt • h ha he hj ho ht • i ia ie ij io it • j ja je jj jo jt • k ka ke kj ko kt • l la le lj lo lt • m ma me mj mo mt • n na ne nj no nt • o oa oe oj oo ot • p pa pe pj po pt • q qa qe qj qo qt • r ra re rj ro rt • s sa se sj so st • t ta te tj to tt • u ua ue uj uo ut • v va ve vj vo vt • w wa we wj wo wt • x xa xe xj xo xt • y ya ye yj yo yt • z za ze zj zo zt subcategories this category has the following subcategories, out of , total. 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- t locomotives‎ ( p) 	► ¼ in gauge railways‎ ( c) 	► th century‎ ( c, p) 	► th century bc‎ ( c, p) 	► th century bc by country‎ ( c) 	► th century bc in egypt‎ ( c, p) 	► th-century births‎ ( c, p) 	► th century by country‎ ( c) 	► th-century deaths‎ ( c, p) 	► th century in art‎ ( c, p) 	► th century in asia‎ ( c, p) 	► th century in austria‎ ( c, p) 	► th century in china‎ ( c, p) 	► th century in denmark‎ ( c, p) 	► th century in egypt‎ ( c, p) 	► th century in england‎ ( c, p) (previous page) (next page) pages in category "commons category link is on wikidata" the following pages are in this category, out of approximately , total. this list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). (previous page) (next page) – 	 cabot square 	 euro cent coin 	 december euromaidan riots 	 decembrie university, alba iulia 	 euro coin 	one grand central place 	 hanover square 	 st armoured infantry brigade (united kingdom) 	 spadina crescent 	no. squadron raf 	 squadron saaf 	one times square 	 utama 	 wall street 	 wall street court 	 west india quay 	 william street 	a road (great britain) 	a (m) motorway 	 – orme square 	 – constitution hill, birmingham 	 – collingham gardens 	m motorway (great britain) 	a road 	a road 	 -inch nordenfelt gun 	citybus route 	 . fc tatran prešov 	 . "/ caliber gun 	 . -inch breech-loading vickers q.f. gun, mk ii 	 chipmsx 	 k szhatie 	 pn 	 pn 	 seg 	 st/ th royal new south wales lancers 	 st aacta awards 	 st air cavalry brigade 	 st airborne brigade (japan) 	 st armored division (united states) 	 st arrondissement of paris 	 st artillery brigade (japan) 	first avenue station (bmt canarsie line) 	 st avenue (seattle) 	 st aviation regiment (australia) 	 st battalion, th marines 	 st battalion, th marines 	 st battalion, rd marines 	 st battalion, th marines 	 st battalion, royal australian regiment 	 st cavalry army 	 st cavalry division (wehrmacht) 	 st cavalry division horse cavalry detachment 	 st connecticut light artillery battery 	 st division (japan) 	 st filipino infantry regiment 	 st force reconnaissance company 	 st helicopter squadron 	 st infantry division (south korea) 	 st infantry regiment (thailand) 	 st life grenadier regiment (sweden) 	 st maintenance battalion 	 st marine aircraft wing 	 st marine division 	 st marine expeditionary brigade (united states) 	 st marine regiment (sweden) 	 st military working dog regiment 	 st new guinea infantry battalion 	 st november of great mosque 	 st operations group 	 st reconnaissance battalion 	 st reconnaissance squadron 	 st recruit training battalion (united states) 	 st regiment new york volunteer cavalry 	 st street station (los angeles metro) 	 st street, los angeles 	 st submarine flotilla (sweden) 	 st tank battalion 	 st ward of new orleans 	 st west virginia cavalry regiment 	 st white cloth hall 	 time airline 	 nd armored division (united states) 	 nd marine regiment 	 nd ranger battalion 	 (new york city subway service) 	 broadway 	 columbus circle 	 euro coin 	 euro commemorative coins 	 hare court 	 horatio street 	 in with double base 	 -inch medium mortar 	 m bubble chamber (cern) 	 marsham street 	 squadron saaf 	 willow road 	a road (england) 	 - - - 	 - - - t 	 – pavilion buildings, brighton 	 – – tree 	 - - 	 - - + - - 	 - - 	 - - + - - 	 - - 	 - - + - - 	 - - 	 - - + - - 	 - - 	 - - - 	 - - - 	 - - 	 - - + - - 	 - - 	 - - + - - 	 - - 	 - - 	 - - 	 - - 	a road (england) 	a road (england) 	m motorway 	a road 	a road 	 - high street, millers point 	a road 	a road 	a road 	a road 	 -xl 	 , -year celebration of the persian empire 	nwfb route 	 . metre 	 . 	 a mm gun 	 aaa 	 am (band) 	 b melbury road 	 b oka 	 b vasilek 	 bb 	 d computer graphics 	 d day bombardment group 	 d low altitude air defense battalion 	 degrees 	 e régiment de chevau-légers lanciers de la garde impériale 	 el 	 es 	 k luna 	 k kub 	 k tunguska 	 m b 	 mm kolibri 	 moro 	 n 	 n 	 n 	 n 	 / th lancers regiment 	 nd armored division (france) 	 nd arrondissement of paris 	second avenue station 	 nd battalion, parachute regiment 	 nd battalion, royal australian regiment 	 nd brigade special troops battalion 	 nd cavalry regiment (australia) 	 nd civil affairs group 	 nd commando regiment (australia) 	 nd dental battalion 	 nd district of budapest 	 nd dragoon regiment (france) 	 nd infantry division (south korea) 	 nd infantry division (united states) 	 nd life grenadier regiment (sweden) 	 nd light armored reconnaissance battalion 	 nd lok sabha 	 nd maine infantry regiment 	 nd marine aircraft wing 	 nd marine division (south korea) 	 nd marine division 	 nd marine expeditionary brigade (united states) 	 nd operations group 	 nd pursuit group 	 nd reconnaissance battalion (united states marine corps) 	 nd street station (hudson–bergen light rail) 	 nd street tunnel 	 nd sverdlovsk air enterprise 	 nd ward of new orleans 	 ne 	 pm 	 s tyulpan 	 s sprut-sd 	 s vena 	 s koalitsiya-sv 	 tm , 	 yoon 	 rd armored division (united states) (previous page) (next page) retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=category:commons_category_link_is_on_wikidata&oldid= " 		categories: 	commons category wikidata tracking categories hidden categories: 	hidden categories 	tracking categories 	template large category toc via catautotoc on category with over , pages 	catautotoc generates large category toc 	wikipedia categories tracking wikidata differences 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			category 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	تۆرکجه 	Ελληνικά 	فارسی 	français 	ગુજરાતી 	हिन्दी 	kirundi 	مصرى 	ဘာသာ မန် 	polski 	português 	română 	simple english 	سنڌي 	svenska 	Татарча/tatarça 	türkçe 	Українська 	اردو 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on april , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 information for "trust (social science)" - 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"amuse" redirects here. for the japanese entertainment company, see amuse, inc. for the swedish music company, see amuse (music company). amusement, by viktor vasnetsov 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e amusement, from the old french à muser – to put into a stupid stare,[ ] is the state of experiencing humorous and entertaining events or situations while the person or animal actively maintains the experience, and is associated with enjoyment, happiness, laughter and pleasure. it is an emotion with positive valence and high physiological arousal. amusement is considered an "epistemological" emotion because humor occurs when one experiences a cognitive shift from one knowledge structure about a target to another, such as hearing the punchline of a joke.[ ] the pleasant surprise that happens from learning this new information leads to a state of amusement which people often express through smiling, laughter or chuckling. current studies have not yet reached consensus on the exact purpose of amusement, though theories have been advanced in the fields of psychology, psychiatry and sociology. in addition, the precise mechanism that causes a given element (image, sound, behavior, etc.) to be perceived as more or less 'amusing' than another, similar element to a particular individual is not clearly understood. contents 	 theories 	 . evolutionary 	 . constructed emotion 	 emotional expression of amusement 	 . facial expression 	 . vocal burst 	 cultural considerations 	 clinical uses 	 . emotion regulation 	 . resilience 	 . laughter therapy 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links theories[edit] two different theoretical perspectives about emotion provide contrasting origins of amusement: evolutionary[edit] the evolutionary perspective proposes that amusement is a distinct emotion that evolved to enhance a species’ survival. collective laughter helps define an ingroup, helping people recognize those similar to them and feel included.[ ][ ] it also helps identify outgroup members and enhance the barrier between the two. laughter can provide network support as encouragement, or it can inform ingroup members that they are losing majority favor and to adjust their behavior to reassimilate.[ ] constructed emotion[edit] the theory of constructed emotion suggests that when humans have a positive experience that increases their arousal, such as a faster heartbeat and increased sweat production, they cognitively seek out a label for that feeling. they will land on amusement if that experience resembles other amusement experiences they have had.[ ][ ] emotional expression of amusement[edit] the origin of the study of emotional expression is often attributed to charles darwin.[ ] in , darwin published his book the expression of the emotions in man and animals, in which he extensively describes his observations of how people and animals display emotions on their faces and through sound.[ ] darwin comments on amusement as an emotion of great joy during which a person is likely to laugh. he also notes that across all peoples humans can laugh until they are panting and tears roll down their cheeks. in the s, paul ekman, an american psychologist, revived the study of emotional expression, proposing, like darwin, that emotions were universally recognizable.[ ] his early work focused on six basic emotions: happiness, anger, sadness, fear, disgust and surprise.[ ] by the s, ekman had expanded this list to include several additional emotions, one of which was amusement.[ ] displays of amusement have been distinguished from related emotions like embarrassment and shame.[ ] more recent studies have confirmed that laughter is a distinct signal of amusement and is recognizable across cultures.[ ][ ][ ] professional wrestlers vince mcmahon (right) and ron killings (left) showing amused facial expressions facial expression[edit] an amused facial expression typically has these characteristics:[ ] 	head: thrown back with jaw lifted 	eyes: crow's feet at the eyes indicating that the muscles have tightened 	mouth: open, jaw dropped with relaxed muscles vocal burst[edit] the expression of amusement is usually accompanied by genuine laughter. the experience of laughter changes the breathing pattern and often causes all the muscles to relax.[ ] cultural considerations[edit] as a positive, high arousal emotion, amusement falls in the same category as excitement and exhilaration. these emotions are highly valued in american culture where positive feelings that high in energy are seen as ideal. in contrast, east asian cultures value positive, low arousal emotions such as contentment, calm and peacefulness.[ ] clinical uses[edit] emotion regulation[edit] emotion regulation is the term for how people attempt to influence - increasing, decreasing, maintaining or changing - how, when, and where they experience emotion.[ ] through changing how they think about a target of amusement, like a humorous video clip, people are able to increase and decrease how much amusement they feel, express in smiles and laughs, and experience in their bodies (e.g. increased heart rate and respiration).[ ] choosing to increase or prolong experiences of positive emotion is one way in which people can learn to cope when faced with challenges and develop resilience.[ ] resilience[edit] as a positive emotion, amusement contributes to the development of resilience in both children[ ] and adults.[ ] positive emotions help people build social resources that foster their ability to cope during hard times.[ ] increases in resilience lead to higher life satisfaction and general happiness.[ ] people engaging in laughter therapy laughter therapy[edit] rapidly growing in popularity, laughter therapy, or humor therapy, focuses on promoting laughter as a therapeutic tool.[ ] usually implemented in a group, laughter therapy uses a variety of gag jokes like red noses and magic tricks to encourage laughter - fake or real. laughter causes the bodies' muscles to relax which increases blood flow and oxygen intake.[ ] proposed benefits include: stress management,[ ] relaxation, improved mental functions, improved digestion and pain relief. some suggest that laughter activates similar brain wave frequencies as a meditative state.[ ] however, scientific studies of these benefits are limited and have methodological issues.[ ] see also[edit] 	leisure 	recreation references[edit] 	^ "amuse, v." oxford english dictionary. retrieved november . 	^ shiota, m. n.; keltner, d. & john, o. p. ( ). "positive emotion dispositions differentially associated with big five personality and attachment style". the journal of positive psychology. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . 	^ shiota, m. n., campos, b., keltner, d., & hertenstein, m. j. ( ). positive emotion and the regulation of interpersonal relationships in the regulation of emotion. mahwah, nj: philippot, p. & feldman, r. s. eds. lawrence erlbaum associates inc. pp.  – .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ latta, r. l. ( ). the basic humor process: a cognitive-shift theory and the case against incongruity. new york, ny: mouton de gruyter. 	^ coser, rose laub ( april ). "some social functions of laughter". human relations. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ barrett, l. f. ( ). "solving the emotion paradox: categorization and the experience of emotion". personality and social psychology review. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /s pspr _ . pmid  . 	^ barrett, l. f. ( ). "the theory of constructed emotion: an active inference account of interoception and categorization". social cognitive and affective neuroscience. ( ): – . doi: . /scan/nsw . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ keltner, d., tracy, j. l., sauter, d. a., cordaro, d. c. & mcneil, g. ( ). "expression of emotion". in barrett, l. f., lewis, m. & haviland-jones, j. m. eds., handbook of emotions. th: – .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ darwin, charles ( ) [ ]. the expressions of the emotions in man and animals ( ed.). london: harper collins. 	^ ekman, paul ( ). "the argument and evidence about universals in facial expressions". handbook of social psychophysiology: – . 	^ ekman, p., sorenson, e. r., & friesen, w. v. ( ). "pan-cultural elements in facial displays of emotion". science. ( ): – . doi: . /science. . . .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ ekman, p., & rosenberg, e. l. (eds.). ( ). what the face reveals: basic and applied studies of spontaneous expression using the facial action coding system (facs). oxford university press, usa.cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ keltner, dacher ( ). "signs of appeasement: evidence for the distinct displays of embarrassment, amusement, and shame". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / - . . . . 	^ simon-thomas, e. r.; keltner, d. j.; sauter, d.; sinicropi-yao, l. & abramson, a. ( ). "the voice conveys specific emotions: evidence from vocal burst displays". emotion. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ laukka, p.; elfenbein, h. a.; söder, n.; nordström, h.; althoff, j.; chui, w., ... & thingujam, n. s. ( ). "cross-cultural decoding of positive and negative non-linguistic emotion vocalizations". frontiers in psychology. : . doi: . /fpsyg. . . pmc  . pmid  .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ sauter, d. a., eisner, f., ekman, p. & scott, s. k. ( ). ( ). "cross-cultural recognition of basic emotions through nonverbal emotional vocalizations". proceedings of the national academy of sciences. ( ): – . doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ a b "emotional intelligence quiz". greater good science center. retrieved november . 	^ tsai, jeanne l. ( ). "ideal affect: cultural causes and behavioral consequences". perspectives on psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . 	^ gross, james j. ( ). "the emerging field of emotion regulation: an integrative review". review of general psychology. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / - . . . . 	^ giuliani, n. r.; mcrae, k. & gross, j. j. ( ). "the up-and down-regulation of amusement: experiential, behavioral, and autonomic consequences". emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ tugade, m. m. & fredrickson, b. l. ( ). "regulation of positive emotions: emotion regulation strategies that promote resilience". journal of happiness studies. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . 	^ bai, s., & repetti, r. l. ( ). "short‐term resilience processes in the family". family relations. ( ): – . doi: . /fare. . pmc  . pmid  .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ fredrickson, b. l., tugade, m. m., waugh, c. e., & larkin, g. r. ( ). "what good are positive emotions in crisis? a prospective study of resilience and emotions following the terrorist attacks on the united states on september th, ". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmc  . pmid  .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ tugade, m. m., fredrickson, b. l., & feldman barrett, l. ( ). ( ). "psychological resilience and positive emotional granularity: examining the benefits of positive emotions on coping and health". journal of personality. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmc  . pmid  .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ cohn, michael a.; fredrickson, barbara l.; brown, stephanie l.; mikels, joseph a.; conway, anne m. ( ). "happiness unpacked: positive emotions increase life satisfaction by building resilience". emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /a . issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ burbank, luke. "the growing popularity of laughter therapy". npr.org. retrieved november . 	^ "laughter therapy". cancer treatment centers of america. retrieved november . 	^ mayo clinic staff. "stress relief from laughter? it's no joke". www.mayoclinic.org. mayo clinic. retrieved february . 	^ eckelkamp, stephanie. "laughter therapy is the new meditation". time.com. retrieved november . 	^ martin, r. a. ( ). "humor, laughter, and physical health: methodological issues and research findings". psychological bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . further reading[edit] 	brockton art center (brockton, mass.). american pastimes: [exhibition catalog], brockton art center, fuller memorial, brockton, massachusetts, jan. -apr. , . roger t. dunn ... curator [and author of the] catalogue; research assistant, richard campbell. brockton, mass.: brockton art center, fuller memorial; bedford, mass.: printed by w.e. andrews co., . obl. p., amply ill. without isbn external links[edit] 		look up amusement in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: amusement 	questionable amusements and worthy substitutes by j. m. judy 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=amusement&oldid= " 		categories: 	emotion 	humour hidden categories: 	cs maint: multiple names: authors list 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			भोजपुरी 	Ελληνικά 	español 	français 	עברית 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	Русский 	svenska 	Українська 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on october , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 category:cs maint: multiple names: authors list - 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. . .x corpus id: group-based trust in strangers @article{foddy groupbasedti, title={group-based trust in strangers}, author={m. foddy and m. platow and t. yamagishi}, journal={psychological science}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	m. foddy, m. platow, t. yamagishi 	published 	psychology, medicine 	psychological science across two studies, we provide evidence for group-based trust in strangers. specifically, when we offered participants a choice between an unknown monetary allocation made by an in-group (university or major) or an out-group allocator, both of whom had total control over the distribution of an identical sum of money, participants strongly preferred the in-group allocator. this preference occurred regardless of whether the stereotype of the in-group was relatively more positive or more negative… continue reading view on sage ncbi.nlm.nih.gov save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationshighly influencial citations background citations methods citations results citations view all topics from this paper. explore further: topics discussed in this paper 	stereotypic movement disorder 	money paper mentions news article why trusting people pays off in the long run medium us january news article turkey isn't making you sleepy, but it may make you more trusting the national interest november blog post no, turkey doesn’t make you sleepy popular science - new technology, science news, the future now november blog post no, turkey doesn’t make you sleepy, but it may bring more trust to your thanksgiving table neuroscience rss feeds - neuroscience news updates november blog post what might make you trust a stranger? n e u r o n a r r a t i v e april citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency trust toward a group of strangers as a function of stereotype-based social identification 	d. kong 	psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites results and background save alert research feed altruism toward in-group members as a reputation mechanism 	n. mifune, h. hashimoto, t. yamagishi 	psychology 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed two experimental tests of trust in in‐group strangers: the moderating role of common knowledge of group membership 	m. platow, m. foddy, t. yamagishi, l. lim, a. chow 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed social exchange and solidarity: in-group love or out-group hate? 	t. yamagishi, n. mifune 	psychology 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed identity, homophily and in-group bias 	sergio currarini, f. mengel 	psychology, economics 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites results and background save alert research feed in-group favoritism and discrimination among multiple out-groups 	v. grimm, verena utikal, lorenzo valmasoni 	psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites methods save alert research feed [adaptive foundation of group-based reciprocity]. 	yutaka horita, t. yamagishi 	psychology, medicine 	shinrigaku kenkyu : the japanese journal of psychology 	 	 	 save alert research feed cooperation and shared beliefs about trust in the assurance game 	f. jansson, k. eriksson 	psychology, medicine 	plos one 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed optimal distinctiveness signals membership trust 	geoffrey j. leonardelli, d. loyd 	psychology, medicine 	personality & social psychology bulletin 	 	 save alert research feed an intermediary enhances out‐group trust and in‐group profit expectation of chinese but not australians 	jiawen ye, s. h. ng 	psychology, medicine 	international journal of psychology : journal international de psychologie 	 save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	 	 	› references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency gender differences in the relational and collective bases for trust 	w. maddux, m. brewer 	psychology 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed predicting intergroup fairness and ingroup bias in the minimal group paradigm 	m. platow, c. mcclintock, w. liebrand 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed [expectations of a generalized exchange system and ingroup favoritism: an experimental study of bounded reciprocity]. 	t. kiyonari 	psychology, medicine 	shinrigaku kenkyu : the japanese journal of psychology 	 	 	 save alert research feed intergroup fairness biases: is ours the fairer sex? 	j. boldizar, d. messick 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed the group as the container of generalized reciprocity 	toshio yamagishi, t. kiyonari 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed the psychology of prejudice: ingroup love and outgroup hate? 	m. b. brewer 	psychology 	 	 , save alert research feed trust and distrust in organizations: emerging perspectives, enduring questions. 	r. kramer 	sociology, medicine 	annual review of psychology 	 	 , 	pdf save alert research feed affect- and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizations 	d. mcallister 	psychology 	 	 , 	pdf save alert research feed trust in organizations: frontiers of theory and research 	r. kramer, tom r. tyler 	sociology 	 	 , save alert research feed mental representations of social groups: advances in understanding stereotypes and stereotyping 	c. stangor, j. lange 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	› related papers 	abstract 	topics 	paper mentions 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators blog posts, news articles and tweet counts and ids sourced by altmetric.com terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue view source for trust (social science) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	view source for trust (social science) 	 		 		← trust (social science) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		you do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: 	your ip address is in a range that has been blocked on all wikimedia foundation wikis. the block was made by jon kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). the reason given is open proxy: webhost: contact stewards if you are affected . 	start of block: : , july 	expiry of block: : , january your current ip address is . . . and the blocked range is . . . / . please include all above details in any queries you make. if you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the no open proxies global policy. otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on meta-wiki or send an email to the stewards otrs queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 	 you are currently unable to edit wikipedia. you are still able to view pages, but you are not currently able to edit, move, or create them. editing from . . . / has been blocked (disabled) by ‪sql‬ for the following reason(s): 	 the ip address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. to prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing wikipedia. 	you will not be able to edit wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider. since the web host acts like a proxy or vpn, because it hides your ip address, it has been blocked. we recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. for example, if you use a proxy or vpn to connect to the internet, turn it off when editing wikipedia. if you edit using a mobile connection, try using a wi-fi connection, and vice versa. if you have a wikipedia account, please log in. if you do not have any other way to edit wikipedia, you will need to request an ip block exemption. if you do not believe you are using a web host, you may appeal this block by adding the following text on your talk page: {{unblock|reason=caught by a colocation web host block but this host or ip is not a web host. my ip address is _______. place any further information here. ~~~~}}. you must fill in the blank with your ip address for this block to be investigated. your ip address can be determined using whatismyip.com. alternatively, if you wish to keep your ip address private you can use the unblock ticket request system. if you are using a wikipedia account, you will need to request an ip block exemption by either using the unblock template or by submitting an appeal using the unblock ticket request system. administrators: the ip block exemption user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. if you intend to give the ipbe user right, a checkuser needs to take a look at the account. this can be requested most easily at spi quick checkuser requests. unblocking an ip or ip range with this template is highly discouraged without at least contacting the blocking administrator. this block has been set to expire: : , june . even if blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page and email other editors and administrators. other useful links: blocking policy · username policy ·   appealing blocks: policy and guide if the block notice is unclear, or it does not appear to relate to your actions, please ask for assistance as described at help:i have been blocked. you can view and copy the source of this page: == types of social trust == four types of social trust are recognized:<ref name="dinesen">{{cite journal|doi= . /annurev-polisci- - |title=ethnic diversity and social trust: a narrative and meta-analytical review|year= |last =dinesen|first =peter thisted|last =schaeffer|first =merlin|last =sønderskov|first =kim mannemar|journal=annual review of political science|volume= |pages= – |doi-access=free}}</ref> *[[generalized trust]], or trust in strangers, is an important form of trust in modern society, involving a large amount of social interactions among strangers. *[[in-group and out-group|out-group]] trust is the trust an individual has in members of a different group. this could be members of a different ethnic group, or citizens of a different country, for example. *[[in-group and out-group|in-group]] trust is that which is placed in members of one's own group. *trust in [[neighbourhood|neighbors]] considers the relationships between individuals who share a common residential environment. === influence of ethnic diversity === several dozen studies have examined the impact of [[ethnic diversity]] on social trust. research published in the [[annual review of political science]]<ref name="dinesen" /> concluded that there were three key debates on the subject: # why does ethnic diversity modestly reduce social trust? # can [[contact hypothesis|contact]] reduce the negative association between ethnic diversity and social trust? # is ethnic diversity a stand-in for social disadvantage? the review's [[meta-analysis]] of studies showed a consistent, though modest, negative relationship between ethnic diversity and social trust. ethnic diversity has the strongest negative impact on neighbor trust, in-group trust, and generalized trust. it did not appear to have a significant impact on out-group trust. the limited size of the impact means apocalyptic claims about it are exaggerated.<ref name="dinesen" /> return to trust (social science). retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/trust_(social_science)" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 redirecting 		 	 	 	 view source for trust (social science) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	view source for trust (social science) 	 		 		← trust (social science) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		you do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: 	your ip address is in a range that has been blocked on all wikimedia foundation wikis. the block was made by jon kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). the reason given is open proxy: webhost: contact stewards if you are affected . 	start of block: : , july 	expiry of block: : , january your current ip address is . . . and the blocked range is . . . / . please include all above details in any queries you make. if you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the no open proxies global policy. otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on meta-wiki or send an email to the stewards otrs queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 	 you are currently unable to edit wikipedia. you are still able to view pages, but you are not currently able to edit, move, or create them. editing from . . . / has been blocked (disabled) by ‪sql‬ for the following reason(s): 	 the ip address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. to prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing wikipedia. 	you will not be able to edit wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider. since the web host acts like a proxy or vpn, because it hides your ip address, it has been blocked. we recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. for example, if you use a proxy or vpn to connect to the internet, turn it off when editing wikipedia. if you edit using a mobile connection, try using a wi-fi connection, and vice versa. if you have a wikipedia account, please log in. if you do not have any other way to edit wikipedia, you will need to request an ip block exemption. if you do not believe you are using a web host, you may appeal this block by adding the following text on your talk page: {{unblock|reason=caught by a colocation web host block but this host or ip is not a web host. my ip address is _______. place any further information here. ~~~~}}. you must fill in the blank with your ip address for this block to be investigated. your ip address can be determined using whatismyip.com. alternatively, if you wish to keep your ip address private you can use the unblock ticket request system. if you are using a wikipedia account, you will need to request an ip block exemption by either using the unblock template or by submitting an appeal using the unblock ticket request system. administrators: the ip block exemption user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. if you intend to give the ipbe user right, a checkuser needs to take a look at the account. this can be requested most easily at spi quick checkuser requests. unblocking an ip or ip range with this template is highly discouraged without at least contacting the blocking administrator. this block has been set to expire: : , june . even if blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page and email other editors and administrators. other useful links: blocking policy · username policy ·   appealing blocks: policy and guide if the block notice is unclear, or it does not appear to relate to your actions, please ask for assistance as described at help:i have been blocked. you can view and copy the source of this page: ==sociology{{multiple image | align = left | direction = horizontal | image = | image = | image = | width = px | caption = trust combined with other primary emotions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adliterate.com/archives/plutchik.emotion.theorie.poster.pdf |title=robert plutchik's psychoevolutionary theory of basic emotions |website=adliterate.com |accessdate= - - }}</ref><ref name="turner ">{{cite book|author=jonathan turner|title=on the origins of human emotions: a sociological inquiry into the evolution of human affect|url=https://archive.org/details/onoriginsofhuman turn|url-access=registration|year= |publisher=stanford university press|isbn= - - - - |page=[https://archive.org/details/onoriginsofhuman turn/page/ ]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=a fuzzy inference system for synergy estimation of simultaneous emotion dynamics in agents|journal=international journal of scientific & engineering research|volume= |issue= |date=june |url=http://www.ijser.org/paper/a_fuzzy_inference_system_for_synergy_estimation_of_simultaneous_emotion_dynamics_in_agents.html|author =atifa athar|author =m. saleem khan|author =khalil ahmed|author =aiesha ahmed|author =nida anwar}} </ref> }}== sociology claims trust is one of several [[social constructs]]; an element of the social reality.<ref>searle, j.r. ( ). ''the construction of social reality''. the free press</ref> other constructs frequently discussed together with trust include control, confidence, risk, meaning and power. trust is naturally attributable to relationships between social actors, both individuals and groups (social systems). sociology is concerned with the position and role of trust in social systems. interest in trust has grown significantly since the early eighties, from the early works of luhmann,<ref>luhmann, n. ( ). ''trust and power''. john wiley & sons.</ref> barber<ref>barber, b. ( ) ''the logic and limits of trust''. rutgerts university press.</ref> and giddens<ref>giddens, a. ( ). ''the constitution of society: outline of the theory of structuration''; polity press, cambridge</ref> (see<ref>sztompka, p. ( ). ''trust: a sociological theory''. cambridge university press.</ref> for a more detailed overview). this growth of interest in trust has been stimulated by ongoing changes in society, specifically known as [[late modernity]] and [[post-modernity]]. [[sviatoslav i|sviatoslav]] contended that society needs trust because it increasingly finds itself operating at the edge between confidence in what is known from everyday experience and contingency of new possibilities. without trust, one should always consider all contingent possibilities, leading to [[analysis paralysis|paralysis by analysis]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=braynov|first=sviatoslav|date= |title=contracting with uncertain level of trust|journal=computational intelligence|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / - . |s cid= }}</ref> in this sense, trust acts as a decisional heuristic, allowing the decision maker to overcome [[bounded rationality]]<ref>{{cite book|last=simon|first=herbert alexander|url=https://books.google.com/books?id= ciwu z wqc&q=herbert+simon+bounded+rationality&pg=pa |title=models of bounded rationality: empirically grounded economic reason|date= |publisher=mit press|isbn= - - - - |language=en}}</ref> and process what would otherwise be an excessively complex situation. trust can be seen as a bet on one of many contingent futures, specifically, the one that appears to deliver the greatest benefits. once the bet is decided (i.e. trust is granted), the trustor suspends his or her disbelief, and the possibility of a negative course of action is not considered at all. hence trust acts as a reducing agent of [[social complexity]], allowing for [[cooperation]].<ref>{{cite journal | last = bachmann | first = r. | s cid = | year = | title = trust, power and control in transorganizational relations | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/ a dca e c a c c e eb ca df c a | journal = organization studies | volume = | issue = | pages = – | doi= . / }}</ref> sociology tends to focus on two distinct views: the macro view of social systems, and a micro view of individual social actors (where it borders with [[social psychology]]). similarly, views on trust follow this dichotomy. on one side, the systemic role of trust can be discussed with a certain disregard to the psychological complexity underpinning individual trust. the behavioral approach to trust is usually assumed<ref>coleman, j. ( ). ''foundations of social theory''. the belknap press of harvard university press.</ref> while actions of social actors are measurable, leading to statistical modelling of trust. this systemic approach can be contrasted<ref>castelfranchi, c., falcone, r. ( ). "trust is much more than subjective probability: mental components and sources of trust". ''proc. of the rd hawaii international conference on system sciences''. volume .</ref> with studies on social actors and their decision-making process, in anticipation that understanding of such a process will explain (and allow to model) the emergence of trust. sociology acknowledges that the contingency of the future creates dependency between social actors, and specifically that the trustor becomes dependent on the trustee. trust is seen as one of the possible methods to resolve such a dependency, being an attractive alternative to control.<ref>mollering, g.. "the trust/control duality: an integrative perspective on positive expectations of others". in: ''int. sociology'', september , vol. ( ): – .</ref> trust is specifically valuable if the trustee is much more powerful than the trustor, yet the trustor is under social obligation to support the trustee.<ref>baier, a. ( ). "trust and antitrust". ''ethics'', vol. , pp. – . reprinted in: ''moral prejudices''. cambridge university press.</ref> modern information technologies have not only facilitated the transition towards a post-modern society, but have also challenged traditional views on trust. [[information system|information systems]] research has identified that individuals have evolved to trust in technology, demonstrated by two primary constructs. the first consists of human-like constructs including benevolence, honesty and competence, whilst the second employs system-like constructs such as usefulness, reliability and functionality.<ref>{{cite journal|last =lankton|first =nancy|last =mcknight|first =harrison|last =tripp|first =john|date= |title=technology, humanness, and trust: rethinking trust in technology|url=http://dx.doi.org/ . / jais. |journal=journal of the association for information systems|volume= |issue= |pages= – |doi= . / jais. |issn= - }}</ref> the discussion surrounding the relationship between information technologies and trust is still in progress as research remains in its infant stages. return to trust (social science). retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/trust_(social_science)" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 view source for trust (social science) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	view source for trust (social science) 	 		 		← trust (social science) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		you do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: 	your ip address is in a range that has been blocked on all wikimedia foundation wikis. the block was made by jon kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). the reason given is open proxy: webhost: contact stewards if you are affected . 	start of block: : , july 	expiry of block: : , january your current ip address is . . . and the blocked range is . . . / . please include all above details in any queries you make. if you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the no open proxies global policy. otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on meta-wiki or send an email to the stewards otrs queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 	 you are currently unable to edit wikipedia. you are still able to view pages, but you are not currently able to edit, move, or create them. editing from . . . / has been blocked (disabled) by ‪sql‬ for the following reason(s): 	 the ip address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. to prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing wikipedia. 	you will not be able to edit wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider. since the web host acts like a proxy or vpn, because it hides your ip address, it has been blocked. we recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. for example, if you use a proxy or vpn to connect to the internet, turn it off when editing wikipedia. if you edit using a mobile connection, try using a wi-fi connection, and vice versa. if you have a wikipedia account, please log in. if you do not have any other way to edit wikipedia, you will need to request an ip block exemption. if you do not believe you are using a web host, you may appeal this block by adding the following text on your talk page: {{unblock|reason=caught by a colocation web host block but this host or ip is not a web host. my ip address is _______. place any further information here. ~~~~}}. you must fill in the blank with your ip address for this block to be investigated. your ip address can be determined using whatismyip.com. alternatively, if you wish to keep your ip address private you can use the unblock ticket request system. if you are using a wikipedia account, you will need to request an ip block exemption by either using the unblock template or by submitting an appeal using the unblock ticket request system. administrators: the ip block exemption user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. if you intend to give the ipbe user right, a checkuser needs to take a look at the account. this can be requested most easily at spi quick checkuser requests. unblocking an ip or ip range with this template is highly discouraged without at least contacting the blocking administrator. this block has been set to expire: : , june . even if blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page and email other editors and administrators. other useful links: blocking policy · username policy ·   appealing blocks: policy and guide if the block notice is unclear, or it does not appear to relate to your actions, please ask for assistance as described at help:i have been blocked. you can view and copy the source of this page: ==external links== {{wiktionary|trustworthy}} {{wikiversity|earning trust}} {{commons category|trust}} * {{philpapers|category|trust|trust}} * {{inpho|idea| |trust}} * {{cite sep |url-id=trust |title=trust}} * [http://www.wilderdom.com/games/trustactivities.html trust building activities] * [https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.sociology.ox.ac.uk/papers/trustbook.html trust: making and breaking cooperative relations], edited by diego gambetta * [https://archive.org/details/amitrust ''am i trustworthy?'' ( ) educational video clip] *[http://www.stonybrook.edu/trust/ stony brook university weekly seminars on the issue of trust in the personal, religious, social, and scientific realms] *[https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://web.missouri.edu/~jamesha/trust/index.htm world database of trust] harvey s. james, jr., ph.d (updated august ) a variety of definitions of trust are collected and listed. {{authority control}} {{defaultsort:trust (social sciences)}} [[category:interpersonal relationships]] [[category:reputation management]] [[category:concepts in ethics]] [[category:accountability]] [[category:social constructionism]] [[category:social epistemology]] [[category:sociological terminology]] [[category:emotions]] [[category:moral psychology]] return to trust (social science). retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/trust_(social_science)" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 contracting with uncertain level of trust | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . / - . corpus id: contracting with uncertain level of trust @article{braynov contractingwu, title={contracting with uncertain level of trust}, author={s. braynov and t. sandholm}, journal={computational intelligence}, year={ }, volume={ } } 	s. braynov, t. sandholm 	published 	business, computer science 	computational intelligence the paper investigates the impact of trust on market efficiency and bilateral contracts. we prove that a market in which agents are trusted to the degree they deserve to be trusted is as efficient as a market with complete trustworthiness. in other words, complete trustworthiness is not a necessary condition for market efficiency. we prove that distrust could significantly reduce market efficiency, and we show how to solve the problem by using appropriately designed multiagent contracts. the… continue reading view on wiley wikidata.org save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationshighly influencial citations background citations methods citations view all topics from this paper. explore further: topics discussed in this paper 	trust (emotion) 	bilateral filter 	agent-based model 	trusted operating system 	norm (social) 	distrust 	smart contract citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency monopolizing markets by exploiting trust 	s. sen, d. banerjee 	computer science 	aamas ' 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed the relationship of trust, demand, and utility: be more trustworthy, then i will buy more 	amirali salehi-abari, t. white 	computer science 	 eighth international conference on privacy, security and trust 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed infrastructure contracts: trust and institutional updating 	x. dassiou, jon stern 	economics 	 	 	highly influenced 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background 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intell. 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	› related papers 	abstract 	topics 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue the economics of trust, norms and networks | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . / - . corpus id: the economics of trust, norms and networks @article{pollitt theeo, title={the economics of trust, norms and networks}, author={michael g. pollitt}, journal={behavioral & experimental economics}, year={ } } 	michael g. pollitt 	published 	economics 	behavioral & experimental economics the theme of this paper is that trust, norms and networks are critical contributors to social capital, itself a critical determinant of economic growth. numerous factors have contributed in recent years to the decline of social capital, restraining business and national competitiveness. it is in the interests and part of the responsibility of business to address this issue; this provides an economic imperative - complementary to the ethical imperative - for business to take socially responsible… continue reading view on ssrn doi.org save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationshighly influencial citations background citations view all citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency the economics of cyber trust between cyber partners 	j. cave 	 	 save alert research feed draft : not for citation cyber-trust 	j. cave, l. valeri 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed international corporate governance and the responsibility of the brand 	funmi ade-ajayi 	business 	 	 save alert research feed on economics and business ethics 	christos n. pitelis 	economics 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed the territory and business competitiveness 	a. d. chiara 	business 	 save alert research feed social capital in southeast asian business relationships 	theingi, s. purchase, y. phungphol 	sociology 	 	 save alert research feed chapter : introduction . problem statement save alert research feed social capital in multinational enterprise : 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		 		← template:emotion 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		you do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: 	your ip address is in a range that has been blocked on all wikimedia foundation wikis. the block was made by jon kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org). the reason given is open proxy: webhost: contact stewards if you are affected . 	start of block: : , july 	expiry of block: : , january your current ip address is . . . and the blocked range is . . . / . please include all above details in any queries you make. if you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the no open proxies global policy. otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on meta-wiki or send an email to the stewards otrs queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details. 	 you are currently unable to edit wikipedia. you are still able to view pages, but you are not currently able to edit, move, or create 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* [[confidence]] * [[contempt]] * [[contentment]] * [[courage]] * [[curiosity]] * [[depression (mood)|depression]] * [[desire]] * [[disappointment]] * [[disgust]] * [[distrust]] * [[doubt]] * [[ecstasy (emotion)|ecstasy]] * [[embarrassment]] * [[empathy]] * [[enthusiasm]] * [[envy]] * [[euphoria]] * [[faith]] * [[fear]] * [[frustration]] * [[gratification]] * [[gratitude]] * [[greed]] * [[grief]] * [[guilt (emotion)|guilt]] * [[happiness]] * [[hatred]] * [[hope]] * [[horror and terror|horror]] * [[hostility]] * [[humiliation]] * [[interest (emotion)|interest]] * [[jealousy]] * [[joy]] * [[kindness]] * [[loneliness]] * [[love]] * [[lust]] * [[nostalgia]] * [[outrage (emotion)|outrage]] * [[panic]] * [[passion (emotion)|passion]] * [[pity]] * [[pleasure]] * [[pride]] * [[rage (emotion)|rage]] * [[regret]] * [[social rejection|rejection]] * [[remorse]] * [[resentment]] * [[sadness]] * [[self-pity]] * [[shame]] * [[acute stress disorder|shock]] * [[shyness]] * [[social connection]] * [[sorrow (emotion)|sorrow]] * [[suffering]] * [[surprise (emotion)|surprise]] * [[trust (social science)|trust]] * [[wonder (emotion)|wonder]] * [[worry]] }}</includeonly><noinclude> {{documentation}} </noinclude> pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help): 	template:code (view source) (template editor protected) 	template:documentation (view source) (template editor protected) 	template:documentation subpage (view source) (template editor protected) 	template:emotion (edit) 	template:emotion/doc (edit) 	template:mbox (view source) (protected) 	template:sandbox other (view source) (template editor protected) 	template:sidebar (view source) (template editor protected) 	template:warning (view source) (protected) 	module:arguments (view source) (protected) 	module:documentation (view source) (template editor protected) 	module:documentation/config (view source) (template editor protected) 	module:documentation/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected) 	module:message box (view source) (protected) 	module:message box/configuration (view source) (protected) 	module:navbar (view source) (protected) 	module:navbar/configuration (view source) (protected) 	module:navbar/styles.css (view source) (protected) 	module:no globals (view source) (protected) 	module:sidebar (view source) (template editor protected) 	module:string (view source) (protected) 	module:yesno (view source) (protected) return to template:emotion. retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/template:emotion" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			template 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 anger - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	anger 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		intense hostile emotional state several terms redirect here. for other uses, see angry (disambiguation), wrath (disambiguation) and anger (disambiguation). 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e anger, also known as wrath or rage, is an intense emotional state involving a strong uncomfortable and non-cooperative response to a perceived provocation, hurt or threat.[ ][ ] a person experiencing anger will often experience physical effects, such as increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, and increased levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline.[ ] some view anger as an emotion which triggers part of the fight or flight response.[ ] anger becomes the predominant feeling behaviorally, cognitively, and physiologically when a person makes the conscious choice to take action to immediately stop the threatening behavior of another outside force.[ ] the english term originally comes from the term anger of old norse language.[ ] anger can have many physical and mental consequences. the external expression of anger can be found in facial expressions, body language, physiological responses, and at times public acts of aggression. facial expressions can range from inward angling of the eyebrows to a full frown.[ ] while most of those who experience anger explain its arousal as a result of "what has happened to them", psychologists point out that an angry person can very well be mistaken because anger causes a loss in self-monitoring capacity and objective observability.[ ] modern psychologists view anger as a normal, natural, and mature emotion experienced by virtually all humans at times, and as something that has functional value for survival. uncontrolled anger can, however, negatively affect personal or social well-being[ ][ ] and impact negatively on those around them. while many philosophers and writers have warned against the spontaneous and uncontrolled fits of anger, there has been disagreement over the intrinsic value of anger.[ ] the issue of dealing with anger has been written about since the times of the earliest philosophers, but modern psychologists, in contrast to earlier writers, have also pointed out the possible harmful effects of suppressing anger.[ ] contents 	 psychology and sociology 	 . neuropsychological perspective 	 differences between related concepts 	 characteristics 	 . passive anger 	 . aggressive anger 	 . assertive anger 	 . six dimensions of anger expression 	 . ethnicity and culture 	 causes 	 cognitive effects 	 expressive strategies 	 coping strategies 	 . cognitive behavioral affective therapy 	 . suppression 	 dual threshold model 	 physiology 	 philosophical perspectives 	 . ancient history 	 . . control methods 	 . post-classical history 	 . . by gender 	 . . . women 	 . . . men 	 . . control methods 	 . modern perspectives 	 religious perspectives 	 . judaism 	 . christianity 	 . . catholic 	 . . protestant 	 . hinduism 	 . buddhism 	 . islam 	 . divine retribution 	 see also 	 references 	 . further reading 	 . . books 	 . . articles psychology and sociology[edit] the anger of achilles, by giovanni battista tiepolo depicts the greek hero attacking agamemnon. three types of anger are recognized by psychologists:[ ] 	hasty and sudden anger is connected to the impulse for self-preservation. it is shared by human and other animals, and it occurs when the animal is tormented or trapped. this form of anger is episodic. 	settled and deliberate anger is a reaction to perceived deliberate harm or unfair treatment by others. this form of anger is episodic. 	dispositional anger is related more to character traits than to instincts or cognitions. irritability, sullenness, and churlishness are examples of the last form of anger. anger can potentially mobilize psychological resources and boost determination toward correction of wrong behaviors, promotion of social justice, communication of negative sentiment, and redress of grievances. it can also facilitate patience. in contrast, anger can be destructive when it does not find its appropriate outlet in expression. anger, in its strong form, impairs one's ability to process information and to exert cognitive control over one's behavior. an angry person may lose their objectivity, empathy, prudence or thoughtfulness and may cause harm to themselves or others.[ ][ ][ ] there is a sharp distinction between anger and aggression (verbal or physical, direct or indirect) even though they mutually influence each other. while anger can activate aggression or increase its probability or intensity, it is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for aggression.[ ] neuropsychological perspective[edit] extension of the stimuli of the fighting reactions. at the beginning of life, the human infant struggles indiscriminately against any restraining force, whether it be another human being or a blanket which confines their movements. there is no inherited susceptibility to social stimuli as distinct from other stimulation, in anger. at a later date the child learns that certain actions, such as striking, scolding, and screaming, are effective toward persons, but not toward things. in adults, though the infantile response is still sometimes seen, the fighting reaction becomes fairly well limited to stimuli whose hurting or restraining influence can be thrown off by physical violence.[ ] differences between related concepts[edit] raymond novaco of university of california irvine, who since has published a plethora of literature on the subject, stratified anger into three modalities: cognitive (appraisals), somatic-affective (tension and agitations), and behavioral (withdrawal and antagonism).[ ] the words annoyance and rage are often imagined to be at opposite ends of an emotional continuum: mild irritation and annoyance at the low end and fury or murderous rage at the high end. rage problems are conceptualized as "the inability to process emotions or life's experiences"[ ] either because the capacity to regulate emotion (schore, )[ ] has never been sufficiently developed or because it has been temporarily lost due to more recent trauma. rage is understood as raw, undifferentiated emotions, that spill out when another life event that cannot be processed, no matter how trivial, puts more stress on the organism than it can bear. anger, when viewed as a protective response or instinct to a perceived threat, is considered as positive. the negative expression of this state is known as aggression.[ ] acting on this misplaced state is rage due to possible potential errors in perception and judgment. examples 	expressions of anger used negatively	reasoning 	over-protective instinct and hostility	to avoid conceived loss or fear that something will be taken away. 	entitlement and frustration	to prevent a change in functioning. 	intimidation and rationalization	to meet one's own needs. characteristics[edit] 	 	this section does not cite any sources. please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (october ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) william defoore, an anger management writer, described anger as a pressure cooker, stating that "we can only suppress or apply pressure against our anger for so long before it erupts".[ ] one simple dichotomy of anger expression is passive anger versus aggressive anger versus assertive anger. these three types of anger have some characteristic symptoms:[ ] passive anger[edit] passive anger can be expressed in the following ways:[citation needed] 	dispassion, such as giving someone the cold shoulder or a fake smile, looking unconcerned or "sitting on the fence" while others sort things out, dampening feelings with substance abuse, overreacting, oversleeping, not responding to another's anger, frigidity, indulging in sexual practices that depress spontaneity and make objects of participants, giving inordinate amounts of time to machines, objects or intellectual pursuits, talking of frustrations but showing no feeling. 	evasiveness, such as turning one's back in a crisis, avoiding conflict, not arguing back, becoming phobic. 	defeatism, such as setting yourself and others up for failure, choosing unreliable people to depend on, being accident prone, underachieving, sexual impotence, expressing frustration at insignificant things but ignoring serious ones. 	obsessive behavior, such as needing to be inordinately clean and tidy, making a habit of constantly checking things, over-dieting or overeating, demanding that all jobs be done perfectly. 	psychological manipulation, such as provoking people to aggression and then patronizing them, provoking aggression but staying on the sidelines, emotional blackmail, false tearfulness, feigning illness, sabotaging relationships, using sexual provocation, using a third party to convey negative feelings, withholding money or resources. 	secretive behavior, such as stockpiling resentments that are expressed behind people's backs, giving the silent treatment or under-the-breath mutterings, avoiding eye contact, putting people down, gossiping, anonymous complaints, poison pen letters, stealing, and conning. 	self-blame, such as apologizing too often, being overly critical, inviting criticism. aggressive anger[edit] the symptoms of aggressive anger are: 	bullying, such as threatening people directly, persecuting, insulting, pushing or shoving, using power to oppress, shouting, driving someone off the road, playing on people's weaknesses. 	destruction, such as destroying objects as in vandalism, harming animals, child abuse, destroying a relationship, reckless driving, substance abuse. 	grandiosity, such as showing off, expressing mistrust, not delegating, being a sore loser, wanting center stage all the time, not listening, talking over people's heads, expecting kiss and make-up sessions to solve problems. 	hurtfulness, such as violence, including sexual abuse and rape, verbal abuse, biased or vulgar jokes, breaking confidence, using foul language, ignoring people's feelings, willfully discriminating, blaming, punishing people for unwarranted deeds, labeling others. 	risk-taking behavior, such as speaking too fast, walking too fast, driving too fast, reckless spending. 	selfishness, such as ignoring others' needs, not responding to requests for help, queue jumping. 	threats, such as frightening people by saying how one could harm them, their property or their prospects, finger pointing, fist shaking, wearing clothes or symbols associated with violent behavior, tailgating, excessively blowing a car horn, slamming doors. 	unjust blaming, such as accusing other people for one's own mistakes, blaming people for your own feelings, making general accusations. 	unpredictability, such as explosive rages over minor frustrations, attacking indiscriminately, dispensing unjust punishment, inflicting harm on others for the sake of it,[ ] illogical arguments. 	vengeance, such as being over-punitive. this differs from retributive justice, as vengeance is personal, and possibly unlimited in scale. assertive anger[edit] 	blame, such as after a particular individual commits an action that’s possibly frowned upon, the particular person will resort to scolding. this is in fact, common in discipline terms. 	punishment, the angry person will give a temporary punishment to an individual like further limiting a child’s will to do anything they want like playing video games, reading, (excluding schoolwork) etc, after they did something to cause trouble. 	sternness, such as calling out a person on their behaviour, with their voices raised with utter disapproval/disappointment. six dimensions of anger expression[edit] anger expression can take on many more styles than passive or aggressive. ephrem fernandez has identified six dimensions of anger expression. they relate to the direction of anger, its locus, reaction, modality, impulsivity, and objective. coordinates on each of these dimensions can be connected to generate a profile of a person's anger expression style. among the many profiles that are theoretically possible in this system, are the familiar profile of the person with explosive anger, profile of the person with repressive anger, profile of the passive aggressive person, and the profile of constructive anger expression.[ ] ethnicity and culture[edit] much research has explored whether the emotion of anger is experienced and expressed differently depending on the culture. matsumoto ( ) conducted a study in which white-american and asian participants needed to express the emotions from a program called jacfee (japanese and caucasian facial expression of emotion) in order to determine whether caucasian observers noticed any differences in expression of participants of a different nationality. he found that participants were unable to assign a nationality to people demonstrating expression of anger, i.e. they could not distinguish ethnic-specific expressions of anger.[ ] hatfield, rapson, and le ( ) conducted a study that measured ethnic differences in emotional expression using participants from the philippines, hawaii, china, and europe. they concluded that there was a difference between how someone expresses an emotion, especially the emotion of anger in people with different ethnicities, based on frequency, with europeans showing the lowest frequency of expression of negative emotions.[ ] other research investigates anger within different ethnic groups who live in the same country. researchers explored whether black americans experience and express greater anger than whites (mabry & kiecolt, ). they found that, after controlling for sex and age, black participants did not feel or express more anger than whites.[ ] deffenbacher and swaim ( ) compared the expression of anger in mexican american people and white non-hispanic american people. they concluded that white non-hispanic americans expressed more verbal aggression than mexican americans, although when it came to physical aggression expressions there was no significant difference between both cultures when it came to anger.[ ] causes[edit] some animals make loud sounds, attempt to look physically larger, bare their teeth, and stare.[ ] the behaviors associated with anger are designed to warn aggressors to stop their threatening behavior. rarely does a physical altercation occur without the prior expression of anger by at least one of the participants.[ ] displays of anger can be used as a manipulation strategy for social influence.[ ][ ] people feel really angry when they sense that they or someone they care about has been offended, when they are certain about the nature and cause of the angering event, when they are convinced someone else is responsible, and when they feel they can still influence the situation or cope with it.[ ] for instance, if a person's car is damaged, they will feel angry if someone else did it (e.g. another driver rear-ended it), but will feel sadness instead if it was caused by situational forces (e.g. a hailstorm) or guilt and shame if they were personally responsible (e.g. he crashed into a wall out of momentary carelessness). psychotherapist michael c. graham defines anger in terms of our expectations and assumptions about the world.[ ] graham states anger almost always results when we are caught up "... expecting the world to be different than it is".[ ] usually, those who experience anger explain its arousal as a result of "what has happened to them" and in most cases the described provocations occur immediately before the anger experience. such explanations confirm the illusion that anger has a discrete external cause. the angry person usually finds the cause of their anger in an intentional, personal, and controllable aspect of another person's behavior. this explanation, however, is based on the intuitions of the angry person who experiences a loss in self-monitoring capacity and objective observability as a result of their emotion. anger can be of multicausal origin, some of which may be remote events, but people rarely find more than one cause for their anger.[ ] according to novaco, "anger experiences are embedded or nested within an environmental-temporal context. disturbances that may not have involved anger at the outset leave residues that are not readily recognized but that operate as a lingering backdrop for focal provocations (of anger)."[ ] according to encyclopædia britannica, an internal infection can cause pain which in turn can activate anger.[ ] according to cognitive consistency theory, anger is caused by an inconsistency between a desired, or expected, situation and the actually perceived situation, and triggers responses, such as aggressive behavior, with the expected consequence of reducing the inconsistency.[ ][ ][ ] cognitive effects[edit] 	 	this section needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (march ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) anger causes a reduction in cognitive ability and the accurate processing of external stimuli. dangers seem smaller, actions seem less risky, ventures seem more likely to succeed, and unfortunate events seem less likely. angry people are more likely to make risky decisions, and make less realistic risk assessments. in one study, test subjects primed to feel angry felt less likely to suffer heart disease, and more likely to receive a pay raise, compared to fearful people.[ ] this tendency can manifest in retrospective thinking as well: in a study, angry subjects said they thought the risks of terrorism in the year following / in retrospect were low, compared to what the fearful and neutral subjects thought.[ ] in inter-group relationships, anger makes people think in more negative and prejudiced terms about outsiders. anger makes people less trusting, and slower to attribute good qualities to outsiders.[ ] when a group is in conflict with a rival group, it will feel more anger if it is the politically stronger group and less anger when it is the weaker.[ ] unlike other negative emotions like sadness and fear, angry people are more likely to demonstrate correspondence bias – the tendency to blame a person's behavior more on his nature than on his circumstances. they tend to rely more on stereotypes, and pay less attention to details and more attention to the superficial. in this regard, anger is unlike other "negative" emotions such as sadness and fear, which promote analytical thinking.[ ] an angry person tends to anticipate other events that might cause them anger. they will tend to rate anger-causing events (e.g. being sold a faulty car) as more likely than sad events (e.g. a good friend moving away).[ ] a person who is angry tends to place more blame on another person for their misery. this can create a feedback, as this extra blame can make the angry person angrier still, so they in turn place yet more blame on the other person. when people are in a certain emotional state, they tend to pay more attention to, or remember, things that are charged with the same emotion; so it is with anger. for instance, if you are trying to persuade someone that a tax increase is necessary, if the person is currently feeling angry you would do better to use an argument that elicits anger ("more criminals will escape justice") than, say, an argument that elicits sadness ("there will be fewer welfare benefits for disabled children").[ ] also, unlike other negative emotions, which focus attention on all negative events, anger only focuses attention on anger-causing events. anger can make a person more desiring of an object to which his anger is tied. in a dutch study, test subjects were primed to feel anger or fear by being shown an image of an angry or fearful face, and then were shown an image of a random object. when subjects were made to feel angry, they expressed more desire to possess that object than subjects who had been primed to feel fear.[ ] expressive strategies[edit] as with any emotion, the display of anger can be feigned or exaggerated. studies by hochschild and sutton have shown that the show of anger is likely to be an effective manipulation strategy in order to change and design attitudes. anger is a distinct strategy of social influence and its use (e.g. belligerent behaviors) as a goal achievement mechanism proves to be a successful strategy.[ ][ ] larissa tiedens, known for her studies of anger, claimed that expression of feelings would cause a powerful influence not only on the perception of the expresser but also on their power position in the society. she studied the correlation between anger expression and social influence perception. previous researchers, such as keating, have found that people with angry face expression were perceived as powerful and as in a high social position.[ ] similarly, tiedens et al. have revealed that people who compared scenarios involving an angry and a sad character, attributed a higher social status to the angry character.[ ] tiedens examined in her study whether anger expression promotes status attribution. in other words, whether anger contributes to perceptions or legitimization of others' behaviors. her findings clearly indicated that participants who were exposed to either an angry or a sad person were inclined to express support for the angry person rather than for a sad one. in addition, it was found that a reason for that decision originates from the fact that the person expressing anger was perceived as an ability owner, and was attributed a certain social status accordingly.[ ] showing anger during a negotiation may increase the ability of the anger expresser to succeed in negotiation. a study by tiedens et al. indicated that the anger expressers were perceived as stubborn, dominant and powerful. in addition, it was found that people were inclined to easily give up to those who were perceived by them as powerful and stubborn, rather than soft and submissive.[ ] based on these findings sinaceur and tiedens have found that people conceded more to the angry side rather than for the non-angry one.[ ] a question raised by van kleef et al. based on these findings was whether expression of emotion influences others, since it is known that people use emotional information to conclude about others' limits and match their demands in negotiation accordingly. van kleef et al. wanted to explore whether people give up more easily to an angry opponent or to a happy opponent. findings revealed that participants tended to be more flexible toward an angry opponent compared with a happy opponent. these results strengthen the argument that participants analyze the opponent's emotion to conclude about their limits and carry out their decisions accordingly.[ ] coping strategies[edit] main article: anger management according to leland r. beaumont, each instance of anger demands making a choice.[ ] a person can respond with hostile action, including overt violence, or they can respond with hostile inaction, such as withdrawing or stonewalling. other options include initiating a dominance contest; harboring resentment; or working to better understand and constructively resolve the issue. according to r. novaco, there are a multitude of steps that were researched in attempting to deal with this emotion. in order to manage anger the problems involved in the anger should be discussed, novaco suggests. the situations leading to anger should be explored by the person. the person is then tried to be imagery-based relieved of his or her recent angry experiences.[ ][ ] conventional therapies for anger involve restructuring thoughts and beliefs to bring about a reduction in anger. these therapies often come within the schools of cbt (or cognitive behavioural therapies) like modern systems such as rebt (rational emotive behavior therapy). research shows that people who suffer from excessive anger often harbor and act on dysfunctional attributions, assumptions and evaluations in specific situations. it has been shown that with therapy by a trained professional, individuals can bring their anger to more manageable levels.[ ] the therapy is followed by the so-called "stress inoculation" in which the clients are taught "relaxation skills to control their arousal and various cognitive controls to exercise on their attention, thoughts, images, and feelings. they are taught to see the provocation and the anger itself as occurring in a series of stages, each of which can be dealt with."[ ] the skills-deficit model states that poor social skills is what renders a person incapable of expressing anger in an appropriate manner.[ ] social skills training has been found to be an effective method for reducing exaggerated anger by offering alternative coping skills to the angry individual. research has found that persons who are prepared for aversive events find them less threatening, and excitatory reactions are significantly reduced.[ ] in a study, that used modeling, behavior rehearsal, and videotaped feedback to increase anger control skills, showed increases in anger control among aggressive youth in the study.[ ] research conducted with youthful offenders using a social skills training program (aggression replacement training), found significant reductions in anger, and increases in anger control.[ ] research has also found that antisocial personalities are more likely to learn avoidance tasks when the consequences involved obtaining or losing tangible rewards. learning among antisocial personalities also occurred better when they were involved with high intensity stimulation.[ ] social learning theory states that positive stimulation was not compatible with hostile or aggressive reactions.[ ] anger research has also studied the effects of reducing anger among adults with antisocial personality disorder (aspd), with a social skills program approach that used a low fear and high arousal group setting. this research found that low fear messages were less provocative to the aspd population, and high positive arousal stimulated their ability to concentrate, and subsequently learn new skills for anger reduction.[ ] cognitive behavioral affective therapy[edit] a new integrative approach to anger treatment has been formulated by fernandez ( )[ ] termed cbat, for cognitive behavioral affective therapy, this treatment goes beyond conventional relaxation and reappraisal by adding cognitive and behavioral techniques and supplementing them with affective techniques to deal with the feeling of anger. the techniques are sequenced contingently in three phases of treatment: prevention, intervention, and postvention. in this way, people can be trained to deal with the onset of anger, its progression, and the residual features of anger. suppression[edit] modern psychologists point out that suppression of anger may have harmful effects. the suppressed anger may find another outlet, such as a physical symptom, or become more extreme.[ ][ ] john w. fiero cites los angeles riots of as an example of sudden, explosive release of suppressed anger. the anger was then displaced as violence against those who had nothing to do with the matter. there is also the case of francine hughes, who suffered years of domestic abuse. her suppressed anger drove her to kill her abuser husband. it is claimed that a majority of female victims of domestic violence who suppress their aggressive feelings are unable to recognize, experience, and process negative emotion and this has a destabilizing influence on their perception of agency in their relationships.[ ] another example of widespread deflection of anger from its actual cause toward scapegoating, fiero says, was the blaming of jews for the economic ills of germany by the nazis.[ ] however, psychologists have also criticized the "catharsis theory" of aggression, which suggests that "unleashing" pent-up anger reduces aggression.[ ] on the other hand, there are experts who maintain that suppression does not eliminate anger since it merely forbids the expression of anger and this is also the case for repression, which merely hides anger from awareness.[ ] there are also studies that link suppressed anger and medical conditions such as hypertension, coronary artery disease, and cancer.[ ][ ] suppressed or repressed anger is found to cause irritable bowel syndrome, eating disorders, and depression among women.[ ][ ] suppression is also referred to as a form of "self-silencing", which is described as a cognitive activity wherein an individual monitors the self and eliminate thoughts and feelings that are perceived to be dangerous to relationships.[ ] anger suppression is also associated with higher rates of suicide.[ ] dual threshold model[edit] anger expression might have negative outcomes for individuals and organizations as well, such as decrease of productivity[ ] and increase of job stress,[ ] however it could also have positive outcomes, such as increased work motivation, improved relationships, increased mutual understanding etc. (for ex. tiedens, ).[ ] a dual threshold model of anger in organizations by geddes and callister, ( ) provides an explanation on the valence of anger expression outcomes. the model suggests that organizational norms establish emotion thresholds that may be crossed when employees feel anger. the first "expression threshold" is crossed when an organizational member conveys felt anger to individuals at work who are associated with or able to address the anger-provoking situation. the second "impropriety threshold" is crossed if or when organizational members go too far while expressing anger such that observers and other company personnel find their actions socially and/or culturally inappropriate. the higher probability of negative outcomes from workplace anger likely will occur in either of two situations. the first is when organizational members suppress rather than express their anger—that is, they fail to cross the "expression threshold". in this instance personnel who might be able to address or resolve the anger-provoking condition or event remain unaware of the problem, allowing it to continue, along with the affected individual's anger. the second is when organizational members cross both thresholds—"double cross"— displaying anger that is perceived as deviant. in such cases the angry person is seen as the problem—increasing chances of organizational sanctions against him or her while diverting attention away from the initial anger-provoking incident. in contrast, a higher probability of positive outcomes from workplace anger expression likely will occur when one's expressed anger stays in the space between the expression and impropriety thresholds. here, one expresses anger in a way fellow organizational members find acceptable, prompting exchanges and discussions that may help resolve concerns to the satisfaction of all parties involved. this space between the thresholds varies among different organizations and also can be changed in organization itself: when the change is directed to support anger displays; the space between the thresholds will be expanded and when the change is directed to suppressing such displays; the space will be reduced.[ ][ ] physiology[edit] an angry exchange between two people, as evidenced by their body language and facial expressions. to hear the angry exchange, listen to the audio below. audio file of an angry exchange at a protest. neuroscience has shown that emotions are generated by multiple structures in the brain. the rapid, minimal, and evaluative processing of the emotional significance of the sensory data is done when the data passes through the amygdala in its travel from the sensory organs along certain neural pathways towards the limbic forebrain. emotion caused by discrimination of stimulus features, thoughts, or memories however occurs when its information is relayed from the thalamus to the neocortex.[ ] based on some statistical analysis, some scholars have suggested that the tendency for anger may be genetic. distinguishing between genetic and environmental factors however requires further research and actual measurement of specific genes and environments.[ ][ ] in neuroimaging studies of anger, the most consistently activated region of the brain was the lateral orbitofrontal cortex.[ ] this region is associated with approach motivation and positive affective processes.[ ] the external expression of anger can be found in physiological responses, facial expressions, body language, and at times in public acts of aggression.[ ] the rib cage tenses and breathing through the nose becomes faster, deeper, and irregular.[ ] anger activates the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis.[ ] the catecholamine activation is more strongly norepinephrine than epinephrine.[ ] heart rate and blood pressure increase. blood flows to the hands. perspiration increases (particularly when the anger is intense).[ ] the face flushes. the nostrils flare. the jaw tenses. the brow muscles move inward and downward, fixing a hard stare on the target. the arms are raised and a squared-off stance is adopted. the body is mobilized for immediate action, often manifesting as a subjective sense of strength, self-assurance, and potency. this may encourage the impulse to strike out.[ ] philosophical perspectives[edit] the fury of athamas by john flaxman ( – ). ancient history[edit] ancient greek philosophers, describing and commenting on the uncontrolled anger, particularly toward slaves, in their society generally showed a hostile attitude towards anger. galen and seneca regarded anger as a kind of madness. they all rejected the spontaneous, uncontrolled fits of anger and agreed on both the possibility and value of controlling anger. there were however disagreements regarding the value of anger. for seneca, anger was "worthless even for war". seneca believed that the disciplined roman army was regularly able to beat the germans, who were known for their fury. he argued that "... in sporting contests, it is a mistake to become angry".[ ] aristotle on the other hand, ascribed some value to anger that has arisen from perceived injustice because it is useful for preventing injustice.[ ][ ] furthermore, the opposite of anger is a kind of insensibility, aristotle stated.[ ] the difference in people's temperaments was generally viewed as a result of the different mix of qualities or humors people contained. seneca held that "red-haired and red-faced people are hot-tempered because of excessive hot and dry humors".[ ] ancient philosophers rarely refer to women's anger at all, according to simon kemp and k.t. strongman perhaps because their works were not intended for women. some of them that discuss it, such as seneca, considered women to be more prone to anger than men.[ ] control methods[edit] 		wikisource has original text related to this article: of anger seneca addresses the question of mastering anger in three parts: . how to avoid becoming angry in the first place . how to cease being angry and . how to deal with anger in others.[ ] seneca suggests, to avoid becoming angry in the first place, that the many faults of anger should be repeatedly remembered. one should avoid being too busy or dealing with anger-provoking people. unnecessary hunger or thirst should be avoided and soothing music be listened to.[ ] to cease being angry, seneca suggests one to check speech and impulses and be aware of particular sources of personal irritation. in dealing with other people, one should not be too inquisitive: it is not always soothing to hear and see everything. when someone appears to slight you, you should be at first reluctant to believe this, and should wait to hear the full story. you should also put yourself in the place of the other person, trying to understand his motives and any extenuating factors, such as age or illness."[ ] seneca further advises daily self-inquisition about one's bad habit.[ ] to deal with anger in others, seneca suggests that the best reaction is to simply keep calm. a certain kind of deception, seneca says, is necessary in dealing with angry people.[ ] galen repeats seneca's points but adds a new one: finding a guide and teacher can help the person in controlling their passions. galen also gives some hints for finding a good teacher.[ ] both seneca and galen (and later philosophers) agree that the process of controlling anger should start in childhood on grounds of malleability. seneca warns that this education should not blunt the spirit of the children nor should they be humiliated or treated severely. at the same time, they should not be pampered. children, seneca says, should learn not to beat their playmates and not to become angry with them. seneca also advises that children's requests should not be granted when they are angry.[ ] post-classical history[edit] see also: the four humours during the period of the roman empire and the middle ages, philosophers elaborated on the existing conception of anger, many of whom did not make major contributions to the concept. for example, many medieval philosophers such as ibn sina (avicenna), roger bacon and thomas aquinas agreed with ancient philosophers that animals cannot become angry.[ ] on the other hand, al-ghazali (algazel), who often disagreed with aristotle and ibn sina on many issues, argued that animals do possess anger as one of the three "powers" in their heart, the other two being appetite and impulse. he also argued that animal will is "conditioned by anger and appetite" in contrast to human will which is "conditioned by the intellect".[ ] a common medieval belief was that those prone to anger had an excess of yellow bile or choler (hence the word "choleric").[ ] this belief was related to seneca's belief that "red-haired and red-faced people are hot-tempered because of excessive hot and dry humors". by gender[edit] wrath was sinful because of the social problems it caused, sometimes even homicide. it served to ignore those who are present, contradicts those who are absent, produces insults, and responds harshly to insults that are received.[ ] aristotle felt that anger or wrath was a natural outburst of self-defense in situations where people felt they had been wronged. aquinas felt that if anger was justified, it was not a sin. for example, "he that is angry without cause, shall be in danger; but he that is angry with cause, shall not be in danger: for without anger, teaching will be useless, judgments unstable, crimes unchecked. therefore to be angry is not always an evil."[ ] the concept of wrath contributed to a definition of gender and power. many medieval authors in agreed the differences between men and women were based on complexion, shape, and disposition. complexion involved the balance of the four fundamental qualities of heat, coldness, moistness, and dryness. when various combinations of these qualities are made they define groups of certain people as well as individuals. hippocrates, aristotle, and galen all agreed on that, in terms of biology and sexual differentiation, heat was the most important of the qualities because it determined shape and disposition. disposition included a balance of the previous four qualities, the four elements and the four humors. for example, the element of fire shared the qualities of heat and dryness: fire dominated in yellow bile or choler, meaning a choleric person was more or hot and dry than others. hot and dry individuals were active, dominant, and aggressive. the opposite was true with the element of water. water, is cold and moist, related closely to phlegm: people with more phlegmatic personalities were passive and submissive. while these trait clusters varied from individual to individual most authors in the middle ages assumed certain clusters of traits characterized men more than women and vice versa.[ ] women[edit] scholars posted that females were seen by authors in the middle ages to be more phlegmatic (cold and wet) than males, meaning females were more sedentary and passive than males.[ ] women's passive nature appeared "natural" due to their lack of power when compared to men. aristotle identified traits he believed women shared: female, feminine, passive, focused on matter, inactive, and inferior. thus medieval women were supposed to act submissively toward men and relinquish control to their husbands.[ ] however hildegard of bingen believed women were fully capable of anger. while most women were phlegmatic, individual women under certain circumstances could also be choleric. men[edit] medieval scholars believed most men were choleric, or hot and dry. thus they were dominant and aggressive. (barton) aristotle also identified characteristics of men: male, masculine, active, focused on form, potent, outstanding, and superior. men were aware of the power they held. given their choleric "nature", men exhibited hot temperatures and were quick to anger.[ ] peter of albano once said, "the male's spirit, is lively, given to violent impulse; [it is] slow getting angry and slower being calmed." medieval ideas of gender assumed men were more rational than women. masculinity involved a wide range of possible behaviors, and men were not angry all the time. every man's humoral balance was different, some men were strong, others weak, also some more prone to wrath then others.[ ] there are those who view anger as a manly act. for instance, david brakke maintained: because anger motivated a man to action in righting wrongs to himself and others, because its opposite appeared to be passivity in the face of challenges from other males, because – to put it simply – it raised the body's temperature, anger appeared to be a characteristic of masculinity, a sign that a man was indeed a manly man.[ ] control methods[edit] maimonides considered being given to uncontrollable passions as a kind of illness. like galen, maimonides suggested seeking out a philosopher for curing this illness just as one seeks out a physician for curing bodily illnesses. roger bacon elaborates seneca's advices. many medieval writers discuss at length the evils of anger and the virtues of temperance. in a discussion of confession, john mirk, an english th-century augustinian writer, tells priests how to advise the penitent by considering the spiritual and social consequences of anger:[ ] ‹ the template below (columns) is being considered for deletion. see templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. › 	 agaynes wraþþe hys helpe schal be, Ʒef he haue grace in herte to se how aungelus, when he ys wroth, from hym faste flen and goth, and fendes faste to hym renneth, and wyþ fuyre of helle hys herte breneth, and maketh hym so hote & hegh, Þat no mon may byde hym negh.[ ] 		 'against wrath his help shall be, if he has grace in heart to see, how angels, should his anger rise, flee fast from him and go and demons run to him in haste; hell's fury burns his heart and makes him so hot and high that none may stand him nigh. in the canon of medicine, ibn sina (avicenna) modified the theory of temperaments and argued that anger heralded the transition of melancholia to mania, and explained that humidity inside the head can contribute to such mood disorders.[ ] on the other hand, ahmed ibn sahl al-balkhi classified anger (along with aggression) as a type of neurosis,[ ] while al-ghazali argued that anger takes form in rage, indignation and revenge, and that "the powers of the soul become balanced if it keeps anger under control".[ ] modern perspectives[edit] immanuel kant rejects revenge as vicious. regarding the latter, david hume argues that because "anger and hatred are passions inherent in our very frame and constitution, the lack of them is sometimes evidence of weakness and imbecility".[ ] martha nussbaum has also agreed that even "great injustice" is no "excuse for childish and undisciplined behavior".[ ] two main differences between the modern understanding and ancient understanding of anger can be detected, kemp and strongman state: one is that early philosophers were not concerned with possible harmful effects of the suppression of anger; the other is that, recently, studies of anger take the issue of gender differences into account.[ ] soraya chemaly has in contrast argued that anger is "a critically useful and positive emotion" which "warns us, as humans, that something is wrong and needs to change" when "being threatened with indignity, physical harm, humiliation and unfairness" and therefore "a powerful force for political good".[ ] furthermore, she argues that women and minorities are not allowed to be angry to the same extent as white men.[ ] in a similar vein, rebecca traister has argued that holding back anger has been an impediment to the progress of women's rights.[ ] the american psychologist albert ellis has suggested that anger, rage, and fury partly have roots in the philosophical meanings and assumptions through which human beings interpret transgression.[ ] according to ellis, these emotions are often associated and related to the leaning humans have to absolutistically depreciating and damning other peoples' humanity when their personal rules and domain are transgressed. religious perspectives[edit] judaism[edit] main article: anger in judaism in judaism, anger is a negative trait. in the book of genesis, jacob condemned the anger that had arisen in his sons simon and levi: "cursed be their anger, for it was fierce; and their wrath, for it was cruel."[ ] restraining oneself from anger is seen as noble and desirable, as ethics of the fathers states: ben zoma said: who is strong? he who subdues his evil inclination, as it is stated, "he who is slow to anger is better than a strong man, and he who masters his passions is better than one who conquers a city" (proverbs : ).[ ] maimonides rules that one who becomes angry is as though that person had worshipped idols.[ ] rabbi shneur zalman of liadi explains that the parallel between anger and idol worship is that by becoming angry, one shows a disregard of divine providence – whatever had caused the anger was ultimately ordained from above – and that through coming to anger one thereby denies the hand of god in one's life.[ ] in its section dealing with ethical traits a person should adopt, the kitzur shulchan aruch states: "anger is also a very evil trait and it should be avoided at all costs. you should train yourself not to become angry even if you have a good reason to be angry."[ ] in modern writings, rabbi harold kushner finds no grounds for anger toward god because "our misfortunes are none of his doing".[ ] in contrast to kushner's reading of the bible, david blumenthal finds an "abusing god" whose "sometimes evil" actions evoke vigorous protest, but without severing the protester's relationship with god.[ ] christianity[edit] both catholic and protestant writers have addressed anger. catholic[edit] the seven deadly sins and the four last things, by hieronymus bosch ( ). "wrath" is depicted at the bottom in a series of circular images. below the image is the latin inscription cave cave deus videt ("beware, beware, god is watching"). angel with temperance and humility virtues versus devil with rage and wrath sins. a fresco from the saint nicolas orthodox church in cukovets, pernik province, bulgaria wrath is one of the seven deadly sins in catholicism; and yet the catechism of the catholic church states (canons and ) that anger is among the passions, and that "in the passions, as movements of the sensitive appetite, there is neither good nor evil". the neutral act of anger becomes the sin of wrath when it's directed against an innocent person, when it's unduly unbending or long-lasting, or when it desires excessive punishment. "if anger reaches the point of a deliberate desire to kill or seriously wound a neighbor, it is gravely against charity; it is a mortal sin" (ccc ). hatred is the sin of desiring that someone else may suffer misfortune or evil, and is a mortal sin when one desires grave harm (ccc - ). medieval christianity vigorously denounced wrath as one of the seven cardinal, or deadly sins, but some christian writers at times regarded the anger caused by injustice as having some value.[ ][ ] saint basil viewed anger as a "reprehensible temporary madness".[ ] joseph f. delany in the catholic encyclopedia ( ) defines anger as "the desire of vengeance" and states that a reasonable vengeance and passion is ethical and praiseworthy. vengeance is sinful when it exceeds its limits in which case it becomes opposed to justice and charity. for example, "vengeance upon one who has not deserved it, or to a greater extent than it has been deserved, or in conflict with the dispositions of law, or from an improper motive" are all sinful. an unduly vehement vengeance is considered a venial sin unless it seriously goes counter to the love of god or of one's neighbor.[ ] a more positive view of anger is espoused by roman catholic pastoral theologian henri j.m. nouwen. father nouwen points to the spiritual benefits in anger toward god as found in both the old testament and new testament of the bible. in the bible, says father nouwen, "it is clear that only by expressing our anger and hatred directly to god will we come to know the fullness of both his love and our freedom".[ ] georges bernanos illustrates nouwen's position in his novel the diary of a country priest. the countess gave birth to the son she had long wanted, but the child died. she was fiercely angry. when the priest called, the countess vented her anger toward her daughter and husband, then at the priest who responded gently, "open your heart to [god]". the countess rejoined, "i've ceased to bother about god. when you've forced me to admit that i hate him, will you be any better off?" the priest continued, "you no longer hate him. hate is indifference and contempt. now at last you're face to face with him ... shake your fist at him, spit in his face, scourge him." the countess did what the priest counseled. by confessing her hate, she was enabled to say, "all's well".[ ] protestant[edit] saul attacks david (who had been playing music to help saul feel better), woodcut by julius schnorr von karolsfeld, a lutheran everyone experiences anger, andrew d. lester observes, and furthermore anger can serve as "a spiritual friend, a spiritual guide, and a spiritual ally". denying and suppressing anger is contrary to st. paul's admonition in his epistle to the ephesians : .[ ] when anger toward god is denied and suppressed, it interferes with an individual's relation with god. however, expressing one's anger toward god can deepen the relationship.[ ] c. fitzsimons allison holds that "we worship god by expressing our honest anger at him".[ ] biblical scholar leonard pine concludes from his studies in the book of habakkuk that "far from being a sin, proper remonstration with god is the activity of a healthy faith relationship with him".[ ] other biblical examples of anger toward god include the following:[ ] 	moses was angry with god for mistreating his people: "lord, why have you mistreated [lit. done evil to] this people?" (book of exodus : ). 	naomi was angry with god after the death of her husband and two sons: "the almighty has dealt bitterly with me. the almighty has brought calamity upon me" (book of ruth : – abr). 	elijah was angry with god after the son of the widow died: "o lord my god, have you brought calamity even upon the widow with whom i am staying, by killing her son?" ( kings : ). 	job was angry with god: "you have turned cruel to me; with the might of your hand you persecute me" (book of job : ). 	jeremiah was angry with god for deceiving his people: "ah, lord god, how utterly you have deceived this people and jerusalem" (book of jeremiah : ). hinduism[edit] in hinduism, anger is equated with sorrow as a form of unrequited desire. the objects of anger are perceived as a hindrance to the gratification of the desires of the angry person.[ ] alternatively if one thinks one is superior, the result is grief. anger is considered to be packed with more evil power than desire.[ ] in the bhagavad gita krishna regards greed, anger, and lust as signs of ignorance that lead to perpetual bondage. as for the agitations of the bickering mind, they are divided into two divisions. the first is called avirodha-prīti, or unrestricted attachment, and the other is called virodha-yukta-krodha, anger arising from frustration. adherence to the philosophy of the māyāvādīs, belief in the fruitive results of the karma-vādīs, and belief in plans based on materialistic desires are called avirodha-prīti.[citation needed] jñānīs, karmīs and materialistic planmakers generally attract the attention of conditioned souls, but when the materialists cannot fulfill their plans and when their devices are frustrated, they become angry. frustration of material desires produces anger.[ ] buddhism[edit] anger is defined in buddhism as: "being unable to bear the object, or the intention to cause harm to the object". anger is seen as aversion with a stronger exaggeration, and is listed as one of the five hindrances. buddhist monks, such as dalai lama, the spiritual leader of tibetans in exile, sometimes get angry.[ ] however, there is a difference; most often a spiritual person is aware of the emotion and the way it can be handled. thus, in response to the question: "is any anger acceptable in buddhism?' the dalai lama answered:[ ] buddhism in general teaches that anger is a destructive emotion and although anger might have some positive effects in terms of survival or moral outrage, i do not accept that anger of any kind as [sic] a virtuous emotion nor aggression as constructive behavior. the gautama buddha [sic] has taught that there are three basic kleshas at the root of samsara (bondage, illusion) and the vicious cycle of rebirth. these are greed, hatred, and delusion—also translatable as attachment, anger, and ignorance. they bring us confusion and misery rather than peace, happiness, and fulfillment. it is in our own self-interest to purify and transform them. buddhist scholar and author geshe kelsang gyatso has also explained buddha's teaching on the spiritual imperative to identify anger and overcome it by transforming difficulties:[ ] when things go wrong in our life and we encounter difficult situations, we tend to regard the situation itself as our problem, but in reality whatever problems we experience come from the side of the mind. if we responded to difficult situations with a positive or peaceful mind they would not be problems for us. eventually, we might even regard them as challenges or opportunities for growth and development. problems arise only if we respond to difficulties with a negative state of mind. therefore if we want to be free from problems, we must transform our mind. the buddha himself on anger:[ ] an angry person is ugly & sleeps poorly. gaining a profit, he turns it into a loss, having done damage with word & deed. a person overwhelmed with anger destroys his wealth. maddened with anger, he destroys his status. relatives, friends, & colleagues avoid him. anger brings loss. anger inflames the mind. he doesn't realize that his danger is born from within. an angry person doesn't know his own benefit. an angry person doesn't see the dharma. a man conquered by anger is in a mass of darkness. he takes pleasure in bad deeds as if they were good, but later, when his anger is gone, he suffers as if burned with fire. he is spoiled, blotted out, like fire enveloped in smoke. when anger spreads, when a man becomes angry, he has no shame, no fear of evil, is not respectful in speech. for a person overcome with anger, nothing gives light. islam[edit] a verse in the third surah of the quran instructs people to restrain their anger.[ ] anger (arabic:غضب, ghadab) in islam is considered to be instigated by satan (shaitan).[ ] factors stated to lead to anger include selfishness, arrogance and excessive ambition.[ ] islamic teachings also state that anger hinders the faith (iman) of a person.[ ] the quran attributes anger to prophets and believers as well as muhammad's enemies. it mentions the anger of moses (musa) against his people for worshiping a golden calf and at the moment when moses strikes an egyptian for fighting against an israelite.[ ] the anger of jonah (yunus) is also mentioned in the quran, which led to his departure from the people of nineveh and his eventual realization of his error and his repentance.[ ] the removal of anger from the hearts of believers by god (arabic: [[allah|الله‎]] allāh) after the fighting against muhammad's enemies is over.[ ][ ] in general, suppression of anger (arabic: کاظم, kazm) is deemed a praiseworthy quality in the hadis.[ ][ ][ ] ibn abdil barr, the andalusian maliki jurist explains that controlling anger is the door way for restraining other blameworthy traits ego and envy, since these two are less powerful than anger. the hadis state various ways to diminish, prevent and control anger. one of these methods is to perform a ritual ablution, a different narration states that the angry person should lie down and other narrations instructs the angry person to invoke god and seek refuge from the devil, by reciting i take refuge with allah/god from the accursed devil. it has also been stated by the imam ali, the "commander of the faithful" and the son-in-law of prophet muhammad that "a moment of patience in a moment of anger saves a thousand moments of regret." as well as "anger begins with madness, and ends in regret."[ ] divine retribution[edit] the great day of his wrath, by john martin ( – ). in many religions, anger is frequently attributed to god or gods. primitive people held that gods were subject to anger and revenge in anthropomorphic fashion.[ ] the hebrew bible says that opposition to god's will results in god's anger.[ ] reform rabbi kaufmann kohler explains:[ ] god is not an intellectual abstraction, nor is he conceived as a being indifferent to the doings of man; and his pure and lofty nature resents most energetically anything wrong and impure in the moral world: "o lord, my god, mine holy one ... thou art of eyes too pure to behold evil, and canst not look on iniquity." christians believe in god's anger at the sight of evil. this anger is not inconsistent with god's love, as demonstrated in the gospel where the righteous indignation of christ is shown in the cleansing of the temple. christians believe that those who reject his revealed word, jesus, condemn themselves, and are not condemned by the wrath of god.[ ] see also[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to anger. 		wikiversity has learning resources about resolving anger 		wikiquote has quotations related to: anger 		look up anger in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	angry cognitions scale 	fear 	indignation 	moral emotions 	outrage (emotion) 	passive-aggressive behavior 	rage (emotion) references[edit] 	^ videbeck, sheila l. ( ). psychiatric mental health nursing ( rd ed.). lippincott williams & wilkins. 	^ alia-klein, nelly; gan, gabriela; gilam, gadi; bezek, jessica; bruno, antonio; denson, thomas f.; hendler, talma; lowe, leroy; mariotti, veronica; muscatello, maria r.; palumbo, sara; pellegrini, silvia; pietrini, pietro; rizzo, amelia; verona, edelyn (january ). 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( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	^ reid, d., dorr, j., walker & j bonner (eds.), new york:norton ( ). 	^ bandura, a. aggression:a social learning analysis. englewood cliffs, n.j.: prentice-hall, . 	^ sanderlin, t.k., and cellini, h.r., "anger management intervention with offender populations". offender programs report, vol. . no. , november/december . 	^ "toward an integrative psychotherapy for maladaptive anger", international handbook of anger. 	^ "anger". gale encyclopedia of psychology, nd ed. gale group, . 	^ stein, abby ( ). cupid's knife: women's anger and agency in violent relationships. new york: routledge. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ evidence against catharsis theory: 	burkeman ( ). "anger management". the guardian. 	green; et al. ( ). "the facilitation of aggression by aggression: evidence against the catharsis hypothesis". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . evidence for: murray, joan; feshbach, seymour ( ). 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"a multimethod examination of the benefits and detriments of intragroup conflict". administrative science quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ glomb, t.m. ( ). "workplace anger and aggression: informing conceptual models with data from specific encounters". journal of occupational health psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ tiedens, l.z. . powerful emotions: the vicious cycle of social status positions and emotions. in n.m. ashkanasy, c.e.j. ha¨ rtel, & w.j. zerbe (eds.), emotions in the workplace: research, theory and practice: – . westport, ct: quorum. 	^ geddes, d. & callister, r. crossing the line(s): a dual threshold model of anger in organizations, academy of management review. ( ): – . 	^ geddes, d., callister, r. r., & gibson, d. the message in the madness: functions of workplace anger in organizational life. academy of management perspectives. : - . doi: . /amp. . 	^ xiaoling wang, ranak trivedi, frank treiber, and harold snieder, genetic and environmental influences on anger expression, john henryism, and stressful life events: the georgia cardiovascular twin study, psychosomatic medicine : – ( ) 	^ "understanding genetics". thetech.org. - - . archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ international handbook of anger. chapt : constructing a neurology of anger. michael potegal and gerhard stemmler. 	^ international handbook of anger. chapt . michael potegal and gerhard stemmler. 	^ philippot, pierre; chapelle, gaëtane; blairy, sylvie (august ). "respiratory feedback in the generation of emotion". cognition & emotion. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . retrieved march . 	^ moons, wesley g.; eisenberger, naomi i.; taylor, shelley e. (february ). 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( ): – [ ]. doi: . /s - - -z. s cid  . 	^ in the garden of evil: vices and culture in the middle ages. richard newhauser. pims, 	^ st. thomas aquinas blackfriars; mcgraw-hill, n.y.k. , question 	^ a b c d e in the garden of evil: vices and culture in the middle ages. richard newhauser. pims, 	^ conway, colleen ( ). behold the man: jesus and greco-roman masculinity. new york: oxford university press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ edward peacock (editor), revised by f.j. furnivall ( ). instructions for parish priests by john myrc, p. , lines – , trübner, accessed december at internet archive. 	^ haque, amber ( ). "psychology from islamic perspective: contributions of early muslim scholars and challenges to contemporary muslim psychologists". journal of religion and health. ( ): – [ ]. doi: . /s - - -z. s cid  . 	^ haque, amber ( ). "psychology from islamic perspective: contributions of early muslim scholars and challenges to contemporary muslim psychologists". journal of religion and health. ( ): – [ ]. doi: . /s - - -z. s cid  . 	^ haque, amber ( ). "psychology from islamic perspective: contributions of early muslim scholars and challenges to contemporary muslim psychologists". journal of religion and health. ( ): – [ – ]. doi: . /s - - -z. s cid  . 	^ srinivasan, amia ( - - ). "would politics be better off without anger?". the nation. issn  - . retrieved - - . 	^ a b chemaly, soraya ( - - ). "how women and minorities are claiming their right to rage". the guardian. issn  - . retrieved - - . 	^ kipnis, laura ( - - ). "women are furious. now what?". the atlantic. retrieved - - . 	^ ellis, albert ( ). overcoming destructive beliefs, feelings, and behaviors: new directions for rational emotive behavior therapy. prometheus books. 	^ a b kaufmann kohler, anger, jewish encyclopedia 	^ ethics of the fathers : 	^ rambam, hilchot de'ot 	^ sefer hatanya, p. 	^ kitzur shulchan aruch : 	^ harold s. kushner, when bad things happen to good people (schocken books, ), . 	^ blumenthal, david. "facing the abusing god: a theology of protest (westminster/john knox, )". religion.emory.edu. p.  . archived from the original on - - . 	^ herbermann, charles, ed. ( ). "anger" . catholic encyclopedia. new york: robert appleton company. 	^ henri j.m. nouwen, "forward" in may i hate god? pierre wolff, (paulist press, ). 	^ georges bernanos, the diary of a country priest (london: fontana books, ), – passim. 	^ lester, andrew d. 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"remonstrating with god in adversity: a study in habakkuk". wrs. : (february ) – . 	^ new revised standard version 	^ anger (hindudharma: dharmas common to all), shri kanchi kamakoti peetham 	^ anger management: how to tame our deadliest emotion archived - - at the wayback machine, by satguru bodhinatha veylanswami 	^ the nectar of instruction 	^ a b the urban dharma newsletter, march , 	^ how to solve our human problems, tharpa publications ( , us ed., ) isbn  - - - - 	^ "kodhana sutta: an angry person"(an . ), translated from the pali by thanissaro bhikkhu. access to insight, june , 	^ quran  :  (translated by asad) 	^ muhaiyaddeen, m.r. bawa ( ). islam & world peace: explanations of a sufi. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b efendi, birgivî mehmet; bayrak, tosun ( ). the path of muhammad: a book on islamic morals and ethics. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ Çelebi, kınalızade ali; khādimī, muḥammad ibn muṣṭafá ( ). ethics of islam. p.  . 	^ quran  : 	^ quran  : – 	^ quran  : 	^ a b bashir, shahzad. anger, encyclopaedia of the qur'an, brill, . 	^ sahih al-bukhari, : : 	^ mohammed abu-nimer, non-violence, peacebuilding, conflict resolution and human rights in islam:a framework for nonviolence and peacebuilding in islam, journal of law and religion, vol. , no. / . ( – ), pp. – . 	^ a b c shailer mathews, gerald birney smith, a dictionary of religion and ethics, kessinger publishing, p. further reading[edit] books[edit] 	theodore i. rubin ( ). the angry book. simon and schuster. isbn  - - - - . 	harriet lerner ( ). the dance of anger: a woman's guide to changing the patterns of intimate relationships. harpercollins. isbn  - - - - . 	monica ramirez basco ( ). never good enough: how to use perfectionism to your advantage without letting it ruin your life. simon and schuster. isbn  - - - - . 	jesse wright; monica ramirez basco ( ). getting your life back. simon and schuster. isbn  - - - - . 	novaco, r. w. ( january ). "chapter - anger". in fink, george (ed.). stress: concepts, cognition, emotion, and behavior. handbook of stress series. . academic press. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . articles[edit] 	maintaining a good and healthy anger 	managing emotions in the workplace 	controlling anger – before it controls you 	what your anger may be hiding – leon f seltzer ph.d. 	the interpersonal effects of anger and happiness in negotiations 	why are we angry? interesting analysis on anger, rage and aggression 	get mad and get more than even: when and why anger expression is effective in negotiations 	anger and advancement versus sadness and subjugation: the effect of negative emotion expressions on social status conferral 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 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	help 	 	category:moral psychology 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		the main article for this category is moral psychology. articles relating to moral psychology, the study of various topics at the intersection of ethics, psychology, and philosophy of mind. contents 	top 	 – 	a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z subcategories this category has the following subcategories, out of total. 	► ethics‎ ( c, p) 	► morality‎ ( c, p) d 	► dark triad‎ ( c, p) m 	► moral psychologists‎ ( p) 	► moral psychology books‎ ( p) t 	► taboo‎ ( c, p) pages in category "moral psychology" the following pages are in this category, out of total. this list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   	moral identity 	moral psychology a 	agreeableness 	altruism 	apology (act) 	authoritarian personality b 	akeel bilgrami 	blame 	blame in organizations 	bystander effect c 	ruth chang 	collapse of compassion 	collective action problem 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	values in action inventory of strengths 	veneer theory 	blakey vermeule 	victim blaming 	virtue signalling 	candace vogler w 	margaret urban walker 	wang yangming 	warm-glow giving 	richard wollheim y 	bernard yack retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=category:moral_psychology&oldid= " 		categories: 	applied ethics 	branches of psychology 	philosophy of mind 	philosophy of psychology hidden categories: 	template category toc via catautotoc on category with – pages 	catautotoc generates standard category toc 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			category 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	বাংলা 	español 	esperanto 	euskara 	فارسی 	한국어 	latina 	日本語 	اردو 	tiếng việt 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on october , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 [pdf] psychological foundations of trust | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /j. - . . .x corpus id: psychological foundations of trust @article{simpson psychologicalfo, title={psychological foundations of trust}, author={j. simpson}, journal={current directions in psychological science}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	j. simpson 	published 	psychology 	current directions in psychological science trust lies at the foundation of nearly all major theories of interpersonal relationships. despite its great theoretical importance, a limited amount of research has examined how and why trust develops, is maintained, and occasionally unravels in relationships. following a brief overview of theoretical and empirical milestones in the interpersonal-trust literature, an integrative process model of trust in dyadic relationships is presented.  view on sage apps.cla.umn.edu save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationshighly influencial citations background citations methods citations results citations view all figures from this paper. figures 	 figure 	 figure citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency the psychology (and economics) of trust 	a. m. evans, j. krueger 	psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed adult attachment and trust in romantic relationships. 	l. campbell, sarah c. e. stanton 	psychology, medicine 	current opinion in psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed enhancing feelings of security: how institutional trust promotes interpersonal trust 	giuliana spadaro, k. gangl, j. van prooijen, p. a. v. van lange, c. mosso 	psychology, medicine 	plos one 	 save alert research feed theory of mind as a mediator between emotional trust beliefs and interpersonal communication competence in a group of young adults. 	s. petrocchi, c. filipponi, c. antonietti, a. levante, f. lecciso 	psychology, medicine 	psychological reports 	 	 save alert research feed trust development: testing a new model in undergraduate roommate relationships 	corrie b. whitmore, j. dunsmore 	psychology, medicine 	the journal of genetic psychology 	 	 	highly influenced 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background and results save alert research feed the edge of trust : an introduction 	a. m. evans, j. krueger 	psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed the dynamics of trust in cyberdomains 	r. hoffman, j. lee, d. woods, n. shadbolt, j. miller, j. bradshaw 	computer science 	ieee intelligent systems 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed the reputational consequences of generalized trust 	a. m. evans, philippe p. f. m. van de calseyde 	psychology, medicine 	personality & social psychology bulletin 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed trust in the lives of young people: a conceptual framework to explore how youth make trust judgments 	k. davis 	political science 	 	 	highly influenced 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed what determines forgiveness in close relationships? the role of post‐transgression trust 	p. strelan, j. karremans, josiah krieg 	psychology, medicine 	the british journal of social psychology 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	 	 	› references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency trust in close relationships. 	j. rempel, j. g. holmes, m. zanna 	psychology 	 	 , 	highly influential 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed commitment, pro-relationship behavior, and trust in close relationships. 	j. wieselquist, c. rusbult, c. a. foster, c. agnew 	medicine 	journal of personality and social psychology 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed attachment working models and the sense of trust : an exploration of interaction goals and affect regulation 	m. mikulincer 	psychology 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed the exchange process in close relationships 	j. g. holmes 	psychology 	 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed blackwell handbook of social psychology: intergroup processes 	r. brown, s. gaertner 	psychology 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed optimizing assurance: the risk regulation system in relationships. 	s. murray, j. g. holmes, n. collins 	psychology, medicine 	psychological bulletin 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed friendship and the banker's paradox: other pathways to the evolution of adaptations for altruism 	j. tooby, l. cosmides 	psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed the resolution of conflict. 	paul g. swingle 	psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed childhood and society 	e. erikson 	sociology, psychology 	 	 , save alert research feed social psychology: handbook of basic principles. 	e. higgins, a. kruglanski 	psychology 	 	 , 	pdf save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	› related papers 	abstract 	figures 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue e-commerce - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	e-commerce 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 type of business industry usually conducted over the internet 	 	series on 	e-commerce 	 online goods and services 	 	digital distribution 	e-books 	software 	streaming media 	 retail services 	 	banking 	dvd-by-mail 	flower delivery 	food ordering 	grocery 	pharmacy 	travel 	 marketplace services 	 	advertising 	auctions 	comparison shopping 	auction software 	social commerce 	trading communities 	wallet 	 mobile commerce 	 	payment 	ticketing 	 customer service 	 	call centre 	help desk 	live support software 	 e-procurement 	 purchase-to-pay 		v 	t 	e e-commerce (electronic commerce) is the activity of electronically buying or selling of products on online services or over the internet. electronic commerce draws on technologies such as mobile commerce, electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (edi), inventory management systems, and automated data collection systems. e-commerce is in turn driven by the technological advances of the semiconductor industry, and is the largest sector of the electronics industry. modern electronic commerce typically uses the world wide web for at least one part of the transaction's life cycle although it may also use other technologies such as e-mail. typical e-commerce transactions include the purchase of online books (such as amazon) and music purchases (music download in the form of digital distribution such as itunes store), and to a less extent, customized/personalized online liquor store inventory services.[ ] there are three areas of e-commerce: online retailing, electronic markets, and online auctions. e-commerce is supported by electronic business.[ ] e-commerce businesses may also employ some or all of the followings: 	online shopping for retail sales direct to consumers via web sites and mobile apps, and conversational commerce via live chat, chatbots, and voice assistants[ ] 	providing or participating in online marketplaces, which process third-party business-to-consumer (b c) or consumer-to-consumer (c c) sales 	business-to-business (b b) buying and selling; 	gathering and using demographic data through web contacts and social media 	business-to-business (b b) electronic data interchange 	marketing to prospective and established customers by e-mail or fax (for example, with newsletters) 	engaging in pretail for launching new products and services 	online financial exchanges for currency exchanges or trading purposes. contents 	 timeline 	 business application 	 governmental regulation 	 forms 	 global trends 	 logistics 	 impacts 	 . impact on markets and retailers 	 . impact on supply chain management 	 . impact on employment 	 . impact on customers 	 . impact on the environment 	 . impact on traditional retail 	 distribution channels 	 recommendation 	 e-commerce during covid- 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links timeline a timeline for the development of e-commerce: 	 or : the arpanet is used to arrange a cannabis sale between students at the stanford artificial intelligence laboratory and the massachusetts institute of technology, later described as "the seminal act of e-commerce" in john markoff's book what the dormouse said.[ ] 	 : mohamed m. atalla files a patent for a secure transaction system over telecommunications networks, utilizing encryption techniques to assure telephone link security, a precursor to internet-based e-commerce.[ ] 	 : atalla technovation (founded by mohamed atalla) and bunker ramo corporation (founded by george bunker and simon ramo) introduce products designed for secure online transaction processing, intended for financial institutions.[ ] 	 : michael aldrich demonstrates the first online shopping system.[ ] 	 : thomson holidays uk is the first business-to-business (b b) online shopping system to be installed.[ ] 	 : minitel was introduced nationwide in france by france télécom and used for online ordering. 	 : california state assembly holds first hearing on "electronic commerce" in volcano, california.[ ] testifying are cpuc, mci mail, prodigy, compuserve, volcano telephone, and pacific telesis. (not permitted to testify is quantum technology, later to become aol.) 	 : gateshead sis/tesco is first b c online shopping system[ ] and mrs snowball, , is the first online home shopper[ ] 	 : in april , compuserve launches the electronic mall in the us and canada. it is the first comprehensive electronic commerce service.[ ] 	 : in may , sequoia data corp. introduced compumarket, the first internet based system for e-commerce. sellers and buyers could post items for sale and buyers could search the database and make purchases with a credit card. 	 : tim berners-lee writes the first web browser, worldwideweb, using a next computer.[ ] 	 : book stacks unlimited in cleveland opens a commercial sales website (www.books.com) selling books online with credit card processing. 	 : paget press releases edition no. [ ] of the first[ ][ ] app store, the electronic appwrapper[ ] 	 : netscape releases the navigator browser in october under the code name mozilla. netscape . is introduced in late with ssl encryption that made transactions secure. 	 : ipswitch imail server becomes the first software available online for sale and immediate download via a partnership between ipswitch, inc. and openmarket. 	 : "ten summoner's tales" by sting becomes the first secure online purchase through netmarket.[ ] 	 : the us national science foundation lifts its former strict prohibition of commercial enterprise on the internet.[ ] 	 : thursday april , the purchase of a book by paul stanfield, product manager for compuserve uk, from w h smith's shop within compuserve's uk shopping centre is the uk's first national online shopping service secure transaction. the shopping service at launch featured w h smith, tesco, virgin megastores/our price, great universal stores (gus), interflora, dixons retail, past times, pc world (retailer) and innovations. 	 : amazon.com is launched by jeff bezos. 	 : ebay is founded by computer programmer pierre omidyar as auctionweb. it is the first online auction site supporting person-to-person transactions.[ ] 	 : the first commercial-free -hour, internet-only radio stations, radio hk and netradio start broadcasting. 	 : the use of excalibur bbs with replicated "storefronts" was an early implementation of electronic commerce started by a group of sysops in australia and replicated to global partner sites. 	 : electronic postal stamps can be purchased and downloaded for printing from the web.[ ] 	 : alibaba group is established in china. business.com sold for us$ . million to ecompanies, which was purchased in for us$ , . the peer-to-peer filesharing software napster launches. atg stores launches to sell decorative items for the home online. 	 : global e-commerce reaches $ billion[ ] 	 : the dot-com bust. 	 : ebay has the largest userbase of any e-commerce site.[ ] 	 : alibaba.com achieved profitability in december . 	 : ebay acquires paypal for $ . billion.[ ] niche retail companies wayfair and netshops are founded with the concept of selling products through several targeted domains, rather than a central portal. 	 : amazon.com posts first yearly profit. 	 : dhgate.com, china's first online b b transaction platform, is established, forcing other b b sites to move away from the "yellow pages" model.[ ] 	 : business.com acquired by r.h. donnelley for $ million.[ ] 	 : us e-commerce and online retail sales projected to reach $ billion, an increase of percent over and % of all retail sales.[ ] alibaba group has the largest initial public offering ever, worth $ billion. 	 : amazon.com accounts for more than half of all e-commerce growth,[ ] selling almost million sku's in the us. 	 : retail e-commerce sales across the world reaches $ . trillion, which was a . percent increase than previous year.[ ] 	 : global e-commerce transactions generate $ . trillion, including $ . trillion for business-to-business (b b) transactions and $ . trillion for business-to-consumer (b c) sales.[ ] business application an example of an older generation of avatar-style automated online assistant on a merchandising website. some common applications related to electronic commerce are: 	b b e-commerce (business-to-business) 	b c e-commerce (business-to-consumer) 	conversational commerce: e-commerce via chat 	digital wallet 	document automation in supply chain and logistics 	electronic tickets 	enterprise content management 	group buying 	instant messaging 	internet security 	online auction 	online banking 	online office suites 	online shopping and order tracking 	online transaction processing 	pretail 	print on demand 	shopping cart software 	social networking 	teleconference 	usenet newsgroup 	virtual assistant 	domestic and international payment systems governmental regulation in the united states, certain electronic commerce activities are regulated by the federal trade commission (ftc). these activities include the use of commercial e-mails, online advertising and consumer privacy. the can-spam act of establishes national standards for direct marketing over e-mail. the federal trade commission act regulates all forms of advertising, including online advertising, and states that advertising must be truthful and non-deceptive.[ ] using its authority under section of the ftc act, which prohibits unfair or deceptive practices, the ftc has brought a number of cases to enforce the promises in corporate privacy statements, including promises about the security of consumers' personal information.[ ] as a result, any corporate privacy policy related to e-commerce activity may be subject to enforcement by the ftc. the ryan haight online pharmacy consumer protection act of , which came into law in , amends the controlled substances act to address online pharmacies.[ ] conflict of laws in cyberspace is a major hurdle for harmonization of legal framework for e-commerce around the world. in order to give a uniformity to e-commerce law around the world, many countries adopted the uncitral model law on electronic commerce ( ).[ ] internationally there is the international consumer protection and enforcement network (icpen), which was formed in from an informal network of government customer fair trade organisations. the purpose was stated as being to find ways of co-operating on tackling consumer problems connected with cross-border transactions in both goods and services, and to help ensure exchanges of information among the participants for mutual benefit and understanding. from this came econsumer.gov, an icpen initiative since april . it is a portal to report complaints about online and related transactions with foreign companies. there is also asia pacific economic cooperation (apec) was established in with the vision of achieving stability, security and prosperity for the region through free and open trade and investment. apec has an electronic commerce steering group as well as working on common privacy regulations throughout the apec region. in australia, trade is covered under australian treasury guidelines for electronic commerce and the australian competition and consumer commission[ ] regulates and offers advice on how to deal with businesses online,[ ] and offers specific advice on what happens if things go wrong.[ ] in the united kingdom, the financial services authority (fsa)[ ] was formerly the regulating authority for most aspects of the eu's payment services directive (psd), until its replacement in by the prudential regulation authority and the financial conduct authority.[ ] the uk implemented the psd through the payment services regulations (psrs), which came into effect on november . the psr affects firms providing payment services and their customers. these firms include banks, non-bank credit card issuers and non-bank merchant acquirers, e-money issuers, etc. the psrs created a new class of regulated firms known as payment institutions (pis), who are subject to prudential requirements. article of the psd requires the european commission to report on the implementation and impact of the psd by november .[ ] in india, the information technology act governs the basic applicability of e-commerce. in china, the telecommunications regulations of the people's republic of china (promulgated on september ), stipulated the ministry of industry and information technology (miit) as the government department regulating all telecommunications related activities, including electronic commerce.[ ] on the same day, the administrative measures on internet information services released, is the first administrative regulation to address profit-generating activities conducted through the internet, and lay the foundation for future regulations governing e-commerce in china.[ ] on august , the eleventh session of the tenth npc standing committee adopted the electronic signature law, which regulates data message, electronic signature authentication and legal liability issues. it is considered the first law in china's e-commerce legislation. it was a milestone in the course of improving china's electronic commerce legislation, and also marks the entering of china's rapid development stage for electronic commerce legislation.[ ] forms contemporary electronic commerce can be classified into two categories. the first category is business based on types of goods sold (involves everything from ordering "digital" content for immediate online consumption, to ordering conventional goods and services, to "meta" services to facilitate other types of electronic commerce). the second category is based on the nature of the participant (b b, b c, c b and c c);[ ] on the institutional level, big corporations and financial institutions use the internet to exchange financial data to facilitate domestic and international business. data integrity and security are pressing issues for electronic commerce. aside from traditional e-commerce, the terms m-commerce (mobile commerce) as well (around ) t-commerce[ ] have also been used. global trends in , the united kingdom had the highest per capita e-commerce spending in the world.[ ] as of , the czech republic was the european country where e-commerce delivers the biggest contribution to the enterprises´ total revenue. almost a quarter ( %) of the country's total turnover is generated via the online channel.[ ] among emerging economies, china's e-commerce presence continues to expand every year. with million internet users, china's online shopping sales reached $ billion in the first half of , accounting for % of total chinese consumer retail sales in that period.[ ] the chinese retailers have been able to help consumers feel more comfortable shopping online.[ ] e-commerce transactions between china and other countries increased % to . trillion yuan ($ . billion) in and accounted for . % of china's total international trade.[ ] in , alibaba had an e-commerce market share of % in china.[ ] in , there were million internet users in china (twice as many as in the us), making it the world's biggest online market.[ ] china is also the largest e-commerce market in the world by value of sales, with an estimated us$ billion in .[ ] recent research clearly indicates that electronic commerce, commonly referred to as e-commerce, presently shapes the manner in which people shop for products. the gcc countries have a rapidly growing market and are characterized by a population that becomes wealthier (yuldashev). as such, retailers have launched arabic-language websites as a means to target this population. secondly, there are predictions of increased mobile purchases and an expanding internet audience (yuldashev). the growth and development of the two aspects make the gcc countries to become larger players in the electronic commerce market with time progress. specifically, research shows that e-commerce market is expected to grow to over $ billion by the year among these gcc countries (yuldashev). the e-commerce market has also gained much popularity among the western countries, and in particular europe and the u.s. these countries have been highly characterized with consumer-packaged-goods (cpg) (geisler, ). however, trends show that there are future signs of a reverse. similar to the gcc countries, there has been increased purchase of goods and services in online channels rather than offline channels. activist investors are trying hard to consolidate and slash their overall cost and the governments in western countries continue to impose more regulation on cpg manufacturers (geisler, ). in these senses, cpg investors are being forced to adapt e-commerce as it is effective as a well as a means for them to thrive. in , brazil's e-commerce was growing quickly with retail e-commerce sales expected to grow at a double-digit pace through . by , emarketer expected retail e-commerce sales in brazil to reach $ . billion.[ ] india has an internet user base of about million as of december .[ ] despite being third largest user base in world, the penetration of internet is low compared to markets like the united states, united kingdom or france but is growing at a much faster rate, adding around million new entrants every month.[citation needed] in india, cash on delivery is the most preferred payment method, accumulating % of the e-retail activities.[ ][citation needed] the india retail market is expected to rise from . % in to % in .[ ] the future trends in the gcc countries will be similar with that of the western countries. despite the forces that push business to adapt e-commerce as a means to sell goods and products, the manner in which customers make purchases is similar in countries from these two regions. for instance, there has been an increased usage of smartphones which comes in conjunction with an increase in the overall internet audience from the regions. yuldashev writes that consumers are scaling up to more modern technology that allows for mobile marketing. however, the percentage of smartphone and internet users who make online purchases is expected to vary in the first few years. it will be independent on the willingness of the people to adopt this new trend (the statistics portal). for example, uae has the greatest smartphone penetration of . percent and has . percent of its population has access to the internet. on the other hand, smartphone penetration in europe has been reported to be at . percent (the statistics portal). regardless, the disparity in percentage between these regions is expected to level out in future because e-commerce technology is expected to grow allowing for more users. the e-commerce business within these two regions will result in a competition. government bodies at country level will enhance their measures and strategies to ensure sustainability and consumer protection (krings, et al.). these increased measures will raise the environmental and social standards in the countries, factors that will determine the success of e-commerce market in these countries. for example, an adoption of tough sanctions will make it difficult for companies to enter the e-commerce market while lenient sanctions will allow ease of companies. as such, the future trends between gcc countries and the western countries will be independent of these sanctions (krings, et al.). these countries need to make rational conclusions in coming up with effective sanctions. the rate of growth of the number of internet users in the arab countries has been rapid – . % in . a significant portion of the e-commerce market in the middle east comprises people in the – year age group. egypt has the largest number of internet users in the region, followed by saudi arabia and morocco; these constitute / th of the region's share. yet, internet penetration is low: % in egypt and % in saudi arabia.[ ] e-commerce has become an important tool for small and large businesses worldwide, not only to sell to customers, but also to engage them.[ ][ ] in , e-commerce sales topped $ trillion for the first time in history.[ ] mobile devices are playing an increasing role in the mix of e-commerce, this is also commonly called mobile commerce, or m-commerce. in , one estimate saw purchases made on mobile devices making up % of the market by .[ ] for traditional businesses, one research stated that information technology and cross-border e-commerce is a good opportunity for the rapid development and growth of enterprises. many companies have invested enormous volume of investment in mobile applications. the delone and mclean model stated that three perspectives contribute to a successful e-business: information system quality, service quality and users' satisfaction.[ ] there is no limit of time and space, there are more opportunities to reach out to customers around the world, and to cut down unnecessary intermediate links, thereby reducing the cost price, and can benefit from one on one large customer data analysis, to achieve a high degree of personal customization strategic plan, in order to fully enhance the core competitiveness of the products in company.[ ] modern d graphics technologies, such as facebook d posts, are considered by some social media marketers and advertisers as a preferable way to promote consumer goods than static photos, and some brands like sony are already paving the way for augmented reality commerce. wayfair now lets you inspect a d version of its furniture in a home setting before buying.[ ] logistics logistics in e-commerce mainly concerns fulfillment. online markets and retailers have to find the best possible way to fill orders and deliver products. small companies usually control their own logistic operation because they do not have the ability to hire an outside company. most large companies hire a fulfillment service that takes care of a company's logistic needs.[ ] contrary to common misconception, there are significant barriers to entry in e-commerce.[ ] impacts impact on markets and retailers store closing flags outside a toys r us in new jersey. despite investments, the chain struggled to win market share in the age of digital commerce. e-commerce markets are growing at noticeable rates. the online market is expected to grow by % in – . in , retail e-commerce sales worldwide amounted to . trillion us dollars and e-retail revenues are projected to grow to . trillion us dollars in .[ ] traditional markets are only expected % growth during the same time. brick and mortar retailers are struggling because of online retailer's ability to offer lower prices and higher efficiency. many larger retailers are able to maintain a presence offline and online by linking physical and online offerings.[ ][ ] e-commerce allows customers to overcome geographical barriers and allows them to purchase products anytime and from anywhere. online and traditional markets have different strategies for conducting business. traditional retailers offer fewer assortment of products because of shelf space where, online retailers often hold no inventory but send customer orders directly to the manufacture. the pricing strategies are also different for traditional and online retailers. traditional retailers base their prices on store traffic and the cost to keep inventory. online retailers base prices on the speed of delivery. there are two ways for marketers to conduct business through e-commerce: fully online or online along with a brick and mortar store. online marketers can offer lower prices, greater product selection, and high efficiency rates. many customers prefer online markets if the products can be delivered quickly at relatively low price. however, online retailers cannot offer the physical experience that traditional retailers can. it can be difficult to judge the quality of a product without the physical experience, which may cause customers to experience product or seller uncertainty. another issue regarding the online market is concerns about the security of online transactions. many customers remain loyal to well-known retailers because of this issue.[ ][ ] security is a primary problem for e-commerce in developed and developing countries. e-commerce security is protecting business' websites and customers from unauthorized access, use, alteration, or destruction. the type of threats include: malicious codes, unwanted programs (ad ware, spyware), phishing, hacking, and cyber vandalism. e-commerce websites use different tools to avert security threats. these tools include firewalls, encryption software, digital certificates, and passwords.[citation needed] impact on supply chain management main article: supply chain management for a long time, companies had been troubled by the gap between the benefits which supply chain technology has and the solutions to deliver those benefits. however, the emergence of e-commerce has provided a more practical and effective way of delivering the benefits of the new supply chain technologies.[ ] e-commerce has the capability to integrate all inter-company and intra-company functions, meaning that the three flows (physical flow, financial flow and information flow) of the supply chain could be also affected by e-commerce. the affections on physical flows improved the way of product and inventory movement level for companies. for the information flows, e-commerce optimised the capacity of information processing than companies used to have, and for the financial flows, e-commerce allows companies to have more efficient payment and settlement solutions.[ ] in addition, e-commerce has a more sophisticated level of impact on supply chains: firstly, the performance gap will be eliminated since companies can identify gaps between different levels of supply chains by electronic means of solutions; secondly, as a result of e-commerce emergence, new capabilities such implementing erp systems, like sap erp, xero, or megaventory, have helped companies to manage operations with customers and suppliers. yet these new capabilities are still not fully exploited. thirdly, technology companies would keep investing on new e-commerce software solutions as they are expecting investment return. fourthly, e-commerce would help to solve many aspects of issues that companies may feel difficult to cope with, such as political barriers or cross-country changes. finally, e-commerce provides companies a more efficient and effective way to collaborate with each other within the supply chain.[ ] impact on employment e-commerce helps create new job opportunities due to information related services, software app and digital products. it also causes job losses. the areas with the greatest predicted job-loss are retail, postal, and travel agencies. the development of e-commerce will create jobs that require highly skilled workers to manage large amounts of information, customer demands, and production processes. in contrast, people with poor technical skills cannot enjoy the wages welfare. on the other hand, because e-commerce requires sufficient stocks that could be delivered to customers in time, the warehouse becomes an important element. warehouse needs more staff to manage, supervise and organize, thus the condition of warehouse environment will be concerned by employees.[ ] impact on customers e-commerce brings convenience for customers as they do not have to leave home and only need to browse website online, especially for buying the products which are not sold in nearby shops. it could help customers buy wider range of products and save customers’ time. consumers also gain power through online shopping. they are able to research products and compare prices among retailers. also, online shopping often provides sales promotion or discounts code, thus it is more price effective for customers. moreover, e-commerce provides products’ detailed information; even the in-store staff cannot offer such detailed explanation. customers can also review and track the order history online. e-commerce technologies cut transaction costs by allowing both manufactures and consumers to skip through the intermediaries. this is achieved through by extending the search area best price deals and by group purchase. the success of e-commerce in urban and regional levels depend on how the local firms and consumers have adopted to e-commerce.[ ] however, e-commerce lacks human interaction for customers, especially who prefer face-to-face connection. customers are also concerned with the security of online transactions and tend to remain loyal to well-known retailers.[ ] in recent years, clothing retailers such as tommy hilfiger have started adding virtual fit platforms to their e-commerce sites to reduce the risk of customers buying the wrong sized clothes, although these vary greatly in their fit for purpose.[ ] when the customer regret the purchase of a product, it involves returning goods and refunding process. this process is inconvenient as customers need to pack and post the goods. if the products are expensive, large or fragile, it refers to safety issues.[ ] impact on the environment in , e-commerce generated . million tons of container cardboard in north america, an increase from . million in . only percent of north american cardboard manufacturing capacity is from recycled content. the recycling rate in europe is percent and asia is percent. amazon, the largest user of boxes, has a strategy to cut back on packing material and has reduced packaging material used by percent by weight since . amazon is requiring retailers to manufacture their product packaging in a way that doesn't require additional shipping packaging. amazon also has an -person team researching ways to reduce and improve their packaging and shipping materials.[ ] impact on traditional retail e-commerce has been cited as a major force for the failure of major u.s. retailers in a trend frequently referred to as a "retail apocalypse."[ ] the rise of e-commerce outlets like amazon has made it harder for traditional retailers to attract customers to their stores and forced companies to change their sales strategies. many companies have turned to sales promotions and increased digital efforts to lure shoppers while shutting down brick-and-mortar locations.[ ] the trend has forced some traditional retailers to shutter its brick and mortar operations.[ ] distribution channels e-commerce has grown in importance as companies have adopted pure-click and brick-and-click channel systems. we can distinguish pure-click and brick-and-click channel system adopted by companies. 	pure-click or pure-play companies are those that have launched a website without any previous existence as a firm. 	bricks-and-clicks companies are those existing companies that have added an online site for e-commerce. 	click-to-brick online retailers that later open physical locations to supplement their online efforts.[ ] e-commerce may take place on retailers' web sites or mobile apps, or those of e-commerce marketplaces such as on amazon, or tmall from alibaba. those channels may also be supported by conversational commerce, e.g. live chat or chatbots on web sites. conversational commerce may also be standalone such as live chat or chatbots on messaging apps[ ] and via voice assistants.[ ] recommendation the contemporary e-commerce trend recommends companies to shift the traditional business model where focus on "standardized products, homogeneous market and long product life cycle" to the new business model where focus on "varied and customized products". e-commerce requires the company to have the ability to satisfy multiple needs of different customers and provide them with wider range of products. with more choices of products, the information of products for customers to select and meet their needs become crucial. in order to address the mass customization principle to the company, the use of recommender system is suggested. this system helps recommend the proper products to the customers and helps customers make the decision during the purchasing process. the recommender system could be operated through the top sellers on the website, the demographics of customers or the consumers' buying behavior. however, there are main ways of recommendations: recommending products to customers directly, providing detailed products' information and showing other buyers' opinions or critiques. it is benefit for consumer experience without physical shopping. in general, recommender system is used to contact customers online and assist finding the right products they want effectively and directly.[ ] e-commerce during covid- further information: economic impact of the covid- pandemic in march , global retail website traffic hit . billion visits [ ] signifying an unprecedented growth of e-commerce during the lockdown of 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"retail's big opportunity: % of u.s. consumers grasp the power of conversational commerce - retail touchpoints". 	^ schafer, j. ben; konstan, joseph a.; riedl, john ( january ). kohavi, ron; provost, foster (eds.). applications of data mining to electronic commerce. springer us. pp.  – . doi: . / - - - - _ . isbn  . 	^ https://www.statista.com/statistics/ /online-retail-and-auction-ranked-by-worldwide-audiences/ 	^ https://competera.net/resources/articles/ecommerce-online-shopping-behavior-retail-infographic 	^ a., bhatti; h., akram; h.m., basit ( ). "e-commerce trends during covid- pandemic". international journal of future generation communication and networking. : -- . further reading 	laudon, kenneth c.; guercio traver, carol ( ). e-commerce. business. technology. society. th edition. pearson. isbn  - - - . 	chaudhury, abijit; kuilboer, jean-pierre ( ). e-business and e-commerce infrastructure. mcgraw-hill. isbn  - - - - . 	frieden, jonathan d.; roche, sean patrick ( december ). "e-commerce: legal issues of the online retailer in virginia" (pdf). richmond journal of law and technology. ( ). 	graham, mark ( ). "warped geographies of development: the internet and theories of economic development" (pdf). geography compass. ( ): . doi: . /j. - . . .x. s cid  . archived from the original (pdf) on october . 	humeau, philippe; jung, matthieu ( june ). in depth benchmark of ecommerce solutions (pdf). 	kessler, m ( december ), "more shoppers proceed to checkout online", usa today, retrieved january . 	lowry, paul benjamin; wells, taylor; moody, gregory d.; humpherys, sean; and kettles, degan ( ). "online payment gateways used to facilitate e-commerce transactions and improve risk management," communications of the association for information systems, vol. ( ), pp.  – (http://aisel.aisnet.org/cais/vol /iss / ). 	kotler, philip ( ). marketing management. pearson: prentice-hall. isbn  - - - - . 	miller, roger ( ). the legal and e-commerce environment today (hardcover ed.). thomson learning. isbn  - - - - . pp. 	nissanoff, daniel ( ). futureshop: how the new auction culture will revolutionize the way we buy, sell and get the things we really want (hardcover ed.). the penguin press. isbn  - - - - . pp. 	seybold, pat ( ). customers.com. crown business books (random house). isbn  - - - - . external links e-commerceat wikipedia's sister projects 	definitions from wiktionary 	media from wikimedia commons 	news from wikinews 	textbooks from wikibooks 	resources from wikiversity 	data from wikidata 	small business e-commerce resources, us: sba 	 	v 	t 	e computer science 	note: this template roughly follows the acm computing classification system. 	hardware	 	printed circuit board 	peripheral 	integrated circuit 	very large scale integration 	systems on chip (socs) 	energy consumption (green computing) 	electronic design automation 	hardware acceleration 	 	computer systems organization	 	computer architecture 	embedded system 	real-time computing 	dependability 	networks	 	network architecture 	network protocol 	network components 	network scheduler 	network performance evaluation 	network service 	software organization	 	interpreter 	middleware 	virtual machine 	operating system 	software quality 	software notations and tools	 	programming paradigm 	programming language 	compiler 	domain-specific language 	modeling language 	software framework 	integrated development environment 	software configuration management 	software library 	software repository 	software development	 	control variable 	software development process 	requirements analysis 	software design 	software construction 	software deployment 	software maintenance 	programming team 	open-source model 	theory of computation	 	model of computation 	formal language 	automata theory 	computability theory 	computational complexity theory 	logic 	semantics 	algorithms	 	algorithm design 	analysis of algorithms 	algorithmic efficiency 	randomized algorithm 	computational geometry 	mathematics of computing	 	discrete mathematics 	probability 	statistics 	mathematical software 	information theory 	mathematical analysis 	numerical analysis 	information systems	 	database management system 	information storage systems 	enterprise information system 	social information systems 	geographic information system 	decision support system 	process control system 	multimedia information system 	data mining 	digital library 	computing platform 	digital marketing 	world wide web 	information retrieval 	security	 	cryptography 	formal methods 	security services 	intrusion detection system 	hardware security 	network security 	information security 	application security 	human–computer interaction	 	interaction design 	social computing 	ubiquitous computing 	visualization 	accessibility 	concurrency	 	concurrent computing 	parallel computing 	distributed computing 	multithreading 	multiprocessing 	artificial intelligence	 	natural language processing 	knowledge representation and reasoning 	computer vision 	automated planning and scheduling 	search methodology 	control method 	philosophy of artificial intelligence 	distributed artificial intelligence 	machine learning	 	supervised learning 	unsupervised learning 	reinforcement learning 	multi-task learning 	cross-validation 	graphics	 	animation 	rendering 	image manipulation 	graphics processing unit 	mixed reality 	virtual reality 	image compression 	solid modeling 	applied computing	 	e-commerce 	enterprise software 	computational mathematics 	computational physics 	computational chemistry 	computational biology 	computational social science 	computational engineering 	computational healthcare 	digital art 	electronic publishing 	cyberwarfare 	electronic voting 	video games 	word processing 	operations research 	educational technology 	document management 	 	 book 	 category 	 outline 	wikiproject 	 commons 	authority control 	 	gnd: - 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wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	gullibility 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 illustration by peter newell for the poem "the sycophantic fox and the gullible raven" (fables for the frivolous) by guy wetmore carryl. gullibility is a failure of social intelligence in which a person is easily tricked or manipulated into an ill-advised course of action. it is closely related to credulity, which is the tendency to believe unlikely propositions that are unsupported by evidence.[ ][ ] classes of people especially vulnerable to exploitation due to gullibility include children, the elderly, and the developmentally disabled.[ ] contents 	 meaning 	 etymology and history 	 examples 	 theories 	 . against gullibility 	 see also 	 notes 	 references 	 further reading meaning the words gullible and credulous are commonly used as synonyms. goepp & kay ( ) state that while both words mean "unduly trusting or confiding", gullibility stresses being duped or made a fool of, suggesting a lack of intelligence, whereas credulity stresses uncritically forming beliefs, suggesting a lack of skepticism.[ ] jewell ( ) states the difference is a matter of degree: the gullible are "the easiest to deceive", while the credulous are "a little too quick to believe something, but they usually aren't stupid enough to act on it."[ ] yamagishi, kikuchi & kosugi ( ) characterize a gullible person as one who is both credulous and naïve.[ ] greenspan ( ) stresses the distinction that gullibility involves an action in addition to a belief, and there is a cause-effect relationship between the two states: "gullible outcomes typically come about through the exploitation of a victim's credulity."[ ] etymology and history the verb to gull and the noun cullibility (with a c) date back to shakespeare and swift, whereas gullibility is a relatively recent addition to the lexicon. it was considered a neologism as recently as the early th century.[ ][ ] the first attestation of gullibility known to the oxford english dictionary appears in , and gullible in . the oed gives gullible as a back-formation from gullibility, which is itself an alteration of cullibility.[ ] early editions of samuel johnson's a dictionary of the english language, including those published in and , do not contain "gullibility" or "gullible".[ ] an edition by henry john todd denounces "gullibility" as "a low expression, sometimes used for cullibility".[ ] gullibility does not appear in noah webster's a dictionary of the english language,[ ] but it does appear in the edition of his american dictionary of the english language, where it is defined: "n. credulity. (a low word)".[ ] both gullibility and gullible appear in the new english dictionary.[ ] examples greenspan ( ) presents dozens of examples of gullibility in literature and history. in the fairy tale the adventures of pinocchio, the title character is a gullible puppet who is repeatedly duped by other characters; part of his transformation into a human being is learning to avoid gullibility while still exercising empathy. in the first part of "little red riding hood", the title character is deceived by a wolf; from this experience she learns to feign gullibility in order to deceive a second wolf. in "the emperor's new clothes", the emperor and his staff display gullibility in being swindled, while the crowd displays credulity in believing in the invisible cloth. mark twain depicts mass gullibility in the adventures of tom sawyer and the gilded age: a tale of today, among others. shakespeare explores gullibility in the title characters of romeo and juliet, macbeth, and especially othello. of the examples of deception found in the bible, the tale that most concerns the behavior of the deceived is samson in the book of judges, a character who is destroyed by his gullibility in the face of love. the best-known example is eve's gullibility in the book of genesis.[ ] deception is a classic theme in war and politics—see the art of war and the prince—and greenspan finds the example most concerned with the gullibility of the deceived to be the trojan horse. in the aeneid's version of the story, the trojans are initially wary, but vanity and wishful thinking eventually lead them to accept the gift, resulting in their slaughter. greenspan argues that a related process of self-deception and groupthink factored into the planning of the vietnam war and the second iraq war.[ ] in science and academia, gullibility has been exposed in the sokal hoax and in the acceptance of early claims of cold fusion by the media.[ ] in society, tulipmania and other investment bubbles involve gullibility driven by greed, while the spread of rumors involves a gullible eagerness to believe (and retell) the worst of other people. april fools' day is a tradition in which people trick each other for amusement; it works in part because the deceiver has a social license to betray the trust they have built up over the rest of the year.[ ] theories some writers on gullibility have focused on the relationship between the negative trait of gullibility and positive trait of trust. they are related, as gullibility requires an act of trust. greenspan ( ) writes that exploiters of the gullible "are people who understand the reluctance of others to appear untrusting and are willing to take advantage of that reluctance."[ ] in , julian rotter wrote that the two are not equivalent: rather, gullibility is a foolish application of trust despite warning signs that another is untrustworthy.[ ] against gullibility the relationship between gullibility and trust has led to alternate theories. neuroscientist hugo mercier claims the opposite, that humans are intrinsically skeptical and difficult to persuade; we readily accept unsupported or false statements when they support our beliefs. one reason why we form these beliefs is that scientific theories are often counterintuitive, so we discard them in favour of explanations we find logical. this theory struggles to account for the prevalence of conspiracy theories; mercier explains these as "reflective beliefs" that are insulated from our "intuitive beliefs", meaning that while we hold them we do not base our actions on them;[ ] an example of this is in the pizzagate conspiracy where, despite many people falsely believing that a restaurant was harbouring child sex slaves, few took proportionate actions. as such, humans are not gullible per se, as we do not tend to trust everyone; indeed, a separate study found that more trusting participants were the best at discerning who to trust.[ ] as a result, he claims that humans "make more errors of omission (not trusting when we should) than of commission (trusting when we shouldn’t)".[ ] research into how fake news influenced voting preferences in the italian general election supports this, suggesting that we tend to consume fake news that supports our ideologies and, thus, it does little to influence election outcomes.[ ] see also 	drinking the kool-aid 	gaslighting 	sheeple 	suggestibility 	swampland in florida 	there's a sucker born every minute 	vulnerabilities exploited by manipulators notes 	^ greenspan , pp.  – . 	^ a b sofronoff, dark & stone . 	^ goepp & kay , p.  . 	^ jewell , p.  . 	^ yamagishi, kikuchi & kosugi , p.  . 	^ a b greenspan , p.  . 	^ a b mencken & mcdavid , p.  . 	^ nuttall , p.  "gullible is not known to the oxford english dictionary before the th century..."; cited after greenspan ( , p.  ). 	^ a b oxford english dictionary online: gullibility, n. oxford english dictionary online: gullible, adj. 	^ johnson , p.  ; johnson & hamilton , p.  . 	^ webster , p.  . 	^ webster & walker , p.  . 	^ greenspan , pp.  – . 	^ greenspan , pp.  – . 	^ greenspan , pp.  – . 	^ greenspan , pp.  – . 	^ greenspan , p.  , who cites rotter . 	^ fleming, nic. "why the human race may be less gullible than you think". new scientist. retrieved - - . 	^ yamagishi, kikuchi & kosugi , pp.  – . 	^ "who are you calling gullible?". unherd. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ cantarella, michele; fraccaroli, nicolò; volpe, roberto ( - - ). "the effect of fake news on populist voting: evidence from a natural experiment in italy". voxeu.org. retrieved - - . references 	goepp, philip h.; kay, mairé weir (june ), gove, philip b. (ed.), merriam-webster's dictionary of synonyms: a dictionary of discriminated synonyms with antonyms and analogous and contrasted words, springfield, ma: merriam-webster, isbn  - - - 	greenspan, stephen ( ), annals of gullibility: why we get duped and how to avoid it, praeger publishers, isbn  - - - - 	jewell, elizabeth, ed. ( ), pocket oxford dictionary & thesaurus ( nd american ed.), new york: oxford university press us, isbn  - - - 	johnson, samuel ( ), a dictionary of the english language ( th ed.), edinburgh: brown, ross, and symington 	johnson, samuel; hamilton, joseph ( ), johnson's dictionary of the english language, in miniature ( st american, from the th english ed.), boston, ma: w. p. and l. blake 	mencken, henry louis; mcdavid, raven ioor ( ), the american language: an inquiry into the development of english in the united states, , new york: knopf 	nuttall, anthony david ( ), "gulliver among the horses", in rawson, claude julien (ed.), jonathan swift: a collection of critical essays, englewood cliffs, nj: prentice-hall, pp.  – . reprinted from nuttall, anthony david ( ), "gulliver among the horses", the yearbook of english studies, : – , doi: . / , jstor  	rotter, julian b. (january ), "interpersonal trust, trustworthiness, and gullibility", american psychologist, ( ): – , doi: . / - x. . . 	sofronoff, kate; dark, elizabeth; stone, valerie ( march ), "social vulnerability and bullying in children with asperger syndrome" (pdf), autism, ( ): – , doi: . / , pmid  , s cid  , archived from the original (pdf) on july , retrieved april 	webster, noah ( ), a dictionary of the english language: compiled for the use of common schools in the united states, hartford, connecticut: george goodwin & sons 	webster, noah; walker, john ( ), american dictionary of the english language: exhibiting the origin, orthography, pronunciation, and definitions of words ( rd ed.), new york: s. converse 	yamagishi, toshio; kikuchi, masako; kosugi, motoko (april ), "trust, gullibility, and social intelligence" (pdf), asian journal of social psychology, ( ): – , doi: . / - x. , archived from the original (pdf) on july , retrieved april further reading 	greenspan, stephen; loughlin, gail; black, rhonda s. ( ), "credulity and gullibility in people with developmental disorders: a framework for future research", international review of research in mental retardation, : – , doi: . /s - ( ) - , isbn  		v 	t 	e psychological manipulation 	rewarding: pleasant (positive reinforcement) 	 	attention 	bribery 	child grooming 	flattery 	gifts 	ingratiation 	love bombing 	nudging 	praise 	seduction 	smiling 	superficial charm 	superficial sympathy 	aversive: unpleasant (positive punishment) 	 	anger 	character assassination 	crying 	emotional blackmail 	fearmongering 	frowning 	glaring 	guilt trip 	inattention 	intimidation 	nagging 	nit-picking criticism 	passive aggression 	relational aggression 	sadism 	shaming 	silent treatment 	social rejection 	swearing 	threats 	victim blaming 	victim playing 	yelling 	intermittent or partial negative reinforcement	 	climate of fear 	traumatic bonding 	other techniques	 	bait-and-switch 	deception 	denial 	deplatforming 	deprogramming 	disinformation 	distortion 	diversion 	divide and rule 	double bind 	entrapment 	evasion 	exaggeration 	gaslighting 	good cop/bad cop 	indoctrination 	low-balling 	lying 	minimisation 	moving the goalposts 	pride-and-ego down 	rationalization 	reid technique 	setting up to fail 	trojan horse 	you're either with us, or against us 	contexts	 	abuse 	abusive power and control 	advertising 	bullying 	catholic guilt 	confidence trick 	guilt culture 	interrogation 	jewish mother stereotype 	moral panic 	media manipulation 	mind control 	mind games 	mobbing 	propaganda 	salesmanship 	scapegoating 	shame culture 	smear campaign 	social engineering (blagging) 	spin 	suggestibility 	whispering campaign 	related topics	 	antisocial personality disorder 	assertiveness 	blame 	borderline personality disorder 	carrot and stick 	dumbing down 	enabling 	fallacy 	femme fatale 	gaming the system 	gullibility 	histrionic personality disorder 	impression management 	machiavellianism 	narcissism 	narcissistic personality disorder 	personal boundaries 	persuasion 	popularity 	projection 	psychopathy 	guilt-shame-fear spectrum of cultures retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=gullibility&oldid= " 		categories: 	deception 	psychological manipulation hidden categories: 	wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	view source 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 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this png preview of this svg file: × pixels. other resolutions: × pixels | × pixels | , × pixels | , × pixels | × pixels. original file ‎(svg file, nominally × pixels, file size: kb) 		this is a file from the wikimedia commons. information from its description page there is shown below. commons is a freely licensed media file repository. you can help. summary 	descriptionshare of people agreeing with the statement "most people can be trusted", owid.svg	 english: 	share of people agreeing with the statement "most people can be trusted" 	the survey question was "generally speaking, would you say that most people can be trusted or that you need to be very careful in dealing with people?" possible answers were "most people can be trusted", "don't know" and "can't be too careful". 	date	 (chart creation) 	source	 https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/self-reported-trust-attitudes 	author	 our world in data 	permission (reusing this file)	 "license: all of our world in data is completely open access and all work is licensed under the creative commons by license. you have the permission to use, distribute, and reproduce in any medium, provided the source and authors are credited." licensing 	 	this file is licensed under the creative commons attribution . unported license. 	 	 	 	you are free: 	to share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work 	to remix – to adapt the work 	under the following conditions: 	attribution – you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. you may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . cc by . creative commons attribution . truetrue captions englishadd a one-line explanation of what this file represents items portrayed in this file depicts copyright status copyrighted copyright license creative commons attribution . unported file history click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. 		date/time	thumbnail	dimensions	user	comment 	current	 : , february 		 × ( kb)	fæ	owid project # file usage the following pages on the english wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): 	trust (social science) metadata this file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. if the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. 	width	 	height	 retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/file:share_of_people_agreeing_with_the_statement_% most_people_can_be_trusted% ,_owid.svg" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			file 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	view on commons 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	upload file 	special pages 	printable version 	page information 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 humiliation - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	humiliation 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		abasement of pride the pillory, from the costume of great britain ( ) humiliation is the abasement of pride, which creates mortification or leads to a state of being humbled or reduced to lowliness or submission. it is an emotion felt by a person whose social status, either by force or willingly, has just decreased.[ ] it can be brought about through intimidation, physical or mental mistreatment or trickery, or by embarrassment if a person is revealed to have committed a socially or legally unacceptable act. whereas humility can be sought alone as a means to de-emphasize the ego, humiliation must involve other person(s), though not necessarily directly or willingly. humiliation is currently an active research topic, and is now seen as an important – and complex – core dynamic in human relationships, having implications at intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional and international levels.[ ][ ] 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e contents 	 psychological effects 	 punishments and interrogation tactics 	 a wider human perspective 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links psychological effects[edit] a person who suffers from severe humiliation could experience major depressions, suicidal states, and severe anxiety states such as post-traumatic stress disorder. the loss of status, like losing a job or being labeled as a liar or discredited unfairly, could cause people inability to behave normally in their communities. humiliated individuals could be provoked and crave for revenge, and some people could feel worthless, hopeless and helpless, creating suicidal thoughts if justice is not met. it also can lead to new insights, activism and a new kinship with marginalized groups.[ ] feelings of humiliation can produce 'humiliated fury'[ ] which, when turned inward can result in apathy and depression, and when turned outward can give rise to paranoia, sadistic behaviour and fantasies of revenge. klein explains, "when it is outwardly directed, humiliated fury unfortunately creates additional victims, often including innocent bystanders. when it is inwardly directed, the resulting self-hate renders victims incapable of meeting their own needs, let alone having energy available to love and care for others." he goes on to say, "in either case, those who are consumed by humiliated fury are absorbed in themselves or their cause, wrapped in wounded pride..."[ ] a study by researchers at the university of michigan revealed that “the same regions of the brain that become active in response to painful sensory experiences are activated during intense experiences of social rejection.” in other words, humiliation and isolation are experienced as intensely as physical pain.[ ] punishments and interrogation tactics[edit] non-trinitarian cathars being burnt at the stake in an auto-da-fé (c. , with garrote and phallus), presided over by saint dominic, oil on panel by pedro berruguete. paris : women accused of collaboration with nazis are paraded through the streets barefoot, shaved, and with swastika burnmarks on their faces humiliating of one person by another (the humiliator) is often used as a way of asserting power over them, and is a common form of oppression or abuse used in a police, military, or prison context during legal interrogations or illegal torture sessions. many now-obsolete public punishments were deliberately designed to be humiliating, e.g. tarring and feathering lawbreakers, pillory, "mark of shame" (stigma) as a means of "making an example" of a person and presenting a deterrent to others. some practices, such as tarring and feathering, became tools of unofficial mob justice. in folk customs such as the english skimmington rides and rough music (and their continental equivalents, such as the french charivari), dramatic public demonstrations of moral disapproval were enacted to humiliate transgressors and drive them out of the community.[ ] some u.s. states have experimented with humiliating or shaming lawbreakers by publishing their names and indicating their offense (e.g., with soliciting prostitutes or drinking and driving). in , there was public outcry about reports showing police in dongguan and guangdong in china leading a parade of arrested prostitutes for the purpose of humiliating them. the national ministry of public security reprimanded the local police and affirmed that such punishments are not allowed.[ ] a wider human perspective[edit] the humiliation of emperor valerian by shapur, king of persia by hans holbein the younger. donald klein described humiliation as "a powerful factor in human affairs that has, for a variety of reasons, been overlooked by students of individual and collective behavior. it is a pervasive and all too destructive influence in the behavior of individuals, groups, organizations, and nations."[ ] though it is a subjective emotion, humiliation has a universal aspect which applies to all human beings: "it is the feeling of being put down, made to feel less than one feels oneself to be."[ ] a society that suffers from humiliation is an unstable one. the cognitive dissonance between the way in which the society is perceived and the way in which it sees itself can be so great that violence can result on a massive scale against people belonging to an out group. according to jonathan sacks, "by turning the question 'what did we do wrong?' into 'who did this to us?', [hate against an out group] restores some measure of self-respect and provides a course of action. in psychiatry, the clinical terms for this process are splitting and projection; it allows people to define themselves as victims."[ ] see also[edit] 	dehumanization 	erotic humiliation 	hazing 	humiliation of christ 	public humiliation 	schadenfreude 	self-abasement 	social defeat 	social emotions 	social stigma references[edit] 	^ burton, neel. "the psychology of humiliation." psychology today. august . october . 	^ a b lindner, evelin, making enemies: humiliation and international conflict. london, england: praeger security international, . 	^ general assembly, presbyterian board of publications, ( ). william eves, moore (ed.). "the presbyterian digest of : a compend of the acts, and deliverances of the general assembly of the presbyterian church in the united states of america". presbyterianism. presbyterian board of publications, : . 	^ torres, walter j.; bergner, raymond m. (june ). "humiliation: its nature and consequences". journal of the american academy of psychiatry and the law. aapl. ( ): – . pmid  . retrieved may . 	^ lewis, helen b. , shame and grief in neurosis. new york: international universities press. 	^ a b klein, donald c. (ed.), the humiliation dynamic: viewing the task of prevention from a new perspective, special issue, journal of primary prevention, part i, , no. , . new york, ny: kluwer academic/ plenum publishers. 	^ martin, courtney e. "the violence of humiliation", on being, september , 	^ thompson, e. p. ( ). "rough music reconsidered" (pdf). folklore. : – . doi: . / x. . . retrieved july . 	^ zhang, ning ( - - ). "prostitute humiliation dents police image". china network television. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ sacks, jonathan. "the return of anti-semitism." the wall street journal. january . october . further reading[edit] 	lindner, evelin ( ). gender, humiliation, and global security: dignifying relationships from love, sex, and parenthood to world affairs. contemporary psychology series. santa barbara, california: praeger. isbn  . 	miller, william ian ( ). humiliation and other essays on honor, social discomfort, and violence. ithaca: cornell university press. isbn  . 	whisnant, rebecca (july–september ). "pornography, humiliation, and consent". sexualization, media, and society. sage. ( ): . doi: . / . 	henryson, dean ( ). ″girl fighting exposed.″ createspace. isbn  - . external links[edit] 		look up humiliation in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: humiliation 		wikimedia commons has media related to humiliation. 	human dignity and humiliation studies 	emotional competency article on humiliation 	silvan tomkins site resources on shame and humiliation studies 	german football team humiliate brazil - during world cup 	femenia, nora. healing humiliation and the need for revenge 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 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			 			 			 			 			search 		 			 					 including full text incl. restricted access masters 					 					 		  					 					advanced search					 		 		 			 			browse by... 			 			personal names 	academic structures 	( )your selection 	latest additions 		 		 		 			 			 			 			 		 deposit 			 			submit a document 	update a submission 		 		 			 			highlights 			 			generate a bibliography 	create an alert 	my publisher's policy 	doctoral thesis 	restricted access masters 		 		 			 			more informations 			 			manuals 	open access & copyright 	unige policies 	relaunch of the archive 	contacts 		 	 	 		hometitles listoxytocin increases trust in humans 			 scientific article   unige:    	 		 			 			title				 			oxytocin increases trust in humans 		 	authors 		kosfeld, michael heinrichs, markus zak, paul j. fischbacher, urs fehr, ernst 	 			published in				 			nature. , vol. , no. , p. - 		 	 			abstract 				 			trust pervades human societies , . trust is indispensable in friendship, love, families and organizations, and plays a key role in economic exchange and politics . in the absence of trust among trading partners, market transactions break down. in the absence of trust in a country's institutions and leaders, political legitimacy breaks down. much recent evidence indicates that trust contributes to economic, political and social success , . little is known, however, about the biological basis of trust among humans. here we show that intranasal administration of oxytocin, a neuropeptide that plays a key role in social attachment and affiliation in non-human mammals , , , causes a substantial increase in trust among humans, thereby greatly increasing the benefits from social interactions. we also show that the effect of oxytocin on trust is not due to a general increase in the readiness to bear risks. on the contrary, oxytocin specifically affects an individual's willingness to accept social risks arising through interpersonal interactions. these results concur with animal research suggesting an essential role for oxytocin as a biological basis of prosocial approach behaviour. 		 	identifiers 		doi: . /nature 	 			full text				 			 			 article (published version) ( kb) - free access other version: http://www.nature.com/articles/nature 			 		 	research group 		affective sciences 	citation (iso format) 		kosfeld, michael et al. oxytocin increases trust in humans. in: nature, , vol. , n° , p. - . doi: . /nature https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige: hits downloads update request 	  	  	  	  update deposited on : - - 	 	 	 	 if you are one of the authors' document, you have the possibility to update some of its metadata by using the editor form. 	 	 		 	unige: 	export document 	 		format	:	 			html citation plain text citation endnote format 		 	citation style	:	 			apa th - american psychological association, th edition bibtex chicago th edition (author-date system) harvard mla th edition nlm - national library of medicine turabian (reference list) th 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( kb)	pasixxxx	user created page with uploadwizard file usage the following pages on the english wikipedia use this file (pages on other projects are not listed): 	trust (social science) retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/file:levels_of_trust_are_higher_in_more_equal_us_states.jpg" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			file 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	view on commons 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	upload file 	special pages 	printable version 	page information 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 economic inequality - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	economic inequality 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for the more general social form, see social inequality. for other uses, see inequality. divergence in economic well-being within a group differences in national income equality around the world as measured by the national gini coefficient as of .[ ] the gini coefficient is a number between and , where corresponds with perfect equality (where everyone has the same income) and corresponds with absolute inequality (where one person has all the income, and everyone else has zero income). wealth disparity in major cities tents of the homeless on the sidewalk in skid row, los angeles an affluent house in holmby hills, los angeles, only miles from downtown (above) there are wide varieties of economic inequality, most notably measured using the distribution of income (the amount of money people are paid) and the distribution of wealth (the amount of wealth people own). besides economic inequality between countries or states, there are important types of economic inequality between different groups of people.[ ] important types of economic measurements focus on wealth, income, and consumption. there are many methods for measuring economic inequality,[ ] with the gini coefficient being a widely used one. another type of measure is the inequality-adjusted human development index, which is a statistic composite index that takes inequality into account.[ ] important concepts of equality include equity, equality of outcome, and equality of opportunity. research suggests that greater inequality hinders economic growth, with land and human capital inequality reducing growth more than inequality of income.[ ] whereas globalization has reduced global inequality (between nations), it has increased inequality within nations.[ ] contents 	 measurements 	 . wealth distribution within individual countries 	 . income distribution within individual countries 	 various proposed causes of economic inequality 	 . labour market 	 . malthusian argument 	 . taxes 	 . education 	 . economic liberalism, deregulation and decline of unions 	 . information technology 	 . globalization 	 . gender 	 . race 	 . . westernized nations 	 . . latin america 	 . . africa 	 . . asia 	 . economic development 	 . wealth concentration 	 . rent seeking 	 . finance industry 	 . global warming 	 mitigating factors 	 effects 	 perspectives 	 . fairness vs. equality 	 . socialist perspectives 	 . meritocracy 	 . liberal perspectives 	 . social justice arguments 	 . effects on social welfare 	 . capabilities approach 	 policy responses intended to mitigate 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 . historical 	 external links measurements[edit] main articles: income inequality metrics and list of countries by income equality share of income of the top % for selected developed countries, to in , the ratio between the income of the top and bottom percent of the world's population was three to one. by , it was eighty-six to one.[ ] a study titled "divided we stand: why inequality keeps rising" by the organisation for economic co-operation and development (oecd) sought to explain the causes for this rising inequality by investigating economic inequality in oecd countries; it concluded that the following factors played a role:[ ] 	changes in the structure of households can play an important role. single-headed households in oecd countries have risen from an average of % in the late s to % in the mid- s, resulting in higher inequality. 	assortative mating refers to the phenomenon of people marrying people with similar background, for example doctors marrying other doctors rather than nurses. oecd found out that % of couples where both partners work belonged to the same or neighbouring earnings deciles compared with % some years before.[ ] 	in the bottom percentiles, number of hours worked has decreased.[ ] 	the main reason for increasing inequality seems to be the difference between the demand for and supply of skills.[ ] the study made the following conclusions about the level of economic inequality: 	income inequality in oecd countries is at its highest level for the past half century. the ratio between the bottom % and the top % has increased from : to : in years.[ ] 	there are tentative signs of a possible convergence of inequality levels towards a common and higher average level across oecd countries.[ ] 	with very few exceptions (france, japan, and spain), the wages of the % best-paid workers have risen relative to those of the % lowest paid.[ ] a oecd study investigated economic inequality in argentina, brazil, china, india, indonesia, russia and south africa. it concluded that key sources of inequality in these countries include "a large, persistent informal sector, widespread regional divides (e.g. urban-rural), gaps in access to education, and barriers to employment and career progression for women."[ ] countries by total wealth (trillions usd), credit suisse world map of countries by the inequality-adjusted human development index. a study by the world institute for development economics research at united nations university reports that the richest % of adults alone owned % of global assets in the year . the three richest people in the world possess more financial assets than the lowest nations combined.[ ] the combined wealth of the " million dollar millionaires" grew to nearly $ trillion in .[ ] oxfam's report on global inequality, while noting that , billionaires owned as much wealth as the bottom . billion people in , highlighted the widening gap between genders largely as the result of unpaid care work performed by women, and it stated that "our economic system was built by rich and powerful men, who continue to make the rules and reap the lion’s share of the benefit. worldwide men own % more wealth than women."[ ] wealth inequality in the united states increased from to .[ ] according to politifact, the top richest americans "have more wealth than half of all americans combined."[ ][ ][ ][ ] according to the new york times on july , , the "richest percent in the united states now own more wealth than the bottom percent".[ ] inherited wealth may help explain why many americans who have become rich may have had a "substantial head start".[ ][ ] in september , according to the institute for policy studies (ips), "over percent" of the forbes richest americans "grew up in substantial privilege".[ ] a report by the ips said that three individuals, jeff bezos, bill gates and warren buffett, own as much wealth as the bottom half of the population, or million people, and that the growing disparity between the wealthy and the poor has created a "moral crisis", noting that "we have not witnessed such extreme levels of concentrated wealth and power since the first gilded age a century ago."[ ][ ] in , the world's billionaires increased their combined global wealth to a record $ trillion.[ ] in , they increased their collective wealth to . trillion.[ ] in , u.s. income inequality reached the highest level ever recorded by the census bureau.[ ] the existing data and estimates suggest a large increase in international (and more generally inter-macroregional) components between and . it might have slightly decreased since that time at the expense of increasing inequality within countries.[ ] the united nations development programme in asserted that greater investments in social security, jobs and laws that protect vulnerable populations are necessary to prevent widening income inequality.[ ] there is a significant difference in the measured wealth distribution and the public's understanding of wealth distribution. michael norton of the harvard business school and dan ariely of the department of psychology at duke university found this to be true in their research conducted in . the actual wealth going to the top quintile in was around %, whereas the average amount of wealth that the general public estimated to go to the top quintile was around %.[ ] according to a study, global earnings inequality has decreased substantially since . during the s and s, the share of earnings by the world's poorest half doubled.[ ] two researchers claim that global income inequality is decreasing due to strong economic growth in developing countries.[ ] according to a january report by the united nations department of economic and social affairs, economic inequality between states had declined, but intra-state inequality has increased for % of the world population over the period – .[ ] in , the oecd reported in that income inequality is higher than it has ever been within oecd member nations and is at increased levels in many emerging economies.[ ] according to a june report by the international monetary fund: widening income inequality is the defining challenge of our time. in advanced economies, the gap between the rich and poor is at its highest level in decades. inequality trends have been more mixed in emerging markets and developing countries (emdcs), with some countries experiencing declining inequality, but pervasive inequities in access to education, health care, and finance remain.[ ] in october , the imf warned that inequality within nations, in spite of global inequality falling in recent decades, has risen so sharply that it threatens economic growth and could result in further political polarization. the fund's fiscal monitor report said that "progressive taxation and transfers are key components of efficient fiscal redistribution."[ ] in october oxfam published a reducing inequality index which measured social spending, tax and workers' rights to show which countries were best at closing the gap between the rich and the poor.[ ] wealth distribution within individual countries[edit] main article: list of countries by wealth per adult the following table shows information about individual wealth distribution in different countries from a report by crédit suisse.[ ] 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 median and mean wealth per adult, in us dollars. countries and subnational areas. initially in rank order by median wealth. 	country or subnational area 	median wealth per adult. us dollars 	mean wealth per adult. us dollars 	ratio (%) of median to mean 	adults. thousands 	 iceland 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 australia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	  switzerland 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 luxembourg 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 belgium 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 netherlands 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 france 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 canada 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 japan 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 new zealand 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 united kingdom 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 singapore 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 spain 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 norway 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 italy 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 taiwan 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 malta 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 ireland 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 austria 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 south korea 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 united states 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 denmark 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 qatar 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 hong kong 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 israel 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 finland 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 greece 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 sweden 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 germany 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 slovenia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 portugal 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 libya 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 kuwait 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 united arab emirates 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 chile 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 seychelles 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 slovakia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 estonia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 croatia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 czech republic 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 mauritius 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 china 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , , 	 hungary 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 aruba 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 oman 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 brunei 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 bahrain 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 saudi arabia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 uruguay 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 montenegro 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 bahamas 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 lithuania 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 bulgaria 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 poland 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 cyprus 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 costa rica 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 barbados 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 panama 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 albania 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 latvia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 georgia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 malaysia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 gabon 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 tonga 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 bosnia and herzegovina 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 south africa 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 romania 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 samoa 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 iraq 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 tunisia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 peru 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 mexico 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 jordan 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 north macedonia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 dominica 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 trinidad and tobago 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 colombia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 serbia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 turkmenistan 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 antigua and barbuda 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 el salvador 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 mongolia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 brazil 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 namibia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 lebanon 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 solomon islands 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 grenada 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 botswana 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 saint lucia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 azerbaijan 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 armenia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 fiji 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 ecuador 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 argentina 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 algeria 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 angola 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 equatorial guinea 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 honduras 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 russia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 maldives 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 turkey 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 paraguay 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 saint vincent and the grenadines 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 jamaica 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 morocco 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 sri lanka 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 vanuatu 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 belize 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 djibouti 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 papua new guinea 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 bolivia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 philippines 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 iran 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 vietnam 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 kyrgyzstan 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 pakistan 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 indonesia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 laos 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 eritrea 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 guyana 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 eswatini 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 cambodia 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 zimbabwe 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 são tomé and príncipe 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 east timor 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 india 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 senegal 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 benin 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 republic of the congo 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 suriname 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 	 ivory coast 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 thailand 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 nicaragua 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 bangladesh 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 comoros 	 	 , 	 . 	 	 togo 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 cameroon 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 kenya 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 lesotho 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	   nepal 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 mauritania 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 belarus 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 myanmar 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 haiti 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 tajikistan 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 yemen 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 burkina faso 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 syria 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 mali 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 liberia 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 ghana 	 	 	 . 	 , 	 zambia 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 tanzania 	 	 	 . 	 , 	 niger 	 	 	 . 	 , 	 egypt 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 central african republic 	 	 	 . 	 , 	 gambia 	 	 	 . 	 	 guinea 	 	 	 . 	 , 	 guinea-bissau 	 	 	 . 	 	 chad 	 	 	 . 	 , 	 afghanistan 	 	 	 . 	 , 	 uganda 	 	 	 . 	 , 	 rwanda 	 	 	 . 	 , 	 sudan 	 	 	 . 	 , 	 nigeria 	 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 mozambique 	 	 	 . 	 , 	 madagascar 	 	 	 . 	 , 	 sierra leone 	 	 	 . 	 , 	 kazakhstan 	 , 	 , 	 . 	 , 	 burundi 	 	 	 . 	 , 	 dr congo 	 	 	 . 	 , 	 ethiopia 	 	 	 . 	 , 	 malawi 	 	 	 . 	 , 	 ukraine 	 	 , 	 . 	 , income distribution within individual countries[edit] countries' income inequality according to their most recent reported gini index values as of .[ ] main article: list of countries by income equality a gini index value above is considered high; countries including brazil, colombia, south africa, botswana, and honduras can be found in this category. a gini index value of or above is considered medium; countries including vietnam, mexico, poland, the united states, argentina, russia and uruguay can be found in this category. a gini index value lower than is considered low; countries including austria, germany, denmark, slovenia, sweden and ukraine can be found in this category.[ ] various proposed causes of economic inequality[edit] there are various reasons for economic inequality within societies, including both global market functions (such as trade, development, and regulation) as well as social factors (including gender, race, and education).[ ] recent growth in overall income inequality, at least within the oecd countries, has been driven mostly by increasing inequality in wages and salaries.[ ] economist thomas piketty argues that widening economic disparity is an inevitable phenomenon of free market capitalism when the rate of return of capital (r) is greater than the rate of growth of the economy (g).[ ] labour market[edit] main articles: labour economics, capitalism, marxism, and neoclassical economics a major cause of economic inequality within modern market economies is the determination of wages by the market. where competition is imperfect; information unevenly distributed; opportunities to acquire education and skills unequal; market failure results. since many such imperfect conditions exist in virtually every market, there is in fact little presumption that markets are in general efficient. this means that there is an enormous potential role for government to correct such market failures.[ ] malthusian argument[edit] main article: thomas malthus 		this section needs expansion. you can help by adding to it. (october ) taxes[edit] main articles: income tax and progressive tax another cause is the rate at which income is taxed coupled with the progressivity of the tax system. a progressive tax is a tax by which the tax rate increases as the taxable base amount increases.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] in a progressive tax system, the level of the top tax rate will often have a direct impact on the level of inequality within a society, either increasing it or decreasing it, provided that income does not change as a result of the change in tax regime. additionally, steeper tax progressivity applied to social spending can result in a more equal distribution of income across the board.[ ] tax credits such as the earned income tax credit in the us can also decrease income inequality.[ ] the difference between the gini index for an income distribution before taxation and the gini index after taxation is an indicator for the effects of such taxation.[ ] education[edit] main article: education illustration from a advertisement for a vocational school in the back of a us magazine. education has been seen as a key to higher income, and this advertisement appealed to americans' belief in the possibility of self-betterment, as well as threatening the consequences of downward mobility in the great income inequality existing during the industrial revolution. an important factor in the creation of inequality is variation in individuals' access to education.[ ] education, especially in an area where there is a high demand for workers, creates high wages for those with this education.[ ] however, increases in education first increase and then decrease growth as well as income inequality. as a result, those who are unable to afford an education, or choose not to pursue optional education, generally receive much lower wages. the justification for this is that a lack of education leads directly to lower incomes, and thus lower aggregate saving and investment. conversely, quality education raises incomes and promotes growth because it helps to unleash the productive potential of the poor.[citation needed] economic liberalism, deregulation and decline of unions[edit] main articles: economic liberalism, deregulation, and labor unions in the united states john schmitt and ben zipperer ( ) of the cepr point to economic liberalism and the reduction of business regulation along with the decline of union membership as one of the causes of economic inequality. in an analysis of the effects of intensive anglo-american liberal policies in comparison to continental european liberalism, where unions have remained strong, they concluded "the u.s. economic and social model is associated with substantial levels of social exclusion, including high levels of income inequality, high relative and absolute poverty rates, poor and unequal educational outcomes, poor health outcomes, and high rates of crime and incarceration. at the same time, the available evidence provides little support for the view that u.s.-style labor market flexibility dramatically improves labor-market outcomes. despite popular prejudices to the contrary, the u.s. economy consistently affords a lower level of economic mobility than all the continental european countries for which data is available."[ ] more recently, the international monetary fund has published studies which found that the decline of unionization in many advanced economies and the establishment of neoliberal economics have fueled rising income inequality.[ ][ ] information technology[edit] main articles: digital revolution and information technology the growth in importance of information technology has been credited with increasing income inequality.[ ] technology has been called "the main driver of the recent increases in inequality" by erik brynjolfsson, of mit.[ ] in arguing against this explanation, jonathan rothwell notes that if technological advancement is measured by high rates of invention, there is a negative correlation between it and inequality. countries with high invention rates — "as measured by patent applications filed under the patent cooperation treaty" — exhibit lower inequality than those with less. in one country, the united states, "salaries of engineers and software developers rarely reach" above $ , /year (the lower limit for the top % earners).[ ] globalization[edit] main articles: globalization and international inequality "elephant curve": change in real income between and at various income percentiles of global income distribution.[ ] trade liberalization may shift economic inequality from a global to a domestic scale.[ ] when rich countries trade with poor countries, the low-skilled workers in the rich countries may see reduced wages as a result of the competition, while low-skilled workers in the poor countries may see increased wages. trade economist paul krugman estimates that trade liberalisation has had a measurable effect on the rising inequality in the united states. he attributes this trend to increased trade with poor countries and the fragmentation of the means of production, resulting in low skilled jobs becoming more tradeable.[citation needed] anthropologist jason hickel contends that globalization and "structural adjustment" set off the "race to the bottom", a significant driver of surging global inequality. another driver hickel mentions is the debt system which advanced the need for structural adjustment in the first place.[ ] gender[edit] main article: gender inequality the gender gap in median earnings of full-time employees according to the oecd [ ] in many countries, there is a gender pay gap in favor of males in the labor market. several factors other than discrimination contribute to this gap. on average, women are more likely than men to consider factors other than pay when looking for work, and may be less willing to travel or relocate.[ ][ ] thomas sowell, in his book knowledge and decisions, claims that this difference is due to women not taking jobs due to marriage or pregnancy. a u.s. census's report stated that in us once other factors are accounted for there is still a difference in earnings between women and men.[ ] race[edit] main article: social inequality there is also a globally recognized disparity in the wealth, income, and economic welfare of people of different races. in many nations, data exists to suggest that members of certain racial demographics experience lower wages, fewer opportunities for career and educational advancement, and intergenerational wealth gaps.[ ] studies have uncovered the emergence of what is called "ethnic capital", by which people belonging to a race that has experienced discrimination are born into a disadvantaged family from the beginning and therefore have less resources and opportunities at their disposal.[ ][ ] the universal lack of education, technical and cognitive skills, and inheritable wealth within a particular race is often passed down between generations, compounding in effect to make escaping these racialized cycles of poverty increasingly difficult.[ ] additionally, ethnic groups that experience significant disparities are often also minorities, at least in representation though often in number as well, in the nations where they experience the harshest disadvantage. as a result, they are often segregated either by government policy or social stratification, leading to ethnic communities that experience widespread gaps in wealth and aid.[ ] as a general rule, races which have been historically and systematically colonized (typically indigenous ethnicities) continue to experience lower levels of financial stability in the present day. the global south is considered to be particularly victimized by this phenomenon, though the exact socioeconomic manifestations change across different regions.[ ] westernized nations[edit] even in economically developed societies with high levels of modernization such as may be found in western europe, north america, and australia, minority ethnic groups and immigrant populations in particular experience financial discrimination. while the progression of civil rights movements and justice reform has improved access to education and other economic opportunities in politically advanced nations, racial income and wealth disparity still prove significant.[ ] in the united states for example, which serves as a good basis for understanding racial discrimination in the west due to the amount of research attention it receives, a survey of african-american populations show that they are more likely to drop out of high school and college, are typically employed for fewer hours at lower wages, how lower than average intergenerational wealth, and are more likely to use welfare as young adults than their white counterparts.[ ] mexican-americans, while suffering less debilitating socioeconomic factors than black americans, experience deficiencies in the same areas when compared to whites and have not assimilated financially to the level of stability experienced by white americans as a whole.[ ] these experiences are the effects of the measured disparity due to race in countries like the us, where studies show that in comparison to whites, blacks suffer from drastically lower levels of upward mobility, higher levels of downward mobility, and poverty that is more easily transmitted to offspring as a result of the disadvantage stemming from the era of slavery and post-slavery racism that has been passed through racial generations to the present.[ ][ ][ ] these are lasting financial inequalities that apply in varying magnitudes to most non-white populations in nations such as the us, the uk, france, spain, australia, etc.[ ] latin america[edit] in the countries of the caribbean, central america, and south america, many ethnicities continue to deal with the effects fo european colonization, and in general nonwhites tend to be noticeably poorer than whites in this region. in many countries with significant populations of indigenous races and those of afro-descent (such as mexico, colombia, chile, etc.) income levels can be roughly half as high as those experiences by white demographics, and this inequity is accompanied by systematically unequal access to education, career opportunities, and poverty relief. this region of the world, apart from urbanizing areas like brazil and costa rica, continues to be understudied and often the racial disparity is denied by latin americans who consider themselves to be living in post-racial and post-colonial societies far removed from intense social and economic stratification despite the evidence to the contrary.[ ] africa[edit] african countries, too, continue to deal with the effects of the trans-atlantic slave trade, which set back economic development as a whole for blacks of african citizenship more than any other region. the degree to which colonizers stratified their holdings on the continent on the basis of race has had a direct correlation in the magnitude of disparity experienced by nonwhites in the nations that eventually rose from their colonial status. former french colonies, for example, see much higher rates of income inequality between whites and nonwhites as a result of the rigid hierarchy imposed by the french who lived in africa at the time.[ ] another prime example is found in south africa, which, still reeling from the socioeconomic impacts of apartheid, experiences some of the highest racial income and wealth inequality in all of africa.[ ] in these and other countries like nigeria, zimbabwe, and sierra leone, movements of civil reform have initially led to improved access to financial advancement opportunities, but data actually shows that for nonwhites this progress is either stalling or erasing itself in the newest generation of blacks that seek education and improved transgenerational wealth. the economic status of one's parents continues to define and predict the financial futures of african and minority ethnic groups.[ ] asia[edit] asian regions and countries such as china, the middle east, and central asia have been vastly understudied in terms of racial disparity, but even here the effects of western colonization provide similar results to those found in other parts of the globe.[ ] additionally, cultural and historical practices such as the caste system in india leave their marks as well. while the disparity is greatly improving in the case of india, there still exists social stratification between peoples of lighter and darker skin tones that cumulatively result in income and wealth inequality, manifesting in many of the same poverty traps seen elsewhere.[ ] economic development[edit] a kuznets curve main article: kuznets curve economist simon kuznets argued that levels of economic inequality are in large part the result of stages of development. according to kuznets, countries with low levels of development have relatively equal distributions of wealth. as a country develops, it acquires more capital, which leads to the owners of this capital having more wealth and income and introducing inequality. eventually, through various possible redistribution mechanisms such as social welfare programs, more developed countries move back to lower levels of inequality.[citation needed] wealth concentration[edit] main articles: wealth concentration and billionaire as of , jeff bezos is the richest person in the world. wealth concentration is the process by which, under certain conditions, newly created wealth concentrates in the possession of already-wealthy individuals or entities. accordingly, those who already hold wealth have the means to invest in new sources of creating wealth or to otherwise leverage the accumulation of wealth, and thus they are the beneficiaries of the new wealth. over time, wealth concentration can significantly contribute to the persistence of inequality within society. thomas piketty in his book capital in the twenty-first century argues that the fundamental force for divergence is the usually greater return of capital (r) than economic growth (g), and that larger fortunes generate higher returns.[ ] according to a study by the rand corporation, the top % of u.s. income earners have taken $ trillion from the bottom % between and .[ ][ ] rent seeking[edit] main article: rent-seeking economist joseph stiglitz argues that rather than explaining concentrations of wealth and income, market forces should serve as a brake on such concentration, which may better be explained by the non-market force known as "rent-seeking". while the market will bid up compensation for rare and desired skills to reward wealth creation, greater productivity, etc., it will also prevent successful entrepreneurs from earning excess profits by fostering competition to cut prices, profits and large compensation.[ ] a better explainer of growing inequality, according to stiglitz, is the use of political power generated by wealth by certain groups to shape government policies financially beneficial to them. this process, known to economists as rent-seeking, brings income not from creation of wealth but from "grabbing a larger share of the wealth that would otherwise have been produced without their effort"[ ] finance industry[edit] jamie galbraith argues that countries with larger financial sectors have greater inequality, and the link is not an accident.[ ][ ][why?] global warming[edit] a study published in pnas found that global warming plays a role in increasing economic inequality between countries, boosting economic growth in developed countries while hampering such growth in developing nations of the global south. the study says that % of gap between the developed world and the developing world can be attributed to global warming.[ ] a report by oxfam and the stockholm environment institute says that the wealthiest % of the global population were responsible for more than half of global carbon dioxide emissions from to , which increased by %.[ ] according to a report by the unep, overconsumption by the rich is a significant driver of the climate crisis, and the wealthiest % of the world's population are responsible for more than double the greenhouse gas emissions of the poorest % combined. inger andersen, in the foreword to the report, said "this elite will need to reduce their footprint by a factor of to stay in line with the paris agreement targets."[ ] mitigating factors[edit] countries with a left-leaning legislature generally have lower levels of inequality.[ ][ ] many factors constrain economic inequality – they may be divided into two classes: government sponsored, and market driven. the relative merits and effectiveness of each approach is a subject of debate. typical government initiatives to reduce economic inequality include: 	public education: increasing the supply of skilled labor and reducing income inequality due to education differentials.[ ] 	progressive taxation: the rich are taxed proportionally more than the poor, reducing the amount of income inequality in society if the change in taxation does not cause changes in income.[ ] market forces outside of government intervention that can reduce economic inequality include: 	propensity to spend: with rising wealth & income, a person may spend more. in an extreme example, if one person owned everything, they would immediately need to hire people to maintain their properties, thus reducing the wealth concentration.[ ] on the other hand, high-income persons have higher propensity to save.[ ] robin maialeh then shows that increasing economic wealth decreases propensity to spend and increases propensity to invest which consequently leads to even greater growth rate of already rich agents.[ ] research shows that since , the only periods with significant declines in wealth inequality in europe were the black death and the two world wars.[ ] historian walter scheidel posits that, since the stone age, only extreme violence, catastrophes and upheaval in the form of total war, communist revolution, pestilence and state collapse have significantly reduced inequality.[ ][ ] he has stated that "only all-out thermonuclear war might fundamentally reset the existing distribution of resources" and that "peaceful policy reform may well prove unequal to the growing challenges ahead."[ ][ ] effects[edit] main article: effects of economic inequality a lot of research has been done about the effects of economic inequality on different aspects in society: 	health: british researchers richard g. wilkinson and kate pickett have found higher rates of health and social problems (obesity, mental illness, homicides, teenage births, incarceration, child conflict, drug use) in countries and states with higher inequality.[ ][ ] some studies link a surge in "deaths of despair", suicide, drug overdoses and alcohol related deaths, to widening income inequality.[ ][ ] 	social goods: british researchers richard g. wilkinson and kate pickett have found lower rates of social goods (life expectancy by country, educational performance, trust among strangers, women's status, social mobility, even numbers of patents issued) in countries and states with higher inequality.[ ][ ] 	social cohesion: research has shown an inverse link between income inequality and social cohesion. in more equal societies, people are much more likely to trust each other, measures of social capital (the benefits of goodwill, fellowship, mutual sympathy and social connectedness among groups who make up a social units) suggest greater community involvement. 	crime: in more equal societies homicide rates are consistently lower. a study finds that interregional inequality increases terrorism.[ ] 	welfare: studies have found evidence that in societies where inequality is lower, population-wide satisfaction and happiness tend to be higher.[ ][ ] 	debt: income inequality has been the driving factor in the growing household debt,[ ][ ] as high earners bid up the price of real estate and middle income earners go deeper into debt trying to maintain what once was a middle class lifestyle.[ ] 	economic growth: a meta-analysis found that "the effect of inequality on growth is negative and more pronounced in less developed countries than in rich countries". the study also found that wealth inequality is more pernicious to growth than income inequality.[ ] 	civic participation: higher income inequality led to less of all forms of social, cultural, and civic participation among the less wealthy.[ ] 	political instability: one study finds that income inequality increases political instability: "more unequal societies are more politically unstable".[ ] perspectives[edit] fairness vs. equality[edit] according to christina starmans et al. (nature hum. beh., ), the research literature contains no evidence on people having an aversion on inequality. in all studies analyzed, the subjects preferred fair distributions to equal distributions, in both laboratory and real-world situations. in public, researchers may loosely speak of equality instead of fairness, when referring to studies where fairness happens to coincide with equality, but in many studies fairness is carefully separated from equality and the results are univocal. already very young children seem to prefer fairness over equality.[ ] when people were asked, what would be the wealth of each quintile in their ideal society, they gave a -fold sum to the richest quintile than to the poorest quintile. the preference for inequality increases in adolescence, and so do the capabilities to favor fortune, effort and ability in the distribution.[ ] preference for unequal distribution has been developed to the human race possibly because it allows for better co-operation and allows a person to work with a more productive person so that both parties benefit from the co-operation. inequality is also said to be able to solve the problems of free-riders, cheaters and ill-behaving people, although this is heavily debated.[ ] researches demonstrate that people usually underestimate the level of actual inequality, which is also much higher than their desired level of inequality.[ ] in many societies, such as the ussr, the distribution led to protests from wealthier landowners.[ ] in the current u.s., many feel that the distribution is unfair in being too unequal. in both cases, the cause is unfairness, not inequality, the researchers conclude.[ ] socialist perspectives[edit] socialists attribute the vast disparities in wealth to the private ownership of the means of production by a class of owners, creating a situation where a small portion of the population lives off unearned property income by virtue of ownership titles in capital equipment, financial assets and corporate stock. by contrast, the vast majority of the population is dependent on income in the form of a wage or salary. in order to rectify this situation, socialists argue that the means of production should be socially owned so that income differentials would be reflective of individual contributions to the social product.[ ] marxist socialists ultimately predict the emergence of a communist society based on the common ownership of the means of production, where each individual citizen would have free access to the articles of consumption (from each according to his ability, to each according to his need). according to marxist philosophy, equality in the sense of free access is essential for freeing individuals from dependent relationships, thereby allowing them to transcend alienation.[ ] meritocracy[edit] meritocracy favors an eventual society where an individual's success is a direct function of his merit, or contribution. economic inequality would be a natural consequence of the wide range in individual skill, talent and effort in human population. david landes stated that the progression of western economic development that led to the industrial revolution was facilitated by men advancing through their own merit rather than because of family or political connections.[ ] liberal perspectives[edit] most modern social liberals, including centrist or left-of-center political groups, believe that the capitalist economic system should be fundamentally preserved, but the status quo regarding the income gap must be reformed. social liberals favor a capitalist system with active keynesian macroeconomic policies and progressive taxation (to even out differences in income inequality). research indicates that people who hold liberal beliefs tend to see greater income inequality as morally wrong.[ ] however, contemporary classical liberals and libertarians generally do not take a stance on wealth inequality, but believe in equality under the law regardless of whether it leads to unequal wealth distribution. in ludwig von mises, a prominent figure in the austrian school of economic thought, explains: the liberal champions of equality under the law were fully aware of the fact that men are born unequal and that it is precisely their inequality that generates social cooperation and civilization. equality under the law was in their opinion not designed to correct the inexorable facts of the universe and to make natural inequality disappear. it was, on the contrary, the device to secure for the whole of mankind the maximum of benefits it can derive from it. henceforth no man-made institutions should prevent a man from attaining that station in which he can best serve his fellow citizens. robert nozick argued that government redistributes wealth by force (usually in the form of taxation), and that the ideal moral society would be one where all individuals are free from force. however, nozick recognized that some modern economic inequalities were the result of forceful taking of property, and a certain amount of redistribution would be justified to compensate for this force but not because of the inequalities themselves.[ ] john rawls argued in a theory of justice[ ] that inequalities in the distribution of wealth are only justified when they improve society as a whole, including the poorest members. rawls does not discuss the full implications of his theory of justice. some see rawls's argument as a justification for capitalism since even the poorest members of society theoretically benefit from increased innovations under capitalism; others believe only a strong welfare state can satisfy rawls's theory of justice.[ ] classical liberal milton friedman believed that if government action is taken in pursuit of economic equality then political freedom would suffer. in a famous quote, he said: a society that puts equality before freedom will get neither. a society that puts freedom before equality will get a high degree of both. economist tyler cowen has argued that though income inequality has increased within nations, globally it has fallen over the years leading up to . he argues that though income inequality may make individual nations worse off, overall, the world has improved as global inequality has been reduced.[ ] social justice arguments[edit] patrick diamond and anthony giddens (professors of economics and sociology, respectively) hold that 'pure meritocracy is incoherent because, without redistribution, one generation's successful individuals would become the next generation's embedded caste, hoarding the wealth they had accumulated'.[citation needed] they also state that social justice requires redistribution of high incomes and large concentrations of wealth in a way that spreads it more widely, in order to "recognise the contribution made by all sections of the community to building the nation's wealth." (patrick diamond and anthony giddens, june , , new statesman)[ ] pope francis stated in his evangelii gaudium, that "as long as the problems of the poor are not radically resolved by rejecting the absolute autonomy of markets and financial speculation and by attacking the structural causes of inequality, no solution will be found for the world's problems or, for that matter, to any problems."[ ] he later declared that "inequality is the root of social evil."[ ] when income inequality is low, aggregate demand will be relatively high, because more people who want ordinary consumer goods and services will be able to afford them, while the labor force will not be as relatively monopolized by the wealthy.[ ] effects on social welfare[edit] in most western democracies, the desire to eliminate or reduce economic inequality is generally associated with the political left. one practical argument in favor of reduction is the idea that economic inequality reduces social cohesion and increases social unrest, thereby weakening the society. there is evidence that this is true (see inequity aversion) and it is intuitive, at least for small face-to-face groups of people.[citation needed] alberto alesina, rafael di tella, and robert macculloch find that inequality negatively affects happiness in europe but not in the united states.[ ] it has also been argued that economic inequality invariably translates to political inequality, which further aggravates the problem. even in cases where an increase in economic inequality makes nobody economically poorer, an increased inequality of resources is disadvantageous, as increased economic inequality can lead to a power shift due to an increased inequality in the ability to participate in democratic processes.[ ] capabilities approach[edit] further information: capability approach the capabilities approach – sometimes called the human development approach – looks at income inequality and poverty as form of "capability deprivation".[ ] unlike neoliberalism, which "defines well-being as utility maximization", economic growth and income are considered a means to an end rather than the end itself.[ ] its goal is to "wid[en] people's choices and the level of their achieved well-being"[ ] through increasing functionings (the things a person values doing), capabilities (the freedom to enjoy functionings) and agency (the ability to pursue valued goals).[ ] when a person's capabilities are lowered, they are in some way deprived of earning as much income as they would otherwise. an old, ill man cannot earn as much as a healthy young man; gender roles and customs may prevent a woman from receiving an education or working outside the home. there may be an epidemic that causes widespread panic, or there could be rampant violence in the area that prevents people from going to work for fear of their lives.[ ] as a result, income inequality increases, and it becomes more difficult to reduce the gap without additional aid. to prevent such inequality, this approach believes it is important to have political freedom, economic facilities, social opportunities, transparency guarantees, and protective security to ensure that people aren't denied their functionings, capabilities, and agency and can thus work towards a better relevant income. policy responses intended to mitigate[edit] no business which depends for existence on paying less than living wages to its workers has any right to continue in this country. —president franklin delano roosevelt, [ ] a oecd study makes a number of suggestions to its member countries, including:[ ] 	well-targeted income-support policies. 	facilitation and encouragement of access to employment. 	better job-related training and education for the low-skilled (on-the-job training) would help to boost their productivity potential and future earnings. 	better access to formal education. progressive taxation reduces absolute income inequality when the higher rates on higher-income individuals are paid and not evaded, and transfer payments and social safety nets result in progressive government spending.[ ][ ][ ] wage ratio legislation has also been proposed as a means of reducing income inequality. the oecd asserts that public spending is vital in reducing the ever-expanding wealth gap.[ ] the economists emmanuel saez and thomas piketty recommend much higher top marginal tax rates on the wealthy, up to percent, percent or even percent.[ ] ralph nader, jeffrey sachs, the united front against austerity, among others, call for a financial transactions tax (also known as the robin hood tax) to bolster the social safety net and the public sector.[ ][ ][ ] the economist wrote in december : "a minimum wage, providing it is not set too high, could thus boost pay with no ill effects on jobs....america's federal minimum wage, at % of median income, is one of the rich world's lowest. some studies find no harm to employment from federal or state minimum wages, others see a small one, but none finds any serious damage."[ ] general limitations on and taxation of rent-seeking are popular across the political spectrum.[ ] public policy responses addressing causes and effects of income inequality in the us include: progressive tax incidence adjustments, strengthening social safety net provisions such as aid to families with dependent children, welfare, the food stamp program, social security, medicare, and medicaid, organizing community interest groups, increasing and reforming higher education subsidies, increasing infrastructure spending, and placing limits on and taxing rent-seeking.[ ] a study in the journal of political economy by daron acemoglu, james robinson and thierry verdier argues that american "cutthroat" capitalism and inequality gives rise to technology and innovation that more "cuddly" forms of capitalism cannot.[ ] as a result, "the diversity of institutions we observe among relatively advanced countries, ranging from greater inequality and risk-taking in the united states to the more egalitarian societies supported by a strong safety net in scandinavia, rather than reflecting differences in fundamentals between the citizens of these societies, may emerge as a mutually self-reinforcing world equilibrium. if so, in this equilibrium, 'we cannot all be like the scandinavians,' because scandinavian capitalism depends in part on the knowledge spillovers created by the more cutthroat american capitalism."[ ] a working paper by the same authors, making similar arguments, was challenged by lane kenworthy, who posited that, among other things, the nordic countries are consistently ranked as some of the world's most innovative countries by the world economic forum's global competitiveness index, with sweden ranking as the most innovative nation, followed by finland, for – ; the u.s. ranked sixth.[ ] there are however global initiative like the united nations sustainable development goal which aims to garner international efforts in reducing economic inequality considerably by .[ ] see also[edit] 	accumulation of capital 	aporophobia 	class conflict 	criticism of capitalism 	cycle of poverty 	donor class 	economic migrant 	equal opportunity 	great divergence, disproportionate economic advancement of europe 	human development index 	income distribution 	inequality for all 	international inequality 	list of countries by distribution of wealth 	list of countries by income equality 	list of countries by wealth per adult 	occupy movement 	paradise papers 	poverty reduction 	public university 	rent-seeking 	social inequality 	tax haven 	theories of poverty 	wealth concentration 	wealth distribution references[edit] 	^ a b "gini index (world bank estimate) | data". data.worldbank.org. retrieved july , . 	^ "wealth distribution and income inequality by country | global finance magazine". 	^ trapeznikova, ija ( ). 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"what to do about inequality". boston review. archived from the original on april , . retrieved april , . 	^ a b acemoglu, daron; robinson, james a.; verdier, thierry ( ). "asymmetric growth and institutions in an interdependent world". journal of political economy. ( ): – . doi: . / . hdl: . / . s cid  . 	^ lane, kenworthy ( ). social democratic america. usa: oxford university press. pp.  – . isbn  - . 	^ "goal targets". undp. retrieved september , . further reading[edit] 	books 	atkinson, anthony b.; bourguignon, françois ( ). handbook of income distribution. amsterdam new york: elvesier. isbn  . 	atkinson, anthony b. ( ). inequality: what can be done? cambridge, massachusetts: harvard university press. isbn  	barro, robert j.; sala-i-martin, xavier ( ) [ ]. economic growth ( nd ed.). massachusetts: mit press. isbn  . 	deneulin, séverine; shahani, lila ( ). an introduction to the human development and capability approach freedom and agency. sterling, virginia ottawa, ontario: earthscan international development research centre. isbn  . 	giddens, anthony; diamond, patrick ( ). the new egalitarianism. cambridge, uk malden, massachusetts: polity. isbn  . 	gilens, martin ( ). affluence and influence: economic inequality and political power in america. princeton, new jersey new york: princeton university press russell sage foundation. isbn  . 	lambert, peter j. ( ). the distribution and redistribution of income ( rd ed.). manchester new york new york: manchester university press palgrave. isbn  . 	lynn, richard; vanhanen, tatu ( ). iq and the wealth of nations. westport, connecticut: praeger. isbn  . 	merino, noël, ed. ( ). income inequality. opposing viewpoints series. farmington hills, michigan: greenhaven press. isbn  . 	page, benjamin i.; jacobs, lawrence r. ( ). class war?: what americans really think about economic inequality. chicago: university of chicago press. isbn  . 	salverda, wiemer; nolan, brian; smeeding, timothy m. ( ). the oxford handbook of economic inequality. oxford new york: oxford university press. isbn  . 	schmidtz, david ( ). the elements of justice. cambridge new york: cambridge university press. isbn  . 	sen, amartya ( ). development as freedom. new york: oxford university press. isbn  . 	sen, amartya; foster, james e. ( ). on economic inequality. radcliffe lectures. oxford new york: clarendon press oxford university press. isbn  . 	von braun, joachim; diaz-bonilla, eugenio ( ). globalization of food, and agriculture, and the poor. new delhi washington d.c: oxford university press international food policy research institute. isbn  . 	wilkinson, richard g. ( ). the impact of inequality: how to make sick societies healthier. london: routledge. isbn  . 	wilkinson, richard g.; pickett, kate ( ). the spirit level: why more equal societies almost always do better. london: allen lane. isbn  . 	articles 	rivera vicencio, eduardo, "inequality,precariousness and social costs of capitalism. in the era of corporate governmentality" international journal of critical accounting (ijca), vol , nº , pp.  – . [ ]. 	ahamed, liaquat, "widening gyre: the rise and fall and rise of economic inequality", the new yorker, september , , pp.  – . "[t]here seems to [be] some sort of cap on inequality – a limit to the economic divisions a country can ultimately cope with." (p.  .) 	alesina, alberto; di tella, rafael; macculloch, robert ( ). "inequality and happiness: are europeans and americans different?". journal of public economics. ( – ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /j.jpubeco. . . . 	andersen, robert ( ). "support for democracy in cross-national perspective: the detrimental effect of economic inequality" (pdf). research in social stratification and mobility. ( ): – . doi: . /j.rssm. . . . 	andersen, robert; fetner, tina ( ). "economic inequality and intolerance: attitudes toward homosexuality in democracies". american journal of political science. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. hdl: / . jstor  . 	barro, robert j. ( ). "economic growth in a cross section of countries". the quarterly journal of economics. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . jstor  . 	barro, robert j. ( ). "inequality and growth in a panel of countries". journal of economic growth. ( ): – . doi: . /a: . s cid  . 	fukuda-parr, sakiko ( ). "the human development paradigm: operationalizing sen's ideas on capabilities". feminist economics. ( – ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	galor, oded; zeira, joseph ( ). "income distribution and macroeconomics". the review of economic studies. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . jstor  . 	hatch, megan e.; rigby, elizabeth ( ). "laboratories of (in)equality? redistributive policy and income inequality in the american states". policy studies journal. ( ): – . doi: . /psj. . 	kaldor, nicholas ( ). "alternative theories of distribution". the review of economic studies. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	kenworthy, lane ( ). "rising inequality, public policy, and america's poor". challenge. ( ): – . doi: . / - . jstor  . s cid  . 	kenworthy, lane ( ). "why the surge in income inequality?". contemporary sociology. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	komlos, john ( ). "in america, inequality begins in the womb". pbs, making sen$se. retrieved july , . 	lagerlof, nils-petter ( ). "sex, equality, and growth". canadian journal of economics. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. s cid  . 	lazzarato, maurizio ( ). "neoliberalism in action: inequality, insecurity and the reconstitution of the social". theory, culture & society. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	maavak, mathew (december ). "class warfare, anarchy and the future society" (pdf). journal of futures studies. ( ): – . archived from the original (pdf) on october , . retrieved march , . 	garcía-peñalosa, cecilia; turnovsky, stephen j. ( ). "growth, income inequality, and fiscal policy: what are the relevant trade-offs?". journal of money, credit and banking. ( – ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /j. - . . .x. 	pigou, arthur c. ( ) [ ], "part i, chapter viii: economic welfare and changes in the distribution of the national dividend (section i.viii. )", in pigou, arthur c. (ed.), the economics of welfare ( th ed.), london: macmillan and co., oclc  . 	sala-i-martin, x. ( ). "the world distribution of income: falling poverty and ... convergence, period". the quarterly journal of economics. ( ): – . doi: . /qjec. . . . . jstor  . 	seguino, stephanie ( ). "gender inequality and economic growth: a cross-country analysis". world development. ( ): – . doi: . /s - x( ) - . 	smeeding, timothy m.; thompson, jeffrey p. ( ). "recent trends in income inequality". in immervoll, herwig; peichl, andreas; tatsiramos, konstantinos (eds.). who loses in the downturn? economic crisis, employment and income distribution. research in labor economics. . pp.  – . doi: . /s - ( ) . isbn  - - - - . 	solow, robert m. ( ). "a contribution to the theory of economic growth". the quarterly journal of economics. ( ): – . doi: . / . hdl: .dmlcz/ . jstor  . 	svizzero, serge; tisdell, clem ( ). "income inequality between skilled individuals" (pdf). international journal of social economics. ( ): – . doi: . / . historical[edit] 	alfani, guido, and matteo di tullio. the lion's share: inequality and the rise of the fiscal state in preindustrial europe, cambridge university press, cambridge . [https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/lions-share/ef f ccc b ef ba d 	crayen, dorothee, and joerg baten. "new evidence and new methods to measure human capital inequality before and during the industrial revolution: france and the us in the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries." economic history review . ( ): - . online 	hickel, jason ( ). the divide: global inequality from conquest to free markets. w. w. norton & company. isbn  - . 	hoffman, philip t., et al. "real inequality in europe since ." journal of economic history . ( ): - . online 	morrisson, christian, and wayne snyder. "the income inequality of france in historical perspective." european review of economic history . ( ): - . online 	lindert, peter h., and steven nafziger. "russian inequality on the eve of revolution." journal of economic history . ( ): - . online 	nicolini, esteban a.; ramos palencia, fernando ( ). "decomposing income inequality in a backward pre‐industrial economy: old castile (spain) in the middle of the eighteenth century". economic history review. ( ): – . doi: . /ehr. . s cid  . 	piketty, thomas, and emmanuel saez. "the evolution of top incomes: a historical and international perspective." american economic review . ( ): - . online 	piketty, thomas, and emmanuel saez. "income inequality in the united states, – ." quarterly journal of economics . ( ): - . online 	saito, osamu. "growth and inequality in the great and little divergence debate: a japanese perspective." economic history review . ( ): - . covers - with comparison to stuart england and mughal india. 	scheidel, walter ( ). the great leveler: violence and the history of inequality from the stone age to the twenty-first century. princeton: princeton university press. isbn  - . 	stewart, frances. "changing perspectives on inequality and development." studies in comparative international development . ( ): - . covers to . 	sutch, richard. "the one percent across two centuries: a replication of thomas piketty's data on the concentration of wealth in the united states." social science history . ( ): - . strongly rejects all piketty's estimates for us inequality before for both top % and top %. online 	van zanden, jan luiten. "tracing the beginning of the kuznets curve: western europe during the early modern period." economic history review . ( ): - . covers to . 	wei, yehua dennis. "geography of inequality in asia." geographical review . ( ): - . covers to . external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: economic inequality 		wikimedia commons has media related to income inequality. 	bowles, samuel; carlin, wendy ( ). "inequality as experienced difference: a reformulation of the gini coefficient". economics letters. : . doi: . /j.econlet. . . issn  - . 		v 	t 	e extreme wealth 	concepts	 	 	capital accumulation 	overaccumulation 	economic inequality 	elite 	oligarchy 	overclass 	plutocracy 	plutonomy 	upper class 	nouveau riche (new money) 	vieux riche (old money) 	veblen goods 	conspicuous consumption 	conspicuous leisure 	people	 	billionaire 	captain of industry 	high-net-worth individual 	uhnwi 	magnate 	business 	millionaire 	oligarch 	business 	russian 	ukrainian 	robber baron 	wealth	 	concentration 	distribution 	dynastic 	effect 	geography 	inherited 	management 	national 	paper 	religion 	tax 	lists	 	people	 	forbes list of billionaires 	female billionaires 	richest royals 	wealthiest americans 	wealthiest families 	wealthiest historical figures 	organizations	 	largest companies by revenue 	largest corporate profits and losses 	largest financial services companies by revenue 	largest manufacturing companies by revenue 	largest software companies by revenue 	largest information technology companies by revenue 	public corporations by market capitalization 	charities 	philanthropists 	universities 	endowment 	number of billionaire alumni 	other	 	cities by number of billionaires 	countries by number of billionaires 	countries by total wealth 	most expensive items 	by category 	wealthiest animals 	see also	 	 	diseases of affluence 	affluenza 	argumentum ad crumenam 	prosperity theology 	philanthropy	 	gospel of wealth 	the giving pledge 	philanthrocapitalism 	venture philanthropy 	sayings	 	the rich get richer and the poor get poorer 	socialism for the rich and capitalism for the poor 	too big to fail 	media	 	capitalism and freedom 	plutus 	greek god of wealth 	superclass 	list 	the theory of the leisure class 	wealth 	the wealth of nations 	 	category 	by country 	commons 	search 	commons retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=economic_inequality&oldid= " 		categories: 	economic inequality 	distribution of wealth 	economic globalization 	libertarian theory 	occupy wall street 	social inequality 	sociological terminology hidden categories: 	webarchive template wayback links 	wikipedia articles needing page number citations from september 	cs errors: missing periodical 	all articles with dead external links 	articles with dead external links from august 	articles with permanently dead external links 	articles with dead external links from september 	webarchive template archiveis links 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	use mdy dates from march 	articles to be expanded from october 	all articles to be expanded 	articles using small message boxes 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from september 	wikipedia articles needing clarification from july 	articles with unsourced statements from april 	commons category link from wikidata 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	eesti 	español 	euskara 	فارسی 	français 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	हिन्दी 	bahasa indonesia 	italiano 	עברית 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	latina 	latviešu 	magyar 	Македонски 	bahasa melayu 	nederlands 	日本語 	polski 	português 	Русский 	slovenčina 	suomi 	தமிழ் 	türkçe 	Українська 	tiếng việt 	粵語 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 disgust - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	disgust 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		basic emotion "revulsion" redirects here. for other uses, see revulsion (disambiguation). "disgusting" redirects here. for the beartooth album, see disgusting (album). oscar gustave rejlander portraying disgust in plates from charles darwin's the expression of the emotions in man and animals 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e disgust (middle french: desgouster, from latin gustus, "taste") is an emotional response of rejection or revulsion to something potentially contagious[ ] or something considered offensive, distasteful, or unpleasant. in the expression of the emotions in man and animals, charles darwin wrote that disgust is a sensation that refers to something revolting. disgust is experienced primarily in relation to the sense of taste (either perceived or imagined), and secondarily to anything which causes a similar feeling by sense of smell, touch, or vision. musically sensitive people may even be disgusted by the cacophony of inharmonious sounds. research continually has proven a relationship between disgust and anxiety disorders such as arachnophobia, blood-injection-injury type phobias, and contamination fear related obsessive–compulsive disorder (also known as ocd).[ ] disgust is one of the basic emotions of robert plutchik's theory of emotions and has been studied extensively by paul rozin. it invokes a characteristic facial expression, one of paul ekman's six universal facial expressions of emotion. unlike the emotions of fear, anger, and sadness, disgust is associated with a decrease in heart rate.[ ] contents 	 evolutionary significance 	 . domains of disgust 	 . gender differences 	 non-verbal communication 	 . children's reactions to a face showing disgust 	 cultural differences 	 neural basis 	 . insula 	 disorders 	 . huntington's disease 	 . major depressive disorder 	 . obsessive-compulsive disorder 	 animal research 	 morality 	 . political orientation 	 . self-disgust 	 functions 	 political and legal aspects of disgust 	 the hydra's tale: imagining disgust 	 plutchik's wheel of emotions 	 see also 	 references 	 bibliography 	 external links evolutionary significance[edit] it is believed that the emotion of disgust has evolved as a response to offensive foods that may cause harm to the organism.[ ] a common example of this is found in human beings who show disgust reactions to mouldy milk or contaminated meat. disgust appears to be triggered by objects or people who possess attributes that signify disease.[ ] self-report and behavioural studies found that disgust elicitors include: 	body products (feces, urine, vomit, sexual fluids, saliva, and mucus); 	foods (spoiled foods); 	animals (fleas, ticks, lice, cockroaches, worms, flies, rats and mice); 	hygiene (visible dirt and "inappropriate" acts [e.g., using an unsterilized surgical instrument]); 	body envelope violations (blood, gore, and mutilation); 	death (dead bodies and organic decay); 	visible signs of infection[ ] the above-mentioned main disgust stimuli are similar to one another in the sense that they can all potentially transmit infections, and are the most common referenced elicitors of disgust cross-culturally.[ ] because of this, disgust is believed to have evolved as a component of a behavioral immune system in which the body attempts to avoid disease-carrying pathogens in preference to fighting them after they have entered the body. this behavioral immune system has been found to make sweeping generalizations because "it is more costly to perceive a sick person as healthy than to perceive a healthy person as sickly".[ ] researchers have found that sensitivity to disgust is negatively correlated to aggression because feelings of disgust typically bring about a need to withdraw[clarification needed] while aggression results in a need to approach.[ ] this can be explained in terms of each of the types of disgust. for those especially sensitive to moral disgust, they would want to be less aggressive because they want to avoid hurting others. those especially sensitive to pathogen disgust might be motivated by a desire to avoid the possibility of an open wound on the victim of the aggression; however, for those sensitive to sexual disgust, some sexual object must be present for them to be especially avoidant of aggression.[ ] based on these findings, disgust may be used as an emotional tool to decrease aggression in individuals. disgust may produce specific autonomic responses, such as reduced blood pressure, lowered heart-rate and decreased skin conductance along with changes in respiratory behaviour.[ ] research has also found that people who are more sensitive to disgust tend to find their own in-group more attractive and tend to have more negative attitudes toward other groups.[ ] this may be explained by assuming that people begin to associate outsiders and foreigners with disease and danger while simultaneously associating health, freedom from disease, and safety with people similar to themselves. taking a further look into hygiene, disgust was the strongest predictor of negative attitudes toward obese individuals. a disgust reaction to obese individuals was also connected with views of moral values.[ ] domains of disgust[edit] see also: evolution of morality tybur, et al., outlines three domains of disgust: pathogen disgust, which "motivates the avoidance of infectious microorganisms"; sexual disgust, "which motivates the avoidance of [dangerous] sexual partners and behaviors"; and moral disgust, which motivates people to avoid breaking social norms. disgust may have an important role in certain forms of morality.[ ] pathogen disgust arises from a desire to survive and, ultimately, a fear of death. he compares it to a "behavioral immune system" that is the 'first line of defense' against potentially deadly agents such as dead bodies, rotting food, and vomit.[ ] sexual disgust arises from a desire to avoid "biologically costly mates" and a consideration of the consequences of certain reproductive choices. the two primary considerations are intrinsic quality (e.g., body symmetry, facial attractiveness, etc.) and genetic compatibility (e.g., avoidance of inbreeding such as the incest taboo).[ ] moral disgust "pertains to social transgressions" and may include behaviors such as lying, theft, murder, and rape. unlike the other two domains, moral disgust "motivates avoidance of social relationships with norm-violating individuals" because those relationships threaten group cohesion.[ ] gender differences[edit] women generally report greater disgust than men, especially regarding sexual disgust or general repulsiveness which have been argued to be consistent with women being more selective regarding sex for evolutionary reasons.[ ] sensitivity to disgust rises during pregnancy, along with levels of the hormone progesterone. scientists have conjectured that pregnancy requires the mother to "dial down" her immune system so that the developing embryo won't be attacked. to protect the mother, this lowered immune system is then compensated by a heightened sense of disgust.[ ] because disgust is an emotion with physical responses to undesirable or dirty situations, studies have proven there are cardiovascular and respiratory changes while experiencing the emotion of disgust.[ ] as mentioned earlier, women experience disgust more prominently than men. this is reflected in a study about dental phobia. a dental phobia comes from experiencing disgust when thinking about the dentist and all that entails. . percent of women compared to . percent of men find the dentist disgusting.[ ] non-verbal communication[edit] in a series of significant studies by paul ekman in the s, it was discovered that facial expressions of emotion are not culturally determined, but universal across human cultures and thus likely to be biological in origin.[ ] the facial expression of disgust was found to be one of these facial expressions. this characteristic facial expression includes slightly narrowed brows, a curled upper lip, wrinkling of the nose and visible protrusions of the tongue, although different elicitors may produce different forms of this expression.[ ] it was found that the facial expression of disgust is readily recognizable across cultures.[ ] this facial expression is also produced in blind individuals and is correctly interpreted by deaf individuals.[ ] this evidence indicates an innate biological basis for the expression and recognition of disgust. the recognition of disgust is also important among species as it has been found that when an individual sees a conspecific looking disgusted after tasting a particular food, he or she automatically infers that the food is bad and should not be eaten.[ ] this evidence suggests that disgust is experienced and recognized almost universally and strongly implicates its evolutionary significance. facial feedback has also been implicated in the expression of disgust. that is, the making of the facial expression of disgust leads to an increased feeling of disgust. this can occur if the person just wrinkles one's nose without awareness that they are making a disgust expression.[ ] the mirror-neuron matching system found in monkeys and humans is a proposed explanation for such recognition, and shows that our internal representation of actions is triggered during the observation of another's actions.[ ] it has been demonstrated that a similar mechanism may apply to emotions. seeing someone else's facial emotional expressions triggers the neural activity that would relate to our own experience of the same emotion.[ ] this points to the universality, as well as survival value of the emotion of disgust. children's reactions to a face showing disgust[edit] at a very young age, children are able to identify different, basic facial emotions. if a parent makes a negative face and a positive emotional face toward two different toys, a child as young as five months would avoid the toy associated with a negative face. young children tend to associate a face showing disgust with anger instead of being able to identify the difference. adults, however, are able to make the distinction. the age of understanding seems to be around ten years old.[ ] cultural differences[edit] because disgust is partially a result of social conditioning, there are differences among different cultures in the objects of disgust. for example, americans "are more likely to link feelings of disgust to actions that limit a person's rights or degrade a person's dignity" while japanese people "are more likely to link feelings of disgust to actions that frustrate their integration into the social world".[ ] furthermore, practices viewed as acceptable in some cultures may be viewed as disgusting in other cultures. in english the concept disgust can apply to both physical and abstract things, but in hindi and malayalam languages, the concept does not apply to both.[ ] disgust is one of the basic emotions recognizable across multiple cultures and is a response to something revolting typically involving taste or sight. though different cultures find different things disgusting, the reaction to the grotesque things remains the same throughout each culture; people and their emotional reactions in the realm of disgust remain the same.[ ] neural basis[edit] the scientific attempts to map specific emotions onto underlying neural substrates dates back to the first half of the th century. functional mri experiments have revealed that the anterior insula in the brain is particularly active when experiencing disgust, when being exposed to offensive tastes, and when viewing facial expressions of disgust.[ ] the research has supported that there are independent neural systems in the brain, each handling a specific basic emotion.[ ] specifically, f-mri studies have provided evidence for the activation of the insula in disgust recognition, as well as visceral changes in disgust reactions such as the feeling of nausea.[ ] the importance of disgust recognition and the visceral reaction of "feeling disgusted" is evident when considering the survival of organisms, and the evolutionary benefit of avoiding contamination.[ ] insula[edit] the insula of the left side, exposed by removing the opercula. from henry gray, warren harmon lewis ( ). anatomy of the human body. fig. the insula (or insular cortex), is the main neural structure involved in the emotion of disgust.[ ][ ][ ] the insula has been shown by several studies to be the main neural correlate of the feeling of disgust both in humans and in macaque monkeys. the insula is activated by unpleasant tastes, smells, and the visual recognition of disgust in conspecific organisms.[ ] the anterior insula is an olfactory and gustatory center that controls visceral sensations and the related autonomic responses.[ ] it also receives visual information from the anterior portion of the ventral superior temporal cortex, where cells have been found to respond to the sight of faces.[ ] the posterior insula is characterized by connections with auditory, somatosensory, and premotor areas, and is not related to the olfactory or gustatory modalities.[ ] the fact that the insula is necessary for our ability to feel and recognize the emotion of disgust is further supported by neuropsychological studies. both calder ( ) and adolphs ( ) showed that lesions on the anterior insula lead to deficits in the experience of disgust and recognizing facial expressions of disgust in others.[ ][ ] the patients also reported having reduced sensations of disgust themselves. furthermore, electrical stimulation of the anterior insula conducted during neurosurgery triggered nausea, the feeling of wanting to throw up and uneasiness in the stomach. finally, electrically stimulating the anterior insula through implanted electrodes produced sensations in the throat and mouth that were "difficult to stand".[ ] these findings demonstrate the role of the insula in transforming unpleasant sensory input into physiological reactions, and the associated feeling of disgust.[ ] studies have demonstrated that the insula is activated by disgusting stimuli, and that observing someone else's facial expression of disgust seems to automatically retrieve a neural representation of disgust.[ ][ ] furthermore, these findings emphasize the role of the insula in feelings of disgust. one particular neuropsychological study focused on patient nk who was diagnosed with a left hemisphere infarction involving the insula, internal capsule, putamen and globus pallidus. nk's neural damage included the insula and putamen and it was found that nk's overall response to disgust-inducing stimuli was significantly lower than that of controls.[ ] the patient showed a reduction in disgust-response on eight categories including food, animals, body products, envelope violation and death.[ ] moreover, nk incorrectly categorized disgust facial expressions as anger. the results of this study support the idea that nk suffered damage to a system involved in recognizing social signals of disgust, due to a damaged insula caused by neurodegeneration.[ ] disorders[edit] huntington's disease[edit] many patients suffering from huntington's disease, a genetically transmitted progressive neurodegenerative disease, are unable to recognize expressions of disgust in others and also don't show reactions of disgust to foul odors or tastes.[ ] the inability to recognize expressions of disgust appears in carriers of the huntington gene before other symptoms appear.[ ] people with huntington's disease are impaired at recognition of anger and fear, and experience a notably severe problem with disgust recognition.[ ] major depressive disorder[edit] patients suffering from major depression have been found to display greater brain activation to facial expressions of disgust.[ ] obsessive-compulsive disorder[edit] the emotion of disgust may have an important role in understanding the neurobiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder (ocd), particularly in those with contamination preoccupations.[ ] in a study by shapira & colleagues ( ), eight ocd subjects with contamination preoccupations and eight healthy volunteers viewed pictures from the international affective picture system during f-mri scans. ocd subjects showed significantly greater neural responses to disgust-invoking images, specifically in the right insula.[ ] furthermore, sprengelmeyer ( ) found that the brain activation associated with disgust included the insula and part of the gustatory cortex that processes unpleasant tastes and smells. ocd subjects and healthy volunteers showed activation patterns in response to disgust pictures that differed significantly at the right insula. in contrast, the two groups were similar in their response to threat-inducing pictures, with no significant group differences at any site.[ ] animal research[edit] with respect to studies using rats, prior research of signs of a conditioned disgust response have been experimentally verified by grill and norgren ( ) who developed a systematic test to assess palatability. the taste reactivity (tr) test has thus become a standard tool in measuring disgust response.[ ] when given a stimulus intraorally which had been previously paired with a nausea-inducing substance, rats will show conditioned disgust reactions. "gaping" in rats is the most dominant conditioned disgust reaction and the muscles used in this response mimic those used in species capable of vomiting.[ ] studies have shown that treatments that reduced serotonin availability or that activate the endocannabinoid system can interfere with the expression of a conditioned disgust reaction in rats. these researchers showed that as nausea produced conditioned disgust reactions, by administering the rats with an antinausea treatment they could prevent toxin-induced conditioned disgust reactions. furthermore, in looking at the different disgust and vomiting reactions between rats and shrews the authors showed that these reactions (particularly vomiting) play a crucial role in the associative processes that govern food selection across species.[ ] in discussing specific neural locations of disgust, research has shown that forebrain mechanisms are necessary for rats to acquire conditioned disgust for a specific emetic (vomit-inducing) substance (such as lithium chloride).[ ] other studies have shown that lesions to the area postrema[ ] and the parabrachial nucleus of the pons[ ] but not the nucleus of the solitary tract[ ] prevented conditioned disgust. moreover, lesions of the dorsal and medial raphe nuclei (depleting forebrain serotonin) prevented the establishment of lithium chloride-induced conditioned disgust.[ ] morality[edit] see also: moral emotions and social intuitionism although disgust was first thought to be a motivation for humans to only physical contaminants, it has since been applied to moral and social moral contaminants as well. the similarities between these types of disgust can especially be seen in the way people react to the contaminants. for example, if someone stumbles upon a pool of vomit, they will do whatever possible to place as much distance between themselves and the vomit as possible, which can include pinching the nose, closing the eyes, or running away. likewise, when a group experiences someone who cheats, rapes, or murders another member of the group, its reaction is to shun or expel that person from the group.[ ] arguably, there is a completely different construct of the emotion of disgust from the core disgust that can be seen in ekman's basic emotions. socio-moral disgust occurs when social or moral boundaries appear to be violated, the socio-moral aspect centers on human violations of the autonomy and dignity of others (e.g., racism, hypocrisy, disloyalty).[ ] socio-moral disgust is different from core disgust. in the study done by simpson and colleagues, there was a divergence found in disgust responses between the core elicitors of disgust and the socio-moral elicitors of disgust, suggesting that the makeup of core and socio-moral disgust may be different emotional constructs.[ ] studies have found that disgust has been known to predict prejudice and discrimination.[ ][ ] through passive viewing tasks and functional magnetic resonance researchers were able to provide direct evidence that the insula is largely involved in racially biased perception of facial disgust through two distinct neural pathways: amygdala and insula, both areas of the brain that deal with emotion processing.[ ] it was found that racial prejudice elicited disgusted facial expressions. disgust can also predict prejudice and discrimination towards individuals with obesity.[ ] vertanian, trewartha and vanman ( ) showed participants photos of obese targets and non-obese targets performing everyday activities. they found that, compared to non-obese people, obese targets elicited more disgust, more negative attitudes and stereotypes, and a greater desire for a social distance from participants. jones & fitness ( )[ ] coined the term "moral hypervigilance" to describe the phenomenon that individuals who are prone to physical disgust are also prone to moral disgust. the link between physical disgust and moral disgust can be seen in the united states where criminals are often referred to as "slime" or "scum" and criminal activity as "stinking" or being "fishy". furthermore, people often try to block out the stimuli of morally repulsive images in much the same way that they would block out the stimuli of a physically repulsive image. when people see an image of abuse, rape, or murder, they often avert their gazes to inhibit the incoming visual stimuli from the photograph just like they would if they saw a decomposing body. moral judgments can be traditionally defined or thought of as directed by standards such as impartiality and respect towards others for their well-being. from more recent theoretical and empirical information, it can be suggested that morality may be guided by basic affective processes. jonathan haidt proposed that one's instant judgments about morality are experienced as a "flash of intuition" and that these affective perceptions operate rapidly, associatively, and outside of consciousness.[ ] from this, moral intuitions are believed to be stimulated prior to conscious moral cognitions which correlates with having a greater influence on moral judgments.[ ] research suggests that the experience of disgust can alter moral judgments. many studies have focused on the average change in behavior across participants, with some studies indicating disgust stimuli intensifies the severity of moral judgments.[ ] however, additional studies have found the reverse effect,[ ] and some studies have suggested that the average effect of disgust on moral judgments is small or absent.[ ][ ][ ] potentially reconciling these effects, one study indicated that the direction and size of the effect of disgust stimuli on moral judgment depends upon an individual's sensitivity to disgust.[ ] the effect also seems to be limited to a certain aspect of morality. horberg et al. found that disgust plays a role in the development and intensification of moral judgments of purity in particular.[ ] in other words, the feeling of disgust is often associated with a feeling that some image of what is pure has been violated. for example, a vegetarian might feel disgust after seeing another person eating meat because he/she has a view of vegetarianism as the pure state-of-being. when this state-of-being is violated, the vegetarian feels disgust. furthermore, disgust appears to be uniquely associated with purity judgments, not with what is just/unjust or what is harmful/caregiving, while other emotions such as fear, anger, and sadness are "unrelated to moral judgments of purity".[ ] some other research suggests that an individual's level of disgust sensitivity is due to their particular experience of disgust.[ ] one's disgust sensitivity can be either high or low. the higher one's disgust sensitivity is, the greater the tendency to make stricter moral judgments.[ ] disgust sensitivity can also relate to various aspects of moral values, which can have a negative or positive impact. for example, disgust sensitivity is associated with moral hypervigilance, which means people who have higher disgust sensitivity are more likely to think that other people who are suspects of a crime are more guilty. they also associate them as being morally evil and criminal, thus endorsing them to harsher punishment in the setting of a court. disgust is also theorized as an evaluative emotion that can control moral behavior.[ ] when one experiences disgust, this emotion might signal that certain behaviors, objects, or people are to be avoided in order to preserve their purity. research has established that when the idea or concept of cleanliness is made salient then people make less severe moral judgments of others.[ ] from this particular finding, it can be suggested that this reduces the experience of disgust and the ensuing threat of psychological impurity diminishes the apparent severity of moral transgressions.[ ] political orientation[edit] in one study, people of differing political persuasions were shown disgusting images in a brain scanner. in conservatives, the basal ganglia and amygdala and several other regions showed increased activity, while in liberals other regions of the brain increased in activity. both groups reported similar conscious reactions to the images. the difference in activity patterns was large: the reaction to a single image could predict a person's political leanings with % accuracy.[ ][ ] self-disgust[edit] although limited research has been done on self-disgust, one study found that self-disgust and severity of moral judgments were negatively correlated.[ ] this is in contrast to findings related to disgust, which typically results in harsher judgments of transgressions. this implies that disgust directed towards the self functions very differently from disgust directed towards other people or objects.[ ] self-disgust "may reflect a pervasive condition of self-loathing that makes it difficult to assign deserving punishment to others".[ ] in other words, those who feel self-disgust cannot easily condemn others to punishment because they feel that they may also be deserving of punishment. functions[edit] 	 	this section relies largely or entirely on a single source. relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. find sources: "disgust" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (february ) the emotion of disgust can be described to serve as an effective mechanism following occurrences of negative social value, provoking repulsion, and desire for social distance.[ ] the origin of disgust can be defined by motivating the avoidance of offensive things, and in the context of a social environment, it can become an instrument of social avoidance.[ ] an example of disgust in action can be found from the bible in the book of leviticus (see especially leviticus chapter ). leviticus includes direct commandments from god to avoid disgust causing individuals, which included people who were sexually immoral and those who had leprosy.[ ] disgust is known to promote the avoidance of pathogens and disease.[ ] as an effective instrument for reducing motivations for social interaction, disgust can be anticipated to interfere with dehumanization or the maltreatment of persons as less than human.[ ] research was performed which conducted several functional magnetic resonance images (fmri) in which participants viewed images of individuals from stigmatized groups that were associated with disgust, which were drug addicts and homeless people.[ ] what the study found was that people were not inclined in making inferences about the mental conditions of these particular disgust inducing groups.[ ] therefore, examining images of homeless people and drug addicts caused disgust in the response of the people who participated with this study.[ ] this study coincides with disgust following the law of contagion, which explains that contact with disgusting material renders one disgusting.[ ] disgust can be applied towards people and can function as maltreatment towards another human being. disgust can exclude people from being a part of a clique by leading to the view that they are merely less than human. an example of this is if groups were to avoid people from outside of their own particular group. some researchers have distinguished between two different forms of dehumanization. the first form is the denial of uniquely human traits, examples include: products of culture and modification.[ ] the second form is the denial of human nature, examples include: emotionality and personality.[ ] failure to attribute distinctively human traits to a group leads to animalistic dehumanization, which defines the object group or individual as savage, crude, and similar to animals.[ ] these forms of dehumanization have clear connections to disgust.[ ] researchers have proposed that many disgust elicitors are disgusting because they are reminders that humans are not diverse from other creatures.[ ] with the aid of disgust, animalistic dehumanization directly reduces one's moral concerns towards excluding members from the outer group.[ ] disgust can be a cause and consequence of dehumanization.[ ] animalistic dehumanization may generate feelings of disgust and revulsion.[ ] feelings of disgust, through rousing social distance, may lead to dehumanization. therefore, a person or group that is generally connected with disgusting effects and seen as physically unclean may induce moral avoidance.[ ] being deemed disgusting produces a variety of cognitive effects that result in exclusion from the perceived inner group.[ ] political and legal aspects of disgust[edit] the emotion disgust has been noted to feature strongly in the public sphere in relation to issues and debates, among other things, regarding anatomy, sex and bioethics. there is a range of views by different commentators on the role, purpose and effects of disgust on public discourse. leon kass, a bioethicist, has advocated that "in crucial cases...repugnance is the emotional expression of deep wisdom, beyond reason's power fully to articulate it." in relation to bio-ethical issues (see: wisdom of repugnance). martha nussbaum, a jurist and ethicist, explicitly rejects disgust as an appropriate guide for legislating, arguing the "politics of disgust" is an unreliable emotional reaction with no inherent wisdom. furthermore, she argues this "politics of disgust" has in the past and present had the effects of supporting bigotry in the forms of sexism, racism and antisemitism and links the emotion of disgust to support for laws against miscegenation and the oppressive caste system in india. in place of this "politics of disgust", nussbaum argues for the harm principle from john stuart mill as the proper basis for legislating. nussbaum argues the harm principle supports the legal ideas of consent, the age of majority and privacy and protects citizens. she contrasts this with the "politics of disgust" which she argues denies citizens humanity and equality before the law on no rational grounds and cause palpable social harm. (see martha nussbaum, from disgust to humanity: sexual orientation and constitutional law). nussbaum published hiding from humanity: disgust, shame, and the law in ; the book examines the relationship of disgust and shame to a society's laws. nussbaum identifies disgust as a marker that bigoted, and often merely majoritarian, discourse employs to "place", by diminishment and denigration, a despised minority. removing "disgust" from public discourse constitutes an important step in achieving humane and tolerant democracies. leigh turner ( ) has argued that "reactions of disgust are often built upon prejudices that should be challenged and rebutted." on the other hand, writers, such as kass, find wisdom in adhering to one's initial feelings of disgust. a number of writers[who?] on the theory of disgust find it to be the proto-legal foundation of human law. disgust has also figured prominently in the work of several other philosophers. nietzsche became disgusted with the music and orientation of richard wagner, as well as other aspects of th century culture and morality. jean-paul sartre wrote widely about experiences involving various negative emotions related to disgust.[ ] the hydra's tale: imagining disgust[edit] according to the book the hydra's tale: imagining disgust by robert rawdon wilson,[ ] disgust may be further subdivided into physical disgust, associated with physical or metaphorical uncleanliness, and moral disgust, a similar feeling related to courses of action. for example; "i am disgusted by the hurtful things that you are saying." moral disgust should be understood as culturally determined; physical disgust as more universally grounded. the book also discusses moral disgust as an aspect of the representation of disgust. wilson does this in two ways. first, he discusses representations of disgust in literature, film and fine art. since there are characteristic facial expressions (the clenched nostrils, the pursed lips)—as charles darwin, paul ekman, and others have shown—they may be represented with more or less skill in any set of circumstances imaginable. there may even be "disgust worlds" in which disgust motifs so dominate that it may seem that entire represented world is, in itself, disgusting. second, since people know what disgust is as a primary, or visceral, emotion (with characteristic gestures and expressions), they may imitate it. thus, wilson argues that, for example, contempt is acted out on the basis of the visceral emotion, disgust, but is not identical with disgust. it is a "compound affect" that entails intellectual preparation, or formatting, and theatrical techniques. wilson argues that there are many such "intellectual" compound affects—such as nostalgia and outrage—but that disgust is a fundamental and unmistakable example. moral disgust, then, is different from visceral disgust; it is more conscious and more layered in performance. wilson links shame and guilt to disgust (now transformed, wholly or partially, into self-disgust) primarily as a consequence rooted in self-consciousness. referring to a passage in doris lessing's the golden notebook, wilson writes that "the dance between disgust and shame takes place. a slow choreography unfolds before the mind's-eye."[ ] wilson examines the claims of several jurists and legal scholars—such as william ian miller—that disgust must underlie positive law. "in the absence of disgust", he observes, stating their claim, ". . . there would be either total barbarism or a society ruled solely by force, violence and terror." the moral-legal argument, he remarks, "leaves much out of account."[ ] his own argument turns largely upon the human capacity to learn how to control, even to suppress, strong and problematic affects and, over time, for entire populations to abandon specific disgust responses. plutchik's wheel of emotions[edit] disgust is opposite trust on the emotion wheel.[ ] a mild form of disgust is boredom, while a more intense version is loathing.[ ] see also[edit] 	affective neuroscience 	amygdala 	aversion therapy 	cognitive neuroscience 	contempt 	disgusted of tunbridge wells 	fear 	foodborne illness 	menippean satire 	nausea 	papez circuit 	phobia 	social neuroscience 	taboo 	vomiting references[edit] 	^ badour, christal; feldner, matthew (february ). 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"area postrema mediates the formation of rapid conditioned palatability shifts to a lithium-paired solution". behavioral neuroscience. : – . doi: . / - . . . . 	^ a b flynn, f. w; grill, h. j.; shulkin, j.; norgren, r. ( ). "central gustatory lesions: ii. effects on sodium appetite, taste aversion learning, and feeding behaviors". behavioral neuroscience. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ parker, linda a.; limebeer, cheryl l.; rana, shadna a. ( ). "conditioned nausea in rats: assessment by conditioned disgust reactions, rather than conditioned taste avoidance". canadian journal of experimental psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ a b jones, andrew; fitness, julie ( ). "moral hypervigilance: the influence of disgust sensitivity in the moral domain". emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ a b c simpson, jane; carter, sarah; anthony, susan h.; overton, paul g. ( - - ). "is disgust a homogeneous emotion?". motivation and emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ liu, yunzhe; lin, wanjun; xu, pengfei; zhang, dandan; luo, yuejia ( ). "neural basis of disgust perception in racial prejudice". human brain mapping. ( ): – . doi: . /hbm. . issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b vartanian, lenny r.; trewartha, tara; vanman, eric j. ( ). "disgust predicts prejudice and discrimination toward individuals with obesity". journal of applied social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /jasp. . issn  - . 	^ a b c d e f david, b.; olatunji, b.o. ( ). "the effect of disgust conditioning and disgust sensitivity on appraisals of moral transgressions". personality and individual differences. ( ): – . doi: . /j.paid. . . . 	^ schnall, simone (july , ). "disgust as embodied moral judgment". personality and social psychology bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ cummins, dd ( ). "emotion and deliberative reasoning in moral judgment". front psychol. ( ): . doi: . /fpsyg. . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ may, j. ( ). "does disgust influence moral judgment?". australasian journal of philosophy. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . . . s cid  . 	^ landy, j ( ). "does incidental disgust amplify moral judgment? a meta-analytic review of experimental evidence" (pdf). perspectives on psychological science. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . archived from the original (pdf) on march , . 	^ ghelfi, eric; christopherson, cody d.; urry, heather l.; lenne, richie l.; legate, nicole; ann fischer, mary; wagemans, fieke m. a.; wiggins, brady; barrett, tamara; bornstein, michelle; de haan, bianca; guberman, joshua; issa, nada; kim, joan; na, elim; o’brien, justin; paulk, aidan; peck, tayler; sashihara, marissa; sheelar, karen; song, justin; steinberg, hannah; sullivan, dasan (march ). "reexamining the effect of gustatory disgust on moral judgment: a multilab direct replication of eskine, kacinik, and prinz ( )". advances in methods and practices in psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ ong, hh ( ). "moral judgment modulation by disgust is bi-directionally moderated by individual sensitivity". frontiers in psychology. : . doi: . /fpsyg. . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ horberg, e. j.; oveis, c.; keltner, d.; cohen, a. b. ( ). "disgust and the moralization of purity". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ horberg, e. j.; oveis, c.; keltner, d.; cohen, a. b. ( ). "disgust and the moralization of purity". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ david, b.; olatunji, b.o. ( ). "the effect of disgust conditioning and disgust sensitivity on appraisals of moral transgressions". personality and individual differences. ( ): – . doi: . /j.paid. . . . 	^ ahn, woo-young; kishida, kenneth t.; gu, xiaosi; lohrenz, terry; harvey, ann; alford, john r.; smith, kevin b.; yaffe, gideon; hibbing, john r.; dayan, peter; montague, p. read (november ). "nonpolitical images evoke neural predictors of political ideology". current biology. ( ): – . doi: . /j.cub. . . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ "left or right-wing? brain's disgust response tells all". new scientist. october . 	^ a b c olatunji, bunmi o.; david, bieke; ciesielski, bethany g. ( ). "who am i to judge? self-disgust predicts less punishment of severe transgressions". emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r sherman, gary d.; jonathan haidt ( ). "cuteness and disgust: the humanizing and dehumanizing effects of emotion". emotion review. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ kupfer, t. r.; giner-sorolla, r. ( ). "communicating moral motives: the social signaling function of disgust" (pdf). social psychological and personality science. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ sartre, jean paul. ( ) "being and nothingness. trans. hazel barnes. p. - . 	^ wilson rr ( ). "wilson on disgust: a menippean interview. interview with robert wilson". canadian review of comparative literature. ( ). 	^ wilson, robert rawdon ( ). the hydra's tale: imagining disgust. u alberta press. p.  . 	^ wilson, pp. - . 	^ "robert plutchik's psychoevolutionary theory of basic emotions" (pdf). adliterate.com. retrieved - - . 	^ jonathan turner ( june ). on the origins of human emotions: a sociological inquiry into the evolution of human affect. stanford university press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ atifa athar; m. saleem khan; khalil ahmed; aiesha ahmed; nida anwar (june ). "a fuzzy inference system for synergy estimation of simultaneous emotion dynamics in agents". international journal of scientific & engineering research. ( ). 	^ plutchik, robert ( september ). the emotions. university press of america. p.  . isbn  . retrieved september – via google books. 	^ "the nature of emotions" (pdf). emotionalcompetency.com. retrieved - - . bibliography[edit] 	cohen, william a. and ryan johnson, eds. filth: dirt, disgust, and modern life. university of minnesota press, . 	douglas, mary. purity and danger: an analysis of concepts of pollution and taboo. praeger, . 	kelly, daniel. yuck! the nature and moral significance of disgust. mit press, . 	korsmeyer, carolyn ( ) savoring disgust: the foul and the fair in aesthetics oxford university press. isbn  . 	mccorkle jr., william w. ritualizing the disposal of the deceased: from corpse to concept. peter lang, . 	mcginn, colin. the meaning of disgust. oxford university press, . 	menninghaus, winfried. disgust: theory and history of a strong sensation. tr. howard eiland and joel golb. suny press, 	miller, william ian. the anatomy of disgust. harvard university press, . 	nussbaum, martha c. upheavals of thought: the intelligence of emotions. cambridge university press, . 	nussbaum, martha c. hiding from humanity: disgust, shame, and the law. princeton university press, . 	nussbaum, martha c. from disgust to humanity: sexual orientation and constitutional law. oxford university press, . 	rindisbacher, hans j. a cultural history of disgust. kulturpoetik. : . . pp.  – . 	wilson, robert ( ). "disgust: a menippean interview". canadian review of comparative literature. : – . 	wilson, robert rawdon. the hydra’s tale: imagining disgust. university of alberta press, . external links[edit] 		look up disgust in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikimedia commons has media related to disgust. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: disgust 	nancy sherman, a researcher investigating disgust 	jon haidt's page about the disgust scale 	moral judgment and the social intuitionist model, publications by jonathan haidt on disgust and its relationship with moral ideas 	hiding from humanity: disgust, shame, and the law 	shame and group psychotherapy 	"is repugnance wise? visceral responses to biotechnology" nature biotechnology 	purity and pollution by jonathan kirkpatrick (rtf) 	paper on the economic effects of repugnance 	anatomy of disgust, channel program 	whyfiles.org article written about a february study in "science" linking moral judgments with facial expressions that indicate 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wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 happiness - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	happiness 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		several terms redirect here. for other uses, see happiness (disambiguation), happy (disambiguation), gladness (disambiguation) and jolly (disambiguation). a smiling -year-old man from pichilemu, chile. mental or emotional state of well-being characterized by pleasant emotions 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e the term happiness is used in the context of mental or emotional states, including positive or pleasant emotions ranging from contentment to intense joy.[ ] it is also used in the context of life satisfaction, subjective well-being, eudaimonia, flourishing and well-being.[ ][ ] since the s, happiness research has been conducted in a wide variety of scientific disciplines, including gerontology, social psychology and positive psychology, clinical and medical research and happiness economics. contents 	 definitions 	 philosophy 	 culture 	 religion 	 . eastern religions 	 . . buddhism 	 . . hinduism 	 . . confucianism 	 . abrahamic religions 	 . . judaism 	 . . roman catholicism 	 . . islam 	 methods for achieving happiness 	 . self-fulfilment theories 	 . . maslow's hierarchy of needs 	 . . self-determination theory 	 . . modernization and freedom of choice 	 . positive psychology 	 . indirect approaches 	 . naturally occurring in some people 	 possible limits on happiness seeking 	 examining happiness 	 measurement 	 relationship to physical characteristics 	 economic and political views 	 contributing factors and research outcomes 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links definitions 'happiness' is the subject of debate on usage and meaning,[ ][ ][ ][ ] and on possible differences in understanding by culture.[ ][ ] the word is mostly used in relation to two factors:[ ] happy children playing in water 	the current experience of the feeling of an emotion (affect) such as pleasure or joy,[ ] or of a more general sense of 'emotional condition as a whole'.[ ] for instance daniel kahneman has defined happiness as "what i experience here and now".[ ] this usage is prevalent in dictionary definitions of happiness.[ ][ ][ ] 	appraisal of life satisfaction, such as of quality of life.[ ] for instance ruut veenhoven has defined happiness as "overall appreciation of one's life as-a-whole."[ ][ ] kahneman has said that this is more important to people than current experience.[ ] some usages can include both of these factors. subjective well-being (swb)[ ] includes measures of current experience (emotions, moods, and feelings) and of life satisfaction.[ ] for instance sonja lyubomirsky has described happiness as “the experience of joy, contentment, or positive well-being, combined with a sense that one's life is good, meaningful, and worthwhile.”[ ] eudaimonia,[ ] is a greek term variously translated as happiness, welfare, flourishing, and blessedness. xavier landes[ ] has proposed that happiness include measures of subjective wellbeing, mood and eudaimonia.[ ] these differing uses can give different results.[ ][ ] for instance the correlation of income levels has been shown to be substantial with life satisfaction measures, but to be far weaker, at least above a certain threshold, with current experience measures.[ ][ ] whereas nordic countries often score highest on swb surveys, south american countries score higher on affect-based surveys of current positive life experiencing.[ ] the implied meaning of the word may vary depending on context,[ ] qualifying happiness as a polyseme and a fuzzy concept. a further issue is when measurement is made; appraisal of a level of happiness at the time of the experience may be different from appraisal via memory at a later date.[ ][ ] some users accept these issues, but continue to use the word because of its convening power.[ ] philosophy a butcher happily slicing meat. main article: philosophy of happiness philosophy of happiness is often discussed in conjunction with ethics. traditional european societies, inherited from the greeks and from christianity, often linked happiness with morality, which was concerned with the performance in a certain kind of role in a certain kind of social life. however, with the rise of individualism, begotten partly by protestantism and capitalism, the links between duty in a society and happiness were gradually broken. the consequence was a redefinition of the moral terms. happiness is no longer defined in relation to social life, but in terms of individual psychology. happiness, however, remains a difficult term for moral philosophy. throughout the history of moral philosophy, there has been an oscillation between attempts to define morality in terms of consequences leading to happiness and attempts to define morality in terms that have nothing to do with happiness at all.[ ] in the nicomachean ethics, written in bce, aristotle stated that happiness (also being well and doing well) is the only thing that humans desire for their own sake, unlike riches, honour, health or friendship. he observed that men sought riches, or honour, or health not only for their own sake but also in order to be happy. for aristotle the term eudaimonia, which is translated as 'happiness' or 'flourishing' is an activity rather than an emotion or a state. eudaimonia (greek: εὐδαιμονία) is a classical greek word consists of the word "eu" ("good" or "well-being") and "daimōn" ("spirit" or "minor deity", used by extension to mean one's lot or fortune). thus understood, the happy life is the good life, that is, a life in which a person fulfills human nature in an excellent way. specifically, aristotle argued that the good life is the life of excellent rational activity. he arrived at this claim with the "function argument". basically, if it is right, every living thing has a function, that which it uniquely does. for aristotle human function is to reason, since it is that alone which humans uniquely do. and performing one's function well, or excellently, is good. according to aristotle, the life of excellent rational activity is the happy life. aristotle argued a second best life for those incapable of excellent rational activity was the life of moral virtue.[citation needed] western ethicists have made arguments for how humans should behave, either individually or collectively, based on the resulting happiness of such behavior. utilitarians, such as john stuart mill and jeremy bentham, advocated the greatest happiness principle as a guide for ethical behavior.[ ] friedrich nietzsche critiqued the english utilitarians' focus on attaining the greatest happiness, stating that "man does not strive for happiness, only the englishman does." nietzsche meant that making happiness one's ultimate goal and the aim of one's existence, in his words "makes one contemptible." nietzsche instead yearned for a culture that would set higher, more difficult goals than "mere happiness." he introduced the quasi-dystopic figure of the "last man" as a kind of thought experiment against the utilitarians and happiness-seekers. these small, "last men" who seek after only their own pleasure and health, avoiding all danger, exertion, difficulty, challenge, struggle are meant to seem contemptible to nietzsche's reader. nietzsche instead wants us to consider the value of what is difficult, what can only be earned through struggle, difficulty, pain and thus to come to see the affirmative value suffering and unhappiness truly play in creating everything of great worth in life, including all the highest achievements of human culture, not least of all philosophy.[ ][ ] in darrin mcmahon claimed, that over time the emphasis shifted from the happiness of virtue to the virtue of happiness.[ ] culture personal happiness aims can be effected by cultural factors.[ ][ ][ ] hedonism appears to be more strongly related to happiness in more individualistic cultures.[ ] cultural views on happiness have changed over time.[ ] for instance western concern about childhood being a time of happiness has occurred only since the th century.[ ] not all cultures seek to maximise happiness,[ ][ ][ ] and some cultures are averse to happiness.[ ][ ] religion see also: religious studies people in countries with high cultural religiosity tend to relate their life satisfaction less to their emotional experiences than people in more secular countries.[ ] eastern religions buddhism tibetan buddhist monk happiness forms a central theme of buddhist teachings.[ ] for ultimate freedom from suffering, the noble eightfold path leads its practitioner to nirvana, a state of everlasting peace. ultimate happiness is only achieved by overcoming craving in all forms. more mundane forms of happiness, such as acquiring wealth and maintaining good friendships, are also recognized as worthy goals for lay people (see sukha). buddhism also encourages the generation of loving kindness and compassion, the desire for the happiness and welfare of all beings.[ ][ ][unreliable source?] hinduism in advaita vedanta, the ultimate goal of life is happiness, in the sense that duality between atman and brahman is transcended and one realizes oneself to be the self in all. patanjali, author of the yoga sutras, wrote quite exhaustively on the psychological and ontological roots of bliss.[ ] confucianism the chinese confucian thinker mencius, who had sought to give advice to ruthless political leaders during china's warring states period, was convinced that the mind played a mediating role between the "lesser self" (the physiological self) and the "greater self" (the moral self), and that getting the priorities right between these two would lead to sage-hood. he argued that if one did not feel satisfaction or pleasure in nourishing one's "vital force" with "righteous deeds", then that force would shrivel up (mencius, a: a: ). more specifically, he mentions the experience of intoxicating joy if one celebrates the practice of the great virtues, especially through music.[ ] abrahamic religions judaism main article: happiness in judaism happiness or simcha (hebrew: שמחה‎) in judaism is considered an important element in the service of god.[ ] the biblical verse "worship the lord with gladness; come before him with joyful songs," (psalm : ) stresses joy in the service of god.[citation needed] a popular teaching by rabbi nachman of breslov, a th-century chassidic rabbi, is "mitzvah gedolah le'hiyot besimcha tamid," it is a great mitzvah (commandment) to always be in a state of happiness. when a person is happy they are much more capable of serving god and going about their daily activities than when depressed or upset.[ ][self-published source?] roman catholicism the primary meaning of "happiness" in various european languages involves good fortune, chance or happening. the meaning in greek philosophy, however, refers primarily to ethics. in catholicism, the ultimate end of human existence consists in felicity, latin equivalent to the greek eudaimonia, or "blessed happiness", described by the th-century philosopher-theologian thomas aquinas as a beatific vision of god's essence in the next life.[ ] according to st. augustine and thomas aquinas, man's last end is happiness: "all men agree in desiring the last end, which is happiness."[ ] however, where utilitarians focused on reasoning about consequences as the primary tool for reaching happiness, aquinas agreed with aristotle that happiness cannot be reached solely through reasoning about consequences of acts, but also requires a pursuit of good causes for acts, such as habits according to virtue.[ ] in turn, which habits and acts that normally lead to happiness is according to aquinas caused by laws: natural law and divine law. these laws, in turn, were according to aquinas caused by a first cause, or god.[citation needed] according to aquinas, happiness consists in an "operation of the speculative intellect": "consequently happiness consists principally in such an operation, viz. in the contemplation of divine things." and, "the last end cannot consist in the active life, which pertains to the practical intellect." so: "therefore the last and perfect happiness, which we await in the life to come, consists entirely in contemplation. but imperfect happiness, such as can be had here, consists first and principally in contemplation, but secondarily, in an operation of the practical intellect directing human actions and passions."[ ] human complexities, like reason and cognition, can produce well-being or happiness, but such form is limited and transitory. in temporal life, the contemplation of god, the infinitely beautiful, is the supreme delight of the will. beatitudo, or perfect happiness, as complete well-being, is to be attained not in this life, but the next.[ ] islam al-ghazali ( – ), the muslim sufi thinker, wrote "the alchemy of happiness", a manual of spiritual instruction throughout the muslim world and widely practiced today.[citation needed] methods for achieving happiness theories on how to achieve happiness include "encountering unexpected positive events",[ ] "seeing a significant other",[ ] and "basking in the acceptance and praise of others".[ ] however others believe that happiness is not solely derived from external, momentary pleasures.[ ] self-fulfilment theories woman kissing a baby on the cheek maslow's hierarchy of needs maslow's hierarchy of needs is a pyramid depicting the levels of human needs, psychological, and physical. when a human being ascends the steps of the pyramid, he reaches self-actualization. beyond the routine of needs fulfillment, maslow envisioned moments of extraordinary experience, known as peak experiences, profound moments of love, understanding, happiness, or rapture, during which a person feels more whole, alive, self-sufficient, and yet a part of the world. this is similar to the flow concept of mihály csíkszentmihályi.[citation needed] self-determination theory smiling woman from vietnam self-determination theory relates intrinsic motivation to three needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. modernization and freedom of choice ronald inglehart has traced cross-national differences in the level of happiness based on data from the world values survey.[ ] he finds that the extent to which a society allows free choice has a major impact on happiness. when basic needs are satisfied, the degree of happiness depends on economic and cultural factors that enable free choice in how people live their lives. happiness also depends on religion in countries where free choice is constrained.[ ] positive psychology since the field of positive psychology has expanded drastically in terms of scientific publications, and has produced many different views on causes of happiness, and on factors that correlate with happiness.[ ] numerous short-term self-help interventions have been developed and demonstrated to improve happiness.[ ][ ] indirect approaches various writers, including camus and tolle, have written that the act of searching or seeking for happiness is incompatible with being happy.[ ][ ][ ][ ] john stuart mill believed that for the great majority of people happiness is best achieved en passant, rather than striving for it directly. this meant no self-consciousness, scrutiny, self-interrogation, dwelling on, thinking about, imagining or questioning on one's happiness. then, if otherwise fortunately circumstanced, one would "inhale happiness with the air you breathe."[ ] naturally occurring in some people william inge observed that "on the whole, the happiest people seem to be those who have no particular cause for being happy except the fact that they are so."[ ] orison swett marden said "some people are born happy. no matter what their circumstances are they are joyous, content and satisfied with everything. they carry a perpetual holiday in their eye and see joy and beauty everywhere. when we meet them they impress us as just having met with some good luck, or that they have some good news to tell you. like the bees that extract honey from every flower, they have a happy alchemy which transmutes even gloom into sunshine."[ ] possible limits on happiness seeking some studies, including work by june gruber a psychologist at university of colorado, have suggested that seeking happiness can have negative effects, such as failure to meet over-high expectations.[ ][ ][ ] a study found that psychological well-being was higher for people who experienced both positive and negative emotions.[ ][ ][ ] other research has analysed possible trade-offs between happiness and meaning in life.[ ][ ][ ] not all cultures seek to maximise happiness.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] sigmund freud said that all humans strive after happiness, but that the possibilities of achieving it are restricted because we "are so made that we can derive intense enjoyment only from a contrast and very little from the state of things."[ ] examining happiness happiness can be examined in experiential and evaluative contexts. experiential well-being, or "objective happiness", is happiness measured in the moment via questions such as "how good or bad is your experience now?". in contrast, evaluative well-being asks questions such as "how good was your vacation?" and measures one's subjective thoughts and feelings about happiness in the past. experiential well-being is less prone to errors in reconstructive memory, but the majority of literature on happiness refers to evaluative well-being. the two measures of happiness can be related by heuristics such as the peak-end rule.[ ] some commentators focus on the difference between the hedonistic tradition of seeking pleasant and avoiding unpleasant experiences, and the eudaimonic tradition of living life in a full and deeply satisfying way.[ ] measurement people have been trying to measure happiness for centuries. in , the english utilitarian philosopher jeremy bentham proposed that as happiness was the primary goal of humans it should be measured as a way of determining how well the government was performing.[ ] several scales have been developed to measure happiness: 	the subjective happiness scale (shs) is a four-item scale, measuring global subjective happiness from . the scale requires participants to use absolute ratings to characterize themselves as happy or unhappy individuals, as well as it asks to what extent they identify themselves with descriptions of happy and unhappy individuals.[ ][ ] 	the positive and negative affect schedule (panas) from is a -item questionnaire, using a five-point likert scale ( = very slightly or not at all, = extremely) to assess the relation between personality traits and positive or negative affects at "this moment, today, the past few days, the past week, the past few weeks, the past year, and in general".[ ] a longer version with additional affect scales was published .[ ] 	the satisfaction with life scale (swls) is a global cognitive assessment of life satisfaction developed by ed diener. a seven-point likert scale is used to agree or disagree with five statements about one's life.[ ][ ] 	the cantril ladder method[ ] has been used in the world happiness report. respondents are asked to think of a ladder, with the best possible life for them being a , and the worst possible life being a . they are then asked to rate their own current lives on that to scale.[ ][ ] 	positive experience; the survey by gallup asks if, the day before, people experienced enjoyment, laughing or smiling a lot, feeling well-rested, being treated with respect, learning or doing something interesting. of the top countries in were south american, led by paraguay and panama. country scores range from to .[ ] since , a world happiness report has been published. happiness is evaluated, as in “how happy are you with your life as a whole?”, and in emotional reports, as in “how happy are you now?,” and people seem able to use happiness as appropriate in these verbal contexts. using these measures, the report identifies the countries with the highest levels of happiness. in subjective well-being measures, the primary distinction is between cognitive life evaluations and emotional reports.[ ][citation needed] the uk began to measure national well-being in ,[ ] following bhutan, which had already been measuring gross national happiness.[ ][ ] happiness has been found to be quite stable over time.[ ][ ] relationship to physical characteristics 		this section needs expansion. you can help by adding to it. (october ) as of , no evidence of happiness causing improved physical health has been found; the topic is being researched at the lee kum sheung center for health and happiness at the harvard t.h. chan school of public health.[ ] a positive relationship has been suggested between the volume of the brain's gray matter in the right precuneus area and one's subjective happiness score.[ ] happiness is partly genetically based. based on twin studies, percent of a given human's happiness level could be genetically determined, percent is affected by life circumstances and situation, and a remaining percent of happiness is subject to self-control.[ ][ ] economic and political views newly commissioned officers celebrate their new positions by throwing their midshipmen covers into the air as part of the u.s. naval academy class of graduation and commissioning ceremony. main article: happiness economics in politics, happiness as a guiding ideal is expressed in the united states declaration of independence of , written by thomas jefferson, as the universal right to "the pursuit of happiness."[ ] this seems to suggest a subjective interpretation but one that goes beyond emotions alone. it has to be kept in mind that the word happiness meant "prosperity, thriving, wellbeing" in the th century and not the same thing as it does today. in fact, happiness.[ ] common market health measures such as gdp and gnp have been used as a measure of successful policy. on average richer nations tend to be happier than poorer nations, but this effect seems to diminish with wealth.[ ][ ] this has been explained by the fact that the dependency is not linear but logarithmic, i.e., the same percentual increase in the gnp produces the same increase in happiness for wealthy countries as for poor countries.[ ][ ][ ][ ] increasingly, academic economists and international economic organisations are arguing for and developing multi-dimensional dashboards which combine subjective and objective indicators to provide a more direct and explicit assessment of human wellbeing. work by paul anand and colleagues helps to highlight the fact that there many different contributors to adult wellbeing, that happiness judgement reflect, in part, the presence of salient constraints, and that fairness, autonomy, community and engagement are key aspects of happiness and wellbeing throughout the life course.[citation needed] libertarian think tank cato institute claims that economic freedom correlates strongly with happiness[ ] preferably within the context of a western mixed economy, with free press and a democracy. according to certain standards, east european countries when ruled by communist parties were less happy than western ones, even less happy than other equally poor countries.[ ] since , empirical research in the field of happiness economics, such as that by benjamin radcliff, professor of political science at the university of notre dame, supported the contention that in democratic countries life satisfaction is strongly and positively related to the social democratic model of a generous social safety net, pro-worker labor market regulations, and strong labor unions.[ ] similarly, there is evidence that public policies which reduce poverty and support a strong middle class, such as a higher minimum wage, strongly affect average levels of well-being.[ ] it has been argued that happiness measures could be used not as a replacement for more traditional measures, but as a supplement.[ ] according to the cato institute, people constantly make choices that decrease their happiness, because they have also more important aims. therefore, government should not decrease the alternatives available for the citizen by patronizing them but let the citizen keep a maximal freedom of choice.[ ] good mental health and good relationships contribute more than income to happiness and governments should take these into account.[ ] contributing factors and research outcomes main article: well-being contributing factors research on positive psychology, well-being, eudaimonia and happiness, and the theories of diener, ryff, keyes, and seligmann covers a broad range of levels and topics, including "the biological, personal, relational, institutional, cultural, and global dimensions of life."[ ] the psychiatrist george vaillant and the director of longitudinal study of adult development at harvard university robert j. waldinger found that those who were happiest and healthier reported strong interpersonal relationships.[ ] research showed that adequate sleep contributes to well-being.[ ] in , laurie r. santos course titled "psychology and the good life" became the most popular course in the history of yale university and was made available for free online to non-yale students.[ ] see also 	action for happiness 	aversion to happiness 	biopsychosocial model 	bluebird of happiness 	culture and positive psychology 	extraversion, introversion and happiness 	happy planet index 	hedonic treadmill 	joy 	laurie santos 	mania 	paradox of hedonism 	psychological well-being 	serotonin 	thomas traherne references 	^ a b "happiness". wolfram alpha. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ anand, p ( ). happiness explained. oxford university press. [page needed] 	^ see definition section below. 	^ feldman, fred ( ). what is this thing called happiness?. doi: . /acprof:oso/ . . . isbn  - - - - . 	^ the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy states that "an important project in the philosophy of happiness is simply getting clear on what various writers are talking about." https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/happiness/ archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ "two philosophical problems in the study of happiness". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ smith, richard (august ). "the long slide to happiness". journal of philosophy of education. ( – ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. 	^ "how universal is happiness?" ruut veenhoven, chapter in ed diener, john f. helliwell & daniel kahneman (eds.) international differences in well-being, , oxford university press, new york, isbn  - - - - 	^ "archived copy" (pdf). archived (pdf) from the original on - - . retrieved - - .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) 	^ "particularly section ". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ dan haybron (https://www.slu.edu/colleges/as/philos/site/people/faculty/haybron/ archived - - at the wayback machine, http://www.happinessandwellbeing.org/project-team/ archived - - at the wayback machine); "i would suggest that when we talk about happiness, we are actually referring, much of the time, to a complex emotional phenomenon. call it emotional well-being. happiness as emotional well-being concerns your emotions and moods, more broadly your emotional condition as a whole. to be happy is to inhabit a favorable emotional state.... on this view, we can think of happiness, loosely, as the opposite of anxiety and depression. being in good spirits, quick to laugh and slow to anger, at peace and untroubled, confident and comfortable in your own skin, engaged, energetic and full of life." https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/ / / /happiness-and-its-discontents/ archived - - at the wayback machine haybron has also used the term thymic, by which he means 'overall mood state' in this context; https://philpapers.org/rec/hayhae archived - - at the wayback machine xavier landes <https://www.sseriga.edu/landes-xavier archived - - at the wayback machine> has described a similar concept of mood. https://www.satori.lv/article/kas-ir-laime archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ "people don’t want to be happy the way i’ve defined the term – what i experience here and now. in my view, it’s much more important for them to be satisfied, to experience life satisfaction, from the perspective of ‘what i remember,’ of the story they tell about their lives."https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.magazine-why-nobel-prize-winner-daniel-kahneman-gave-up-on-happiness- . archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ "happy | definition of happy in english by oxford dictionaries". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "happiness | meaning in the cambridge english dictionary". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "the definition of happy". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ graham, michael c. ( ). facts of life: ten issues of contentment. outskirts press. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ https://personal.eur.nl/veenhoven/pub s/ k-full.pdf archived - - at the wayback machine, . 	^ https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/happiness/ archived - - at the wayback machine , "‘happiness’ is often used, in ordinary life, to refer to a short-lived state of a person, frequently a feeling of contentment: ‘you look happy today’; ‘i’m very happy for you’. philosophically, its scope is more often wider, encompassing a whole life. and in philosophy it is possible to speak of the happiness of a person’s life, or of their happy life, even if that person was in fact usually pretty miserable. the point is that some good things in their life made it a happy one, even though they lacked contentment. but this usage is uncommon, and may cause confusion.' https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/well-being/ archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ “people don’t want to be happy the way i’ve defined the term – what i experience here and now. in my view, it’s much more important for them to be satisfied, to experience life satisfaction, from the perspective of ‘what i remember,’ of the story they tell about their lives.https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.magazine-why-nobel-prize-winner-daniel-kahneman-gave-up-on-happiness- . 	^ see e.g. 'can happiness be measured', action for happiness, http://www.actionforhappiness.org/why-happiness archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ see subjective well-being#components of swb 	^ the how of happiness, lyubomirsky, 	^ kashdan, todd b.; biswas-diener, robert; king, laura a. (october ). "reconsidering happiness: the costs of distinguishing between hedonics and eudaimonia". the journal of positive psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ "archived copy". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) 	^ https://www.satori.lv/article/kas-ir-laime archived - - at the wayback machine contact the author for english version 	^ joshanloo, mohsen ( october ). "lay conceptions of happiness: associations with reported well-being, personality traits, and materialism". frontiers in psychology. : . doi: . /fpsyg. . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ "i am happy when i'm unhappy." mark baum character, the big short (film), https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/the_big_short_(film)#mark_baum archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ "surveying large numbers of americans in one case, and what is claimed to be the first globally representative sample of humanity in the other, these studies found that income does indeed correlate substantially (. in the global sample), at all levels, with life satisfaction—strictly speaking, a “life evaluation” measure that asks respondents to rate their lives without saying whether they are satisfied. yet the correlation of household income with the affect measures is far weaker: globally, . for positive affect, –. for negative affect; and in the united states, essentially zero above $ , (though quite strong at low income levels). if the results hold up, the upshot appears to be that income is pretty strongly related to life satisfaction, but weakly related to emotional well-being, at least above a certain threshold." section . , happiness, stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/happiness/#hedveremosta archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ "high income improves evaluation of life but not emotional well-being", daniel kahneman and angus deaton, proceedings of the national academy of sciences, / / 	^ inc, gallup (april , ). 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(eds.). handbook of emotions (fourth ed.). guilford publications. p.  . isbn  - - - - . retrieved april . 	^ marano, hara estroff ( november ). "at last—a rejection detector!". psychology today. retrieved april . 	^ seligman, martin e. p. (april ). "can happiness be taught?". daedalus. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ inglehart, ronald; foa, roberto; peterson, christopher; welzel, christian (july ). "development, freedom, and rising happiness: a global perspective ( – )". perspectives on psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . s cid  . 	^ inglehart, ronald f. ( ). cultural evolution: people's motivations are changing, and reshaping the world. cambridge university press. doi: . / . isbn  - - - - . 	^ wallis, claudia ( - - ). "science of happiness: new research on mood, satisfaction". time. archived from the original on november , . retrieved - - . 	^ bolier, linda; haverman, merel; westerhof, gerben j; riper, heleen; smit, filip; bohlmeijer, ernst ( february ). 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( ): . doi: . / - - - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ " scientifically proven ways to be happier". - - . archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "you will never be happy if you continue to search for what happiness consists of. you will never live if you are looking for the meaning of life." albert camus, in "intuitions" (october ), published in youthful writings ( ) 	^ “don't seek happiness. if you seek it, you won't find it, because seeking is the antithesis of happiness” eckhart tolle, a new earth: awakening to your life's purpose 	^ "wealth, like happiness, is never attained when sought after directly. it comes as a by-product of providing a useful service." henry ford 	^ frank crane wrote that "nobody who pursued happiness ever found it" (adventures in common sense, , p , https://archive.org/details/adventuresincom crangoog/page/n /mode/ up?q=happiness 	^ "the enjoyments of life (such was now my theory) are sufficient to make it a pleasant thing, when they are taken en passant, without being made a principal object. once make them so, and they are immediately felt to be insufficient. they will not bear a scrutinizing examination. ask yourself whether you are happy, and you cease to be so. the only chance is to treat, not happiness, but some end external to it, as the purpose of life. let your self-consciousness, your scrutiny, your self-interrogation, exhaust themselves on that; and if otherwise fortunately circumstanced you will inhale happiness with the air you breathe, without dwelling on it or thinking about it, without either forestalling it in imagination, or putting it to flight by fatal questioning. this theory now became the basis of my philosophy of life. and i still hold to it as the best theory for all those who have but a moderate degree of sensibility and of capacity for enjoyment; that is, for the great majority of mankind." autobiography, ch , https://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm#link h_note https://www.laits.utexas.edu/poltheory/mill/auto/auto.c .html 	^ p page essay entitled 'happy people', dated , which is included in lay thoughts of a dean, ( ), p , https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hpw keto nkc&dq=inauthor% a% william+ralph+inge% &focus=searchwithinvolume&q=particular. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli. . 	^ how to succeed, ( ) https://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm 	^ "positive emotion and psychopathology lab - director dr. june gruber". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "trying to be happy could make you miserable, study finds". the guardian. january , . 	^ mauss, iris b.; tamir, maya; anderson, craig l.; savino, nicole s. ( ). "can seeking happiness make people happy? paradoxical effects of valuing happiness". emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ adler, jonathan m.; hershfield, hal e. ( ). "mixed emotional experience is associated with and precedes improvements in psychological well-being". plos one. ( ): e . bibcode: ploso... a. doi: . /journal.pone. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ hershfield, hal e.; scheibe, susanne; sims, tamara l.; carstensen, laura l. (january ). "when feeling bad can be good: mixed emotions benefit physical health across adulthood". social psychological and personality science. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ "“don't seek happiness. if you seek it, you won't find it, because seeking is the antithesis of happiness” eckhart tolle, a new earth: awakening to your life's purpose 	^ baumeister, roy f.; vohs, kathleen d.; aaker, jennifer l.; garbinsky, emily n. (november ). "some key differences between a happy life and a meaningful life". the journal of positive psychology. 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[originally published in ].[page needed] 	^ kahneman, daniel; riis, jason ( ). "living, and thinking about it: two perspectives on life" (pdf). in huppert, felicia a; baylis, nick; keverne, barry (eds.). the science of well-being. oxford; new york: oxford university press. doi: . /acprof:oso/ . . . isbn  - - - - . retrieved april . 	^ deci, edward l.; ryan, richard m. ( ). "hedonia, eudaimonia, and well-being: an introduction". journal of happiness studies. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . s cid  . 	^ tokumitsu, miya (june ). "did the fun work?". the baffler. . archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "archived copy" (pdf). archived from the original (pdf) on may , . retrieved april , .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) 	^ lyubomirsky, sonja; lepper, heidi s. (february ). "a measure of subjective happiness: preliminary reliability and construct validation". social indicators research. 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"the structural neural substrate of subjective happiness". scientific reports. : . bibcode: natsr... s. doi: . /srep . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ okbay, aysu; baselmans, bart m l; de neve, jan-emmanuel; turley, patrick; nivard, michel g; fontana, mark alan; meddens, s fleur w; linnér, richard karlsson; rietveld, cornelius a; derringer, jaime; gratten, jacob ( - - ). "genetic variants associated with subjective well-being, depressive symptoms and neuroticism identified through genome-wide analyses". nature genetics. ( ): – . doi: . /ng. . issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ bartels, meike ( - - ). "genetics of wellbeing and its components satisfaction with life, happiness, and quality of life: a review and meta-analysis of heritability studies". behavior genetics. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - -y. issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ schlesinger, arthur m. ( ). "the lost meaning of "the pursuit of happiness"". the william and mary quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ fountain, ben ( september ). 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"four months of boom, bust, and fleeing foreign credit". los angeles times. archived from the original on december , . 	^ coercive regulation and the balance of freedom archived - - at the wayback machine, edward glaeser, cato unbound . . 	^ mental health and relationships 'key to happiness' archived - - at the wayback machine bbc 	^ seligman & csikszentmihalyi . sfn error: no target: citerefseligmancsikszentmihalyi (help) 	^ washington post ( - - ). "all you need is love — and funding: -year-old harvard study of human happiness may lose grant money". nationalpost. retrieved - - . 	^ american psychological association ( ). "more sleep would make us happier, healthier and safer". www.apa.org. retrieved - - . 	^ apr , mara leighton ( - - ). "yale's most popular class ever is now available for free online — and the topic is how to be happier in your daily life". business insider. retrieved - - . further reading 	anand paul "happiness explained: what human flourishing is and what we can do to promote it", oxford: oxford university press . isbn  - - - 	michael argyle "the psychology of happiness", 	boehm, julia k.; lyubomirsky, sonja (february ). "does happiness promote career success?". journal of career assessment. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . s cid  . 	norman m. bradburn "the structure of psychological well-being", 	c. robert cloninger, feeling good: the science of well-being, oxford, . 	gregg easterbrook "the progress paradox – how life gets better while people feel worse", 	michael w. eysenck "happiness – facts and myths", 	daniel gilbert, stumbling on happiness, knopf, . 	carol graham "happiness around the world: the paradox of happy peasants and miserable millionaires", oup oxford, . isbn  - - - - 	w. doyle gentry "happiness for dummies", 	james hadley, happiness: a new perspective, , isbn  - - - - 	joop hartog & hessel oosterbeek "health, wealth and happiness", 	hills p., argyle m. ( ). "the oxford happiness questionnaire: a compact scale for the measurement of psychological well-being. personality and individual differences". psychological wellbeing. ( ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . 	robert holden "happiness now!", 	barbara ann kipfer, , things to be happy about, workman, / , isbn  - - - - . 	neil kaufman "happiness is a choice", 	stefan klein, the science of happiness, marlowe, , isbn  - - -x. 	koenig hg, mccullough m, & larson db. handbook of religion and health: a century of research reviewed (see article). new york: oxford university press; . 	mcmahon, darrin m., happiness: a history, atlantic monthly press; . isbn  - - - 	mcmahon, darrin m., the history of happiness: b.c. – a.d. , daedalus journal, spring . 	richard layard, happiness: lessons from a new science, penguin, , isbn  - - - - . 	luskin, frederic, kenneth r. pelletier, dr. andrew weil (foreword). "stress free for good: scientifically proven life skills for health and happiness." 	james mackaye "economy of happiness", 	desmond morris "the nature of happiness", 	david g. myers, ph.d., the pursuit of happiness: who is happy – and why, william morrow and co., , isbn  - - - . 	niek persoon "happiness doesn't just happen", 	benjamin radcliff the political economy of human happiness (new york: cambridge university press, ). 	ben renshaw "the secrets of happiness", 	fiona robards, "what makes you happy?" exisle publishing, , isbn  - - - - 	bertrand russell "the conquest of happiness", orig. (many reprints) 	martin e.p. seligman, authentic happiness, free press, , isbn  - - - . 	alexandra stoddard "choosing happiness – keys to a joyful life", 	władysław tatarkiewicz, analysis of happiness, the hague, martinus nijhoff publishers, 	elizabeth telfer "happiness : an examination of a hedonistic and a eudaemonistic concept of happiness and of the relations between them...", 	ruut veenhoven "bibliography of happiness – world database of happiness : studies on subjective appreciation of life", 	ruut veenhoven "conditions of happiness", 	joachim weimann, andreas knabe, and ronnie schob, eds. measuring happiness: the economics of well-being (mit press; ) pages 	eric g. wilson "against happiness", 	articles and videos 	journal of happiness studies, international society for quality-of-life studies (isqols), quarterly since , also online 	a point of view: the pursuit of happiness (january ), bbc news magazine 	srikumar rao: plug into your hard-wired happiness – video of a short lecture on how to be happy 	dan gilbert: why are we happy? – video of a short lecture on how our "psychological immune system" lets us feel happy even when things don't go as planned. 	ted radio hour: simply happy – various guest speakers, with some research results external links happinessat wikipedia's sister projects 	definitions from wiktionary 	media from wikimedia commons 	news from wikinews 	quotations from wikiquote 	texts from wikisource 	textbooks from wikibooks 	resources from wikiversity 	 	this article's use of external links may not follow wikipedia's policies or guidelines. please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (july ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	history of happiness – concise survey of influential theories 	the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy entry "pleasure" – ancient and modern philosophers' and neuroscientists' approaches to happiness 	the world happiness forum promotes dialogue on tools and techniques for human happiness and wellbeing. 	action for happiness is a uk movement committed to building a happier society 	improving happiness through humanistic leadership – university of bath, uk 	the world database of happiness – a register of scientific research on the subjective appreciation of life. 	oxford happiness questionnaire – online psychological test to measure your happiness. 	track your happiness – research project with downloadable app that surveys users periodically and determines personal factors 	pharrell williams – happy (official music video) added to youtube by p. williams: i am other – retrieved - - 	four levels of happiness – a modern take on 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newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (august ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e self-pity is an emotion "directed towards others with the goal of attracting attention, empathy, or help" and one in which the subject feels sorry for (feels pity for) themselves.[ ] contents 	 description 	 effects 	 treatment 	 see also 	 references description[edit] although the primary focus of self-pity is on the self and one's own emotions, it has a strong interpersonal component as well. in addition to loneliness, subjects may also feel "envy, blame, anger, and hostility directed towards others".[ ] however, it is also common for some people suffering from self-pity to deflect criticism of themselves; they are usually incapable of self-reflection and blame their bad situation on external factors, such as bad luck or other people's supposed resentment.[citation needed] effects[edit] the research based on observation on self-pity is very slim, but the research that is available shows that self-pity can be an effect from a stressor of a dramatic event. it can also be shown that aspects of one's personality can have an effect of one's self-pity. this can also be combined with antagonistic views against others as their pity to themselves becomes jealousy to the people around.[citation needed] even if this can be diagnosed based on an event, it is not restricted towards that alone as anybody can fall victim to feeling sorry for one's self. while looking into the science of psychology, the personalities that mostly respond to experiencing self-pity are moody and most likely experience feelings of anxiety, anger, loneliness, etc.[citation needed] in other words, people that are {unable to self regulate} are more likely to have self-pity for the most of their lifespan.[citation needed] there is also evidence that the effect of self-pity can depend on gender, with women being more vulnerable and more likely to go through with that cause.[citation needed] the focus of where self-pity could rise could come from their past failings or losses and as a result could break down the mind of a person. these people in question could repeat the cycle and continue to beat themselves down to further their pain.[citation needed] treatment[edit] when someone goes through the effects of self-pity, it has been seen that these effects can be subsided if one were to think of happy thoughts during the process, it could be beneficial to them and reduce further harm.[citation needed] with the research that is given, it is possible that it can be used to prescribe and tell the difference between a person with anxiety and a person with depression.[citation needed] with how one would deal with self-pity, one could treat their ailment by finding some sort of relief and grow away from further pain. see also[edit] 	moral emotions 	pity 	self-conscious emotions 	social emotions 	victim playing 	victim mentality 	pity (film) - movie about the emotion references[edit] 		wikisource has original text related to this article: pity 		wikiquote has quotations related to: self-pity 	^ a b stober, j ( ). "self-pity: exploring the links to personality, control beliefs, and anger" (pdf). journal of personality. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . 	petric, domina (january ). "self-pity and the knot theory of mind". researchgate. 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion 		this psychology-related article is a stub. you can help wikipedia by expanding it. 	v 	t 	e retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=self-pity&oldid= " 		categories: 	emotions 	psychology stubs hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	use dmy dates from september 	articles needing additional references from august 	all articles needing additional references 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from march 	all stub articles 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	deutsch 	español 	Հայերեն 	עברית 	português 	Русский 	türkçe 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 international standard serial number - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	international standard serial number 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from issn (identifier)) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		unique eight-digit number used to identify a periodical publication for the use of issns on wikipedia, see wikipedia:issn. international standard serial number	an issn, - , as represented by an ean- bar code. 	acronym	issn 	organisation	issn international centre 	introduced	 ;  years ago ( ) 	no. issued	> , , 	no. of digits	 	check digit	weighted sum 	example	 - 	website	www.issn.org issn encoded in an ean- barcode with sequence variant and issue number  example of an issn encoded in an ean- barcode, with explanation. issn expanded with sequence variant to a gtin- and encoded in an ean- barcode with an ean- add-on designating issue number an international standard serial number (issn) is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication, such as a magazine.[ ] the issn is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title. issns are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature.[ ] the issn system was first drafted as an international organization for standardization (iso) international standard in and published as iso in .[ ] iso subcommittee tc /sc is responsible for maintaining the standard. when a serial with the same content is published in more than one media type, a different issn is assigned to each media type. for example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media. the issn system refers to these types as print issn (p-issn) and electronic issn (e-issn), respectively.[ ] consequently, as defined in iso : , every serial in the issn system is also assigned a linking issn (issn-l), typically the same as the issn assigned to the serial in its first published medium, which links together all issns assigned to the serial in every medium.[ ] contents 	 code format 	 . in eans 	 code assignment, maintenance and look-up 	 . linking issn 	 . register 	 comparison with other identifiers 	 . extensions 	 . media versus content 	 use in urns 	 . problems 	 media category labels 	 . print issn 	 . electronic issn 	 road 	 see also 	 references 	 external links code format[edit] the format of the issn is an eight-digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers.[ ] as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits.[ ] the last code digit, which may be - or an x, is a check digit. formally, the general form of the issn code (also named "issn structure" or "issn syntax") can be expressed as follows:[ ] 	nnnn-nnnc 	where n is in the set { , , ,..., }, a digit character, and c is in { , , ,..., ,x}; or by a perl compatible regular expressions (pcre) regular expression:[ ] 	^[ - ]{ }-[ - ]{ }[ - xx]$. the issn of the journal hearing research, for example, is - , where the final is the check digit, that is c= . to calculate the check digit, the following algorithm may be used: 	calculate the sum of the first seven digits of the issn multiplied by its position in the number, counting from the right—that is, , , , , , , and , respectively: 	 ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ {\displaystyle \cdot + \cdot + \cdot + \cdot + \cdot + \cdot + \cdot } 	 = + + + + + + {\displaystyle = + + + + + + } 	 = {\displaystyle = } 	the modulus of this sum is then calculated; divide the sum by and determine the remainder: 	 =  remainder  = + {\displaystyle {\frac { }{ }}= {\mbox{ remainder }} = +{\frac { }{ }}} 	if there is no remainder the check digit is , otherwise the remainder value is subtracted from to give the check digit: 	 − = {\displaystyle - = } 	 is the check digit, c. 	for calculations, an upper case x in the check digit position indicates a check digit of (like a roman ten). to confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the issn multiplied by its position in the number, counting from the right (if the check digit is x, then add to the sum). the modulus of the sum must be . there is an online issn checker that can validate an issn, based on the above algorithm.[ ] in eans[edit] issns can be encoded in ean- bar codes with a "country code" (compare the country code ("bookland") for isbns), followed by the main digits of the issn (the check digit is not included), followed by publisher-defined digits, followed by the ean check digit (which need not match the issn check digit).[ ] code assignment, maintenance and look-up[edit] issn codes are assigned by a network of issn national centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the issn international centre based in paris. the international centre is an intergovernmental organization created in through an agreement between unesco and the french government. linking issn[edit] issn-l is a unique identifier for all versions of the serial containing the same content across different media. as defined by iso : , the "linking issn (issn-l)" provides a mechanism for collocation or linking among the different media versions of the same continuing resource. the issn-l is one of a serial’s existing issns, so does not change the use or assignment of "ordinary" issns;[ ] it is based on the issn of the first published medium version of the publication. if the print and online versions of the publication are published at the same time, the issn of the print version is chosen as the basis of the issn-l. with issn-l is possible to designate one single issn for all those media versions of the title. the use of issn-l facilitates search, retrieval and delivery across all media versions for services like openurl, library catalogues, search engines or knowledge bases. register[edit] the international centre maintains a database of all issns assigned worldwide, the isds register (international serials data system), otherwise known as the issn register. at the end of ,[update] the issn register contained records for , , items.[ ] the register is not freely available for interrogation on the web, but is available by subscription. 	the print version of a serial typically will include the issn code as part of the publication information. 	most serial websites contain issn code information. 	derivative lists of publications will often contain issn codes; these can be found through on-line searches with the issn code itself or serial title. 	worldcat permits searching its catalog by issn, by entering "issn:" before the code in the query field. one can also go directly to an issn's record by appending it to "https://www.worldcat.org/issn/", e.g. https://www.worldcat.org/issn/ - . this does not query the issn register itself, but rather shows whether any worldcat library holds an item with the given issn. comparison with other identifiers[edit] issn and isbn codes are similar in concept, where isbns are assigned to individual books. an isbn might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the issn code for the serial as a whole. an issn, unlike the isbn code, is an anonymous identifier associated with a serial title, containing no information as to the publisher or its location. for this reason a new issn is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change. extensions[edit] since the issn applies to an entire serial a new identifier, other identifiers have been built on top of it to allow references to specific volumes, articles, or other identifiable components (like the table of contents): the publisher item identifier (pii) and the serial item and contribution identifier (sici). media versus content[edit] separate issns are needed for serials in different media (except reproduction microforms). thus, the print and electronic media versions of a serial need separate issns,[ ] and cd-rom versions and web versions require different issns. however, the same issn can be used for different file formats (e.g. pdf and html) of the same online serial. this "media-oriented identification" of serials made sense in the s. in the s and onward, with personal computers, better screens, and the web, it makes sense to consider only content, independent of media. this "content-oriented identification" of serials was a repressed demand during a decade, but no issn update or initiative occurred. a natural extension for issn, the unique-identification of the articles in the serials, was the main demand application. an alternative serials' contents model arrived with the indecs content model and its application, the digital object identifier (doi), an issn-independent initiative, consolidated in the s. only later, in , issn-l was defined in the new issn standard (iso : ) as an "issn designated by the issn network to enable collocation or versions of a continuing resource linking among the different media".[ ] use in urns[edit] an issn can be encoded as a uniform resource name (urn) by prefixing it with "urn:issn:".[ ] for example, rail could be referred to as "urn:issn: - ". urn namespaces are case-sensitive, and the issn namespace is all caps.[ ] if the checksum digit is "x" then it is always encoded in uppercase in a urn. problems[edit] the urns are content-oriented, but issn is media-oriented: 	issn is not unique when the concept is "a journal is a set of contents, generally copyrighted content": the same journal (same contents and same copyrights) may have two or more issn codes. a urn needs to point to "unique content" (a "unique journal" as a "set of contents" reference). 	example: nature has an issn for print, - , and another for the same content on the web, - ; only the oldest ( - ) is used as a unique identifier. as the issn is not unique, the u.s. national library of medicine needed to create, prior to , the nlm unique id (jid).[ ] 	issn does not offer resolution mechanisms like a digital object identifier (doi) or a urn does, so the doi is used as a urn for articles, with (for historical reasons) no need for an issn's existence. 	example: the doi name " . /nature " can be represented as an http string by https://dx.doi.org/ . /nature , and is redirected (resolved) to the current article's page; but there is no issn online service, like http://dx.issn.org/, to resolve the issn of the journal (in this sample - ). a unique urn for serials simplifies the search, recovery and delivery of data for various services including, in particular, search systems and knowledge databases.[ ] issn-l (see linking issn above) was created to fill this gap. media category labels[edit] the two standard categories of media in which serials are most available are print and electronic. in metadata contexts (e.g., jats), these may have standard labels. print issn[edit] p-issn is a standard label for "print issn", the issn for the print media (paper) version of a serial. usually it is the "default media" and so the "default issn". electronic issn[edit] e-issn (or eissn) is a standard label for "electronic issn", the issn for the electronic media (online) version of a serial.[ ] road[edit] 	road: directory of open access scholarly resources [it] (est. ), produced by the issn international centre and unesco[ ] see also[edit] 	coden 	worldcat—an issn-resolve service references[edit] 	^ a b "what is an issn?". paris: issn international centre. retrieved july . 	^ "collection metadata standards". british library. retrieved july . 	^ "issn, a standardised code". paris: issn international centre. retrieved july . 	^ issn international centre. "the issn for electronic media". issn. retrieved april . 	^ " ". issn manual (pdf). paris: issn international centre. january . pp.  , , – . html version available at www.issn.org 	^ example of database implementation where seven-digit integers are used to store issns. 	^ <rozenfeld@issn.org>, slawek rozenfeld. "using the issn (international serial standard number) as urn (uniform resource names) within an issn-urn namespace". tools.ietf.org. 	^ github.com/amsl-project/issn-resolver see p. ex. $pattern at source code (issn-resolver.php) of github. 	^ "online issn validator". journal seeker. retrieved august . 	^ identification with the gtin barcode. issn international centre. archived from the original on june . 	^ kansalliskirjasto, nationalbiblioteket, the national library of finland. "kansalliskirjasto, nationalbiblioteket, the national library of finland". nationallibrary.fi.cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ "total number of records in the issn register" (pdf). issn international centre. february . retrieved february . 	^ "issn for electronic serials". u.s. issn center, library of congress. february . retrieved july . 	^ a b "the issn-l for publications on multiple media". issn international centre. retrieved july . 	^ rozenfeld, slawek (january ). "using the issn (international serial standard number) as urn (uniform resource names) within an issn-urn namespace". ietf tools. rfc  . retrieved july . 	^ powell, andy; johnston, pete; campbell, lorna; barker, phil ( june ). "guidelines for using resource identifiers in dublin core metadata §  .  issn". dublin core architecture wiki. archived from the original on may . 	^ "medline®/pubmed® data element (field) descriptions". u.s. national library of medicine. may . retrieved july . 	^ "la nueva norma issn facilita la vida de la comunidad de las publicaciones en serie", a. roucolle. 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additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 trust and antitrust | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . / corpus id: trust and antitrust @article{baier trustaa, title={trust and antitrust}, author={a. baier}, journal={ethics}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	a. baier 	published 	philosophy 	ethics whether or not everything which matters to us is the sort of thing that can thrive or languish (i may care most about my stamp collection) or even whether all the possibly thriving things we care about need trust in order to thrive (does my rubber tree?), there surely is something basically right about bok's claim. given that i cannot myself guard my stamp collection at all times, nor take my rubber tree with me on my travels, the custody of these things that matter to me must often be… continue reading view on u of chicago save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper , citationshighly influencial citations background citations methods citations results citations view all paper mentions news article breaking the cycle of distrust abc.net.au november blog post the ethical importance of trust for a patient’s sense of autonomy the neuroethics blog january , citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency trust online 	b. friedman, p. kahn, d. c. howe 	psychology, computer science 	cacm 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed on the concept of basic trust 	m. hartmann 	sociology 	 	 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed autonomy, trust, and respect. 	thomas nys 	psychology, medicine 	the journal of medicine and philosophy 	 	 	highly influenced 	 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed on the attitude of trust 	lars hertzberg 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed the practical rationality of trust 	p. faulkner 	psychology, computer science 	synthese 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt save alert research feed trust and trustworthiness 	s. wright 	psychology 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed living in an impossible world: real-izing the consequences of intransitive trust 	b. christianson 	computer science 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed you can have your trust and calculativeness, too: uncertainty, trustworthiness and the williamson thesis 	harvey s. james, jr. 	 	 save alert research feed trust and fiduciary power 	m. menon 	sociology 	 save alert research feed building trust. a fairly honourable defeat 	floora ruokonen 	philosophy 	 	 save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	 	 	› related papers 	abstract 	paper mentions 	 , citations 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators blog posts, news articles and tweet counts and ids sourced by altmetric.com terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue diego gambetta - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	diego gambetta 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 	 	this article may be written from a fan's point of view, rather than a neutral point of view. please clean it up to conform to a higher standard of quality, and to make it neutral in tone. (january ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	diego gambetta 	born	 turin, italy 	known for	analytical contributions to the study of trust and research on the sicilian mafia 	 	academic background 	academic work 	institutions	european university institute, nuffield college, university of oxford 	doctoral students	heather hamill 	 diego gambetta (italian pronunciation: [ˈdjɛːɡo ɡamˈbetta]; born ) is an italian-born social scientist. he is a professor of social theory at the european university institute in florence, a carlo alberto chair at the collegio carlo alberto in turin, and an official fellow at nuffield college, university of oxford. he is well known for his vivid and unconventional applications of economic theory and a rational choice approach to understanding a variety of social phenomena. he has made important analytical contributions to the concept of trust by using game theory and signalling theory.[ ] contents 	 career 	 analysis 	 works 	 . books 	 . selected articles 	 references 	 external links career[edit] in gambetta received his phd in social and political sciences from the university of cambridge, where his doctoral supervisor was the late social statistician cathie marsh.[ ] he was first junior and then senior research fellow at king's college, cambridge, from to . from until he was reader in sociology at the university of oxford and fellow of all souls college. in , he was awarded a title of distinction as professor of sociology and in he became an official fellow of nuffield college. in he was elected a fellow of the british academy.[ ][ ] he is also a fellow of the european academy of sociology.[ ] he has held visiting positions at the university of chicago, columbia university, sciences po and collége de france in paris, and stanford university. analysis[edit] in his book "the sicilian mafia: the business of private protection" (published by harvard university press in ), he brings a new perspective on an extralegal institution like the mafia by underscoring the market demand for protection that it satisfies and by showing how mafiosi apparently outlandish rituals and behaviours make organisational sense. his approach has had much influence on the study of mafia-like organisations around the world – it has been applied to cases in russia,[ ] hong kong,[ ] japan [ ] bulgaria[ ] and mainland china[ ] – and more generally on the study of extra-legal governance[ ] as well as mafia transplantation.[ ] gambetta has a long lasting interest in trust. in , when the concept was largely ignored in the social sciences, he published a groundbreaking edited collection, with authors from all quarters of the social sciences ("trust. making and breaking cooperative relations"). his subsequent work in this area, with the late economist michael bacharach,[ ] employs game theory to provide a rigorous definition of trust, and signalling theory to understand the nature of trust decisions. this work describes at once how trust can be threatened by "mimics" of signals of trustworthiness, and the general conditions under which signals of trustworthiness can be relied upon.[ ] signalling theory, which emerged simultaneously in economics and biology in the early s –asserts that the reliability of signals, in social interactions among humans and other animals, depends on whether the signals are supported by behaviour that would be too costly for (most) mimics to afford, while being affordable by genuine signallers. after an imaginative application of the theory to how taxi drivers in dangerous cities decide whether to take on board hailers and callers[ ] on the basis of little information, gambetta's recent major work, “codes of the underworld. how criminals communicate” (published by princeton university press in ), applies signalling theory to analyse how credibility of communication is established in a world where trust is under multiple threats. thomas schelling, the nobel prize–winning economist, among the first and few to write on the economics of organised crime, wrote that the book "illuminates a vast field of strategic communication where trust cannot be taken for granted. there is nothing comparable in print, and the book's interpretations will carry well beyond the field of conventional crime."[ ] the book, listed by new scientist as one of the best books of ,[ ] has been described by one reviewer as the product of a “brilliant economic naturalist.”[ ] gambetta's work has, in recent years, extended to examining violent extremists. a number of gambetta's research questions have come from "puzzles", unexpected or counter-intuitive correlations, such as the presence of a large proportion of engineers among islamic radicals. in he edited “making sense of suicide missions” (published by oxford university press), and he is now working with steffen hertog on a book on “engineers of jihad” for princeton university press.[ ] in terms of direct intellectual influences on gambetta's work, in addition to thomas schelling, one may count michael bacharach, partha dasgupta, jon elster and bernard williams. works[edit] books[edit] . engineers of jihad. princeton university press . codes of the underworld: how criminals communicate. princeton university press (editor). making sense of suicide missions. oxford: oxford university press . streetwise. how taxi drivers establish customers’ trustworthiness. new york: russell sage foundation (with heather hamill) . the sicilian mafia. the business of private protection. harvard university press a (editor). trust. making and breaking cooperative relations. oxford: basil blackwell . were they pushed or did they jump? individual decision mechanisms in education. cambridge: cambridge university press selected articles[edit] . “the ll-game. the curious preference for low quality and its norms”, politics, philosophy and economics, (with gloria origgi) . “do strong family ties inhibit trust?”, journal of economic behaviour and organisation, , , – (with john ermisch) . “‘heroic impatience’: the baader-meinhof gang – ”, areté, , – (published in the us in the nation, march ). . “trust’s odd ways”. in j. elster, o. gjelsvik, a. hylland and k. moene (eds.) understanding choice, explaining behaviour essays in honour of ole-jørgen skog, oslo: unipub forlag/oslo academic press . . “deceptive mimicry in humans”. in s. hurley and n. chater (eds.), perspective on imitation: from cognitive neuroscience to social science, cambridge: mit press, vol ii, pp.  – . . “corruption: an analytical map”. in s. kotkin and a. sajo (eds.), political corruption of transition: a sceptic's handbook, budapest: central european university press, pp.  – ( reprinted in w. jordan and e. kreike (eds.), corrupt histories. university of rochester press, pp.  – ) . “trust as type identification”. in c. castelfranchi and yao-hua tan, trust and deception in virtual societies. dordrecht: kluwer publishers, pp.  – (with michael bacharach) . “trust in signs”. in k. cook (ed.) trust and society, new york: russell sage foundation, pp.  – (with michael bacharach) . “claro!’ an essay on discursive machismo”. in j.elster (ed.), deliberative democracy, cambridge: cambridge university press, pp.  – ( . spanish translation, in j.elster (ed.) democracia deliberativa. barcelona: editorial gedisa) . “concatenations of mechanisms”. in p.hedstrοm and r. swedberg (eds.), social mechanisms. an analytical approach to social theory, cambridge: cambridge university press, pp.  – . “conspiracy among the many: the mafia in legitimate industries” (with peter reuter). in g.fiorentini & s.peltzman (eds.), the economics of organised crime, cambridge: cambridge university press, pp.  – ( . . “inscrutable markets”, rationality and society, , , – . “godfather's gossip”, archives européennes de sociologie, xxxv, , – . “in the beginning was the word: the symbols of the mafia” archives européennes de sociologie, xxxii, , – . “fragments of an economic theory of the mafia”. archives européenes de sociologie, xxix, , – references[edit] 	^ cook, karen s., ed. (march ). trust in signs. new york city: russell sage foundation. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ dale, angela ( ). "obituary: professor catherine marsh, – ". journal of the royal statistical society, series a. blackwell publishing. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - x. .tb .x. jstor  . 	^ a b diego gambetta archived march at the wayback machine european academy of sociology 	^ british academy fellows archive. archived june at the wayback machine british academy. accessed february 	^ varese. f. . the russian mafia. private protection in a new market economy. oxford, uk: oxford university press. 	^ chu, yiu kong ( ) the triads as business. london and new york: routledge. 	^ hill, peter e ( ). the japanese mafia: yakuza, law, and the state. oxford: oxford university press. 	^ marina tzvetkova, aspects of the evolution of extra-legal protection in bulgaria ( – ), trends in organized crime, springer, new york 	^ wang, peng ( ). the chinese mafia: organized crime, corruption, and extra-legal protection. oxford: oxford university press. 	^ dixit, a. ( ). lawlessness and economics: alternative modes of economic governance. gorman lectures. princeton university press. 	^ varese, federico ( ). mafias on the move: how organized crime conquers new territories. princeton university press. 	^ "obituary: michael bacharach". the guardian. september . retrieved august . 	^ michael spence, the quarterly journal of economics, vol. , no. (aug. ), pp. – [ ] 	^ gambetta, d., & hamill, h. ( ). streetwise. how taxi drivers establish their customers' trustworthiness. new york: russel sage 	^ "additional reviews and/or endorsements for gambetta, d.: codes of the underworld: how criminals communicate". press.princeton.edu. 	^ "culturelab: the best books of ". www.newscientist.com. 	^ stevereads ( january ). "way behind on book reviews; here are some capsules". 	^ “why are there so many engineers among islamic radicals?” archives européennes de sociologie, l ( ), – external links[edit] 	diego gambetta at nuffield college, university of oxford 	authority control 	 	bne: xx 	bnf: cb w (data) 	gnd: 	isni: 	lccn: n 	nkc: vse 	nta: 	sudoc: 	trove: 	viaf: 	 worldcat identities: lccn-n retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=diego_gambetta&oldid= " 		categories: 	italian social scientists 	british sociologists 	living people 	 births 	fellows of nuffield college, oxford 	fellows of all souls college, oxford 	fellows of king's college, cambridge 	academics of the university of oxford 	people from turin 	alumni of king's college, cambridge 	non-fiction writers about organized crime in italy hidden categories: 	webarchive template wayback links 	engvarb from september 	use dmy dates from september 	articles with a promotional tone from january 	all articles with a promotional tone 	wikipedia articles with style issues from january 	all articles with style issues 	articles with hcards 	wikipedia articles with bne identifiers 	wikipedia articles with bnf identifiers 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	wikipedia articles with isni identifiers 	wikipedia articles with lccn identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nkc identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nta identifiers 	wikipedia articles with sudoc identifiers 	wikipedia articles with trove identifiers 	wikipedia articles with viaf identifiers 	wikipedia articles with worldcatid identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			deutsch 	فارسی 	português 	svenska 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; 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additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 information system - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	information system 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		combination of information, resources, activities and people that support tasks in an organization; a group of components that interact to produce information an information system (is) is a formal, sociotechnical, organizational system designed to collect, process, store, and distribute information.[ ] in a sociotechnical perspective, information systems are composed by four components: task, people, structure (or roles), and technology.[ ] information systems can be defined as an integration of components for collection, storage and processing of data of which the data is used to provide information, contribute to knowledge as well as digital products.[ ] a computer information system is a system composed of people and computers that processes or interprets information.[ ][ ][ ][ ] the term is also sometimes used to simply refer to a computer system with software installed. information systems is an academic study of systems with a specific reference to information and the complementary networks of hardware and software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create and also distribute data. an emphasis is placed on an information system having a definitive boundary, users, processors, storage, inputs, outputs and the aforementioned communication networks.[ ] any specific information system aims to support operations, management and decision-making.[ ][ ] an information system is the information and communication technology (ict) that an organization uses, and also the way in which people interact with this technology in support of business processes.[ ] some authors make a clear distinction between information systems, computer systems, and business processes. information systems typically include an ict component but are not purely concerned with ict, focusing instead on the end-use of information technology. information systems are also different from business processes. information systems help to control the performance of business processes.[ ] alter[ ][ ] argues for advantages of viewing an information system as a special type of work system. a work system is a system in which humans or machines perform processes and activities using resources to produce specific products or services for customers. an information system is a work system whose activities are devoted to capturing, transmitting, storing, retrieving, manipulating and displaying information.[ ] as such, information systems inter-relate with data systems on the one hand and activity systems on the other. an information system is a form of communication system in which data represent and are processed as a form of social memory. an information system can also be considered a semi-formal language which supports human decision making and action. information systems are the primary focus of study for organizational informatics.[ ] contents 	 overview 	 types of information system 	 information system development 	 as an academic discipline 	 . related terms 	 career pathways 	 research 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links overview[edit] silver et al. ( ) provided two views on is that includes software, hardware, data, people, and procedures.[ ] zheng provided another system view of information system which also adds processes and essential system elements like environment, boundary, purpose, and interactions. the association for computing machinery defines "information systems specialists [as] focus[ing] on integrating information technology solutions and business processes to meet the information needs of businesses and other enterprises."[ ] there are various types of information systems, for example: transaction processing systems, decision support systems, knowledge management systems, learning management systems, database management systems, and office information systems. critical to most information systems are information technologies, which are typically designed to enable humans to perform tasks for which the human brain is not well suited, such as: handling large amounts of information, performing complex calculations, and controlling many simultaneous processes. information technologies are a very important and malleable resource available to executives.[ ] many companies have created a position of chief information officer (cio) that sits on the executive board with the chief executive officer (ceo), chief financial officer (cfo), chief operating officer (coo), and chief technical officer (cto). the cto may also serve as cio, and vice versa. the chief information security officer (ciso) focuses on information security management. the six components that must come together in order to produce an information system are: (information systems are organizational procedures and do not need a computer or software, this data is erroneous, i.e., an accounting system in the s using a ledger and ink utilizes an information system) 	hardware: the term hardware refers to machinery. this category includes the computer itself, which is often referred to as the central processing unit (cpu), and all of its support equipment. among the support, equipments are input and output devices, storage devices and communications devices. 	software: the term software refers to computer programs and the manuals (if any) that support them. computer programs are machine-readable instructions that direct the circuitry within the hardware parts of the system to function in ways that produce useful information from data. programs are generally stored on some input/output medium, often a disk or tape. 	data: data are facts that are used by programs to produce useful information. like programs, data are generally stored in machine-readable form on disk or tape until the computer needs them. 	procedures: procedures are the policies that govern the operation of a computer system. "procedures are to people what software is to hardware" is a common analogy that is used to illustrate the role of procedures in a system. 	people: every system needs people if it is to be useful. often the most overlooked element of the system is the people, probably the component that most influence the success or failure of information systems. this includes "not only the users, but those who operate and service the computers, those who maintain the data, and those who support the network of computers."[ ] 	feedback: it is another component of the is, that defines that an is may be provided with feedback (although this component isn't necessary to function). data is the bridge between hardware and people. this means that the data we collect is only data until we involve people. at that point, data is now information. types of information system[edit] a four level hierarchy the "classic" view of information systems found in textbooks[ ] in the s was a pyramid of systems that reflected the hierarchy of the organization, usually transaction processing systems at the bottom of the pyramid, followed by management information systems, decision support systems, and ending with executive information systems at the top. although the pyramid model remains useful since it was first formulated, a number of new technologies have been developed and new categories of information systems have emerged, some of which no longer fit easily into the original pyramid model. some examples of such systems are: 	data warehouses 	enterprise resource planning 	enterprise systems 	expert systems 	search engines 	geographic information system 	global information system 	office automation. a computer(-based) information system is essentially an is using computer technology to carry out some or all of its planned tasks. the basic components of computer-based information systems are: 	hardware- these are the devices like the monitor, processor, printer, and keyboard, all of which work together to accept, process, show data, and information. 	software- are the programs that allow the hardware to process the data. 	databases- are the gathering of associated files or tables containing related data. 	networks- are a connecting system that allows diverse computers to distribute resources. 	procedures- are the commands for combining the components above to process information and produce the preferred output. the first four components (hardware, software, database, and network) make up what is known as the information technology platform. information technology workers could then use these components to create information systems that watch over safety measures, risk and the management of data. these actions are known as information technology services.[ ] certain information systems support parts of organizations, others support entire organizations, and still others, support groups of organizations. recall that each department or functional area within an organization has its own collection of application programs or information systems. these functional area information systems (fais) are supporting pillars for more general is namely, business intelligence systems and dashboards[citation needed]. as the name suggests, each fais supports a particular function within the organization, e.g.: accounting is, finance is, production-operation management (pom) is, marketing is, and human resources is. in finance and accounting, managers use it systems to forecast revenues and business activity, to determine the best sources and uses of funds, and to perform audits to ensure that the organization is fundamentally sound and that all financial reports and documents are accurate. other types of organizational information systems are fais, transaction processing systems, enterprise resource planning, office automation system, management information system, decision support system, expert system, executive dashboard, supply chain management system, and electronic commerce system. dashboards are a special form of is that support all managers of the organization. they provide rapid access to timely information and direct access to structured information in the form of reports. expert systems attempt to duplicate the work of human experts by applying reasoning capabilities, knowledge, and expertise within a specific domain. information system development[edit] information technology departments in larger organizations tend to strongly influence the development, use, and application of information technology in the business. a series of methodologies and processes can be used to develop and use an information system. many developers use a systems engineering approach such as the system development life cycle (sdlc), to systematically develop an information system in stages. the stages of the system development lifecycle are planning, system analysis, and requirements, system design, development, integration and testing, implementation and operations, and maintenance. recent research aims at enabling[ ] and measuring[ ] the ongoing, collective development of such systems within an organization by the entirety of human actors themselves. an information system can be developed in house (within the organization) or outsourced. this can be accomplished by outsourcing certain components or the entire system.[ ] a specific case is the geographical distribution of the development team (offshoring, global information system). a computer-based information system, following a definition of langefors,[ ] is a technologically implemented medium for: 	recording, storing, and disseminating linguistic expressions, 	as well as for drawing conclusions from such expressions. geographic information systems, land information systems, and disaster information systems are examples of emerging information systems, but they can be broadly considered as spatial information systems. system development is done in stages which include: 	problem recognition and specification 	information gathering 	requirements specification for the new system 	system design 	system construction 	system implementation 	review and maintenance.[ ] as an academic discipline[edit] see also: information engineering, information science, information technology, and information management the field of study called information systems encompasses a variety of topics including systems analysis and design, computer networking, information security, database management, and decision support systems. information management deals with the practical and theoretical problems of collecting and analyzing information in a business function area including business productivity tools, applications programming and implementation, electronic commerce, digital media production, data mining, and decision support. communications and networking deals with telecommunication technologies. information systems bridges business and computer science using the theoretical foundations of information and computation to study various business models and related algorithmic processes [ ] on building the it systems [ ][ ] within a computer science discipline.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] computer information system(s) (cis) is a field studying computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society,[ ][ ][ ] whereas is emphasizes functionality over design.[ ] several is scholars have debated the nature and foundations of information systems which have its roots in other reference disciplines such as computer science, engineering, mathematics, management science, cybernetics, and others.[ ][ ][ ][ ] information systems also can be defined as a collection of hardware, software, data, people, and procedures that work together to produce quality information. related terms[edit] information systems relationship to information technology, computer science, information science, and business. similar to computer science, other disciplines can be seen as both related and foundation disciplines of is. the domain of study of is involves the study of theories and practices related to the social and technological phenomena, which determine the development, use, and effects of information systems in organizations and society.[ ] but, while there may be considerable overlap of the disciplines at the boundaries, the disciplines are still differentiated by the focus, purpose, and orientation of their activities.[ ] in a broad scope, the term information systems is a scientific field of study that addresses the range of strategic, managerial, and operational activities involved in the gathering, processing, storing, distributing, and use of information and its associated technologies in society and organizations.[ ] the term information systems is also used to describe an organizational function that applies is knowledge in the industry, government agencies, and not-for-profit organizations.[ ] information systems often refers to the interaction between algorithmic processes and technology. this interaction can occur within or across organizational boundaries. an information system is a technology an organization uses and also the way in which the organizations interact with the technology and the way in which the technology works with the organization's business processes. information systems are distinct from information technology (it) in that an information system has an information technology component that interacts with the processes' components. one problem with that approach is that it prevents the is field from being interested in non-organizational use of ict, such as in social networking, computer gaming, mobile personal usage, etc. a different way of differentiating the is field from its neighbours is to ask, "which aspects of reality are most meaningful in the is field and other fields?"[ ] this approach, based on philosophy, helps to define not just the focus, purpose, and orientation, but also the dignity, destiny and, responsibility of the field among other fields.[ ] career pathways[edit] information systems workers enter a number of different careers: 	information system strategy 	management information systems – a management information system (mis) is an information system used for decision-making, and for the coordination, control, analysis, and visualization of information in an organization. 	project management – project management is the practice of initiating, planning, executing, controlling, and closing the work of a team to achieve specific goals and meet specific success criteria at the specified time. 	enterprise architecture – a well-defined practise for conducting enterprise analysis, design, planning, and implementation, using a comprehensive approach at all times, for the successful development and execution of strategy. 	is development 	is organization 	is consulting 	is security 	is auditor there is a wide variety of career paths in the information systems discipline. "workers with specialized technical knowledge and strong communications skills will have the best prospects. workers with management skills and an understanding of business practices and principles will have excellent opportunities, as companies are increasingly looking to technology to drive their revenue."[ ] information technology is important to the operation of contemporary businesses, it offers many employment opportunities. the information systems field includes the people in organizations who design and build information systems, the people who use those systems, and the people responsible for managing those systems. the demand for traditional it staff such as programmers, business analysts, systems analysts, and designer is significant. many well-paid jobs exist in areas of information technology. at the top of the list is the chief information officer (cio). the cio is the executive who is in charge of the is function. in most organizations, the cio works with the chief executive officer (ceo), the chief financial officer (cfo), and other senior executives. therefore, he or she actively participates in the organization's strategic planning process. research[edit] information systems research is generally interdisciplinary concerned with the study of the effects of information systems on the behaviour of individuals, groups, and organizations.[ ][ ] hevner et al. ( )[ ] categorized research in is into two scientific paradigms including behavioural science which is to develop and verify theories that explain or predict human or organizational behavior and design science which extends the boundaries of human and organizational capabilities by creating new and innovative artifacts. salvatore march and gerald smith[ ] proposed a framework for researching different aspects of information technology including outputs of the research (research outputs) and activities to carry out this research (research activities). they identified research outputs as follows: 	constructs which are concepts that form the vocabulary of a domain. they constitute a conceptualization used to describe problems within the domain and to specify their solutions. 	a model which is a set of propositions or statements expressing relationships among constructs. 	a method which is a set of steps (an algorithm or guideline) used to perform a task. methods are based on a set of underlying constructs and a representation (model) of the solution space. 	an instantiation is the realization of an artefact in its environment. also research activities including: 	build an artefact to perform a specific task. 	evaluate the artefact to determine if any progress has been achieved. 	given an artefact whose performance has been evaluated, it is important to determine why and how the artefact worked or did not work within its environment. therefore, theorize and justify theories about it artefacts. although information systems as a discipline has been evolving for over years now,[ ] the core focus or identity of is research is still subject to debate among scholars.[ ][ ][ ] there are two main views around this debate: a narrow view focusing on the it artifact as the core subject matter of is research, and a broad view that focuses on the interplay between social and technical aspects of it that is embedded into a dynamic evolving context.[ ] a third view[ ] calls on is scholars to pay balanced attention to both the it artifact and its context. since the study of information systems is an applied field, industry practitioners expect information systems research to generate findings that are immediately applicable in practice. this is not always the case however, as information systems researchers often explore behavioral issues in much more depth than practitioners would expect them to do. this may render information systems research results difficult to understand, and has led to criticism.[ ] in the last ten years, the business trend is represented by the considerable increase of information systems function (isf) role, especially with regard to the enterprise strategies and operations supporting. it became a key-factor to increase productivity and to support new value creation.[ ] to study an information system itself, rather than its effects, information systems models are used, such as eatput. the international body of information systems researchers, the association for information systems (ais), and its senior scholars forum subcommittee on journals ( april ), proposed a 'basket' of journals that the ais deems as 'excellent', and nominated: management information systems quarterly (misq), information systems research (isr), journal of the association for information systems (jais), journal of management information systems (jmis), european journal of information systems (ejis), and information systems journal (isj).[ ] a number of annual information systems conferences are run in various parts of the world, the majority of which are peer reviewed. the ais directly runs the international conference on information systems (icis) and the americas conference on information systems (amcis), while ais affiliated conferences[ ] include the pacific asia conference on information systems (pacis), european conference on information systems (ecis), the mediterranean conference on information systems (mcis), the international conference on information resources management (conf-irm) and the wuhan international conference on e-business (whiceb). ais chapter conferences[ ] include australasian conference on information systems (acis), information systems research conference in scandinavia (iris), information systems international conference (isico), conference of the italian chapter of ais (itais), annual mid-western ais conference (mwais) and annual conference of the southern ais (sais). edsig,[ ] which is the special interest group on education of the aitp,[ ] organizes the conference on information systems and computing education[ ] and the conference on information systems applied research[ ] which are both held annually in november. see also[edit] 	 	related studies 	information management 	computer science 	human–computer interaction 	informatics 	bioinformatics 	health informatics 	business informatics 	cheminformatics 	disaster informatics 	geoinformatics 	information science 	web sciences 	management information system (mis) 	formative context 	data processing 	library science 	 	components 	data architect 	data modeling 	data processing system 	data reference model 	database 	eatput 	metadata 	predictive model markup language 	semantic translation 	three schema approach 	 	implementation 	enterprise information system 	environmental modeling center 	information processing system 	informs references[edit] 	^ piccolo, gabriele; pigni, federico (july ). information systems for managers: with cases (edition . ed.). prospect press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . retrieved november . 	^ o’hara, margaret; watson, richard; cavan, bruce ( ). "managing the three levels of change". information systems management. ( ): . doi: . / / . . . / . . retrieved november . 	^ "information systems". - - . 	^ "information system". businessdictionary.com. 	^ "information systems". principia cybernetica web. 	^ vladimir zwass ( - - ). "information system". britannica. 	^ d’atri a., de marco m., casalino n. ( ). "interdisciplinary aspects of information systems studies", physica-verlag, springer, germany, pp. – , doi: . / - - - - isbn  - - - - 	^ jessup, leonard m.; joseph s. valacich ( ). information systems today ( rd ed.). pearson publishing. glossary p. 	^ bulgacs, simon ( ). "the first phase of creating a standardised international innovative technological implementation framework/software application". international journal of business and systems research. ( ): . doi: . /ijbsr. . . retrieved - - . 	^ "sei report, "glossary"". archived from the original on september , . retrieved - - .cs maint: bot: original-url status unknown (link) 	^ kroenke, d m. ( ). experiencing mis. prentice-hall, upper saddle river, nj 	^ o'brien, j a. ( ). introduction to information systems: essentials for the e-business enterprise. mcgraw-hill, boston, ma 	^ alter, s. ( ) " reasons why it-reliant work systems should replace 'the it artifact' as the core subject matter of the is field," communications of the association for information systems, ( ), oct., pp. – , http://aisel.aisnet.org/cais/vol /iss / / 	^ alter, s ( ). "work system theory: overview of core concepts, extensions, and challenges for the future". journal of the association for information systems. ( ): – . doi: . / jais. . 	^ alter, s. ( ) the work system method: connecting people, processes, and it for business results. works system press, ca 	^ beynon-davies p. ( ). business information systems. palgrave, basingstoke 	^ marc s. silver, m. lynne markus, cynthia mathis beath (sep ). "the information technology interactive model: a foundation for the mba core course". mis quarterly: – .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ the joint task force for computing curricula . computing curricula : the overview report (pdf) archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ rockart et al. ( ) eight imperatives for the new it organization sloan management review. 	^ kroenke, d. m. ( ). mis essentials. pearson education 	^ laudon, k.c. and laudon, j.p. management information systems, macmillan, . 	^ rainer, r. kelly jr, and casey g. cegielski. introduction to information system: support and transforming business fourth edition. new jersey: john wiley and sons, inc., . print. 	^ neumann, gustaf; sobernig, stefan; aram, michael (february ). "evolutionary business information systems". business and information systems engineering. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . s cid  . 	^ aram, michael; neumann, gustaf ( - - ). "multilayered analysis of co-development of business information systems" (pdf). journal of internet services and applications. ( ). doi: . /s - - - . s cid  . 	^ using mis. kroenke. . isbn  - - - - . 	^ börje langefors ( ). theoretical analysis of information systems. auerbach. isbn  - - - - . 	^ computer studies. frederick nyawaya. . isbn  - - - - . 	^ "computer and logic essentials – units of study – swinburne university of technology – melbourne, australia". 	^ "building it systems – rmit university". 	^ "systems development – units of study – swinburne university of technology – melbourne, australia". 	^ kelly, sue; gibson, nicola; holland, christopher; light, ben (july ). "focus issue on legacy information systems and business process engineering: a business perspective of legacy information systems". communications of the ais. ( ): – . 	^ archibald, j.a. (may ). "computer science education for majors of other disciplines". afips joint computer conferences: – . computer science spreads out over several related disciplines, and shares with these disciplines certain sub-disciplines that traditionally have been located exclusively in the more conventional disciplines 	^ denning, peter (july ). "computer science: the discipline". encyclopaedia of computer science ( edition). the domain of computer science: even though computer science addresses both human-made and natural information processes, the main effort in the discipline has been directed toward human-made processes, especially information processing systems and machines 	^ coy, wolfgang (june ). "between the disciplines". acm sigcse bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / . . issn  - . s cid  . computer science may be in the core of these processes. the actual question is not to ignore disciplinary boundaries with its methodological differences but to open the disciplines for collaborative work. we must learn to build bridges, not to start in the gap between disciplines 	^ hoganson, ken (december ). "alternative curriculum models for integrating computer science and information systems analysis, recommendations, pitfalls, opportunities, accreditations, and trends". journal of computing sciences in colleges. ( ): – . issn  - . ... information systems grew out of the need to bridge the gap between business management and computer science ... 	^ davis, timothy; geist, robert; matzko, sarah; westall, james (march ). τ´εχνη: a first step. technical symposium on computer science education. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . in , clemson university established a (graduate) degree program that bridges the arts and the sciences... all students in the program are required to complete graduate level work in both the arts and computer science 	^ hoganson, ken (december ). "alternative curriculum models for integrating computer science and information systems analysis, recommendations, pitfalls, opportunities, accreditations, and trends". journal of computing sciences in colleges. ( ): – . issn  - . the field of information systems as a separate discipline is relatively new and is undergoing continuous change as technology evolves and the field matures 	^ khazanchi, deepak; bjorn erik munkvold (summer ). "is information system a science? an inquiry into the nature of the information systems discipline". acm sigmis database. ( ): – . doi: . / . . issn  - . s cid  . from this we have concluded that is is a science, i.e., a scientific discipline in contrast to purportedly non-scientific fields 	^ denning, peter (june ). "ubiquity a new interview with peter denning on the great principles of computing". (june): . people from other fields are saying they have discovered information processes in their deepest structures and that collaboration with computing is essential to them. cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ "computer science is the study of information" new jersey institute of technology, gutenberg information technologies archived september , , at the wayback machine 	^ "computer science is the study of computation." computer science department, college of saint benedict archived - - at the wayback machine, saint john's university 	^ "computer science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects." massey university archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ pearson custom publishing & west chester university, custom program for computer information systems, pearson custom publishing, ( ) glossary p. 	^ polack, jennifer (december ). "planning a cis education within a cs framework". journal of computing sciences in colleges. ( ): – . issn  - . 	^ hayes, helen; onkar sharma (february ). "a decade of experience with a common first year program for computer science, information systems and information technology majors". journal of computing sciences in colleges. ( ): – . issn  - . in , a degree program in computer information systems (cis) was launched with the objective of providing an option for students who were less inclined to become programmers and were more interested in learning to design, develop, and implement information systems, and solve business problems using the systems approach 	^ csta committee, allen tucker, et alia, a model curriculum for k- computer science (final report), (association for computing machinery, inc., ) abstraction & p.  	^ freeman, peter; hart, david (august ). "a science of design for software-intensive systems computer science and engineering needs an intellectually rigorous, analytical, teachable design process to ensure development of systems we all can live with". communications of the acm. ( ): – . doi: . / . . issn  - . s cid  . though the other components' connections to the software and their role in the overall design of the system are critical, the core consideration for a software-intensive system is the software itself, and other approaches to systematizing design have yet to solve the "software problem"—which won't be solved until software design is understood scientifically 	^ culnan, m. j. mapping the intellectual structure of mis, – : a co-citation analysis, mis quarterly, , pp. – . 	^ keen, p. g. w. mis research: reference disciplines and a cumulative tradition, in proceedings of the first international conference on information systems, e. mclean (ed.), philadelphia, pa, , pp. – . 	^ lee, a. s. architecture as a reference discipline for mis, in information systems research: contemporary approaches and emergent traditions, h.-e. nisen, h. k. klein, and r. a. hirschheim (eds.), north-holland, amsterdam, , pp. – . 	^ mingers, j., and stowell, f. (eds.). information systems: an emerging discipline?, mcgraw- hill, london, . 	^ john, w., and joe, p. ( ) "strategic planning for information system." rd ed. west sussex. john wiley & sons ltd 	^ a b c "scoping the discipline of information systems" (pdf). 	^ basden, a. ( ) on using spheres of meaning to define and dignify the is discipline. international journal of information management, , – . it employs the philosophy of the late herman dooyeweerd to differentiate distinct aspects or 'spheres of meaning'. the paper suggests that while computer science finds the formative aspect, of shaping, structuring, processing, of central interest, and business and organizational fields find the economic and social aspects of central interest, the information systems field can find the lingual aspect of central interest while making links with the aspects of the neighbouring disciplines. 	^ international journal of information management, , – . 	^ "information systems". sloan career cornerstone center; alfred p. sloan foundation. . retrieved june , . 	^ galliers, r.d., markus, m.l., & newell, s. (eds) ( ). exploring information systems research approaches. new york, ny: routledge. 	^ ciborra, c. ( ). the labyrinths of information: challenging the wisdom of systems. oxford, uk: oxford university press 	^ hevner; march; park; ram ( ). "design science in information systems research". mis quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . s cid  . 	^ march, s.; smith, g. ( ). "design and natural science in information technology (it)". decision support systems. ( ): – . doi: . / - ( ) - . 	^ avgerou, c ( ). "information systems: what sort of science is it?". omega. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /s - ( ) - . 	^ benbasat, i.; zmud, r. ( ). "the identity crisis within the is discipline: defining and communicating the discipline's core properties". mis quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . s cid  . 	^ agarwal, r.; lucas, h. ( ). "the information systems identity crisis: focusing on high- visibility and high-impact research". mis quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . s cid  . 	^ el sawy, o ( ). "the is core –ix: the faces of is identity: connection, immersion, and fusion". communications of the association for information systems. : – . doi: . / cais. . 	^ mansour, o., ghazawneh, a. ( ) research in information systems: implications of the constant changing nature of it capabilities in the social computing era, in molka-danielsen, j. (ed.): proceedings of the nd information systems research seminar in scandinavia, iris , inclusive design, molde university college, molde, norway, august – , . isbn  - - - - . 	^ orlikowski, w.; iacono, c. ( ). "research commentary: desperately seeking the "it" in it research—a call to theorizing about the it artifact". information systems research. ( ): – . doi: . /isre. . . . . s cid  . 	^ kock, n.; gray, p.; hoving, r.; klein, h.; myers, m.; rockart, j. ( ). "information systems research relevance revisited: subtle accomplishment, unfulfilled promise, or serial hypocrisy?". communications of the association for information systems. ( ): – . doi: . / cais. . 	^ casalino, n., mazzone, g. ( ): externalization of a banking information systems function. features, regulatory and critical aspects, in interdisciplinary aspects of information systems studies, d’atri a., de marco m., casalino n. (eds.), physica-verlag, springer, heidelberg, germany, pp. – , isbn  - - - - , doi: . / - - - - _ 	^ senior scholars ( ). "ais senior scholars forum subcommittee on journals: a basket of six (or eight) a* journals in information systems" (pdf). archived from the original (pdf) on october , . 	^ "ais affiliated conferences". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "ais chapter conferences". affiniscape.com. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "edsig information systems educators". 	^ "association of information technology professionals". 	^ edsig, iscap and. "iscap conferences – edsigcon & conisar". 	^ edsig, iscap and. "iscap conferences – edsigcon & conisar". further reading[edit] 	rainer, r. kelly and cegielski, casey g. ( ). "introduction to information systems: enabling and transforming business, rd edition" 	kroenke, david ( ). using mis – nd edition. 	lindsay, john ( ). information systems – fundamentals and issues. kingston university, school of information systems 	dostal, j. school information systems (skolni informacni systemy). in infotech – modern information and communication technology in education. olomouc, eu: votobia, . s. – . isbn  - - - - . 	o'leary, timothy and linda. ( ). computing essentials introductory . mcgraw-hill on computing .com 	imperial college london – information systems engineering degree – information systems engineering 	sage, s.m. "information systems: a brief look into history", datamation, – , nov. . – overview of the early history of is. 	cy mis group – http://www.ramblingdata.com.s -website.us-east- .amazonaws.com external links[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to information systems. 	association for information systems (ais) 	is history website 	center for information systems research – massachusetts institute of technology 	european research center for information systems 	index of information systems journals 	european ecompetence frame 		v 	t 	e systems science 	system types	 	anatomical 	art 	biological 	complex 	complex adaptive 	conceptual 	coupled human–environment 	database 	dynamical 	ecological 	economic 	energy 	formal 	holarchic 	information 	legal 	measurement 	metric 	multi-agent 	nervous 	nonlinear 	operating 	planetary 	political 	sensory 	social 	star 	writing 	concepts	 	doubling time 	leverage points 	limiting factor 	negative feedback 	positive feedback 	theoretical fields	 	 	chaos theory 	complex systems 	control theory 	cybernetics 	earth system science 	living systems 	sociotechnical system 	systemics 	urban metabolism 	world-systems theory 	 	analysis 	biology 	dynamics 	ecology 	engineering 	neuroscience 	pharmacology 	psychology 	theory 	thinking 	scientists	 	alexander bogdanov 	russell l. ackoff 	william ross ashby 	ruzena bajcsy 	béla h. bánáthy 	gregory bateson 	anthony stafford beer 	richard e. bellman 	ludwig von bertalanffy 	margaret boden 	kenneth e. boulding 	murray bowen 	kathleen carley 	mary cartwright 	c. west churchman 	manfred clynes 	george dantzig 	edsger w. dijkstra 	fred emery 	heinz von foerster 	stephanie forrest 	jay wright forrester 	barbara grosz 	charles a. s. hall 	mike jackson 	lydia kavraki 	james j. kay 	faina m. kirillova 	george klir 	allenna leonard 	edward norton lorenz 	niklas luhmann 	humberto maturana 	margaret mead 	donella meadows 	mihajlo d. mesarovic 	james grier miller 	radhika nagpal 	howard t. odum 	talcott parsons 	ilya prigogine 	qian xuesen 	anatol rapoport 	john seddon 	peter senge 	claude shannon 	katia sycara 	eric trist 	francisco varela 	manuela m. veloso 	kevin warwick 	norbert wiener 	jennifer wilby 	anthony wilden 	applications	 	systems theory in anthropology 	systems theory in archaeology 	systems theory in political science 	organizations	 	list 	principia cybernetica 	 	 category 	 portal 	 commons 	authority control 	 	gnd: - 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} } 	c. fulmer, m. gelfand 	published 	sociology 	journal of management despite the importance of trust across multiple levels in organizations, extant reviews have focused predominantly on trust at the individual level. a systematic review of trust research across levels and trust referents is sorely needed to synthesize the growing number of both micro and macro studies on this topic. moreover, as trust is a linchpin for divergent areas, such as negotiation, leadership, team processes, human resource management, organizational change, entrepreneurship, and… continue reading view on sage gelfand.umd.edu save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationshighly influencial citations background citations methods citations results citations view all citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency multilevel trust: a theoretical and practical imperative 	a. fulmer, k. t. dirks 	psychology 	 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed call for papers 	a. fulmer, k. t. dirks, p. li 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed repairing trust in organizations and institutions: toward a conceptual framework 	r. bachmann, nicole gillespie, r. priem 	sociology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed the positive impact of organizational trust: a systematic review 	idha rahayuningsih 	psychology 	 	 	highly influenced 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed vertical trust within organizations and performance: a systematic review 	j. guinot, r. chiva 	business 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed predictors of organizational trust: the dynamic relationship between organizational trust, organizational identification and cultural intelligence 	c. dumitru 	political science 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed interpersonal trust within negotiations: : meta-analytic evidence, critical contingencies, and directions for future research. 	d. kong, k. t. dirks, donald l. ferrin 	psychology 	 	 	 save alert research feed what are the determinants of interpersonal trust in dyadic negotiations? meta-analytic evidence and implications for future research 	serena changhong lu, d. kong, donald l. ferrin, kurt t. dirks 	political science 	 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed practices of building and maintaining trust in cross-functional teams 	c. dumitru 	psychology 	 save alert research feed a cross-level process theory of trust development in interorganizational relationships 	oliver schilke, k. cook 	sociology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	 	 	› references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency trust in leadership: a multi-level review and integration 	c. burke, dana e. sims, elizabeth h. lazzara, e. salas 	psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed drivers and performance outcomes of trust in international strategic alliances: the role of organizational complexity 	m. robson, constantine s. katsikeas, daniel c. bello 	business, computer science 	organ. sci. 	 	 	highly influential 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed special issue: trust in an organizational context: levels of organizational trust in individualist versus collectivist societies: a seven-nation study 	lenard huff, l. kelley 	sociology, computer science 	organ. sci. 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed can i trust you to trust me? 	donald l. ferrin, m. bligh, jeffrey c. kohles 	psychology 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed organizational trust: a cultural perspective 	mark n. k. saunders 	sociology, political science 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed the role of trust in organizational settings 	kurt t. dirks, donald l. ferrin 	psychology 	 	 , 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed trust and distrust in organizations: dilemmas and approaches 	r. m. kramer, k. cook 	psychology 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed creating a high-trust organization: an exploration into organizational policies that stimulate interpersonal trust building 	f. six, a. sorge 	sociology 	 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed team virtues and performance: an examination of transparency, behavioral integrity, and trust 	michael palanski, s. kahai, f. yammarino 	psychology, business 	 	 save alert research feed trust in leadership: meta-analytic findings and implications for research and practice. 	k. t. dirks, donald l. ferrin 	psychology, medicine 	the journal of applied psychology 	 	 , 	highly influential 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	 	 	› related papers 	abstract 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue category:wikipedia articles needing page number citations from december - 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(learn how and when to remove these template messages) 	 	this article needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "embarrassment" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (november ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	 	this article possibly contains original research. please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (june ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e embarrassment or awkwardness is an emotional state that is associated with mild to severe levels of discomfort, and which is usually experienced when someone commits a socially unacceptable or frowned-upon act that was witnessed by or revealed to others. usually, some perception of loss of honor or dignity (or other high-value ideals) is involved, but the embarrassment level and the type depends on the situation. contents 	 causes 	 . professional embarrassment 	 . vicarious embarrassment 	 . types in social psychology 	 etymology 	 see also 	 references 	 external links causes[edit] embarrassment can be personal, caused by unwanted attention to private matters or personal flaws or mishaps or shyness. some causes of embarrassment stem from personal actions, such as being caught in a lie or in making a mistake. in many cultures, being seen nude or inappropriately dressed is a particularly stressful form of embarrassment (see modesty). personal embarrassment can also stem from the actions of others who place the embarrassed person in a socially awkward situation—such as a parent showing one's baby pictures to friends, having someone make a derogatory comment about one's appearance or behavior, discovering one is the victim of gossip, being rejected by another person (see also humiliation), being made the focus of attention (e.g., birthday celebrants, newlyweds), or even witnessing someone else's embarrassment. personal embarrassment is usually accompanied by some combination of blushing, sweating, nervousness, stammering, and fidgeting. sometimes the embarrassed person tries to mask embarrassment with smiles or nervous laughter, especially in etiquette situations. such a response is more common in certain cultures, which may lead to misunderstanding. there may also be feelings of anger depending on the perceived seriousness of the situation, especially if the individual thinks another person is intentionally causing the embarrassment. there is a range of responses, with the most minor being a perception of the embarrassing act as inconsequential or even humorous, to intense apprehension or fear. the idea that embarrassment serves an apology or appeasement function originated with goffman who argued the embarrassed individual "demonstrates that he/she is at least disturbed by the fact and may prove worthy at another time".[ ] semin and manstead demonstrated social functions of embarrassment whereby the perpetrator of knocking over a sales display (the "bad act") was deemed more likable by others if he/she appeared embarrassed than if he/she appeared unconcerned – regardless of restitution behavior (rebuilding the display).[ ] the capacity to experience embarrassment can also be seen as functional for the group or culture. it has been demonstrated that those who are not prone to embarrassment are more likely to engage in antisocial behavior – for example, adolescent boys who displayed more embarrassment were found less likely to engage in aggressive/delinquent behaviors. similarly, embarrassment exhibited by boys more likely to engage in aggressive/delinquent behavior was less than one-third of that exhibited by non-aggressive boys.[ ] thus proneness to embarrassment (i.e., a concern for how one is evaluated by others) can act as a brake on behavior that would be dysfunctional for a group or culture. professional embarrassment[edit] embarrassment can also be professional or official, especially after statements expressing confidence in a stated course of action, or willful disregard for evidence. embarrassment increases greatly in instances involving official duties or workplace facilities, large amounts of money or materials, or loss of human life. examples of causes include a government's failed public policy, exposure of corrupt practices or unethical behavior, a celebrity whose personal habits receive public scrutiny or face legal action, or officials caught in serious personally embarrassing situations. even small errors or miscalculations can lead to significantly greater official embarrassment if it is discovered that there was willful disregard for evidence or directives involved (e.g., see space shuttle challenger). not all official failures result in official embarrassment, even if the circumstances lead to some slight personal embarrassment for the people involved. for example, losing a close political election might cause some personal embarrassment for the candidate but generally would be considered an honorable loss in the profession and thus not necessarily lead to professional embarrassment. similarly, a scientist might be personally disappointed and embarrassed if one of his hypotheses was proven wrong, but would not normally suffer professional embarrassment as a result. by contrast, exposure of falsified data supporting a scientific claim (e.g., see hwang woo-suk) would likely lead to professional embarrassment in the scientific community. professional or official embarrassment is often accompanied by public expressions of anger, denial of involvement, or attempts to minimize the consequences. sometimes the embarrassed entity issues press statements, removes or distance themselves from sub-level employees, attempts to carry on as if nothing happened, suffers income loss, emigrates, or vanishes from public view. vicarious embarrassment[edit] main article: vicarious embarrassment vicarious embarrassment is an embarrassed feeling from observing the embarrassing actions of another person.[ ] people who rate themselves as more empathic are more likely to experience vicarious embarrassment.[ ] the effect is present whether or not the observed party is aware of the embarrassing nature of their actions, although awareness generally increases the strength of the felt vicarious embarrassment, as does an accidental (as opposed to intentional) action.[ ] types in social psychology[edit] an embarrassing proposal by antoine watteau one typology of embarrassment is described by sharkey and stafford. there are six types of embarrassment:[ ] 	privacy violations – for example where a part of the body is accidentally exposed, or there is an invasion of space, property, or information that may be warranted to privacy, 	lack of knowledge and skill – for example forgetfulness, or experiencing failure while performing a relatively easy task 	criticism and rejection – is another cause of embarrassment, as well as being made the center of attention positively or negatively 	awkward acts – refer to social situations, for example, inappropriate conversations, clumsiness or ungraceful actions (such as an emotional outbreak like speaking out unintentionally) that can trigger embarrassment 	appropriate image – refers to more of a personal reflection of embarrassment, like body image, clothing apparel, and personal possessions (for example owning an older mobile phone compared to the latest model) 	environment – can also have the effect of provoking embarrassment, as when an individual in a movie theatre with his or her parents, other family, co-workers, or mixed-company peers is made uncomfortable by an unexpected occurrence of nudity in the film that the group is watching. another typology, by cupach and metts, discusses the dimensions of intended-unintended and appropriate-inappropriate behavior, and four basic types of embarrassing circumstances: 	faux pas (socially awkward acts) 	accidents 	mistakes 	failure to perform a duty or moral obligation. based on these types, cupach and metts classify two basic embarrassment situations: the actor responsible and the observer responsible. actor responsible situations are embarrassing when a person executes an act that is either inappropriate to a point of proficiency matching social norms and expectations, inconsistent with role expectations, or is out-of-sync with a social identity. the observer responsible categories are embarrassing when an individual becomes the focus of attention through: 	recognition, praise, criticism, correction, or teasing 	becomes initialized through being tripped or bumped, which is then associated with someone acting inappropriately 	has information revealed publicly to another individual or peer group etymology[edit] the first known written occurrence of embarrass in english was in by samuel pepys in his diary. the word derives from the french word embarrasser, "to block" or "obstruct",[ ] whose first recorded usage was by michel de montaigne in . the french word was derived from the spanish embarazar, whose first recorded usage was in in cancionero de stúñiga (songbook of stúñiga) by Álvaro de luna.[ ] the spanish word comes from the portuguese embaraçar, which is a combination of the prefix em- (from latin im- for "in-") with baraço or baraça, "a noose" or "rope".[ ] baraça originated before the romans began their conquest of the iberian peninsula in bc.[ ] thus, baraça could be related to the celtic word barr, "tuft". (celtic people actually settled much of spain and portugal beginning in the th century bc)[ ] however, it certainly is not directly derived from it, as the substitution of r for rr in ibero-romantic languages was not a known occurrence. the spanish word may come from the italian imbarazzare, from imbarazzo, "obstacle" or "obstruction". that word came from imbarrare, "to block" or "bar", which is a combination of in-, "in" with barra, "bar" (from the vulgar latin barra, which is of unknown origin).[ ] the problem with this theory is that the first known usage of the word in italian was by bernardo davanzati ( – ), long after the word had entered spanish.[ ] see also[edit] 	blushing 	criterion of embarrassment 	face (social concept) 	guilt 	humiliation 	modesty 	moral emotions 	shame references[edit] notes 	^ goffman . sfn error: no target: citerefgoffman (help) 	^ semin & manstead . sfn error: no target: citerefseminmanstead (help) 	^ ketlner et al . sfn error: no target: citerefketlner_et_al (help) 	^ ahmet uysal, gülçin akbas, elif helvacı, and irem metin, validation and correlates of the vicarious embarrassment scale, personality and individual differences ( ), pp. – 	^ eurekalert!, your flaws are my pain, april 	^ sören krach, jan christopher cohrs, nicole cruz de echeverría loebell, tilo kircher, jens sommer, andreas jansen, and frieder michel paulus, your flaws are my pain: linking empathy to vicarious embarrassment, plos one, april 	^ withers, lesley; sherblom, john. "embarrassment: the communication of an awkward actor anticipating a negative evaluation". human communication. ( ): – . 	^ embarrass. the oxford english dictionary. . retrieved february , . 	^ a b c joan corominas and josé pacual, "embarazar," diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico, (gredos, ) vol. ii, p.  - . 	^ embarrass. webster's third new international dictionary, unabridged. . retrieved february , . 	^ iberian. encyclopædia britannica. archived from the original on august , . retrieved february , . 	^ embarrass. the american heritage dictionary of the english language. . archived from the original on april , . retrieved february , . general citations 	tangney, jp; miller flicker barlow ( ). "are shame, guilt, and embarrassment distinct emotions?". journal of personality and social psychology. 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(columbine, ) 	jeff weise (red lake, ) 	seung-hui cho (virginia tech, ) 	pekka-eric auvinen (jokela high school, ) 	elliot rodger (isla vista, ) 	related topics	 	control freak 	dehumanization 	depression 	emotional blackmail 	just-world hypothesis 	machiavellianism in the workplace 	narcissism in the workplace 	personal boundaries 	personality disorders 	ptsd (c-ptsd) 	psychological manipulation 	psychological projection 	psychological trauma 	psychopathy in the workplace 	scapegoating 	self-esteem 	social dominance orientation 	suicide among lgbt youth 	sycophancy 	victim blaming 	victim playing 	victimisation 	whistleblowing retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=embarrassment&oldid= " 		categories: 	bullying 	emotions 	psychological abuse hidden categories: 	harv and sfn no-target errors 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	articles needing additional references from november 	all articles needing additional references 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additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 international standard book number - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	international standard book number 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from isbn (identifier)) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		not to be confused with iccu sbn. unique numeric book identifier international standard book number	a -digit isbn, - - - - , as represented by an ean- bar code 	acronym	isbn 	organisation	international isbn agency 	introduced	 ;  years ago ( ) 	no. of digits	 (formerly ) 	check digit	weighted sum 	example	 - - - - 	website	isbn-international.org the international standard book number (isbn) is a numeric commercial book identifier which is intended to be unique.[a][b] publishers purchase isbns from an affiliate of the international isbn agency.[ ] an isbn is assigned to each separate edition and variation (except reprintings) of a publication. for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book will each have a different isbn. the isbn is ten digits long if assigned before , and thirteen digits long if assigned on or after  january .[c] the method of assigning an isbn is nation-specific and varies between countries, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. the initial isbn identification format was devised in , based upon the -digit standard book numbering (sbn) created in . the -digit isbn format was developed by the international organization for standardization (iso) and was published in as international standard iso (the -digit sbn code can be converted to a -digit isbn by prefixing it with a zero digit ' '). privately published books sometimes appear without an isbn. the international isbn agency sometimes assigns such books isbns on its own initiative.[ ] another identifier, the international standard serial number (issn), identifies periodical publications such as magazines and newspapers. the international standard music number (ismn) covers musical scores. contents 	 history 	 overview 	 . how isbns are issued 	 . registration group identifier 	 . registrant element 	 . . pattern for english language isbns 	 check digits 	 . isbn- check digits 	 . isbn- check digit calculation 	 . isbn- check digit calculation 	 . isbn- to isbn- conversion 	 . errors in usage 	 . eisbn 	 ean format used in barcodes, and upgrading 	 see also 	 notes 	 references 	 external links history the standard book number (sbn) is a commercial system using nine-digit code numbers to identify books. it was created by gordon foster, emeritus professor of statistics at trinity college, dublin,[ ] for the booksellers and stationers whsmith and others in .[ ] the isbn identification format was conceived in in the united kingdom by david whitaker[ ][ ] (regarded as the "father of the isbn")[ ] and in in the united states by emery koltay[ ] (who later became director of the u.s. isbn agency r. r. bowker).[ ][ ][ ] the -digit isbn format was developed by the international organization for standardization (iso) and was published in as international standard iso .[ ][ ] the united kingdom continued to use the nine-digit sbn code until . iso has appointed the international isbn agency as the registration authority for isbn worldwide and the isbn standard is developed under the control of iso technical committee /subcommittee tc /sc . the iso on-line facility only refers back to .[ ] an sbn may be converted to an isbn by prefixing the digit " ". for example, the second edition of mr. j. g. reeder returns, published by hodder in , has "sbn ", where " " indicates the publisher, " " is the serial number assigned by the publisher, and " " is the check digit. by prefixing a zero, this can be converted to isbn  - - - ; the check digit does not need to be re-calculated. some publishers, such as ballantine books, would sometimes use -digit sbns where the last three digits indicated the price of the book;[ ] for example, woodstock handmade houses had a -digit standard book number of - - - (valid sbn: - - , isbn: - - - ),[ ] and it cost us$ . .[ ] since january , isbns have contained thirteen digits, a format that is compatible with "bookland" european article numbers, which have digits.[ ] overview a separate isbn is assigned to each edition and variation (except reprintings) of a publication. for example, an ebook, audiobook, paperback, and hardcover edition of the same book will each have a different isbn assigned to it.[ ]: the isbn is thirteen digits long if assigned on or after january , and ten digits long if assigned before .[c][ ] an international standard book number consists of four parts (if it is a -digit isbn) or five parts (for a -digit isbn). section of the international isbn agency's official user manual[ ]: describes the structure of the -digit isbn, as follows: the parts of a -digit isbn and the corresponding ean‑ and barcode. note the different check digits in each. the part of the ean‑ labeled "ean" is the bookland country code. 	for a -digit isbn, a prefix element – a gs prefix: so far or have been made available by gs , 	the registration group element (language-sharing country group, individual country or territory),[d] 	the registrant element, 	the publication element, and 	a checksum character or check digit. a -digit isbn can be separated into its parts (prefix element, registration group, registrant, publication and check digit), and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. separating the parts (registration group, registrant, publication and check digit) of a -digit isbn is also done with either hyphens or spaces. figuring out how to correctly separate a given isbn is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits.[e] how isbns are issued isbn issuance is country-specific, in that isbns are issued by the isbn registration agency that is responsible for that country or territory regardless of the publication language. the ranges of isbns assigned to any particular country are based on the publishing profile of the country concerned, and so the ranges will vary depending on the number of books and the number, type, and size of publishers that are active. some isbn registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture and thus may receive direct funding from government to support their services. in other cases, the isbn registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded.[ ] a full directory of isbn agencies is available on the international isbn agency website.[ ] list for a few countries is given below: 	australia – thorpe-bowker[ ][ ] 	brazil – the national library of brazil;[ ] (up to february )[ ] 	brazil – câmara brasileira do livro[ ] (from march )[ ] 	canada – english library and archives canada, a government agency; french bibliothèque et archives nationales du québec; 	colombia – cámara colombiana del libro, an ngo 	hong kong – books registration office (bro), under the hong kong public libraries[ ] 	india – the raja rammohun roy national agency for isbn (book promotion and copyright division), under department of higher education, a constituent of the ministry of human resource development[ ] 	iceland – landsbókasafn (national and university library of iceland) 	israel – the israel center for libraries[ ] 	italy – ediser srl, owned by associazione italiana editori (italian publishers association)[ ][ ] 	maldives – the national bureau of classification (nbc) 	malta – the national book council (maltese: il-kunsill nazzjonali tal-ktieb)[ ][ ][ ] 	morocco – the national library of morocco 	new zealand – the national library of new zealand[ ] 	pakistan – national library of pakistan 	philippines – national library of the philippines[ ] 	south africa – national library of south africa 	spain – spanish isbn agency – agencia del isbn 	turkey – general directorate of libraries and publications, a branch of the ministry of culture[ ] 	united kingdom and republic of ireland – nielsen book services ltd, part of nielsen holdings n.v.[ ] 	united states – r. r. bowker[ ][ ] registration group identifier the isbn registration group identifier is a - to -digit number that is valid within a single prefix element (i.e. one of or ),[ ]: and can be separated between hyphens, such as " - -...". registration group identifiers have primarily been allocated within the prefix element.[ ] the single-digit group identifiers within the -prefix element are: or for english-speaking countries; for french-speaking countries; for german-speaking countries; for japan; for russian-speaking countries; and for people's republic of china. an example -digit group identifier is , for bhutan. the allocated group ids are: – , – , , , – , – , – , and – .[ ] books published in rare languages typically have longer group identifiers.[ ] within the prefix element, the registration group identifier is reserved for compatibility with international standard music numbers (ismns), but such material is not actually assigned an isbn.[ ] the registration group identifiers within prefix element that have been assigned are for the united states of america, for france, for the republic of korea, and for italy.[ ] the original -digit standard book number (sbn) had no registration group identifier, but prefixing a zero ( ) to a -digit sbn creates a valid -digit isbn. registrant element the national isbn agency assigns the registrant element (cf. category:isbn agencies) and an accompanying series of isbns within that registrant element to the publisher; the publisher then allocates one of the isbns to each of its books. in most countries, a book publisher is not legally required to assign an isbn, although most large bookstores only handle publications that have isbns assigned to them.[ ][ ][ ] a listing of more than , assigned publisher codes is published, and can be ordered in book form. the web site of the isbn agency does not offer any free method of looking up publisher codes.[ ] partial lists have been compiled (from library catalogs) for the english-language groups: identifier and identifier . publishers receive blocks of isbns, with larger blocks allotted to publishers expecting to need them; a small publisher may receive isbns of one or more digits for the registration group identifier, several digits for the registrant, and a single digit for the publication element. once that block of isbns is used, the publisher may receive another block of isbns, with a different registrant element. consequently, a publisher may have different allotted registrant elements. there also may be more than one registration group identifier used in a country. this might occur once all the registrant elements from a particular registration group have been allocated to publishers. by using variable block lengths, registration agencies are able to customise the allocations of isbns that they make to publishers. for example, a large publisher may be given a block of isbns where fewer digits are allocated for the registrant element and many digits are allocated for the publication element; likewise, countries publishing many titles have few allocated digits for the registration group identifier and many for the registrant and publication elements.[ ] here are some sample isbn- codes, illustrating block length variations. 	isbn	country or area	publisher 	 - - - 	qatar	nccah, doha 	 - - - 	singapore	world scientific 	 - - - 	greece	sigma publications 	 - - - 	czech republic; slovakia	taita publishers 	 - - - 	brazil	companhia das letras 	 - - - 	english-speaking area	simon wallenberg press 	 - - - 	english-speaking area	scribner 	 - - -x	english-speaking area	frederick ungar 	 - - - 	english-speaking area	j. a. allen & co. 	 - - - 	english-speaking area	edupedia publications pvt ltd. 	 - - - 	english-speaking area	willmann–bell 	 - - -x	english-speaking area	kt publishing pattern for english language isbns english-language registration group elements are and ( of more than registration group elements). these two registration group elements are divided into registrant elements in a systematic pattern, which allows their length to be determined, as follows:[ ] 	publication element length 	 – registration group element 	 – registration group element 	total registrants 	from	to	registrants	from	to	registrants 	 digits 	 - -xxxxxx-x 	 - -xxxxxx-x 	 	 - -xxxxxx-x - -xxxxxx-x 	 - -xxxxxx-x - -xxxxxx-x 	 	 	 digits 	 - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x 	 - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x 	 	 - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x 	 - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x - -xxxxx-x 	 	 	 digits 	 - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x 	 - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x 	 , 	 - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x 	 - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x - -xxxx-x 	 , 	 , 	 digits 	 - -xxx-x 	 - -xxx-x 	 , 	 - -xxx-x - -xxx-x - -xxx-x - -xxx-x - -xxx-x - -xxx-x - -xxx-x - -xxx-x - -xxx-x 	 - -xxx-x - -xxx-x - -xxx-x - -xxx-x - -xxx-x - -xxx-x - -xxx-x - -xxx-x - -xxx-x 	 , 	 , 	 digits 	 - -xx-x 	 - -xx-x 	 , 	 - -xx-x - -xx-x - -xx-x - -xx-x 	 - -xx-x - -xx-x - -xx-x - -xx-x 	 , 	 , 	 digit 	 - -x-x - -x-x - -x-x - -x-x 	 - -x-x - -x-x - -x-x - -x-x 	 , 	 - -x-x - -x-x - -x-x - -x-x - -x-x - -x-x - -x-x - -x-x 	 - -x-x - -x-x - -x-x - -x-x - -x-x - -x-x - -x-x - -x-x 	 , 	 , 	total 	 , 	total 	 , 	 , check digits a check digit is a form of redundancy check used for error detection, the decimal equivalent of a binary check bit. it consists of a single digit computed from the other digits in the number. the method for the -digit isbn is an extension of that for sbns, so the two systems are compatible; an sbn prefixed with a zero (the -digit isbn) will give the same check digit as the sbn without the zero. the check digit is base eleven, and can be an integer between and , or an 'x'. the system for -digit isbns is not compatible with sbns and will, in general, give a different check digit from the corresponding -digit isbn, so does not provide the same protection against transposition. this is because the -digit code was required to be compatible with the ean format, and hence could not contain an 'x'. isbn- check digits according to the edition of the international isbn agency's official user manual,[ ] the isbn- check digit (which is the last digit of the -digit isbn) must range from to (the symbol 'x' is used for ), and must be such that the sum of the ten digits, each multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from to , is a multiple of . that is, if xi is the ith digit, then x must be chosen such that: ∑ i = ( − i ) x i ≡ ( mod ) {\displaystyle \sum _{i= }^{ }( -i)x_{i}\equiv {\pmod { }}} for example, for an isbn- of - - - : s = ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) = + + + + + + + + + = = × {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )\\&= + + + + + + + + + \\&= = \times \end{aligned}}} formally, using modular arithmetic, this is rendered: ( x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x ) ≡ ( mod ) . {\displaystyle ( x_{ }+ x_{ }+ x_{ }+ x_{ }+ x_{ }+ x_{ }+ x_{ }+ x_{ }+ x_{ }+x_{ })\equiv {\pmod { }}.} it is also true for isbn- s that the sum of all ten digits, each multiplied by its weight in ascending order from to , is a multiple of . for this example: s = ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) = + + + + + + + + + = = × {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )\\&= + + + + + + + + + \\&= = \times \end{aligned}}} formally, this is rendered: ( x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x ) ≡ ( mod ) . {\displaystyle (x_{ }+ x_{ }+ x_{ }+ x_{ }+ x_{ }+ x_{ }+ x_{ }+ x_{ }+ x_{ }+ x_{ })\equiv {\pmod { }}.} the two most common errors in handling an isbn (e.g. when typing it or writing it down) are a single altered digit or the transposition of adjacent digits. it can be proven mathematically that all pairs of valid isbn- s differ in at least two digits. it can also be proven that there are no pairs of valid isbn- s with eight identical digits and two transposed digits. (these proofs are true because the isbn is less than eleven digits long and because is a prime number.) the isbn check digit method therefore ensures that it will always be possible to detect these two most common types of error, i.e., if either of these types of error has occurred, the result will never be a valid isbn – the sum of the digits multiplied by their weights will never be a multiple of . however, if the error were to occur in the publishing house and remain undetected, the book would be issued with an invalid isbn.[ ] in contrast, it is possible for other types of error, such as two altered non-transposed digits, or three altered digits, to result in a valid isbn (although it is still unlikely). isbn- check digit calculation each of the first nine digits of the -digit isbn—excluding the check digit itself—is multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from to , and the sum of these nine products found. the value of the check digit is simply the one number between and which, when added to this sum, means the total is a multiple of . for example, the check digit for an isbn- of - - -? is calculated as follows: s = ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) = {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )\\&= \end{aligned}}} adding to gives a multiple of (because = × ) – this is the only number between and which does so. therefore, the check digit has to be , and the complete sequence is isbn - - - . if the value of x {\displaystyle x_{ }} required to satisfy this condition is , then an 'x' should be used. alternatively, modular arithmetic is convenient for calculating the check digit using modulus . the remainder of this sum when it is divided by (i.e. its value modulo ), is computed. this remainder plus the check digit must equal either or . therefore, the check digit is ( minus the remainder of the sum of the products modulo ) modulo . taking the remainder modulo a second time accounts for the possibility that the first remainder is . without the second modulo operation, the calculation could result in a check digit value of − = , which is invalid. (strictly speaking, the first "modulo " is not needed, but it may be considered to simplify the calculation.) for example, the check digit for the isbn- of - - -? is calculated as follows: s = ( − ( ( ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) + ( × ) ) mod ) ) mod = ( − ( ( + + + + + + + + ) mod ) ) mod = ( − ( ( ) mod ) ) mod = ( − ( ) ) mod = ( ) mod = {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&=( -((( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times )+( \times ))\,{\bmod {\,}} ))\,{\bmod {\,}} \\&=( -(( + + + + + + + + )\,{\bmod {\,}} ))\,{\bmod {\,}} \\&=( -(( )\,{\bmod {\,}} ))\,{\bmod {\,}} \\&=( -( ))\,{\bmod {\,}} \\&=( )\,{\bmod {\,}} \\&= \end{aligned}}} thus the check digit is . it is possible to avoid the multiplications in a software implementation by using two accumulators. repeatedly adding t into s computes the necessary multiples: // returns isbn error syndrome, zero for a valid isbn, non-zero for an invalid one. // digits[i] must be between and . int checkisbn(int const digits[ ]) { int i, s = , t = ; for (i = ; i < ; i++) { t += digits[i]; s += t; } return s % ; } the modular reduction can be done once at the end, as shown above (in which case s could hold a value as large as , for the invalid isbn - - -x), or s and t could be reduced by a conditional subtract after each addition. isbn- check digit calculation appendix of the international isbn agency's official user manual[ ]: describes how the -digit isbn check digit is calculated. the isbn- check digit, which is the last digit of the isbn, must range from to and must be such that the sum of all the thirteen digits, each multiplied by its (integer) weight, alternating between and , is a multiple of . as isbn- is a subset of ean- , the algorithm for calculating the check digit is exactly the same for both. formally, using modular arithmetic, this is rendered: ( x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x ) ≡ ( mod ) . {\displaystyle (x_{ }+ x_{ }+x_{ }+ x_{ }+x_{ }+ x_{ }+x_{ }+ x_{ }+x_{ }+ x_{ }+x_{ }+ x_{ }+x_{ })\equiv {\pmod { }}.} the calculation of an isbn- check digit begins with the first twelve digits of the -digit isbn (thus excluding the check digit itself). each digit, from left to right, is alternately multiplied by or , then those products are summed modulo to give a value ranging from to . subtracted from , that leaves a result from to . a zero ( ) replaces a ten ( ), so, in all cases, a single check digit results. for example, the isbn- check digit of - - - -? is calculated as follows: s = × + × + × + × + × + × + × + × + × + × + × + × = + + + + + + + + + + + = / = remainder – = thus, the check digit is , and the complete sequence is isbn - - - - . in general, the isbn- check digit is calculated as follows. let r = ( − ( x + x + x + x + ⋯ + x + x ) mod ) . {\displaystyle r={\big (} -{\big (}x_{ }+ x_{ }+x_{ }+ x_{ }+\cdots +x_{ }+ x_{ }{\big )}\,{\bmod {\,}} {\big )}.} then x = { r  ;  r <  ;  r = . {\displaystyle x_{ }={\begin{cases}r&{\text{ ; }}r< \\ &{\text{ ; }}r= .\end{cases}}} this check system – similar to the upc check digit formula – does not catch all errors of adjacent digit transposition. specifically, if the difference between two adjacent digits is , the check digit will not catch their transposition. for instance, the above example allows this situation with the followed by a . the correct order contributes × + × = to the sum; while, if the digits are transposed ( followed by a ), the contribution of those two digits will be × + × = . however, and are congruent modulo , and so produce the same, final result: both isbns will have a check digit of . the isbn- formula uses the prime modulus which avoids this blind spot, but requires more than the digits – to express the check digit. additionally, if the sum of the nd, th, th, th, th, and th digits is tripled then added to the remaining digits ( st, rd, th, th, th, th, and th), the total will always be divisible by (i.e., end in ). isbn- to isbn- conversion an isbn- is converted to isbn- by prepending " " to the isbn- and recalculating the final checksum digit using the isbn- algorithm. the reverse process can also be performed, but not for numbers commencing with a prefix other than , which have no -digit equivalent. errors in usage publishers and libraries have varied policies about the use of the isbn check digit. publishers sometimes fail to check the correspondence of a book title and its isbn before publishing it; that failure causes book identification problems for libraries, booksellers, and readers.[ ] for example, isbn  - - - is shared by two books – ninja gaiden®: a novel based on the best-selling game by tecmo ( ) and wacky laws ( ), both published by scholastic. most libraries and booksellers display the book record for an invalid isbn issued by the publisher. the library of congress catalogue contains books published with invalid isbns, which it usually tags with the phrase "cancelled isbn".[ ] however, book-ordering systems such as amazon.com will not search for a book if an invalid isbn is entered to its search engine.[citation needed] oclc often indexes by invalid isbns, if the book is indexed in that way by a member library. eisbn only the term "isbn" should be used; the terms "eisbn" and "e-isbn" have historically been sources of confusion and should be avoided. if a book exists in one or more digital (e-book) formats, each of those formats must have its own isbn. in other words, each of the three separate epub, amazon kindle, and pdf formats of a particular book will have its own specific isbn. they should not share the isbn of the paper version, and there is no generic "eisbn" which encompasses all the e-book formats for a title.[ ] ean format used in barcodes, and upgrading currently the barcodes on a book's back cover (or inside a mass-market paperback book's front cover) are ean- ; they may have a separate barcode encoding five digits called an ean- for the currency and the recommended retail price.[ ] for -digit isbns, the number " ", the bookland "country code", is prefixed to the isbn in the barcode data, and the check digit is recalculated according to the ean- formula (modulo , x and x weighting on alternating digits). partly because of an expected shortage in certain isbn categories, the international organization for standardization (iso) decided to migrate to a -digit isbn (isbn- ). the process began on january and was planned to conclude on january .[ ] as of [update], all the -digit isbns began with . as the isbn supply is exhausted, the prefix was introduced. part of the prefix is reserved for use with the musicland code for musical scores with an ismn. the -digit ismn codes differed visually as they began with an "m" letter; the bar code represents the "m" as a zero ( ), and for checksum purposes it counted as a . all ismns are now thirteen digits commencing - ; - to - will be used by isbn. publisher identification code numbers are unlikely to be the same in the and isbns, likewise, there is no guarantee that language area code numbers will be the same. moreover, the -digit isbn check digit generally is not the same as the -digit isbn check digit. because the gtin- is part of the global trade item number (gtin) system (that includes the gtin- , the gtin- , and the gtin- ), the -digit isbn falls within the -digit data field range.[ ] barcode format compatibility is maintained, because (aside from the group breaks) the isbn- barcode format is identical to the ean barcode format of existing -digit isbns. so, migration to an ean-based system allows booksellers the use of a single numbering system for both books and non-book products that is compatible with existing isbn based data, with only minimal changes to information technology systems. hence, many booksellers (e.g., barnes & noble) migrated to ean barcodes as early as march . although many american and canadian booksellers were able to read ean- barcodes before , most general retailers could not read them. the upgrading of the upc barcode system to full ean- , in , eased migration to the isbn- in north america. see also 	asin (amazon standard identification number) 	bici (book item and component identifier) 	coden (serial publication identifier currently used by libraries; replaced by the issn for new works) 	csbn (chinese standard book number, digits from to , digits since , includes the lsbn, by the china isbn centre)[ ][ ] 	doi (digital object identifier) 	estc (english short title catalogue) 	ettn (electronic textbook track number) 	isan (international standard audiovisual number) 	ismn (international standard music number) 	isrc (international standard recording code) 	issn (international standard serial number) 	istc (international standard text code) 	iswc (international standard musical work code) 	iswn (international standard wine number) 	lccn (library of congress control number) 	license number (east german books) [de] (book identification system used between and in the former gdr) 	list of group- isbn publisher codes 	list of group- isbn publisher codes 	list of isbn identifier groups 	lsbn (chinese book identification system since , main part of csbn)[ ][ ] 	oclc number (online computer library center number)[ ] 	registration authority 	sici (serial item and contribution identifier) 	vd (verzeichnis der im deutschen sprachbereich erschienenen drucke des . jahrhunderts, "bibliography of books printed in the german speaking countries of the sixteenth century") 	vd (verzeichnis der im deutschen sprachraum erschienenen drucke des . jahrhunderts, "bibliography of books printed in the german speaking countries of the seventeenth century") notes 	^ occasionally, publishers erroneously assign an isbn to more than one title—the first edition of the ultimate alphabet and the ultimate alphabet workbook have the same isbn, - - - . conversely, books are published with several isbns: a german second-language edition of emil und die detektive has the isbns - - - (denmark), - - - (united states), - - -x (sweden), - - - (united kingdom) and - - - (germany). 	^ in some cases, books sold only as sets share isbns. for example, the vance integral edition used only two isbns for books. 	^ a b publishers were required to convert existing isbns from the -digit format to the -digit format (in their publication records) by  january . for existing publications, the new -digit isbn would only need to be added if (and when) a publication was reprinted. during the transition period, publishers were recommended to print both the -digit and -digit isbns on the verso of a publication's title page, but they were required to print only the -digit isbn after  january .[ ] 	^ some books have several codes in the first block: e.g. a. m. yaglom's correlation theory..., published by springer verlag, has two isbns, - - - and - - - . though springer's and codes are different for english ( ) and german ( ); the same item number produces the same check digit for both ( ). springer uses as the publisher code for japanese ( ), and - - -? also has a check digit of . other springer books in english have publisher code , and - - -? would also have a check digit of . this suggests that special considerations were made for assigning springer's publisher codes, as random assignments of different publisher codes would not be expected to lead by coincidence to the same check digit every time for the same item number. finding publisher codes for english and german, say, with this effect would amount to solving a linear equation in modular arithmetic.[original research?] 	^ the international isbn agency's isbn user's manual says: "the ten-digit number is divided into four parts of variable length, which must be separated clearly, by hyphens or spaces", although omission of separators is permitted for internal data processing. if present, hyphens must be correctly placed.[ ] the actual definition for hyphenation contains more than different registration group elements with each one broken down into a few to several ranges for the length of the registrant element (more than , total). the document defining the ranges, listed by agency, is pages. references 	^ "the international isbn agency". retrieved february . 	^ a b c tc /sc . "frequently asked questions about the new isbn standard from iso". lac-bac.gc.ca. library and archives canada. archived from the original on june . 	^ bradley, philip ( ). "book numbering: the importance of the isbn" (pdf [ kb]). the indexer. ( ): – . 	^ foster, gordon ( ). "international standard book numbering (isbn) system original report". informaticsdevelopmentinstitute.net. archived from the original on april . retrieved april . 	^ a b "isbn history". isbn.org. april . archived from the original on april . retrieved april . 	^ a b c d manwal ghall-utenti tal-isbn (pdf) (in maltese) ( th ed.). malta: kunsill nazzjonali tal-ktieb. . p.  . isbn  - - - - . archived from the original (pdf) on august . 	^ "international publishers association—'it was an idea whose time had come.' david whitaker on the birth of isbn". international publishers association. retrieved august . cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ a b "emery koltay, david whitaker named niso fellows" (pdf), information standards quarterly, national information standards organization, ( ): – , july , archived from the original (pdf) on august 	^ us isbn agency. "bowker.com – products". commerce.bowker.com. retrieved june . 	^ gregory, daniel. "isbn". printrs. archived from the original on may . retrieved june . 	^ iso : (pdf), iso 	^ https://archive.org/search.php?query=% sbn% % &sin=txt 	^ https://archive.org/details/woodstockhandmad robe/page/n /mode/ up?q=sbn+ - - - - by ballantine books, isbn  - - - links to http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ 	^ https://archive.org/details/woodstockhandmad robe - "ballantine/craft [...] . " 	^ a b c d isbn users' manual, international edition (pdf) ( th ed.). london: international isbn agency. . isbn  - - - - . 	^ "isbn ranges". international isbn agency. . 	^ "isbn canada". www.bac-lac.gc.ca. lac. retrieved january . 	^ "find an agency – international isbn agency". isbn-international.org. 	^ "about the australian isbn agency". thorpe-bowker. 	^ "bowker – isbn". thorpe-bowker. january . retrieved march . 	^ "tabela de preços dos serviços" [table of service prices] (in portuguese). biblioteca nacional do brasil. retrieved september . 	^ a b "changes in arrangements for isbn in brazil". retrieved january . 	^ "isbn brasil" (in portuguese). retrieved january . 	^ "introduction to books registration". hkpl. retrieved january . 	^ "union hrd minister smt. smriti zubin irani launches isbn portal". mhrd. april . 	^ "what is an isbn ?". icl – מרכז הספר והספריות. april . 	^ "isbn – chi siamo e contatti" [isbn – who we are and contacts] (in italian). ediser srl. retrieved january . 	^ "isbn – tariffe servizi isbn" [isbn service tariffs] (in italian). ediser srl. retrieved january . 	^ "isbn". kunsill nazzjonali tal-ktieb. . archived from the original on october . 	^ manwal ghall-utenti tal-isbn (pdf) (in maltese) ( th ed.). malta: kunsill nazzjonali tal-ktieb. . pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . archived from the original (pdf) on august . 	^ "gazzetta tal-gvern ta' malta" (pdf). government gazette. january . p.  . archived from the original (pdf) on november . 	^ "isbns, issns, and ismns". national library of new zealand. retrieved january . 	^ "international standard book number". nlp. retrieved december . 	^ "isbn – kültür ve turizm bakanlığı kütüphaneler ve yayımlar genel müdürlüğü os". ekygm.gov.tr. 	^ "nielsen uk isbn agency". nielsen uk isbn agency. retrieved january . 	^ "bowker – isbn". r. r. bowker. march . retrieved march . 	^ "isbn ranges". isbn-international.org. april . select the format you desire and click on the generate button. archived from the original on april . retrieved april . 	^ see a complete list of group identifiers. isbn.org sometimes calls them group numbers. their table of identifiers now refers to isbn prefix ranges, which must be assumed to be group identifier ranges. 	^ hailman, jack parker ( ). coding and redundancy: man-made and animal-evolved signals. harvard university press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ isbn users' manual, international edition (pdf) ( th ed.). london: international isbn agency. . p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ international isbn agency ( december ). "international isbn agency – range message (pdf sorted by prefix)" (pdf). isbn-international.org. p.  . retrieved december . 	^ "independent publishers". waterstones. retrieved february . before submitting any titles to our central buying team for consideration, your book must have the following: an isbn... 	^ "how to obtain an isbn". barnes & noble. retrieved february . we use isbns to track inventory and sales information. all books barnes & noble transacts on must have an isbn. 	^ "product id (gtin) requirements for books". amazon.com. retrieved february . effective june , , you must provide an isbn, ean, or jan to list a book in the amazon catalog, regardless of the book's publication date. 	^ see publisher's international isbn directory archived september at the wayback machine 	^ splane, lily ( ). the book book: a complete guide to creating a book on your computer. anaphase ii publishing. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ "isbn ranges". isbn-international.org. international isbn agency. september . retrieved september . 	^ "isbn users' manual ( edition) – . structure of isbn". international isbn agency. archived from the original on may . 	^ for example, i'saka: a sketch grammar of a language of north-central new guinea. pacific linguistics. isbn " - - - ". 	^ lorimer, rowland; shoichet, jillian; maxwell, john w. ( ). book publishing i. ccsp press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ " – international standard book number (r) – marc bibliographic – full". library of congress. september . 	^ "the myth of the eisbn why every ebook edition needs a unique number – publishing services for self publishing authors and businesses". publishing services for self publishing authors and businesses. june . retrieved january . 	^ frequently asked questions, us: isbn, march , archived from the original on april — including a detailed description of the ean- format. 	^ "isbn", iso tc sc (faq), ca: collections 	^ "are you ready for isbn- ?", standards, isbn 	^ a b https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ /a a ca deb e e e bab a .pdf 	^ a b https://www.hicom-asia.com/how-to-register-isbn-in-china/ 	^ "xisbn (web service)". xisbn.worldcat.org. archived from the original on may . retrieved may . external links 		wikidata has the properties: 	 isbn- (p ) (see uses) 	 isbn- (p ) (see uses) international standard book numberat wikipedia's sister projects 	definitions from wiktionary 	media from wikimedia commons 	data from wikidata 	documentation from mediawiki 	iso : – international standard book number (isbn) 	international isbn agency—coordinates and supervises the worldwide use of the isbn system 	numerical list of group identifiers—list of language/region prefixes 	free conversion tool: isbn- to isbn- & isbn- to isbn- from the isbn agency. also shows correct hyphenation & verifies if isbns are valid or not. 	"guidelines for the implementation of -digit isbns" (pdf). archived from the original (pdf) on september 	"are you ready for isbn- ?". r. r. bowker llc. 	 rfc  —using international standard book numbers as uniform resource names (urn) 		v 	t 	e international numbering standards 	standards 	 	iso : international standard book number (isbn) 	iso : international standard serial number (issn) 	iso : international standard recording code (isrc) 	iso : international securities identification number (isin) 	iso/iec : issuer identification number (iin) 	iso : business entity identifier (bic) 	iso : international standard music number (ismn) 	iso : international bank account number (iban) 	iso : international standard identifier for libraries... (isil) 	iso : international standard audiovisual number (isan) 	iso : international standard musical work code (iswc) 	iso : international standard link identifier (isli) 	iso : legal entity identifier (lei) 	iso : international standard text code (istc) 	iso : digital object identifier system (doi) 	iso : international standard name identifier (isni) 	iso : international standard collection identifier (isci) 	 cae/ipi 	virtual international authority file (viaf) 	 	v 	t 	e iso standards by standard number 	list of iso standards / iso romanizations / iec standards 	 – 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 - 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	- 	- 	- 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	- 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 - 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 / 	 	 - 	 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- -i 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	 	 / 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 / 	 	 	 - 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wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	disappointment 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		feeling of dissatisfaction following the failure of an expectation to manifest for other uses, see disappointment (disambiguation). 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e disappointment is the feeling of dissatisfaction that follows the failure of expectations or hopes to manifest. similar to regret, it differs in that a person who feels regret focuses primarily on the personal choices that contributed to a poor outcome, while a person feeling disappointment focuses on the outcome itself.[ ] it is a source of psychological stress.[ ] the study of disappointment—its causes, impact, and the degree to which individual decisions are motivated by a desire to avoid it—is a focus in the field of decision analysis,[ ][ ] as disappointment is, along with regret, one of two primary emotions involved in decision-making.[ ] contents 	 etymology 	 psychology 	 theory 	 see also 	 notes 	 further reading 	 external links etymology[edit] disappoint is traced to the middle english disappointen by way of the old french desapointer. in literal meaning, it is to remove from office.[ ] its use in the sense of general frustration traces to the late th century, and it first appears recorded in english as an emotional state of dejection in the middle th century.[ ] psychology[edit] disappointment ( ), by julius leblanc stewart disappointment is a subjective response related to anticipated rewards. disappointment recovery time depends on the intensity of the disappointment, as well as the person experiencing the disappointment. for some it can take a few minutes while for others the same disappointment can take a few days. disappointment, and an inability to prepare for it, has also been hypothesized as the source of occasional immune system compromise in optimists.[ ] while optimists by and large exhibit better health,[ ] they may alternatively exhibit less immunity when under prolonged or uncontrollable stress, a phenomenon which researchers have attributed to the "disappointment effect".[ ] the "disappointment effect" posits that optimists do not utilize "emotional cushioning" to prepare for disappointment and hence are less able to deal with it when they experience it.[ ][ ] this disappointment effect has been challenged since the mid- s by researcher suzanne segerstrom, who has published, alone and in accord, several articles evaluating its plausibility. her findings suggest that, rather than being unable to deal with disappointment, optimists are more likely to actively tackle their problems and experience some immunity compromise as a result.[ ] in , psychotherapist ian craib published the book the importance of disappointment, in which he drew on the works of melanie klein and sigmund freud in advancing the theory that disappointment-avoidant culture—particularly therapy culture—provides false expectations of perfection in life and prevents people from achieving a healthy self-identity.[ ] craib offered as two examples litigious victims of medical mistakes, who once would have accepted accidents as a course of life, and people suffering grief following the death of a loved one who, he said, are provided a false stage model of recovery that is more designed to comfort bereavement therapists than the bereaved.[ ] lacanians considered childhood disappointment essential to entry into the symbolic world of culture;[ ] disappointment in adulthood - the frustration of our demands by the world - as key to discovering who in fact we are.[ ] theory[edit] untitled - woman with a peacock ( ), by jogesh chandra seal disappointment theory, pioneered in the mid- s by david e. bell with further development by graham loomes and robert sugden,[ ] revolves around the notion that people contemplating risks are disappointed when the outcome of the risk is not evaluated as positively as the expected outcome.[ ] disappointment theory has been utilized in examining such diverse decision-making processes as return migration, taxpayer compliance and customer willingness to pay.[ ] david gill and victoria prowse have provided experimental evidence that people are disappointment averse when they compete.[ ] disappointed individuals focus on "upward counterfactuals"—alternative outcomes that would have been better than the one actually experienced—to the point that even positive outcomes may result in disappointment.[ ] one example, supplied by bell, concerns a lottery win of $ , . , an event which will theoretically be perceived more positively if that amount represents the highest possible win in the lottery than if it represents the lowest.[ ] decision analysts operate on the assumption that individuals will anticipate the potential for disappointment and make decisions that are less likely to lead to the experience of this feeling.[ ] disappointment aversion has been posited as one explanation for the allais paradox, a problematic response in expected utility theory wherein people prove more likely to choose a certain reward than to risk a greater reward while at the same time being willing to attempt a greater reward with lower probability when both options include some risk.[ ] while earlier developers of disappointment theory focused on anticipated outcomes, more recent examinations by philippe delquié and alessandra cillo of insead have focused on the impact of later disappointment resulting when an actual outcome comes to be regarded negatively based on further development; for example, if a person receives higher than expected gains in the stock market, she may be elated until she discovers a week later that she could have gained much more profit if she had waited a few more days to sell.[ ] this experience of disappointment may influence subsequent behavior, and, the analysts state, an incorporation of such variables into disappointment theory may enhance the study of behavioral finance.[ ] disappointment is, along with regret, measured by direct questioning of respondents.[ ] see also[edit] 	paris syndrome 	carnoustie effect 	frustration notes[edit] 	^ a b bell, david e. (january ). "putting a premium on regret". management science. ( ): – . doi: . /mnsc. . . . jstor  . 	^ ma, lybi. (march , ). down but not out. originally published in psychology today. hosted with permission by medicinenet.com. retrieved / / . 	^ wilco, w. van dijk, marcel zeelenberg and joop van der pligt (august ). "blessed are those who expect nothing: lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment". journal of economic psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ wilco w. van dijk; marcel zeelenberg (december ). "investigating the appraisal patterns of regret and disappointment". motivation and emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /a: . 	^ "disappoint". the american heritage dictionary of the english language, rd ed. houghton mifflin company. . p.  . 	^ "disappointment". the new shorter oxford english dictionary. . clarendon press, oxford. . pp.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b schwartz, todd. (summer ) positive thinking archived march , , at the wayback machine chronicle, lewis & clark college. retrieved / / . 	^ a b neimark, jill. (may/jun ) the optimism revolution psychology today. retrieved february . 	^ grohol, john m. (february , ) is it best to expect the worst? psychologists test long-held theory of emotional cushioning. psychcentral.com. retrieved february . 	^ segerstrom sc (september ). "how does optimism suppress immunity? evaluation of three affective pathways". health psychol. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmc  . pmid  . . see also segerstrom sc (may ). "optimism and immunity: do positive thoughts always lead to positive effects?". brain behav. immun. ( ): – . doi: . /j.bbi. . . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ seale, clive ( ). media and health. london: sage publications, inc. pp.  , . isbn  - - - - . 	^ seale, p. – . 	^ w. ver eccke, phenomenology and lacan on schizophrenia ( ) p. 	^ p hill, lacan for beginners (london ) p. 	^ a b c d "disappointment without prior expectation cause and affect" - understanding emotion in decisions under risk insead ( ). retrieved / / . 	^ delquié, philippe; alessandra cillo (december ). "disappointment without prior expectation: a unifying perspective on decision under risk". journal of risk and uncertainty. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . 	^ see, for example, why do people go home again? disappointment theory and target saving theory revisited archived april , , at the wayback machine, david kelsey; albert schepanski ( ). "regret and disappointment in taxpayer reporting decisions: an experimental study". journal of behavioral decision making. ( ): – . doi: . /bdm. . archived from the original on - - . and christian homburg; nicole koschate; wayne d. hoyer (april ). "do satisfied customers really pay more? a study of the relationship between customer satisfaction and willingness to pay" (pdf). journal of marketing. ( ): – . doi: . /jmkg. . . . . 	^ gill, david; prowse, victoria ( ). "a structural analysis of disappointment aversion in a real effort competition" (pdf). the american economic review. ( ): – . doi: . /aer. . . . jstor  . archived from the original (pdf) on december , . 	^ schwartz, alan ( ). "expected feelings about risky options". in moore, simon (ed.). emotional cognition: from brain to behavior (advances in consciousness research, ). john benjamins publishing co. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ bell, david e. (jan–feb ). "disappointment in decision making under uncertainty". operations research. ( ): – . doi: . /opre. . . . jstor  . 	^ jianmin jia; james s. dyer; john c. butler (january ). "generalized disappointment models". journal of risk and uncertainty. ( ): – . and gul, faruk (may ). "a theory of disappointment aversion". econometrica. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . for an alternate model of the allais paradox, see the allais paradox at overcomingbias.com. 	^ marcatto, francesco; donatella ferrante (january ). "the regret and disappointment scale: an instrument for assessing regret and disappointment in decision making". judgment and decision making. ( ): – . further reading[edit] 	craib, ian ( sep ). the importance of disappointment. routledge. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	loomes, graham (february ). "further evidence of the impact of regret and disappointment in choice under uncertainty". economica. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	mandel, david r.; denis j. hilton; patrizia catellani ( ). the psychology of counterfactual thinking. routledge. p.  . isbn  - - - - . external links[edit] 	 the dictionary definition of disappointment at wiktionary 	 quotations related to disappointment at wikiquote 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion 	authority control 	 	gnd: - retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=disappointment&oldid= " 		categories: 	emotions 	risk hidden categories: 	cs maint: multiple names: authors list 	webarchive template wayback links 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	avañe'ẽ 	Български 	català 	dansk 	deutsch 	español 	euskara 	فارسی 	français 	frysk 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	עברית 	jawa 	lietuvių 	magyar 	nederlands 	norsk bokmål 	polski 	português 	română 	Русский 	türkçe 	Українська 	tiếng việt 	ייִדיש 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 economics - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	economics 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		this article is about the social science. for other uses, see economics (disambiguation). social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services the supply and demand model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability and demand 	part of a series on 	economics 	 	index 	outline 	category 	 	history 	branches 	classification 	history of economics 	schools of economics 	 	mainstream economics 	heterodox economics 	economic methodology 	 	economic theory 	political economy 	 	microeconomics 	macroeconomics 	 	international economics 	 	applied economics 	 	mathematical economics 	econometrics 	jel classification codes 	 	concepts 	theory 	techniques 	economic systems 	economic growth 	market 	national accounting 	experimental economics 	computational economics 	 	game theory 	operations research 	middle income trap 	 by application 	agricultural 	behavioral 	business 	cultural 	demographic 	development 	digitization 	ecological 	education 	engineering 	environmental 	evolutionary 	expeditionary 	economic geography 	financial 	health 	economic history 	industrial organization 	information 	institutional 	knowledge 	labour 	law 	managerial 	monetary 	natural resource 	organizational 	personnel 	economic planning 	economic policy 	public economics 	public / social choice 	regional 	rural 	service 	socioeconomics 	economic sociology 	economic statistics 	urban 	welfare 	welfare economics 	 notable economists 	françois quesnay 	adam smith 	david ricardo 	thomas robert malthus 	john stuart mill 	karl marx 	william stanley jevons 	léon walras 	alfred marshall 	irving fisher 	john maynard keynes 	arthur cecil pigou 	john hicks 	wassily leontief 	paul samuelson 	more 	 lists 	economists 	publications (journals) 	 glossary 	glossary of economics 	 	 business portal 	 money portal 		v 	t 	e economics (/ɛkəˈnɒmɪks, iːkə-/)[ ][ ][ ] is the social science that studies how people interact with value; in particular, the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.[ ] economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work. microeconomics analyzes basic elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions, and the outcomes of interactions. individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, and sellers. macroeconomics analyzes the economy as a system where production, consumption, saving, and investment interact, and factors affecting it: employment of the resources of labour, capital, and land, currency inflation, economic growth, and public policies that have impact on these elements. other broad distinctions within economics include those between positive economics, describing "what is", and normative economics, advocating "what ought to be"; between economic theory and applied economics; between rational and behavioural economics; and between mainstream economics and heterodox economics.[ ] economic analysis can be applied throughout society, in real estate,[ ] business,[ ] finance, health care,[ ] and government.[ ] economic analysis is sometimes also applied to such diverse subjects as crime, education,[ ] the family, law, politics, religion,[ ] social institutions, war,[ ] science,[ ] and the environment.[ ] contents 	 the multiple aspects of economic science 	 history 	 . classical political economy 	 . marxism 	 . neoclassical economics 	 . keynesian economics 	 . chicago school of economics 	 . other schools and approaches 	 economic systems 	 theory 	 branches of economics 	 . microeconomics 	 . . production, cost, and efficiency 	 . . specialization 	 . . supply and demand 	 . . firms 	 . . uncertainty and game theory 	 . . market failure 	 . . public sector 	 . macroeconomics 	 . . growth 	 . . business cycle 	 . . unemployment 	 . . inflation and monetary policy 	 . . fiscal policy 	 . international economics 	 . development economics 	 . labor economics 	 . welfare economics 	 agreements 	 criticisms 	 . general criticisms 	 . criticisms of assumptions 	 related subjects 	 practice 	 . empirical investigation 	 . profession 	 see also 	 . general 	 notes 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links 	 . general information 	 . institutions and organizations 	 . study resources the multiple aspects of economic science the discipline was renamed in the late th century, primarily due to alfred marshall, from "political economy" to "economics" as a shorter term for "economic science". at that time, it became more open to rigorous thinking and made increased use of mathematics, which helped support efforts to have it accepted as a science and as a separate discipline outside of political science and other social sciences.[a][ ][ ][ ] there are a variety of modern definitions of economics; some reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists.[ ][ ] scottish philosopher adam smith ( ) defined what was then called political economy as "an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations", in particular as: a branch of the science of a statesman or legislator [with the twofold objectives of providing] a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people ... [and] to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services.[ ] jean-baptiste say ( ), distinguishing the subject from its public-policy uses, defines it as the science of production, distribution, and consumption of wealth.[ ] on the satirical side, thomas carlyle ( ) coined "the dismal science" as an epithet for classical economics, in this context, commonly linked to the pessimistic analysis of malthus ( ).[ ] john stuart mill ( ) defines the subject in a social context as: the science which traces the laws of such of the phenomena of society as arise from the combined operations of mankind for the production of wealth, in so far as those phenomena are not modified by the pursuit of any other object.[ ] alfred marshall provides a still widely cited definition in his textbook principles of economics ( ) that extends analysis beyond wealth and from the societal to the microeconomic level: economics is a study of man in the ordinary business of life. it enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man.[ ] lionel robbins ( ) developed implications of what has been termed "[p]erhaps the most commonly accepted current definition of the subject":[ ] economics is a science which studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.[ ] robbins describes the definition as not classificatory in "pick[ing] out certain kinds of behaviour" but rather analytical in "focus[ing] attention on a particular aspect of behaviour, the form imposed by the influence of scarcity."[ ] he affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth: how wealth is created (production), distributed, and consumed; and how wealth can grow.[ ] but he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus. this is because war has as the goal winning it (as a sought after end), generates both cost and benefits; and, resources (human life and other costs) are used to attain the goal. if the war is not winnable or if the expected costs outweigh the benefits, the deciding actors (assuming they are rational) may never go to war (a decision) but rather explore other alternatives. we cannot define economics as the science that studies wealth, war, crime, education, and any other field economic analysis can be applied to; but, as the science that studies a particular common aspect of each of those subjects (they all use scarce resources to attain a sought after end). some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets. from the s, however, such comments abated as the economic theory of maximizing behaviour and rational-choice modelling expanded the domain of the subject to areas previously treated in other fields.[ ] there are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment.[ ] gary becker, a contributor to the expansion of economics into new areas, describes the approach he favours as "combin[ing the] assumptions of maximizing behaviour, stable preferences, and market equilibrium, used relentlessly and unflinchingly."[ ] one commentary characterizes the remark as making economics an approach rather than a subject matter but with great specificity as to the "choice process and the type of social interaction that [such] analysis involves." the same source reviews a range of definitions included in principles of economics textbooks and concludes that the lack of agreement need not affect the subject-matter that the texts treat. among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, or should evolve.[ ] history main articles: history of economic thought and history of macroeconomic thought 	 	this section is missing information about information and behavioural economics, contemporary microeconomics. please expand the section to include this information. further details may exist on the talk page. (september ) economic writings date from earlier mesopotamian, greek, roman, indian subcontinent, chinese, persian, and arab civilizations. economic precepts occur throughout the writings of the boeotian poet hesiod and several economic historians have described hesiod himself as the "first economist".[ ] other notable writers from antiquity through to the renaissance include aristotle, xenophon, chanakya (also known as kautilya), qin shi huang, thomas aquinas, and ibn khaldun. joseph schumpeter described aquinas as "coming nearer than any other group to being the "founders' of scientific economics" as to monetary, interest, and value theory within a natural-law perspective.[ ][failed verification] a painting of a french seaport during the heyday of mercantilism. two groups, who later were called "mercantilists" and "physiocrats", more directly influenced the subsequent development of the subject. both groups were associated with the rise of economic nationalism and modern capitalism in europe. mercantilism was an economic doctrine that flourished from the th to th century in a prolific pamphlet literature, whether of merchants or statesmen. it held that a nation's wealth depended on its accumulation of gold and silver. nations without access to mines could obtain gold and silver from trade only by selling goods abroad and restricting imports other than of gold and silver. the doctrine called for importing cheap raw materials to be used in manufacturing goods, which could be exported, and for state regulation to impose protective tariffs on foreign manufactured goods and prohibit manufacturing in the colonies.[ ] physiocrats, a group of th-century french thinkers and writers, developed the idea of the economy as a circular flow of income and output. physiocrats believed that only agricultural production generated a clear surplus over cost, so that agriculture was the basis of all wealth. thus, they opposed the mercantilist policy of promoting manufacturing and trade at the expense of agriculture, including import tariffs. physiocrats advocated replacing administratively costly tax collections with a single tax on income of land owners. in reaction against copious mercantilist trade regulations, the physiocrats advocated a policy of laissez-faire, which called for minimal government intervention in the economy.[ ] adam smith ( – ) was an early economic theorist.[ ] smith was harshly critical of the mercantilists but described the physiocratic system "with all its imperfections" as "perhaps the purest approximation to the truth that has yet been published" on the subject.[ ] classical political economy main article: classical economics the publication of adam smith's the wealth of nations in is considered to be the first formalisation of economic thought. the publication of adam smith's the wealth of nations in , has been described as "the effective birth of economics as a separate discipline."[ ] the book identified land, labour, and capital as the three factors of production and the major contributors to a nation's wealth, as distinct from the physiocratic idea that only agriculture was productive. smith discusses potential benefits of specialization by division of labour, including increased labour productivity and gains from trade, whether between town and country or across countries.[ ] his "theorem" that "the division of labor is limited by the extent of the market" has been described as the "core of a theory of the functions of firm and industry" and a "fundamental principle of economic organization."[ ] to smith has also been ascribed "the most important substantive proposition in all of economics" and foundation of resource-allocation theory – that, under competition, resource owners (of labour, land, and capital) seek their most profitable uses, resulting in an equal rate of return for all uses in equilibrium (adjusted for apparent differences arising from such factors as training and unemployment).[ ] in an argument that includes "one of the most famous passages in all economics,"[ ] smith represents every individual as trying to employ any capital they might command for their own advantage, not that of the society,[b] and for the sake of profit, which is necessary at some level for employing capital in domestic industry, and positively related to the value of produce.[ ] in this: he generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. by preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. by pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it.[ ] the rev. thomas robert malthus ( ) used the concept of diminishing returns to explain low living standards. human population, he argued, tended to increase geometrically, outstripping the production of food, which increased arithmetically. the force of a rapidly growing population against a limited amount of land meant diminishing returns to labour. the result, he claimed, was chronically low wages, which prevented the standard of living for most of the population from rising above the subsistence level.[ ] economist julian lincoln simon has criticized malthus's conclusions.[ ] while adam smith emphasized the production of income, david ricardo ( ) focused on the distribution of income among landowners, workers, and capitalists. ricardo saw an inherent conflict between landowners on the one hand and labour and capital on the other. he posited that the growth of population and capital, pressing against a fixed supply of land, pushes up rents and holds down wages and profits. ricardo was the first to state and prove the principle of comparative advantage, according to which each country should specialize in producing and exporting goods in that it has a lower relative cost of production, rather relying only on its own production.[ ] it has been termed a "fundamental analytical explanation" for gains from trade.[ ] coming at the end of the classical tradition, john stuart mill ( ) parted company with the earlier classical economists on the inevitability of the distribution of income produced by the market system. mill pointed to a distinct difference between the market's two roles: allocation of resources and distribution of income. the market might be efficient in allocating resources but not in distributing income, he wrote, making it necessary for society to intervene.[ ] value theory was important in classical theory. smith wrote that the "real price of every thing ... is the toil and trouble of acquiring it". smith maintained that, with rent and profit, other costs besides wages also enter the price of a commodity.[ ] other classical economists presented variations on smith, termed the 'labour theory of value'. classical economics focused on the tendency of any market economy to settle in a final stationary state made up of a constant stock of physical wealth (capital) and a constant population size. marxism main article: marxian economics the marxist school of economic thought comes from the work of german economist karl marx. marxist (later, marxian) economics descends from classical economics and it derives from the work of karl marx. the first volume of marx's major work, das kapital, was published in german in . in it, marx focused on the labour theory of value and the theory of surplus value which, he believed, explained the exploitation of labour by capital.[ ] the labour theory of value held that the value of an exchanged commodity was determined by the labour that went into its production and the theory of surplus value demonstrated how the workers only got paid a proportion of the value their work had created.[ ][dubious – discuss] neoclassical economics main article: neoclassical economics at the dawn as a social science, economics was defined and discussed at length as the study of production, distribution, and consumption of wealth by jean-baptiste say in his treatise on political economy or, the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth ( ). these three items are considered by the science only in relation to the increase or diminution of wealth, and not in reference to their processes of execution.[c] say's definition has prevailed up to our time, saved by substituting the word "wealth" for "goods and services" meaning that wealth may include non-material objects as well. one hundred and thirty years later, lionel robbins noticed that this definition no longer sufficed,[d] because many economists were making theoretical and philosophical inroads in other areas of human activity. in his essay on the nature and significance of economic science, he proposed a definition of economics as a study of a particular aspect of human behaviour, the one that falls under the influence of scarcity,[e] which forces people to choose, allocate scarce resources to competing ends, and economize (seeking the greatest welfare while avoiding the wasting of scarce resources). for robbins, the insufficiency was solved, and his definition allows us to proclaim, with an easy conscience, education economics, safety and security economics, health economics, war economics, and of course, production, distribution and consumption economics as valid subjects of the economic science." citing robbins: "economics is the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses".[ ] after discussing it for decades, robbins' definition became widely accepted by mainstream economists, and it has opened way into current textbooks.[ ] although far from unanimous, most mainstream economists would accept some version of robbins' definition, even though many have raised serious objections to the scope and method of economics, emanating from that definition.[ ] due to the lack of strong consensus, and that production, distribution and consumption of goods and services is the prime area of study of economics, the old definition still stands in many quarters. a body of theory later termed "neoclassical economics" or "marginalism" formed from about to . the term "economics" was popularized by such neoclassical economists as alfred marshall as a concise synonym for "economic science" and a substitute for the earlier "political economy".[ ][ ] this corresponded to the influence on the subject of mathematical methods used in the natural sciences.[ ] neoclassical economics systematized supply and demand as joint determinants of price and quantity in market equilibrium, affecting both the allocation of output and the distribution of income. it dispensed with the labour theory of value inherited from classical economics in favour of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more general theory of costs on the supply side.[ ] in the th century, neoclassical theorists moved away from an earlier notion suggesting that total utility for a society could be measured in favour of ordinal utility, which hypothesizes merely behaviour-based relations across persons.[ ][ ] in microeconomics, neoclassical economics represents incentives and costs as playing a pervasive role in shaping decision making. an immediate example of this is the consumer theory of individual demand, which isolates how prices (as costs) and income affect quantity demanded.[ ] in macroeconomics it is reflected in an early and lasting neoclassical synthesis with keynesian macroeconomics.[ ][ ] neoclassical economics is occasionally referred as orthodox economics whether by its critics or sympathizers. modern mainstream economics builds on neoclassical economics but with many refinements that either supplement or generalize earlier analysis, such as econometrics, game theory, analysis of market failure and imperfect competition, and the neoclassical model of economic growth for analysing long-run variables affecting national income. neoclassical economics studies the behaviour of individuals, households, and organizations (called economic actors, players, or agents), when they manage or use scarce resources, which have alternative uses, to achieve desired ends. agents are assumed to act rationally, have multiple desirable ends in sight, limited resources to obtain these ends, a set of stable preferences, a definite overall guiding objective, and the capability of making a choice. there exists an economic problem, subject to study by economic science, when a decision (choice) is made by one or more resource-controlling players to attain the best possible outcome under bounded rational conditions. in other words, resource-controlling agents maximize value subject to the constraints imposed by the information the agents have, their cognitive limitations, and the finite amount of time they have to make and execute a decision. economic science centres on the activities of the economic agents that comprise society.[ ] they are the focus of economic analysis.[f] an approach to understanding these processes, through the study of agent behaviour under scarcity, may go as follows: the continuous interplay (exchange or trade) done by economic actors in all markets sets the prices for all goods and services which, in turn, make the rational managing of scarce resources possible. at the same time, the decisions (choices) made by the same actors, while they are pursuing their own interest, determine the level of output (production), consumption, savings, and investment, in an economy, as well as the remuneration (distribution) paid to the owners of labour (in the form of wages), capital (in the form of profits) and land (in the form of rent).[g] each period, as if they were in a giant feedback system, economic players influence the pricing processes and the economy, and are in turn influenced by them until a steady state (equilibrium) of all variables involved is reached or until an external shock throws the system toward a new equilibrium point. because of the autonomous actions of rational interacting agents, the economy is a complex adaptive system.[h] keynesian economics main articles: keynesian economics and post-keynesian economics john maynard keynes (right), was a key theorist in economics. keynesian economics derives from john maynard keynes, in particular his book the general theory of employment, interest and money ( ), which ushered in contemporary macroeconomics as a distinct field.[ ] the book focused on determinants of national income in the short run when prices are relatively inflexible. keynes attempted to explain in broad theoretical detail why high labour-market unemployment might not be self-correcting due to low "effective demand" and why even price flexibility and monetary policy might be unavailing. the term "revolutionary" has been applied to the book in its impact on economic analysis.[ ] keynesian economics has two successors. post-keynesian economics also concentrates on macroeconomic rigidities and adjustment processes. research on micro foundations for their models is represented as based on real-life practices rather than simple optimizing models. it is generally associated with the university of cambridge and the work of joan robinson.[ ] new-keynesian economics is also associated with developments in the keynesian fashion. within this group researchers tend to share with other economists the emphasis on models employing micro foundations and optimizing behaviour but with a narrower focus on standard keynesian themes such as price and wage rigidity. these are usually made to be endogenous features of the models, rather than simply assumed as in older keynesian-style ones. chicago school of economics main article: chicago school of economics the chicago school of economics is best known for its free market advocacy and monetarist ideas. according to milton friedman and monetarists, market economies are inherently stable if the money supply does not greatly expand or contract. ben bernanke, former chairman of the federal reserve, is among the economists today generally accepting friedman's analysis of the causes of the great depression.[ ] milton friedman effectively took many of the basic principles set forth by adam smith and the classical economists and modernized them. one example of this is his article in the september issue of the new york times magazine, in which he claims that the social responsibility of business should be "to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits ... (through) open and free competition without deception or fraud."[ ] other schools and approaches main article: schools of economics other well-known schools or trends of thought referring to a particular style of economics practised at and disseminated from well-defined groups of academicians that have become known worldwide, include the austrian school, the freiburg school, the school of lausanne, post-keynesian economics and the stockholm school. contemporary mainstream economics is sometimes separated[by whom?] into the saltwater approach of those universities along the eastern and western coasts of the us, and the freshwater, or chicago-school approach.[citation needed] within macroeconomics there is, in general order of their historical appearance in the literature; classical economics, neoclassical economics, keynesian economics, the neoclassical synthesis, monetarism, new classical economics, new keynesian economics[ ] and the new neoclassical synthesis.[ ] alternative developments include ecological economics, constitutional economics, institutional economics, evolutionary economics, dependency theory, structuralist economics, world systems theory, econophysics, feminist economics and biophysical economics.[ ] economic systems main article: economic system economic systems is the branch of economics that studies the methods and institutions by which societies determine the ownership, direction, and allocation of economic resources. an economic system of a society is the unit of analysis. among contemporary systems at different ends of the organizational spectrum are socialist systems and capitalist systems, in which most production occurs in respectively state-run and private enterprises. in between are mixed economies. a common element is the interaction of economic and political influences, broadly described as political economy. comparative economic systems studies the relative performance and behaviour of different economies or systems.[ ] the u.s. export-import bank defines a marxist–leninist state as having a centrally planned economy.[ ] they are now rare; examples can still be seen in cuba, north korea and laos.[ ][needs update] theory "economic theory" redirects here. for the publication, see economic theory (journal). mainstream economic theory relies upon a priori quantitative economic models, which employ a variety of concepts. theory typically proceeds with an assumption of ceteris paribus, which means holding constant explanatory variables other than the one under consideration. when creating theories, the objective is to find ones which are at least as simple in information requirements, more precise in predictions, and more fruitful in generating additional research than prior theories.[ ] while neoclassical economic theory constitutes both the dominant or orthodox theoretical as well as methodological framework, economic theory can also take the form of other schools of thought such as in heterodox economic theories. in microeconomics, principal concepts include supply and demand, marginalism, rational choice theory, opportunity cost, budget constraints, utility, and the theory of the firm.[ ] early macroeconomic models focused on modelling the relationships between aggregate variables, but as the relationships appeared to change over time macroeconomists, including new keynesians, reformulated their models in microfoundations.[ ] the aforementioned microeconomic concepts play a major part in macroeconomic models – for instance, in monetary theory, the quantity theory of money predicts that increases in the growth rate of the money supply increase inflation, and inflation is assumed to be influenced by rational expectations. in development economics, slower growth in developed nations has been sometimes predicted because of the declining marginal returns of investment and capital, and this has been observed in the four asian tigers. sometimes an economic hypothesis is only qualitative, not quantitative.[ ] expositions of economic reasoning often use two-dimensional graphs to illustrate theoretical relationships. at a higher level of generality, paul samuelson's treatise foundations of economic analysis ( ) used mathematical methods beyond graphs to represent the theory, particularly as to maximizing behavioural relations of agents reaching equilibrium. the book focused on examining the class of statements called operationally meaningful theorems in economics, which are theorems that can conceivably be refuted by empirical data.[ ] branches of economics microeconomics main articles: microeconomics and market (economics) economists study trade, production and consumption decisions, such as those that occur in a traditional marketplace. electronic trading brings together buyers and sellers through an electronic trading platform and network to create virtual market places. pictured: são paulo stock exchange, brazil. microeconomics examines how entities, forming a market structure, interact within a market to create a market system. these entities include private and public players with various classifications, typically operating under scarcity of tradable units and light government regulation.[clarification needed] the item traded may be a tangible product such as apples or a service such as repair services, legal counsel, or entertainment. in theory, in a free market the aggregates (sum of) of quantity demanded by buyers and quantity supplied by sellers may reach economic equilibrium over time in reaction to price changes; in practice, various issues may prevent equilibrium, and any equilibrium reached may not necessarily be morally equitable. for example, if the supply of healthcare services is limited by external factors, the equilibrium price may be unaffordable for many who desire it but cannot pay for it. various market structures exist. in perfectly competitive markets, no participants are large enough to have the market power to set the price of a homogeneous product. in other words, every participant is a "price taker" as no participant influences the price of a product. in the real world, markets often experience imperfect competition. forms include monopoly (in which there is only one seller of a good), duopoly (in which there are only two sellers of a good), oligopoly (in which there are few sellers of a good), monopolistic competition (in which there are many sellers producing highly differentiated goods), monopsony (in which there is only one buyer of a good), and oligopsony (in which there are few buyers of a good). unlike perfect competition, imperfect competition invariably means market power is unequally distributed. firms under imperfect competition have the potential to be "price makers", which means that, by holding a disproportionately high share of market power, they can influence the prices of their products. microeconomics studies individual markets by simplifying the economic system by assuming that activity in the market being analysed does not affect other markets. this method of analysis is known as partial-equilibrium analysis (supply and demand). this method aggregates (the sum of all activity) in only one market. general-equilibrium theory studies various markets and their behaviour. it aggregates (the sum of all activity) across all markets. this method studies both changes in markets and their interactions leading towards equilibrium.[ ] production, cost, and efficiency main articles: production (economics), opportunity cost, economic efficiency, and production–possibility frontier in microeconomics, production is the conversion of inputs into outputs. it is an economic process that uses inputs to create a commodity or a service for exchange or direct use. production is a flow and thus a rate of output per period of time. distinctions include such production alternatives as for consumption (food, haircuts, etc.) vs. investment goods (new tractors, buildings, roads, etc.), public goods (national defence, smallpox vaccinations, etc.) or private goods (new computers, bananas, etc.), and "guns" vs "butter". opportunity cost is the economic cost of production: the value of the next best opportunity foregone. choices must be made between desirable yet mutually exclusive actions. it has been described as expressing "the basic relationship between scarcity and choice".[ ] for example, if a baker uses a sack of flour to make pretzels one morning, then the baker cannot use either the flour or the morning to make bagels instead. part of the cost of making pretzels is that neither the flour nor the morning are available any longer, for use in some other way. the opportunity cost of an activity is an element in ensuring that scarce resources are used efficiently, such that the cost is weighed against the value of that activity in deciding on more or less of it. opportunity costs are not restricted to monetary or financial costs but could be measured by the real cost of output forgone, leisure, or anything else that provides the alternative benefit (utility).[ ] inputs used in the production process include such primary factors of production as labour services, capital (durable produced goods used in production, such as an existing factory), and land (including natural resources). other inputs may include intermediate goods used in production of final goods, such as the steel in a new car. economic efficiency measures how well a system generates desired output with a given set of inputs and available technology. efficiency is improved if more output is generated without changing inputs, or in other words, the amount of "waste" is reduced. a widely accepted general standard is pareto efficiency, which is reached when no further change can make someone better off without making someone else worse off. an example production–possibility frontier with illustrative points marked. the production–possibility frontier (ppf) is an expository figure for representing scarcity, cost, and efficiency. in the simplest case an economy can produce just two goods (say "guns" and "butter"). the ppf is a table or graph (as at the right) showing the different quantity combinations of the two goods producible with a given technology and total factor inputs, which limit feasible total output. each point on the curve shows potential total output for the economy, which is the maximum feasible output of one good, given a feasible output quantity of the other good. scarcity is represented in the figure by people being willing but unable in the aggregate to consume beyond the ppf (such as at x) and by the negative slope of the curve.[ ] if production of one good increases along the curve, production of the other good decreases, an inverse relationship. this is because increasing output of one good requires transferring inputs to it from production of the other good, decreasing the latter. the slope of the curve at a point on it gives the trade-off between the two goods. it measures what an additional unit of one good costs in units forgone of the other good, an example of a real opportunity cost. thus, if one more gun costs units of butter, the opportunity cost of one gun is butter. along the ppf, scarcity implies that choosing more of one good in the aggregate entails doing with less of the other good. still, in a market economy, movement along the curve may indicate that the choice of the increased output is anticipated to be worth the cost to the agents. by construction, each point on the curve shows productive efficiency in maximizing output for given total inputs. a point inside the curve (as at a), is feasible but represents production inefficiency (wasteful use of inputs), in that output of one or both goods could increase by moving in a northeast direction to a point on the curve. examples cited of such inefficiency include high unemployment during a business-cycle recession or economic organization of a country that discourages full use of resources. being on the curve might still not fully satisfy allocative efficiency (also called pareto efficiency) if it does not produce a mix of goods that consumers prefer over other points. much applied economics in public policy is concerned with determining how the efficiency of an economy can be improved. recognizing the reality of scarcity and then figuring out how to organize society for the most efficient use of resources has been described as the "essence of economics", where the subject "makes its unique contribution."[ ] specialization main articles: division of labour, comparative advantage, and gains from trade a map showing the main trade routes for goods within late medieval europe. specialization is considered key to economic efficiency based on theoretical and empirical considerations. different individuals or nations may have different real opportunity costs of production, say from differences in stocks of human capital per worker or capital/labour ratios. according to theory, this may give a comparative advantage in production of goods that make more intensive use of the relatively more abundant, thus relatively cheaper, input. even if one region has an absolute advantage as to the ratio of its outputs to inputs in every type of output, it may still specialize in the output in which it has a comparative advantage and thereby gain from trading with a region that lacks any absolute advantage but has a comparative advantage in producing something else. it has been observed that a high volume of trade occurs among regions even with access to a similar technology and mix of factor inputs, including high-income countries. this has led to investigation of economies of scale and agglomeration to explain specialization in similar but differentiated product lines, to the overall benefit of respective trading parties or regions.[ ] the general theory of specialization applies to trade among individuals, farms, manufacturers, service providers, and economies. among each of these production systems, there may be a corresponding division of labour with different work groups specializing, or correspondingly different types of capital equipment and differentiated land uses.[ ] an example that combines features above is a country that specializes in the production of high-tech knowledge products, as developed countries do, and trades with developing nations for goods produced in factories where labour is relatively cheap and plentiful, resulting in different in opportunity costs of production. more total output and utility thereby results from specializing in production and trading than if each country produced its own high-tech and low-tech products. theory and observation set out the conditions such that market prices of outputs and productive inputs select an allocation of factor inputs by comparative advantage, so that (relatively) low-cost inputs go to producing low-cost outputs. in the process, aggregate output may increase as a by-product or by design.[ ] such specialization of production creates opportunities for gains from trade whereby resource owners benefit from trade in the sale of one type of output for other, more highly valued goods. a measure of gains from trade is the increased income levels that trade may facilitate.[ ] supply and demand main article: supply and demand the supply and demand model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability and demand. the graph depicts an increase (that is, right-shift) in demand from d to d along with the consequent increase in price and quantity required to reach a new equilibrium point on the supply curve (s). prices and quantities have been described as the most directly observable attributes of goods produced and exchanged in a market economy.[ ] the theory of supply and demand is an organizing principle for explaining how prices coordinate the amounts produced and consumed. in microeconomics, it applies to price and output determination for a market with perfect competition, which includes the condition of no buyers or sellers large enough to have price-setting power. for a given market of a commodity, demand is the relation of the quantity that all buyers would be prepared to purchase at each unit price of the good. demand is often represented by a table or a graph showing price and quantity demanded (as in the figure). demand theory describes individual consumers as rationally choosing the most preferred quantity of each good, given income, prices, tastes, etc. a term for this is "constrained utility maximization" (with income and wealth as the constraints on demand). here, utility refers to the hypothesized relation of each individual consumer for ranking different commodity bundles as more or less preferred. the law of demand states that, in general, price and quantity demanded in a given market are inversely related. that is, the higher the price of a product, the less of it people would be prepared to buy (other things unchanged). as the price of a commodity falls, consumers move toward it from relatively more expensive goods (the substitution effect). in addition, purchasing power from the price decline increases ability to buy (the income effect). other factors can change demand; for example an increase in income will shift the demand curve for a normal good outward relative to the origin, as in the figure. all determinants are predominantly taken as constant factors of demand and supply. supply is the relation between the price of a good and the quantity available for sale at that price. it may be represented as a table or graph relating price and quantity supplied. producers, for example business firms, are hypothesized to be profit maximizers, meaning that they attempt to produce and supply the amount of goods that will bring them the highest profit. supply is typically represented as a function relating price and quantity, if other factors are unchanged. that is, the higher the price at which the good can be sold, the more of it producers will supply, as in the figure. the higher price makes it profitable to increase production. just as on the demand side, the position of the supply can shift, say from a change in the price of a productive input or a technical improvement. the "law of supply" states that, in general, a rise in price leads to an expansion in supply and a fall in price leads to a contraction in supply. here as well, the determinants of supply, such as price of substitutes, cost of production, technology applied and various factors inputs of production are all taken to be constant for a specific time period of evaluation of supply. market equilibrium occurs where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded, the intersection of the supply and demand curves in the figure above. at a price below equilibrium, there is a shortage of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded. this is posited to bid the price up. at a price above equilibrium, there is a surplus of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded. this pushes the price down. the model of supply and demand predicts that for given supply and demand curves, price and quantity will stabilize at the price that makes quantity supplied equal to quantity demanded. similarly, demand-and-supply theory predicts a new price-quantity combination from a shift in demand (as to the figure), or in supply. firms main articles: theory of the firm, industrial organization, business economics, and managerial economics people frequently do not trade directly on markets. instead, on the supply side, they may work in and produce through firms. the most obvious kinds of firms are corporations, partnerships and trusts. according to ronald coase, people begin to organize their production in firms when the costs of doing business becomes lower than doing it on the market.[ ] firms combine labour and capital, and can achieve far greater economies of scale (when the average cost per unit declines as more units are produced) than individual market trading. in perfectly competitive markets studied in the theory of supply and demand, there are many producers, none of which significantly influence price. industrial organization generalizes from that special case to study the strategic behaviour of firms that do have significant control of price. it considers the structure of such markets and their interactions. common market structures studied besides perfect competition include monopolistic competition, various forms of oligopoly, and monopoly.[ ] managerial economics applies microeconomic analysis to specific decisions in business firms or other management units. it draws heavily from quantitative methods such as operations research and programming and from statistical methods such as regression analysis in the absence of certainty and perfect knowledge. a unifying theme is the attempt to optimize business decisions, including unit-cost minimization and profit maximization, given the firm's objectives and constraints imposed by technology and market conditions.[ ] uncertainty and game theory main articles: information economics, game theory, and financial economics uncertainty in economics is an unknown prospect of gain or loss, whether quantifiable as risk or not. without it, household behaviour would be unaffected by uncertain employment and income prospects, financial and capital markets would reduce to exchange of a single instrument in each market period, and there would be no communications industry.[ ] given its different forms, there are various ways of representing uncertainty and modelling economic agents' responses to it.[ ] game theory is a branch of applied mathematics that considers strategic interactions between agents, one kind of uncertainty. it provides a mathematical foundation of industrial organization, discussed above, to model different types of firm behaviour, for example in a solipsistic industry (few sellers), but equally applicable to wage negotiations, bargaining, contract design, and any situation where individual agents are few enough to have perceptible effects on each other. in behavioural economics, it has been used to model the strategies agents choose when interacting with others whose interests are at least partially adverse to their own.[ ] in this, it generalizes maximization approaches developed to analyse market actors such as in the supply and demand model and allows for incomplete information of actors. the field dates from the classic theory of games and economic behavior by john von neumann and oskar morgenstern. it has significant applications seemingly outside of economics in such diverse subjects as formulation of nuclear strategies, ethics, political science, and evolutionary biology.[ ] risk aversion may stimulate activity that in well-functioning markets smooths out risk and communicates information about risk, as in markets for insurance, commodity futures contracts, and financial instruments. financial economics or simply finance describes the allocation of financial resources. it also analyses the pricing of financial instruments, the financial structure of companies, the efficiency and fragility of financial markets,[ ] financial crises, and related government policy or regulation.[ ] some market organizations may give rise to inefficiencies associated with uncertainty. based on george akerlof's "market for lemons" article, the paradigm example is of a dodgy second-hand car market. customers without knowledge of whether a car is a "lemon" depress its price below what a quality second-hand car would be.[ ] information asymmetry arises here, if the seller has more relevant information than the buyer but no incentive to disclose it. related problems in insurance are adverse selection, such that those at most risk are most likely to insure (say reckless drivers), and moral hazard, such that insurance results in riskier behaviour (say more reckless driving).[ ] both problems may raise insurance costs and reduce efficiency by driving otherwise willing transactors from the market ("incomplete markets"). moreover, attempting to reduce one problem, say adverse selection by mandating insurance, may add to another, say moral hazard. information economics, which studies such problems, has relevance in subjects such as insurance, contract law, mechanism design, monetary economics, and health care.[ ] applied subjects include market and legal remedies to spread or reduce risk, such as warranties, government-mandated partial insurance, restructuring or bankruptcy law, inspection, and regulation for quality and information disclosure.[ ][ ] market failure main articles: market failure, government failure, information economics, environmental economics, and agricultural economics pollution can be a simple example of market failure. if costs of production are not borne by producers but are by the environment, accident victims or others, then prices are distorted. environmental scientist sampling water the term "market failure" encompasses several problems which may undermine standard economic assumptions. although economists categorize market failures differently, the following categories emerge in the main texts.[i] information asymmetries and incomplete markets may result in economic inefficiency but also a possibility of improving efficiency through market, legal, and regulatory remedies, as discussed above. natural monopoly, or the overlapping concepts of "practical" and "technical" monopoly, is an extreme case of failure of competition as a restraint on producers. extreme economies of scale are one possible cause. public goods are goods which are under-supplied in a typical market. the defining features are that people can consume public goods without having to pay for them and that more than one person can consume the good at the same time. externalities occur where there are significant social costs or benefits from production or consumption that are not reflected in market prices. for example, air pollution may generate a negative externality, and education may generate a positive externality (less crime, etc.). governments often tax and otherwise restrict the sale of goods that have negative externalities and subsidize or otherwise promote the purchase of goods that have positive externalities in an effort to correct the price distortions caused by these externalities.[ ] elementary demand-and-supply theory predicts equilibrium but not the speed of adjustment for changes of equilibrium due to a shift in demand or supply.[ ] in many areas, some form of price stickiness is postulated to account for quantities, rather than prices, adjusting in the short run to changes on the demand side or the supply side. this includes standard analysis of the business cycle in macroeconomics. analysis often revolves around causes of such price stickiness and their implications for reaching a hypothesized long-run equilibrium. examples of such price stickiness in particular markets include wage rates in labour markets and posted prices in markets deviating from perfect competition. some specialized fields of economics deal in market failure more than others. the economics of the public sector is one example. much environmental economics concerns externalities or "public bads". policy options include regulations that reflect cost-benefit analysis or market solutions that change incentives, such as emission fees or redefinition of property rights.[ ] public sector main articles: economics of the public sector and public finance see also: welfare economics public finance is the field of economics that deals with budgeting the revenues and expenditures of a public sector entity, usually government. the subject addresses such matters as tax incidence (who really pays a particular tax), cost-benefit analysis of government programmes, effects on economic efficiency and income distribution of different kinds of spending and taxes, and fiscal politics. the latter, an aspect of public choice theory, models public-sector behaviour analogously to microeconomics, involving interactions of self-interested voters, politicians, and bureaucrats.[ ] much of economics is positive, seeking to describe and predict economic phenomena. normative economics seeks to identify what economies ought to be like. welfare economics is a normative branch of economics that uses microeconomic techniques to simultaneously determine the allocative efficiency within an economy and the income distribution associated with it. it attempts to measure social welfare by examining the economic activities of the individuals that comprise society.[ ] macroeconomics main article: macroeconomics the circulation of money in an economy in a macroeconomic model. macroeconomics examines the economy as a whole to explain broad aggregates and their interactions "top down", that is, using a simplified form of general-equilibrium theory.[ ] such aggregates include national income and output, the unemployment rate, and price inflation and subaggregates like total consumption and investment spending and their components. it also studies effects of monetary policy and fiscal policy. since at least the s, macroeconomics has been characterized by further integration as to micro-based modelling of sectors, including rationality of players, efficient use of market information, and imperfect competition.[ ] this has addressed a long-standing concern about inconsistent developments of the same subject.[ ] macroeconomic analysis also considers factors affecting the long-term level and growth of national income. such factors include capital accumulation, technological change and labour force growth.[ ] growth main article: economic growth growth economics studies factors that explain economic growth – the increase in output per capita of a country over a long period of time. the same factors are used to explain differences in the level of output per capita between countries, in particular why some countries grow faster than others, and whether countries converge at the same rates of growth. much-studied factors include the rate of investment, population growth, and technological change. these are represented in theoretical and empirical forms (as in the neoclassical and endogenous growth models) and in growth accounting.[ ] business cycle main article: business cycle see also: circular flow of income, aggregate supply, aggregate demand, and unemployment a basic illustration of economic/business cycles. the economics of a depression were the spur for the creation of "macroeconomics" as a separate discipline. during the great depression of the s, john maynard keynes authored a book entitled the general theory of employment, interest and money outlining the key theories of keynesian economics. keynes contended that aggregate demand for goods might be insufficient during economic downturns, leading to unnecessarily high unemployment and losses of potential output. he therefore advocated active policy responses by the public sector, including monetary policy actions by the central bank and fiscal policy actions by the government to stabilize output over the business cycle.[ ] thus, a central conclusion of keynesian economics is that, in some situations, no strong automatic mechanism moves output and employment towards full employment levels. john hicks' is/lm model has been the most influential interpretation of the general theory. over the years, understanding of the business cycle has branched into various research programmes, mostly related to or distinct from keynesianism. the neoclassical synthesis refers to the reconciliation of keynesian economics with neoclassical economics, stating that keynesianism is correct in the short run but qualified by neoclassical-like considerations in the intermediate and long run.[ ] new classical macroeconomics, as distinct from the keynesian view of the business cycle, posits market clearing with imperfect information. it includes friedman's permanent income hypothesis on consumption and "rational expectations" theory,[ ] led by robert lucas, and real business cycle theory.[ ] in contrast, the new keynesian approach retains the rational expectations assumption, however it assumes a variety of market failures. in particular, new keynesians assume prices and wages are "sticky", which means they do not adjust instantaneously to changes in economic conditions.[ ] thus, the new classicals assume that prices and wages adjust automatically to attain full employment, whereas the new keynesians see full employment as being automatically achieved only in the long run, and hence government and central-bank policies are needed because the "long run" may be very long. unemployment main article: unemployment the percentage of the us population employed, – . the amount of unemployment in an economy is measured by the unemployment rate, the percentage of workers without jobs in the labour force. the labour force only includes workers actively looking for jobs. people who are retired, pursuing education, or discouraged from seeking work by a lack of job prospects are excluded from the labour force. unemployment can be generally broken down into several types that are related to different causes.[ ] classical models of unemployment occurs when wages are too high for employers to be willing to hire more workers. consistent with classical unemployment, frictional unemployment occurs when appropriate job vacancies exist for a worker, but the length of time needed to search for and find the job leads to a period of unemployment.[ ] structural unemployment covers a variety of possible causes of unemployment including a mismatch between workers' skills and the skills required for open jobs.[ ] large amounts of structural unemployment can occur when an economy is transitioning industries and workers find their previous set of skills are no longer in demand. structural unemployment is similar to frictional unemployment since both reflect the problem of matching workers with job vacancies, but structural unemployment covers the time needed to acquire new skills not just the short term search process.[ ] while some types of unemployment may occur regardless of the condition of the economy, cyclical unemployment occurs when growth stagnates. okun's law represents the empirical relationship between unemployment and economic growth.[ ] the original version of okun's law states that a % increase in output would lead to a % decrease in unemployment.[ ] inflation and monetary policy main articles: inflation and monetary policy see also: money, quantity theory of money, and history of money money is a means of final payment for goods in most price system economies, and is the unit of account in which prices are typically stated. money has general acceptability, relative consistency in value, divisibility, durability, portability, elasticity in supply, and longevity with mass public confidence. it includes currency held by the nonbank public and checkable deposits. it has been described as a social convention, like language, useful to one largely because it is useful to others. in the words of francis amasa walker, a well-known th-century economist, "money is what money does" ("money is that money does" in the original).[ ] as a medium of exchange, money facilitates trade. it is essentially a measure of value and more importantly, a store of value being a basis for credit creation. its economic function can be contrasted with barter (non-monetary exchange). given a diverse array of produced goods and specialized producers, barter may entail a hard-to-locate double coincidence of wants as to what is exchanged, say apples and a book. money can reduce the transaction cost of exchange because of its ready acceptability. then it is less costly for the seller to accept money in exchange, rather than what the buyer produces.[ ] at the level of an economy, theory and evidence are consistent with a positive relationship running from the total money supply to the nominal value of total output and to the general price level. for this reason, management of the money supply is a key aspect of monetary policy.[ ] fiscal policy main articles: fiscal policy, government spending, and taxation governments implement fiscal policy to influence macroeconomic conditions by adjusting spending and taxation policies to alter aggregate demand. when aggregate demand falls below the potential output of the economy, there is an output gap where some productive capacity is left unemployed. governments increase spending and cut taxes to boost aggregate demand. resources that have been idled can be used by the government. for example, unemployed home builders can be hired to expand highways. tax cuts allow consumers to increase their spending, which boosts aggregate demand. both tax cuts and spending have multiplier effects where the initial increase in demand from the policy percolates through the economy and generates additional economic activity. the effects of fiscal policy can be limited by crowding out. when there is no output gap, the economy is producing at full capacity and there are no excess productive resources. if the government increases spending in this situation, the government uses resources that otherwise would have been used by the private sector, so there is no increase in overall output. some economists think that crowding out is always an issue while others do not think it is a major issue when output is depressed. sceptics of fiscal policy also make the argument of ricardian equivalence. they argue that an increase in debt will have to be paid for with future tax increases, which will cause people to reduce their consumption and save money to pay for the future tax increase. under ricardian equivalence, any boost in demand from tax cuts will be offset by the increased saving intended to pay for future higher taxes. international economics main article: international economics list of countries by gdp (ppp) per capita in . international trade studies determinants of goods-and-services flows across international boundaries. it also concerns the size and distribution of gains from trade. policy applications include estimating the effects of changing tariff rates and trade quotas. international finance is a macroeconomic field which examines the flow of capital across international borders, and the effects of these movements on exchange rates. increased trade in goods, services and capital between countries is a major effect of contemporary globalization.[ ] development economics main article: development economics development economics examines economic aspects of the economic development process in relatively low-income countries focusing on structural change, poverty, and economic growth. approaches in development economics frequently incorporate social and political factors.[ ] labor economics main article: labor economics labor economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for wage labor. labor markets function through the interaction of workers and employers. labor economics looks at the suppliers of labor services (workers), the demands of labor services (employers), and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income. in economics, labor is a measure of the work done by human beings. it is conventionally contrasted with such other factors of production as land and capital. there are theories which have developed a concept called human capital (referring to the skills that workers possess, not necessarily their actual work), although there are also counter posing macro-economic system theories that think human capital is a contradiction in terms. welfare economics main article: welfare economics welfare economics uses microeconomics techniques to evaluate well-being from allocation of productive factors as to desirability and economic efficiency within an economy, often relative to competitive general equilibrium.[ ] it analyzes social welfare, however measured, in terms of economic activities of the individuals that compose the theoretical society considered. accordingly, individuals, with associated economic activities, are the basic units for aggregating to social welfare, whether of a group, a community, or a society, and there is no "social welfare" apart from the "welfare" associated with its individual units. agreements 	 	this section may be unbalanced towards certain viewpoints. please improve the article or discuss the issue on the talk page. (february ) according to various random and anonymous surveys of members of the american economic association, economists have agreement about the following propositions by percentage:[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] 	a ceiling on rents reduces the quantity and quality of housing available. ( % agree) 	tariffs and import quotas usually reduce general economic welfare. ( % agree) 	flexible and floating exchange rates offer an effective international monetary arrangement. ( % agree) 	fiscal policy (e.g., tax cut and/or government expenditure increase) has a significant stimulative impact on a less than fully employed economy. ( % agree) 	the united states should not restrict employers from outsourcing work to foreign countries. ( % agree) 	economic growth in developed countries like the united states leads to greater levels of well-being. ( % agree) 	the united states should eliminate agricultural subsidies. ( % agree) 	an appropriately designed fiscal policy can increase the long-run rate of capital formation. ( % agree) 	local and state governments should eliminate subsidies to professional sports franchises. ( % agree) 	if the federal budget is to be balanced, it should be done over the business cycle rather than yearly. ( % agree) 	the gap between social security funds and expenditures will become unsustainably large within the next fifty years if current policies remain unchanged. ( % agree) 	cash payments increase the welfare of recipients to a greater degree than do transfers-in-kind of equal cash value. ( % agree) 	a large federal budget deficit has an adverse effect on the economy. ( % agree) 	the redistribution of income in the united states is a legitimate role for the government. ( % agree) 	inflation is caused primarily by too much growth in the money supply. ( % agree) 	the united states should not ban genetically modified crops. ( % agree) 	a minimum wage increases unemployment among young and unskilled workers. ( % agree) 	the government should restructure the welfare system along the lines of a "negative income tax." ( % agree) 	effluent taxes and marketable pollution permits represent a better approach to pollution control than imposition of pollution ceilings. ( % agree) 	government subsidies on ethanol in the united states should be reduced or eliminated. ( % agree) criticisms 	 	this article's criticism or controversy section may compromise the article's neutral point of view of the subject. please integrate the section's contents into the article as a whole, or rewrite the material. (september ) general criticisms "the dismal science" is a derogatory alternative name for economics devised by the victorian historian thomas carlyle in the th century. it is often stated that carlyle gave economics the nickname "the dismal science" as a response to the late th century writings of the reverend thomas robert malthus, who grimly predicted that starvation would result, as projected population growth exceeded the rate of increase in the food supply. however, the actual phrase was coined by carlyle in the context of a debate with john stuart mill on slavery, in which carlyle argued for slavery, while mill opposed it.[ ] in the wealth of nations, adam smith addressed many issues that are currently also the subject of debate and dispute. smith repeatedly attacks groups of politically aligned individuals who attempt to use their collective influence to manipulate a government into doing their bidding. in smith's day, these were referred to as factions, but are now more commonly called special interests, a term which can comprise international bankers, corporate conglomerations, outright oligopolies, monopolies, trade unions and other groups.[j] economics per se, as a social science, is independent of the political acts of any government or other decision-making organization; however, many policymakers or individuals holding highly ranked positions that can influence other people's lives are known for arbitrarily using a plethora of economic concepts and rhetoric as vehicles to legitimize agendas and value systems, and do not limit their remarks to matters relevant to their responsibilities.[ ] the close relation of economic theory and practice with politics[ ] is a focus of contention that may shade or distort the most unpretentious original tenets of economics, and is often confused with specific social agendas and value systems.[ ] notwithstanding, economics legitimately has a role in informing government policy. it is, indeed, in some ways an outgrowth of the older field of political economy. some academic economic journals have increased their efforts to gauge the consensus of economists regarding certain policy issues in hopes of effecting a more informed political environment. often there exists a low approval rate from professional economists regarding many public policies. policy issues featured in one survey of american economic association economists include trade restrictions, social insurance for those put out of work by international competition, genetically modified foods, curbside recycling, health insurance (several questions), medical malpractice, barriers to entering the medical profession, organ donations, unhealthy foods, mortgage deductions, taxing internet sales, wal-mart, casinos, ethanol subsidies, and inflation targeting.[ ] issues like central bank independence, central bank policies and rhetoric in central bank governors discourse or the premises of macroeconomic policies[ ] (monetary and fiscal policy) of the state, are focus of contention and criticism.[by whom?][ ] deirdre mccloskey has argued that many empirical economic studies are poorly reported, and she and stephen ziliak argue that although her critique has been well-received, practice has not improved.[ ] this latter contention is controversial.[ ] criticisms of assumptions economics has historically been subject to criticism that it relies on unrealistic, unverifiable, or highly simplified assumptions, in some cases because these assumptions simplify the proofs of desired conclusions. examples of such assumptions include perfect information, profit maximization and rational choices, axioms of neoclassical economics.[ ] such criticisms often conflate neoclassical economics with all of contemporary economics.[ ][ ] the field of information economics includes both mathematical-economical research and also behavioural economics, akin to studies in behavioural psychology, and confounding factors to the neoclassical assumptions are the subject of substantial study in many areas of economics.[ ][ ][ ] prominent historical mainstream economists such as keynes[ ] and joskow observed that much of the economics of their time was conceptual rather than quantitative, and difficult to model and formalize quantitatively. in a discussion on oligopoly research, paul joskow pointed out in that in practice, serious students of actual economies tended to use "informal models" based upon qualitative factors specific to particular industries. joskow had a strong feeling that the important work in oligopoly was done through informal observations while formal models were "trotted out ex post". he argued that formal models were largely not important in the empirical work, either, and that the fundamental factor behind the theory of the firm, behaviour, was neglected.[ ] woodford noted in that this was no longer the case, and that modelling had improved significantly in both theoretical rigour and empiricism, with a strong focus on testable quantitative work.[ ] in the s, feminist critiques of neoclassical economic models gained prominence, leading to the formation of feminist economics.[ ] feminist economists call attention to the social construction of economics and claims to highlight the ways in which its models and methods reflect masculine preferences. primary criticisms focus on alleged failures to account for: the selfish nature of actors (homo economicus); exogenous tastes; the impossibility of utility comparisons; the exclusion of unpaid work; and the exclusion of class and gender considerations.[ ] related subjects main articles: law and economics, natural resource economics, philosophy and economics, and political economy economics is one social science among several and has fields bordering on other areas, including economic geography, economic history, public choice, energy economics, cultural economics, family economics and institutional economics. law and economics, or economic analysis of law, is an approach to legal theory that applies methods of economics to law. it includes the use of economic concepts to explain the effects of legal rules, to assess which legal rules are economically efficient, and to predict what the legal rules will be.[ ] a seminal article by ronald coase published in suggested that well-defined property rights could overcome the problems of externalities.[ ] political economy is the interdisciplinary study that combines economics, law, and political science in explaining how political institutions, the political environment, and the economic system (capitalist, socialist, mixed) influence each other. it studies questions such as how monopoly, rent-seeking behaviour, and externalities should impact government policy.[ ] historians have employed political economy to explore the ways in the past that persons and groups with common economic interests have used politics to effect changes beneficial to their interests.[ ] energy economics is a broad scientific subject area which includes topics related to energy supply and energy demand. georgescu-roegen reintroduced the concept of entropy in relation to economics and energy from thermodynamics, as distinguished from what he viewed as the mechanistic foundation of neoclassical economics drawn from newtonian physics. his work contributed significantly to thermoeconomics and to ecological economics. he also did foundational work which later developed into evolutionary economics.[ ] the sociological subfield of economic sociology arose, primarily through the work of Émile durkheim, max weber and georg simmel, as an approach to analysing the effects of economic phenomena in relation to the overarching social paradigm (i.e. modernity).[ ] classic works include max weber's the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism ( ) and georg simmel's the philosophy of money ( ). more recently, the works of mark granovetter, peter hedstrom and richard swedberg have been influential in this field. practice main articles: economic methodology, mathematical economics, and schools of economics contemporary economics uses mathematics. economists draw on the tools of calculus, linear algebra, statistics, game theory, and computer science.[ ] professional economists are expected to be familiar with these tools, while a minority specialize in econometrics and mathematical methods. empirical investigation main articles: econometrics and experimental economics economic theories are frequently tested empirically, largely through the use of econometrics using economic data.[ ] the controlled experiments common to the physical sciences are difficult and uncommon in economics,[ ] and instead broad data is observationally studied; this type of testing is typically regarded as less rigorous than controlled experimentation, and the conclusions typically more tentative. however, the field of experimental economics is growing, and increasing use is being made of natural experiments. statistical methods such as regression analysis are common. practitioners use such methods to estimate the size, economic significance, and statistical significance ("signal strength") of the hypothesized relation(s) and to adjust for noise from other variables. by such means, a hypothesis may gain acceptance, although in a probabilistic, rather than certain, sense. acceptance is dependent upon the falsifiable hypothesis surviving tests. use of commonly accepted methods need not produce a final conclusion or even a consensus on a particular question, given different tests, data sets, and prior beliefs. criticisms based on professional standards and non-replicability of results serve as further checks against bias, errors, and over-generalization,[ ][ ] although much economic research has been accused of being non-replicable, and prestigious journals have been accused of not facilitating replication through the provision of the code and data.[ ] like theories, uses of test statistics are themselves open to critical analysis,[ ] although critical commentary on papers in economics in prestigious journals such as the american economic review has declined precipitously in the past years. this has been attributed to journals' incentives to maximize citations in order to rank higher on the social science citation index (ssci).[ ] in applied economics, input-output models employing linear programming methods are quite common. large amounts of data are run through computer programs to analyse the impact of certain policies; implan is one well-known example. experimental economics has promoted the use of scientifically controlled experiments. this has reduced the long-noted distinction of economics from natural sciences because it allows direct tests of what were previously taken as axioms.[ ] in some cases these have found that the axioms are not entirely correct; for example, the ultimatum game has revealed that people reject unequal offers. in behavioural economics, psychologist daniel kahneman won the nobel prize in economics in for his and amos tversky's empirical discovery of several cognitive biases and heuristics. similar empirical testing occurs in neuroeconomics. another example is the assumption of narrowly selfish preferences versus a model that tests for selfish, altruistic, and cooperative preferences.[ ] these techniques have led some to argue that economics is a "genuine science".[ ] profession main article: economist the professionalization of economics, reflected in the growth of graduate programmes on the subject, has been described as "the main change in economics since around ".[ ] most major universities and many colleges have a major, school, or department in which academic degrees are awarded in the subject, whether in the liberal arts, business, or for professional study. see bachelor of economics and master of economics. in the private sector, professional economists are employed as consultants and in industry, including banking and finance. economists also work for various government departments and agencies, for example, the national treasury, central bank or bureau of statistics. there are dozens of prizes awarded to economists each year for outstanding intellectual contributions to the field, the most prominent of which is the nobel memorial prize in economic sciences, though it is not a nobel prize. see also 	business portal 	business ethics 	economics terminology that differs from common usage 	economic ideology 	economic policy 	economic union 	free trade 	list of multilateral free trade agreements 	list of economics films 	list of economics awards 	list of free trade agreements 	socioeconomics 	gross national happiness 	liquidationism (economics) general 	glossary of economics 	index of economics articles 	outline of economics notes 	^ the term economics is derived from economic science, and the word economic is perhaps shortened from economical or derived from the french word économique or directly from the latin word oeconomicus "of domestic economy". this in turn comes from the ancient greek οἰκονομικός (oikonomikos), "practiced in the management of a household or family" and therefore "frugal, thrifty", which in turn comes from οἰκονομία (oikonomia) "household management" which in turn comes from οἶκος (oikos "house") and νόμος (nomos, "custom" or "law").[ ] 	^ "capital" in smith's usage includes fixed capital and circulating capital. the latter includes wages and labour maintenance, money, and inputs from land, mines, and fisheries associated with production.[ ] 	^ "this science indicates the cases in which commerce is truly productive, where whatever is gained by one is lost by another, and where it is profitable to all; it also teaches us to appreciate its several processes, but simply in their results, at which it stops. besides this knowledge, the merchant must also understand the processes of his art. he must be acquainted with the commodities in which he deals, their qualities and defects, the countries from which they are derived, their markets, the means of their transportation, the values to be given for them in exchange, and the method of keeping accounts. the same remark is applicable to the agriculturist, to the manufacturer, and to the practical man of business; to acquire a thorough knowledge of the causes and consequences of each phenomenon, the study of political economy is essentially necessary to them all; and to become expert in his particular pursuit, each one must add thereto a knowledge of its processes." (say , p. xvi) 	^ "and when we submit the definition in question to this test, it is seen to possess deficiencies which, so far from being marginal and subsidiary, amount to nothing less than a complete failure to exhibit either the scope or the significance of the most central generalisations of all."(robbins , p.  ) 	^ "the conception we have adopted may be described as analytical. it does not attempt to pick out certain kinds of behaviour, but focuses attention on a particular aspect of behaviour, the form imposed by the influence of scarcity. (robbins , p.  ) 	^ see agent-based computational economics 	^ interest payments are considered a form of rent on credit money. 	^ see complex adaptive system and dynamic network analysis 	^ compare with nicholas barr ( ), whose list of market failures is melded with failures of economic assumptions, which are ( ) producers as price takers (i.e. presence of oligopoly or monopoly; but why is this not a product of the following?) ( ) equal power of consumers (what labour lawyers call an imbalance of bargaining power) ( ) complete markets ( ) public goods ( ) external effects (i.e. externalities?) ( ) increasing returns to scale (i.e. practical monopoly) ( ) perfect information (in the economics of the welfare state ( th ed.). oxford university press. . pp.  – . isbn  - - - - .).    • joseph e. stiglitz ( ) classifies market failures as from failure of competition (including natural monopoly), information asymmetries, incomplete markets, externalities, public good situations, and macroeconomic disturbances (in "chapter : market failure". economics of the public sector: fourth international student edition ( th ed.). w. w. norton & company. . pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . ). 	^ see chomsky, noam ( october ). 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( december ), pp.  , , – . opening of david graeber's review (p.  ): "there is a growing feeling, among those who have the responsibility of managing large economies, that the discipline of economics is no longer fit for purpose. it is beginning to look like a science designed to solve problems that no longer exist." 	grinin, l., korotayev, a. and tausch a. ( ) economic cycles, crises, and the global periphery. springer international publishing, heidelberg, new york, dordrecht, london, isbn  - - - - ; https://www.springer.com/de/book/ 	mccann, charles robert, jr., . the elgar dictionary of economic quotations, edward elgar. preview. 	jean baptiste say ( ). a treatise on political economy: or the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. one. wells and lilly. 	jean baptiste say ( ). a treatise on political economy; or the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. two. wells and lilly. 	tausch, arno ( ). the political algebra of global value change. general models and implications for the muslim world. with almas heshmati and hichem karoui ( st ed.). nova science publishers, new york. isbn  - - - - . 	 economics public domain audiobook at librivox external links economicsat wikipedia's sister projects 	definitions from wiktionary 	media from wikimedia commons 	news from wikinews 	quotations from wikiquote 	texts from wikisource 	textbooks from wikibooks 	resources from wikiversity 	data from wikidata 	library resources about economics 	 	resources in your library general information 	economics at curlie 	economic journals on the web 	economics at encyclopædia britannica 	intute: economics: internet directory of uk universities 	research papers in economics (repec) 	resources for economists: american economic association-sponsored guide to , + internet resources from "data" to "neat stuff", updated quarterly. institutions and organizations 	economics departments, institutes and research centers in the world 	organization for co-operation and economic development (oecd) statistics 	united nations statistics division 	world bank data study resources 	anderson, david; ray, margaret ( ). krugman's economics for the ap course ( rd ed.). new york: bfw. isbn  - - - - . 	mcconnell, campbell r.; et al. 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(emotion) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	guilt (emotion) 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		cognitive or an emotional experience for other uses, see guilt and guilty. 	 	this article possibly contains original research. please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (march ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) soul in bondage by elihu vedder, painted between and 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e guilt is an emotional experience that occurs when a person believes or realizes—accurately or not—that they have compromised their own standards of conduct or have violated universal moral standards and bear significant responsibility for that violation.[ ] guilt is closely related to the concept of remorse as well as shame. guilt is an important factor in perpetuating obsessive–compulsive disorder symptoms.[ ] contents 	 psychology 	 . defenses 	 . behavioral responses 	 . lack of guilt in psychopaths 	 . causes 	 . . evolutionary theories 	 . . social psychology theories 	 . . other theories 	 collective guilt 	 comparison with shame 	 cultural views 	 . etymology 	 . in literature 	 . in the christian bible 	 see also 	 further reading 	 references 	 external links psychology[edit] guilt and its associated causes, advantages, and disadvantages are common themes in psychology and psychiatry. both in specialized and in ordinary language, guilt is an affective state in which one experiences conflict at having done something that one believes one should not have done (or conversely, having not done something one believes one should have done). it gives rise to a feeling which does not go away easily, driven by 'conscience'. sigmund freud described this as the result of a struggle between the ego and the superego – parental imprinting. freud rejected the role of god as punisher in times of illness or rewarder in time of wellness. while removing one source of guilt from patients, he described another. this was the unconscious force within the individual that contributed to illness, freud in fact coming to consider "the obstacle of an unconscious sense of guilt...as the most powerful of all obstacles to recovery."[ ] for his later explicator, lacan, guilt was the inevitable companion of the signifying subject who acknowledged normality in the form of the symbolic order.[ ] alice miller claims that "many people suffer all their lives from this oppressive feeling of guilt, the sense of not having lived up to their parents' expectations....no argument can overcome these guilt feelings, for they have their beginnings in life's earliest period, and from that they derive their intensity."[ ] this may be linked to what les parrott has called "the disease of false guilt....at the root of false guilt is the idea that what you feel must be true."[ ] if you feel guilty, you must be guilty! the philosopher martin buber underlined the difference between the freudian notion of guilt, based on internal conflicts, and existential guilt, based on actual harm done to others.[ ] guilt is often associated with anxiety. in mania, according to otto fenichel, the patient succeeds in applying to guilt "the defense mechanism of denial by overcompensation...re-enacts being a person without guilt feelings."[ ] in psychological research, guilt can be measured by using questionnaires, such as the differential emotions scale (izard's des), or the dutch guilt measurement instrument.[ ] defenses[edit] according to psychoanalytic theory, defenses against feeling guilt can become an overriding aspect of one's personality.[ ] the methods that can be used to avoid guilt are multiple. they include: 	repression, usually used by the superego and ego against instinctive impulses, but on occasion employed against the superego/conscience itself.[ ] if the defence fails, then (in a return of the repressed) one may begin to feel guilty years later for actions lightly committed at the time.[ ] 	projection is another defensive tool with wide applications. it may take the form of blaming the victim: the victim of someone else's accident or bad luck may be offered criticism, the theory being that the victim may be at fault for having attracted the other person's hostility.[ ] alternatively, not the guilt, but the condemning agency itself, may be projected onto other people, in the hope that they will look upon one's deeds more favorably than one's own conscience (a process that verges on ideas of reference).[ ] 	sharing a feeling of guilt, and thereby being less alone with it, is a motive force in both art and joke-telling; while it is also possible to "borrow" a sense of guilt from someone who is seen as in the wrong, and thereby assuage one's own.[ ] 	self-harm may be used as an alternative to compensating the object of one's transgression – perhaps in the form of not allowing oneself to enjoy opportunities open to one, or benefits due, as a result of uncompensated guilt feelings.[ ] behavioral responses[edit] feelings of guilt can prompt subsequent virtuous behavior. people who feel guilty may be more likely to exercise restraint,[ ] avoid self-indulgence,[ ] and exhibit less prejudice.[ ] guilt appears to prompt reparatory behaviors to alleviate the negative emotions that it engenders. people appear to engage in targeted and specific reparatory behaviors toward the persons they wronged or offended.[ ] lack of guilt in psychopaths[edit] individuals high in psychopathy lack any true sense of guilt or remorse for harm they may have caused others. instead, they rationalize their behavior, blame someone else, or deny it outright.[ ] a person with psychopathy has a tendency to be harmful to himself or herself and to others. they have little ability to plan ahead for the future. an individual with psychopathy will never find themselves at fault because they will do whatever it takes to benefit themselves without reservation. a person that does not feel guilt or remorse would have no reason to find themselves at fault for something that they did with the intention of hurting another person. to a person high in psychopathy, their actions can always be rationalized to be the fault of another person.[ ] this is seen by psychologists as part of a lack of moral reasoning (in comparison with the majority of humans), an inability to evaluate situations in a moral framework, and an inability to develop emotional bonds with other people due to a lack of empathy. causes[edit] evolutionary theories[edit] some evolutionary psychologists theorize that guilt and shame helped maintain beneficial relationships,[ ][ ] such as reciprocal altruism.[ ] if a person feels guilty when he harms another or fails to reciprocate kindness, he is more likely not to harm others or become too selfish. in this way, he reduces the chances of retaliation by members of his tribe, and thereby increases his survival prospects, and those of the tribe or group. as with any other emotion, guilt can be manipulated to control or influence others. as highly social animals living in large, relatively stable groups, humans need ways to deal with conflicts and events in which they inadvertently or purposefully harm others. if someone causes harm to another, and then feels guilt and demonstrates regret and sorrow, the person harmed is likely to forgive. thus, guilt makes it possible to forgive, and helps hold the social group together. social psychology theories[edit] when we see another person suffering, it can also cause us pain. this constitutes our powerful system of empathy, which leads to our thinking that we should do something to relieve the suffering of others. if we cannot help another, or fail in our efforts, we experience feelings of guilt. from the perspective of group selection, groups that are made up of a high percentage of co-operators outdo groups with a low percentage of co-operators in between-group competition. people who are more prone to high levels of empathy-based guilt may be likely to suffer from anxiety and depression; however, they are also more likely to cooperate and behave altruistically. this suggests that guilt-proneness may not always be beneficial at the level of the individual, or within-group competition, but highly beneficial in between-group competition.[ ] other theories[edit] another common notion is that guilt is assigned by social processes, such as a jury trial (i. e., that it is a strictly legal concept). thus, the ruling of a jury that o. j. simpson or julius rosenberg was "guilty" or "not innocent" is taken as an actual judgment by the whole society that they must act as if they were so. by corollary, the ruling that such a person is "not guilty" may not be so taken, due to the asymmetry in the assumption that one is assumed innocent until proven guilty, and prefers to take the risk of freeing a guilty party over convicting innocents. still others—often, but not always, theists of one type or another—believe that the origin of guilt comes from violating universal principles of right and wrong. in most instances, people who believe this also acknowledge that even though there is proper guilt from doing 'wrong' instead of doing 'right', people endure all sorts of guilty feelings which do not stem from violating universal moral principles. collective guilt[edit] main article: collective responsibility collective guilt (or group guilt) is the unpleasant and often emotional reaction that results among a group of individuals when it is perceived that the group illegitimately harmed members of another group. it is often the result of “sharing a social identity with others whose actions represent a threat to the positivity of that identity.” for an individual to experience collective guilt, he must identify himself as a part of the in-group. “this produces a perceptual shift from thinking of oneself in terms of ‘i’ and ‘me’ to ‘us’ or ‘we’.”[ ] comparison with shame[edit] guilt and shame are two closely related concepts, but they have key differences that should not be overlooked.[ ] cultural anthropologist ruth benedict describes shame as the result of a violation of cultural or social values, while guilt is conjured up internally when one’s personal morals are violated. to put it more simply, the primary difference between shame and guilt is the source that creates the emotion. shame arises from a real or imagined negative perception coming from others and guilt arises from a negative perception of one’s own thoughts or actions.[ ] psychoanalyst helen b. lewis stated that, "the experience of shame is directly about the self, which is the focus of evaluation. in guilt, the self is not the central object of negative evaluation, but rather the thing done is the focus."[ ] an individual can still possess a positive perception of themselves while also feeling guilt for certain actions or thoughts they took part in. contrary to guilt, shame has a more inclusive focus on the individual as a whole. fossum and mason's ideas clearly outline this idea in their book facing shame. they state that "while guilt is a painful feeling of regret and responsibility for one's actions, shame is a painful feeling about oneself as a person.”[ ] shame can almost be described as looking at yourself unfavorably through the eyes of others. psychiatrist judith lewis herman portrays this idea by stating that "shame is an acutely self-conscious state in which the self is 'split,' imagining the self in the eyes of the other; by contrast, in guilt the self is unified.”[ ] both shame and guilt are directly related to self-perception, only shame causes the individual to account for the cultural and social beliefs of others.  paul gilbert talks about the powerful hold that shame can take over someone in his article evolution, social roles, and the differences in shame and guilt. he says that “the fear of shame and ridicule can be so strong that people will risk serious physical injury or even death to avoid it. one of the reasons for this is because shame can indicate serious damage to social acceptance and a breakdown in a variety of social relationships. the evolutionary root of shame is in a self-focused, social threat system related to competitive behavior and the need to prove oneself acceptable/desirable to others”[ ] guilt on the other hand evolved from a place of care-giving and avoidance of any act that harms others. cultural views[edit] traditional japanese society, korean society and chinese culture[ ] are sometimes said to be "shame-based" rather than "guilt-based", in that the social consequences of "getting caught" are seen as more important than the individual feelings or experiences of the agent (see the work of ruth benedict). the same has been said of ancient greek society, a culture where, in bruno snell's words, if "honour is destroyed the moral existence of the loser collapses."[ ] this may lead to more of a focus on etiquette than on ethics as understood in western civilization, leading some[who?] in western civilizations to question why the word ethos was adapted from ancient greek with such vast differences in cultural norms. christianity and islam inherit most notions of guilt from judaism[citation needed],[ ] persian, and roman ideas, mostly as interpreted through augustine, who adapted plato's ideas to christianity. the latin word for guilt is culpa, a word sometimes seen in law literature, for instance in mea culpa meaning "my fault (guilt)".[ ] etymology[edit] guilt, from o.e. gylt "crime, sin, fault, fine, debt", derived from o.e. gieldan "to pay for, debt". the mistaken use for "sense of guilt" is first recorded in . "guilt by association" is first recorded in . "guilty" is from o.e. gyltig, from gylt. in literature[edit] guilt is a main theme in john steinbeck's east of eden, fyodor dostoyevsky's crime and punishment, tennessee williams' a streetcar named desire, william shakespeare's play macbeth, edgar allan poe's "the tell-tale heart" and "the black cat", and many other works of literature. in sartre's the flies, the furies (in the form of flies) represent the morbid, strangling forces of neurotic guilt which bind us to authoritarian and totalitarian power.[ ] guilt is a major theme in many works by nathaniel hawthorne,[ ] and is an almost universal concern of novelists who explore inner life and secrets. in the christian bible[edit] guilt in the christian bible is not merely an emotional state but is a legal state of deserving punishment. the hebrew bible does not have a unique word for guilt, but uses a single word to signify: "sin, the guilt of it, the punishment due unto it, and a sacrifice for it."[ ] the greek new testament uses a word for guilt that means "standing exposed to judgment for sin" (e. g., romans : ). in what christians call the "old testament", christians believe the bible teaches that, through sacrifice, one's sins can be forgiven (judaism categorically rejects this idea, holding that forgiveness of sin is exclusively through repentance, and the role of sacrifices was for atonement of sins committed by accident or ignorance [ ]). the new testament says that this forgiveness is given as written in corinthians : – : " for what i received i passed on to you as of first importance: that christ died for our sins according to the scriptures, for that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day according to the scriptures." some believe that the old and new testaments have differing opinions on the expiation of guilt because the old testaments were subject to the age of law and the new testaments replace the age of law with the now current age of grace. however, both in the old testament and the new testament salvation was granted based on god's grace and forgiveness (gen : ; : ; exo : – ; : – ). animal sacrifices were only a symbol of the future sacrifice of jesus christ (heb : – ; – ). the whole world is guilty before god for abandoning him and his ways (rom : ). in jesus christ, god took upon himself the sins of the world and died on the cross to pay our debt (rom : ). those who repent and accept the sacrifice of jesus christ for their sins, will be redeemed by god and thus not guilty before him. they will be granted eternal life which will take effect when jesus comes the second time ( thess : – ). in contrast to surrounding nations which addressed their guilt with human sacrifice, the israeli authors of the bible called that an abomination ( kings : , jer : ). the bible agrees with pagan cultures that guilt creates a cost that someone must pay (heb : ). (this assumption was expressed in the previous section, "defences": "guilty people punish themselves if they have no opportunity to compensate the transgression that caused them to feel guilty. it was found that self-punishment did not occur if people had an opportunity to compensate the victim of their transgression.") but unlike pagan deities who demanded it be paid by humans, god, according to the bible, loved us enough to pay it himself, as a good father would, while calling us his "children" and calling himself our "father" (mat : ). see also[edit] 	emotional blackmail 	criminals from a sense of guilt 	guilt by association 	collective guilt 	german collective guilt 	survivor guilt 	white guilt 	guilt culture 	catholic guilt 	mea culpa 	guilty pleasure 	guilt trip 	measures of guilt and shame 	mens rea 	postponement of guilt 	self-blame (psychology) 	shame culture 	georges bataille 	nietzsche 	guiltive further reading[edit] 	adam phillips, 'guilt', in on flirtation ( ) pp.  – 	nina coltart, 'sin and the super-ego', in slouching towards bethlehem ( ) references[edit] 	^ compare: "archived copy". archived from the original on may . retrieved january .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) "in psychology, what is "guilt," and what are the stages of guilt development?". enotes.com. . december : 'let's begin with a working definition of guilt. guilt is “an emotional state produced by thoughts that we have not lived up to our ideal self and could have done otherwise.”' retrieved - - . 	^ leslie j. shapiro, licsw. "pathological guilt: a persistent yet overlooked treatment factor in obsessive-compulsive disorder —". aacp.com. archived from the original on december . retrieved november . 	^ sigmund freud, on metapsychology (pfl ) pp. – 	^ catherine belsey, shakespeare in theory and practice ( ) p. 	^ alice miller, the drama of being a child ( ) pp. – 	^ parrott, pp. – 	^ buber, m. (may ). "guilt and guilt feelings". psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . pmid  . 	^ otto fenichel, the psychoanalytic theory of neurosis (london ) pp. – 	^ van laarhoven, h; et al. (november–december ). "comparison of attitudes of guilt and forgiveness in cancer patients without evidence of disease and advanced cancer patients in a palliative care setting". cancer nursing. ( ): – . doi: . /ncc. b e fb . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ otto fenichel the psychoanalytic theory of neurosis ( ) p. 	^ sigmund freud, on metapsychology (pfl )p. 	^ eric berne, a layman's guide to psychiatry and psychoanalysis (penguin ) p. 	^ the pursuit of health, june bingham & norman tamarkin, m.d., walker press 	^ otto fenichel, the psychoanalytic theory of neurosis ( ) p. and p. 	^ otto fenichel, the psychoanalytic theory of neurosis ( ) p. - and p. 	^ nelissen, r. m. a.; zeelenberg, m. ( ). "when guilt evokes self-punishment: evidence for the existence of a dobby effect". emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ "guilty pleasures and grim necessities: affective attitudes in dilemmas of self-control". apa psycnet. retrieved october . 	^ "the effects of nonconsciously priming emotion concepts on behavior". apa psycnet. retrieved october . 	^ amodio, david m.; devine, patricia g.; harmon-jones, eddie ( june ). "a dynamic model of guilt implications for motivation and self-regulation in the context of prejudice". psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. issn  - . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ cryder, cynthia e.; springer, stephen; morewedge, carey k. ( may ). "guilty feelings, targeted actions". personality and social psychology bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ birket-smith, morten; millon, theodore; simonsen, erik; davis, roger e. ( ). " . psychopathy and the five-factor model of personality, widiger and lynam". psychopathy: antisocial, criminal, and violent behavior. new york: the guilford press. pp.  – . isbn  - - - . 	^ neumann, craig s.; kosson, david s.; forth, adelle e.; hare, robert d. ( ). "factor structure of the hare psychopathy checklist: youth version (pcl:yv) in adolescent females". psychological assessment. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ sznycer, daniel; tooby, john; cosmides, leda; porat, roni; shalvi, shaul; halperin, eran ( march ). "shame closely tracks the threat of devaluation by others, even across cultures". proceedings of the national academy of sciences. ( ): – . doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ sznycer, daniel; xygalatas, dimitris; agey, elizabeth; alami, sarah; an, xiao-fen; ananyeva, kristina i.; atkinson, quentin d.; broitman, bernardo r.; conte, thomas j.; flores, carola; fukushima, shintaro; hitokoto, hidefumi; kharitonov, alexander n.; onyishi, charity n.; onyishi, ike e.; romero, pedro p.; schrock, joshua m.; snodgrass, j. josh; sugiyama, lawrence s.; takemura, kosuke; townsend, cathryn; zhuang, jin-ying; aktipis, c. athena; cronk, lee; cosmides, leda; tooby, john ( september ). "cross-cultural invariances in the architecture of shame". proceedings of the national academy of sciences. ( ): – . doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ pallanti, s., quercioli, l. (august ). "shame and psychopathology". cns spectr. ( ): – . doi: . /s . pmid  .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ oakley, barbara, ed. ( january ). pathological altruism. oxford university press. p.  . 	^ branscombe, nyla, r.; bertjan doosje ( ). collective guilt: international perspectives. cambridge university press. isbn  - - - . 	^ tangney, june price; miller, rowland s.; flicker, laura; barlow, deborah hill ( ). "are shame, guilt, and embarrassment distinct emotions?". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . issn  - . pmid  . 	^ (pdf). april https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://psych.stanford.edu/~tsailab/pdf/yw sce.pdf. archived from the original (pdf) on april . retrieved december . missing or empty |title= (help) 	^ harrington, john (july ). "shame and guilt in neurosis. by helen block lewis. international universities press, new york. . pp. . price $ . ". british journal of psychiatry. ( ): . doi: . /s . issn  - . 	^ fossum, merle a. ( , © ). facing shame : families in recovery. norton. isbn  - - - . oclc  . check date values in: |date= (help) 	^ herman, judith lewis ( june ), "shattered shame states and their repair", shattered states, routledge, pp.  – , doi: . / - , isbn  - - - - 	^ "ebscohost login". search.ebscohost.com. retrieved december . 	^ bill brugger, china, liberation and transformation ( ) pp. – 	^ quoted in m. i. finley, the world of odysseus ( ) p. 	^ almond, philip c. "in spite of their differences, jews, christians and muslims worship the same god". the conversation. retrieved october . 	^ "definition of mea culpa". www.merriam-webster.com. retrieved october . 	^ robert fagles trans., the oresteia (penguin ) p. 	^ "nathaniel hawthorne". americanliterature.com. retrieved october . 	^ owen, j. ( ). "chapter ". the doctrine of justification by faith. london: johnstone and hunter. p.  . external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: guilt (emotion) 	tangney, j. p., miller, r. s., flicker, l., barlow, d. h. (june ). "are shame, guilt, and embarrassment distinct emotions?". j pers soc psychol. 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(may ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) termination of a marital union for other uses, see divorce (disambiguation). "ex-wife" redirects here. for the portuguese rock band, see x-wife. 	family law 	 family 	 marriage and other equivalent or similar unions and status 	types of marriages 	cohabitation 	concubinage 	common-law marriage 	civil union 	domestic partnership 	 validity of marriages 	marriage license 	marriage certificate 	prenuptial agreement 	matrimonial regime 	void and voidable marriages 	annulment 	marriageable age 	sham marriage 	 dissolution of marriages 	divorce 	adultery 	grounds for divorce 	no-fault divorce 	matrimonial causes act 	legal separation 	alimony 	parenting plan 	residence [uk (e.w. and ni)] 	parental rights 	custody evaluator (u.s.) 	parenting coordinator (u.s.) 	 other issues 	paternity 	dna paternity testing 	legitimacy 	child custody 	legal guardian 	adoption 	tender years doctrine 	filial responsibility 	contact & visitation 	cafcass [uk (e.w.)] 	grandparent visitation 	u.n. rights of the child 	children's rights 	emancipation 	foster care 	ward 	child support 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	bachelor's day 	mating 	meet market 	romance 	singles event 	wedding 	 endings 	breakup 	separation 	annulment 	divorce 	widowhood 	 emotions and feelings 	affinity 	attachment 	intimacy 	jealousy 	limerence 	love 	platonic 	unconditional 	passion 	sexuality 	 practices 	bride price 	dower 	dowry 	service 	hypergamy 	infidelity 	sexual activity 	transgression 	repression 	 abuse 	child 	dating 	domestic 	elderly 	narcissistic parent 	power and control 	 	v 	t 	e divorce, also known as dissolution of marriage, is the process of terminating a marriage or marital union.[ ] divorce usually entails the canceling or reorganizing of the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, thus dissolving the bonds of matrimony between a married couple under the rule of law of the particular country or state. divorce laws vary considerably around the world,[ ] but in most countries, divorce requires the sanction of a court or other authority in a legal process, which may involve issues of distribution of property,[ ] child custody,[ ] alimony (spousal support), child visitation / access, parenting time, child support, and division of debt. in most countries, monogamy is required by law, so divorce allows each former partner to marry another person. divorce is different from annulment, which declares the marriage null and void, with legal separation or de jure separation (a legal process by which a married couple may formalize a de facto separation while remaining legally married) or with de facto separation (a process where the spouses informally stop cohabiting). reasons for divorce vary, from sexual incompatibility or lack of independence for one or both spouses to a personality clash.[ ] the only countries that do not allow divorce are the philippines, the vatican city and the british crown dependency of sark.[ ] in the philippines, divorce for non-muslim filipinos is not legal unless the husband or wife is an alien and satisfies certain conditions.[ ] the vatican city is an ecclesiastical state, which has no procedure for divorce. countries that have relatively recently legalized divorce are italy ( ), portugal ( , although from to was possible both for the civil and religious marriage), brazil ( ), spain ( ), argentina ( ),[ ] paraguay ( ),[ ] colombia ( ; from was allowed only for non-catholics),[ ] andorra ( ),[ ] ireland ( ), chile ( )[ ] and malta ( ). contents 	 overview 	 law 	 . types 	 . . contested divorce 	 . . at-fault divorce 	 . . summary divorce 	 . . no-fault divorce 	 . . uncontested divorce 	 . . collaborative divorce 	 . . electronic divorce 	 . . mediated divorce 	 polygamy and divorce 	 causes 	 effects 	 . divorce and relationships 	 . effects on children 	 . . psychological 	 . . academic and socioeconomic 	 . divorce of elderly couples 	 statistics 	 . asia 	 . . japan 	 . . india 	 . . taiwan/republic of china 	 . europe 	 . . united kingdom 	 . north america 	 . . united states 	 . oceania 	 . . australia 	 social attitudes 	 in same-sex married couples (united states) 	 . rights of spouses to custody of children 	 religion and divorce 	 gender and divorce 	 history 	 . greco-roman culture 	 . mali empire 	 . medieval europe 	 . secularisation in europe 	 . japan 	 . india 	 . islamic law 	 . philippines 	 patterns 	 see also 	 references 	 suggested reading 	 external links overview[edit] grounds for divorce vary widely from country to country. marriage may be seen as a contract, a status, or a combination of these.[ ] where it is seen as a contract, the refusal or inability of one spouse to perform the obligations stipulated in the contract may constitute a ground for divorce for the other spouse. in contrast, in some countries (such as sweden,[ ] finland,[ ] australia,[ ] new zealand),[ ] divorce is purely no fault. many jurisdictions offer both the option of a no fault divorce as well as an at fault divorce. this is the case, for example, in many us states (see grounds for divorce (united states)) or the czech republic.[ ] though divorce laws vary between jurisdictions, there are two basic approaches to divorce: fault based and no-fault based. however, even in some jurisdictions that do not require a party to claim fault of their partner, a court may still take into account the behavior of the parties when dividing property, debts, evaluating custody, shared care arrangements and support. in some jurisdictions, one spouse may be forced to pay the attorney's fees of another spouse.[ ] laws vary as to the waiting period before a divorce is effective. also, residency requirements vary. however, issues of division of property are typically determined by the law of the jurisdiction in which the property is located.[ ] in europe, divorce laws differ from country to country, reflecting differing legal and cultural traditions. in some countries, particularly (but not only) in some former communist countries, divorce can be obtained only on one single general ground of "irretrievable breakdown of the marriage" (or a similar formulation). yet, what constitutes such a "breakdown" of the marriage is interpreted very differently from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, ranging from very liberal interpretations (e.g. netherlands)[ ] to quite restrictive ones (e.g., in poland, there must be an "irretrievable and complete disintegration of matrimonial life," but there are many restrictions to granting a divorce).[ ][ ] separation constitutes a ground of divorce in some european countries (in germany, e.g., a divorce is granted on the basis of a -year separation if both spouses consent, or -year separation if only one spouse consents).[ ] note that "separation" does not necessarily mean separate residences – in some jurisdictions, living in the same household but leading a separate life (e.g., eating, sleeping, socializing, etc. separately) is sufficient to constitute de facto separation; this is explicitly stated, e.g., in the family laws of latvia[ ] or the czech republic.[ ] divorce laws are not static; they often change reflecting evolving social norms of societies. in the st century, many european countries have made changes to their divorce laws, in particular by reducing the length of the necessary periods of separation, e.g., scotland in ( or years from the previous or years); france in ( years from the previous years),[ ] switzerland in ( years from the previous years),[ ] greece in (two years from the previous four years).[ ] some countries have completely overhauled their divorce laws, such as spain in ,[ ] and portugal in . a new divorce law also came into force in september in belgium, creating a new system that is primarily no-fault.[ ] bulgaria also modified its divorce regulations in . also in italy, new laws came into force in and with significant changes in italian law in matter of divorce: apart from shortening of the period of obligatory separation ( months or year from the previous years), are allowed other forms of getting a divorce – as an alternative to court proceedings, i.e. the negotiations with the participation of an advocate or agreement made before the registrar of public registry office.[ ] austria, instead, is a european country where the divorce law still remains conservative.[ ] the liberalization of divorce laws is not without opposition, particularly in the united states. indeed, in the us, certain conservative and religious organizations are lobbying for laws which restrict divorce. in , in the us, the coalition for divorce reform was established, describing itself as an organization "dedicated to supporting efforts to reduce unnecessary divorce and promote healthy marriages."[ ] the magisterium of the roman catholic church founds the concept of marriage on natural moral law, elaborated by st. thomas aquinas, supplemented by the revealed divine law. the doctrine of doctor angelicus has been partially shared by the eastern orthodox church in the course of history.[ ] law[edit] see also: divorce law by country types[edit] in some jurisdictions, the courts will seldom apply principles of fault, but might willingly hold a party liable for a breach of a fiduciary duty to his or her spouse (for example, see family code sections and of the california family code). grounds for divorce differs from state to state in the u.s. some states have no-fault divorce; some states require a declaration of fault on the part of one partner or both; some states allow either method.[ ] in most jurisdictions, a divorce must be certified (or ordered by a judge) by a court of law to come into effect. the terms of the divorce are usually determined by the courts, though they may take into account prenuptial agreements or post-nuptial agreements, or simply ratify terms that the spouses may have agreed to privately (this is not true in the united states, where agreements related to the marriage typically have to be rendered in writing to be enforceable). in absence of agreement, a contested divorce may be stressful to the spouses. in some other countries,[where?] when the spouses agree to divorce and to the terms of the divorce, it can be certified by a non-judiciary administrative entity. the effect of a divorce is that both parties are free to marry again if a filing in an appellate court does not overturn the decision. contested divorce[edit] contested divorces mean that one of several issues are required to be heard by a judge at trial level—this is more expensive, and the parties will have to pay for a lawyer's time and preparation. in such a divorce the spouses are not able to agree on issues for instance child custody and division of marital assets. in such situations, the litigation process takes longer to conclude.[ ] the judge controls the outcome of the case. less adversarial approaches to divorce settlements have recently emerged, such as mediation and collaborative divorce settlement, which negotiate mutually acceptable resolution to conflicts. this principle in the united states is called 'alternative dispute resolution' and has gained popularity. at-fault divorce[edit] before the late s, nearly all countries that permitted divorce required proof by one party that the other party had committed an act incompatible to the marriage. this was termed "grounds" for divorce (popularly called "fault") and was the only way to terminate a marriage. in the united states, no-fault divorce is available in all states, as is the case with australia, new zealand, canada and other western countries. fault-based divorces can be contested; evaluation of offenses may involve allegations of collusion of the parties (working together to get the divorce), or condonation (approving the offense), connivance (tricking someone into committing an offense), or provocation by the other party. contested fault divorces can be expensive, and not usually practical as eventually most divorces are granted. comparative rectitude is a doctrine used to determine which spouse is more at fault when both spouses are guilty of breaches.[ ] the grounds for a divorce which a party could raise and need to prove included 'desertion,' 'abandonment,' 'cruelty,' or 'adultery.' the requirement of proving a ground was revised (and withdrawn) by the terms of 'no-fault' statutes, which became popular in many western countries in the late s and early s. in 'no-fault' jurisdictions divorce can be obtained either on a simple allegation of 'irreconcilable differences,' 'irretrievable break-down', or 'incompatibility' with respect to the marriage relationship, or on the ground of de facto separation.[ ] summary divorce[edit] a summary (or simple) divorce, available in some jurisdictions[which?], is used when spouses meet certain eligibility requirements or can agree on key issues beforehand. key factors: 	short duration of marriage (less than five years) 	absence of children (or, in some jurisdictions, prior allocation of child custody and of child-support direction and amount) 	absence or minimal value of real property at issue and any associated encumbrances such as mortgages 	absence of agreed-as-marital property above a given value threshold (around $ , not including vehicles) 	absence, with respect to each spouse, of claims to personal property above a given value threshold, typically the same as that for total marital property, with such claims including claims to exclusive previous ownership of property described by the other spouse as marital no-fault divorce[edit] most western jurisdictions have a no-fault divorce system, which requires no allegation or proof of fault of either party.[ ] the barest of assertions suffice. for example, in countries that require "irretrievable breakdown", the mere assertion that the marriage has broken down will satisfy the judicial officer. in other jurisdictions requiring irreconcilable differences, the mere allegation that the marriage has been irreparable by these differences is enough for granting a divorce. courts will not inquire into facts. a "yes" is enough, even if the other party vehemently says "no". the application can be made by either party or by both parties jointly. in jurisdictions adopting the 'no-fault' principle regarding whether to grant a divorce, some courts may still take into account the fault of the parties when determining some aspects of the content of the divorce decree, e.g., its terms for the division of property and debts and the existence and, if applicable, the amount of spousal support. provisions related to child custody are determined using a different fundamental standard, that of the child's or children's best interests; while some behaviors that may constitute marital fault (e.g., violence, cruelty, endangerment, neglect, or substance abuse) may also qualify as factors to be considered when determining child custody, they do so for the independent reason that they provide evidence as to what arrangement is in the child's or children's best interests going forward. uncontested divorce[edit] it is estimated that upwards of % of divorces in the u.s. are "uncontested",[ ] because the two parties are able to come to an agreement (either with or without lawyers/mediators/collaborative counsel) about the property, children, and support issues. when the parties can agree and present the court with a fair and equitable agreement, approval of the divorce is almost guaranteed. if the two parties cannot come to an agreement, they may ask the court to decide how to split property and deal with the custody of their children. though this may be necessary, the courts would prefer parties to come to an agreement prior to entering court. where the issues are not complex and the parties are cooperative, a settlement often can be directly negotiated between them. in the majority of cases, forms are acquired from their respective state websites and a filing fee is paid to the state.[ ] most u.s. states charge between $ and $ for a simple divorce filing.[ ][ ][ ] collaborative divorce and mediated divorce are considered uncontested divorces. in the united states, many state court systems are experiencing an increasing proportion of pro se (i.e., litigants represent themselves without a lawyer) in divorce cases.[ ] in san diego, for example, the number of divorce filings involving at least one self-representing litigant rose from % in to % in , and in florida from % in to % in . urban courts in california report that approximately % of the new divorce filings are filed pro se.[ ] collaborative divorce[edit] collaborative divorce is a method for divorcing couples to come to an agreement on divorce issues. in a collaborative divorce, the parties negotiate an agreed resolution with the assistance of attorneys who are trained in the collaborative divorce process and in mediation and often with the assistance of a neutral financial specialist or divorce coaches. the parties are empowered to make their own decisions based on their own needs and interests, but with complete information and full professional support. once the collaborative divorce starts, the lawyers are disqualified from representing the parties in a contested legal proceeding, should the collaborative law process end prematurely. most attorneys who practise collaborative divorce claim that it can be more cost-effective than other divorce methods, e.g., going to court.[ ] expense, they say, has to be looked at under the headings of financial and emotional. also, the experience of working collaboratively tends to improve communication between the parties, particularly when collaborative coaches are involved, and the possibility of going back to court post-separation or divorce is minimized. in the course of the collaboration, should the parties not reach any agreements, any documents or information exchanged during the collaborative process cannot be used in court except by agreement between the parties. neither can any of the professional team retained in the course of the collaboration be brought to court. essentially, they have the same protections as in mediation. there are two exceptions: ) any affidavit sworn in the course of the collaboration and vouching documentation attaching to same and ) any interim agreement made and signed off in the course of the collaboration or correspondence relating thereto. the parties are in control of the time they are prepared to give their collaboration. some people need a lot of time to complete, whereas others will reach solutions in a few meetings. collaborative practitioners offer a tightly orchestrated model with meetings scheduled in advance every two weeks, and the range of items to be discussed apportioned in advance of signing up as well as the more open-ended process, the clients decide.[citation needed] electronic divorce[edit] portugal, for example, allows two persons to file an electronic request for no-fault collaborative divorce in a non judiciary administrative entity. in specific cases, with no children, real property, alimony, or common address, can be completed within one hour.[citation needed][ ] mediated divorce[edit] divorce mediation is an alternative to traditional divorce litigation. in a divorce mediation session, a mediator facilitates the discussion between the two parties by assisting with communication and providing information and suggestions to help resolve differences. at the end of the mediation process, the separating parties have typically developed a tailored divorce agreement that can be submitted to the court. mediation sessions can include either party's attorneys, a neutral attorney, or an attorney-mediator who can inform both parties of their legal rights, but does not provide advice to either, or can be conducted with the assistance of a facilitative or transformative mediator without attorneys present at all. some mediation companies, such as wevorce, also pair clients with counselors, financial planners and other professionals to work through common mediation sticking points.[ ] divorce mediators may be attorneys who have experience in divorce cases, or they may be professional mediators who are not attorneys, but who have training specifically in the area of family court matters. divorce mediation can be significantly less costly, both financially and emotionally, than litigation. the adherence rate to mediated agreements is much higher than that of adherence to court orders.[ ] an article in the jerusalem post by hadassah fidler explained that mediated divorces have become a lot more popular, to the extent that some countries (such as israel) have instituted a new law which will require divorcing couples to consider mediation before applying to court.[ ] polygamy and divorce[edit] polygamy is a significant structural factor governing divorce in countries where this is permitted. little-to-no analysis has been completed to explicitly explain the link between marital instability and polygamy which leads to divorce. the frequency of divorce rises in polygamous marriages compared to monogamous relationships. within polygamous unions, differences in conjugal stability are found to occur by wife order. there are main mechanisms through which polygamy affects divorce: economic restraint, sexual satisfaction, and childlessness. many women escape economic restraint through divorcing their spouses when they are allowed to initiate a divorce.[ ] "just divorced!" hand-written on an automobile's rear window. causes[edit] an annual study in the uk by management consultants grant thornton, estimates the main proximal causes of divorce based on surveys of matrimonial lawyers.[ ] the main causes in were: 	adultery; extramarital sex; infidelity – % 	domestic violence – % 	midlife crisis – % 	addictions, e.g. alcoholism and gambling – % 	workaholism – % 	other factors  - % according to this survey, husbands engaged in extramarital affairs in % of cases, wives in %. in cases of family strain, wives' families were the primary source of strain in %, compared to % of husbands' families. emotional and physical abuse were more evenly split, with wives affected in % and husbands in % of cases. in % of workaholism-related divorces it was husbands who were the cause, and in %, wives. the survey found that % of divorce cases were petitioned by wives, very few of which were contested. % of divorces were of marriages that had lasted to years, with % ending after to years. the first years are relatively divorce-free, and if a marriage survives more than years it is unlikely to end in divorce. social scientists study the causes of divorce in terms of underlying factors that may possibly motivate divorce. one of these factors is the age at which a person gets married; delaying marriage may provide more opportunity or experience in choosing a compatible partner.[ ][ ] wage, income, and sex ratios are other such underlying factors that have been included in analyses by sociologists and economists.[ ][ ] the elevation of divorce rates among couples who cohabited prior to marriage is called the "cohabitation effect." evidence suggests that although this correlation is partly due to two forms of selection (a) that persons whose moral or religious codes permit cohabitation are also more likely to consider divorce permitted by morality or religion and (b) that marriage based on low levels of commitment is more common among couples who cohabit than among couples who do not, such that the mean and median levels of commitment at the start of marriage are lower among cohabiting than among non-cohabiting couples), the cohabitation experience itself exerts at least some independent effect on the subsequent marital union.[ ] in , a study by jay teachman published in journal of marriage and family found that women who have cohabited or had premarital sex with men other than their husbands have an increased risk of divorce, and that this effect is strongest for women who have cohabited with multiple men prior to marriage. to teachman, the fact that the elevated risk of divorce is only experienced when the premarital partner(s) is someone other than the husband indicates that premarital sex and cohabitation are now a normal part of the courtship process in the united states.[ ] this study only considers data on women in the national survey of family growth in the united states. divorce is sometimes caused by one of the partners finding the other unattractive.[ ] effects[edit] some of the effects associated with divorce include academic, behavioral, and psychological problems. although this may not always be true, studies suggest that children from divorced families are more likely to exhibit such behavioral issues than those from non-divorced families.[ ] divorce and relationships[edit] research done at northern illinois university on family and child studies suggests that divorce of couples experiencing high conflict can have a positive effect on families by reducing conflict in the home. there are, however, many instances when the parent–child relationship may suffer due to divorce. financial support is many times lost when an adult goes through a divorce. the adult may be obligated to obtain additional work to maintain financial stability. in turn, this can lead to a negative relationship between the parent and child; the relationship may suffer due to lack of attention towards the child as well as minimal parental supervision[ ] studies have also shown that parental skills decrease after a divorce occurs; however, this effect is only a temporary change. "a number of researchers have shown that a disequilibrium, including diminished parenting skills, occurs in the year following the divorce but that by two years after the divorce re-stabilization has occurred and parenting skills have improved".[ ] some couples choose divorce even when one spouse's desire to remain married is greater than the other spouse's desire to obtain a divorce. in economics, this is known as the zelder paradox, and is more common with marriages that have produced children, and less common with childless couples.[ ] research has also found that recent divorcees report significantly higher hostility levels after the divorce than before, and that this effect applies equally to both male and female divorcees.[ ] in an american psychological association study of parents' relocation after a divorce, researchers found that a move has a long-term effect on children. in the first study conducted amongst , college students on the effects of parental relocation relating to their children's well-being after divorce, researchers found major differences. in divorced families in which one parent moved, the students received less financial support from their parents compared with divorced families in which neither parent moved. these findings also imply other negative outcomes for these students, such as more distress related to the divorce and did not feel a sense of emotional support from their parents. although the data suggests negative outcomes for these students whose parents relocate after divorce, there is insufficient research that can alone prove the overall well-being of the child[ ] a newer study in the journal of family psychology found that parents who move more than an hour away from their children after a divorce are much less well off than those parents who stayed in the same location[ ] effects on children[edit] psychological[edit] divorce is associated with diminished psychological well-being in children and adult offspring of divorced parents, including greater unhappiness, less satisfaction with life, weaker sense of personal control, anxiety, depression, and greater use of mental health services. a preponderance of evidence indicates that there is a causal effect between divorce and these outcomes.[ ] a study in sweden led by the centre for health equity studies (chess) at stockholm university/karolinska institutet, is published in the journal of epidemiology & community health found that children living with just one parent after divorce suffer from more problems such as headaches, stomach aches, feelings of tension and sadness than those whose parents share custody.[ ] children of divorced parents are also more likely to experience conflict in their own marriages, and are more likely to experience divorce themselves. they are also more likely to be involved in short-term cohabiting relationships, which often dissolve before marriage.[ ] there are many studies that show proof of an intergenerational transmission of divorce, but this does not mean that having divorced parents will absolutely lead a child to divorce. there are two key factors that make this transmission of divorce more likely. first, inherited biological tendencies or genetic conditions may predispose a child to divorce as well as the "model of marriage" presented by the child's parents.[ ] according to nicholas wall, former president of the family division of the english high court, "people think that post-separation parenting is easy – in fact, it is exceedingly difficult, and as a rule of thumb my experience is that the more intelligent the parent, the more intractable the dispute. there is nothing worse, for most children, than for their parents to denigrate each other. parents simply do not realize the damage they do to their children by the battles they wage over them. separating parents rarely behave reasonably, although they always believe that they are doing so, and that the other party is behaving unreasonably."[ ] children involved in high-conflict divorce or custody cases can experience varying forms of parental alienation, which courts often consider to be a form of child abuse. specific examples of parental alienation include brainwashing the child to cease their relationship with the other parent, telling the child that the other parent does not love them, teaching the child to call another adult by a parental name in effort to replace the other parent, limiting communication between the child and the other parent, and limiting quality time between the child and the other parent. if evidence reveals that a parent is actively alienating the child from their other parent, their case for custody can be severely damaged.[ ] research shows that children can be affected – years before the separation or divorce even occurs. this can be due to parental conflict and anticipation of a divorce, and decreased parental contact. many couples believe that by separating, or becoming legally divorced that they are helping their children, and in situations of extreme parental conflict of abuse it most likely will be beneficial.[ ] exposure to marital conflict and instability, most often has negative consequences for children. several mechanisms are likely to be responsible. first, observing overt conflict between parents is a direct stressor for children.[ ] observational studies reveal that children react to inter-parental conflict with fear, anger, or the inhibition of normal behavior. preschool children – who tend to be egocentric – may blame themselves for marital conflict, resulting in feelings of guilt and lowered self-esteem. conflict between parents also tends to spill over and negatively affect the quality of parents' interactions with their children. researchers found that the associations between marital conflict and children's externalizing and internalizing problems were largely mediated by parents' use of harsh punishment and parent–child conflict. furthermore, modeling verbal or physical aggression, parents "teach" their children that disagreements are resolved through conflict rather than calm discussion. as a result, children may not learn the social skills (such as the ability to negotiate and reach compromises) that are necessary to form mutually rewarding relationships with peers.[ ] girls and boys deal with divorce differently. for instance, girls who initially show signs of adapting well, later suffer from anxiety in romantic relationships with men. studies also showed that girls who were separated from their fathers at a younger age tended to be angrier toward the situation as they aged. anger and sadness were also observed at common feeling in adolescents who had experienced parental divorce.[ ] academic and socioeconomic[edit] frequently, children who have experienced a divorce have lower academic achievement than children from non-divorced families[ ] in a review of family and school factors related to adolescents' academic performance, it noted that a child from a divorced family is two times more likely to drop out of high school than a child from a non-divorced family. these children from divorced families may also be less likely to attend college, resulting in the discontinuation of their academic career.[ ] many times academic problems are associated with those children from single-parent families. studies have shown that this issue may be directly related to the economical influence of divorce. a divorce may result in the parent and children moving to an area with a higher poverty rate and a poor education system all due to the financial struggles of a single parent.[ ] children of divorced parents also achieve lower levels of socioeconomic status, income, and wealth accumulation than children of continuously married parents. these outcomes are associated with lower educational achievement.[ ] young men or women between the ages of and who had experienced the divorce of their parents were more likely than youths who had not experienced the divorce of their parents to leave home because of friction, to cohabit before marriage, and to parent a child before marriage.[ ] divorce often leads to worsened academic achievement in children ages – , the most heightened negative effect being reading test scores. these negative effects tend to persist, and even escalate after the divorce or separation occurs.[ ] children of divorced or separated parents exhibit increased behavioral problems and the marital conflict that accompanies parents' divorce places the child's social competence at risk.[ ] divorce of elderly couples[edit] since the mid- s, the divorce rate has increased to over % among baby boomers. more and more seniors are staying single; an analysis of census data conducted at bowling green state university predicted that divorce numbers will continue to rise. baby boomers that remain unmarried are five times more likely to live in poverty compared to those who are married. they are also three times as likely to receive food stamps, public assistance or disability payments.[ ] sociologists believe that the rise in the number of older americans who are not married is a result of factors such as longevity and economics. women, especially, are becoming more and more financially independent which allows them to feel more secure with being alone, in addition to changing perceptions of being divorced or single. this has resulted in less pressure for baby boomers to marry or stay married.[ ] statistics[edit] further information: divorce demography asia[edit] japan[edit] in japan, divorces were on a generally upward trend from the s until when they hit a peak of , . since then, both the number of divorces and the divorce rate declined for six years straight. in , the number of divorces totalled , , and the divorce rate was . (per , population).[ ] india[edit] the hindu marriage act is an act of the parliament of india enacted in . three other important acts were also enacted as part of the hindu code bills during this time: the hindu succession act ( ), the hindu minority and guardianship act ( ), the hindu adoptions and maintenance act ( ). divorce under various acts in india the parsi marriage and divorce act, the dissolution of muslim marriage act, the parsi marriage and divorce act, the special marriage act, the foreign marriage act, dissolution of muslim marriages act, the dissolution of marriage and judicial separation (under the indian divorce act, ) due to the existence of diverse religious faiths in india, the indian judiciary has implemented laws separately for couples belonging to different religious beliefs. mutual consent divorce procedure[ ] is relatively easier and fast while contested divorce procedure[ ] takes longer and depends on the religions of the couples. taiwan/republic of china[edit] in , there were , divorces, in which % for less than years of marriage and . % for – years of marriage. the figure represents a . % decline in the number when divorce rate peaked in .[ ] europe[edit] one study estimated that legal reforms accounted for about % of the increase in divorce rates in europe between and .[ ] united kingdom[edit] in , the ten places with the highest divorce rates in the uk are all beside the sea, with blackpool in the top position.[ ] the highest number of divorce applications are reportedly made on divorce day, which is always the first monday of the new year.[ ] north america[edit] united states[edit] main article: divorce in the united states in , on average, first marriages that end in divorce last about eight years.[ ] of the first marriages for women from to , about % marked their th anniversary, compared with only % for women who married for the first time from to .[ ] the median time between divorce and a second marriage was about three and a half years.[ ] a study found a % increase in the unemployment rate correlated with a % decrease in the divorce rate,[ ] presumably because more people were financially challenged to afford the legal proceedings. in , success in marriage has been associated with higher education and higher age. % of college graduates, over years of age, who wed in the s, were still married years later. % of college graduates under , who married in the s, were still married years later. % of high school graduates under years old, who married in the s, were still married years later.[ ] . % of adults age – without a college degree divorced in the year , compared with . % with a college education.[ ] a population study found that in and , liberal-voting states have lower rates of divorce than conservative-voting states, possibly because people in liberal states tend to wait longer before getting married.[ ] an analysis of this study found it to be misleading due to sampling at an aggregate level. it revealed that when sampling the same data by individuals, republican-leaning voters are less likely to have a divorce or extramarital affair than democratic-leaning voters and independents.[ ][ ] in , based on studies by jenifer l. bratter and rosalind b. king made publicly available on the education resources information center, unions between white males and non-white females (and between hispanics and non-hispanic persons) have similar or lower risks of divorce than white-white marriages, unions between white male-black female last longer than white-white pairings or white-asian pairings. conversely, white female-black male and white female-asian male marriages are more prone to divorce than white-white pairings.[ ] in , a study[ ] by the christian poll group the barna group,[ ] reports that a higher divorce rate was associated with infrequent church attendance. in , marriages between people of different faiths were three times more likely to be divorced than those of the same faith. in a study, members of two mainline protestant religions had a % chance of being divorced in years; a catholic and an evangelical, a % chance; a jew and a christian, a % chance.[ ] in , the divorce rate reached its peak at %; since then it has slowly declined, and by it had settled in at %.[ ][ ] the national center for health statistics reports that from to in the u.s., in families with children present, wives file for divorce in approximately two-thirds of cases. in , . % of the cases were filed by women, and in , % were filed by women.[ ] it is estimated that upwards of % of divorces in the u.s. are "uncontested", because the two parties are able to come to an agreement without a hearing (either with or without lawyers/mediators/collaborative counsel) about the property, children, and support issues. a study found a wide range of factors correlating with the divorce rate including frequency of sex, wealth, race, and religious commitment.[ ][clarification needed] oceania[edit] australia[edit] in , based on https://www.budgetdirect.com.au/blog/marriage-and-divorce-statistics-australia.html the divorce percent was . %[ ] in , based on http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/latestproducts/ . main% features [permanent dead link] the divorce percent was %[ ] based on https://aifs.gov.au/facts-and-figures/marriage-and-divorce-rates the divorce percent is about %[ ] according to https://www.marieclaire.com.au/divorce-statistics-australia the divorce percentage is about %[ ] new zealand in , there were , divorces, and the divorce rate (number of divorces per , existing marriages) was . or . %. in , there were , divorces and the divorce rate (number of divorces per , existing marriages) was . or . %. social attitudes[edit] attitudes toward divorce vary substantially across the world. divorce is considered socially unacceptable by the majority of the population in certain sub-saharan african countries such as ghana, uganda, nigeria and kenya, south asian countries like india and pakistan and south-east asian countries such as the philippines and indonesia. the majority of the population considers divorce to be acceptable in eastern europe, east asia, latin america and the united states. in developed regions such as western europe and japan, more than % of the population considers divorce to be socially acceptable. divorce is also widely accepted in certain muslim majority countries such as jordan, egypt and lebanon, at least when men initiate it.[ ] in same-sex married couples (united states)[edit] 	 	the examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the united states and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. you may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (april ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) all u.s. states permit same-sex marriage. for same-sex couples in the united states, divorce law is in its infancy. rights of spouses to custody of children[edit] upon dissolution of a same-sex marriage, legal questions remain as to the rights of spouses to custody of the biological children of their spouses.[ ] unresolved legal questions abound in this area.[ ] child custody policies include several guidelines that determine with whom the child lives following divorce, how time is divided in joint custody situations, and visitation rights. the most frequently applied custody guideline is the best interests of the child standard, which takes into account the parents' preferences, the child's preferences, the interactions between parents and children, children's adjustment, and all family members' mental and physical health.[ ] religion and divorce[edit] main article: religion and divorce cartoon parodying the circus-like divorce proceedings of anna gould (an american heiress and socialite) and boni de castellane (a french nobleman)[ ] in in paris, france.[ ] boni de castellane then sought an annulment from the vatican so that he could be free to remarry in the church. the annulment case was not finally settled until , when the highest vatican tribunal upheld the validity of the marriage and denied the annulment. in some countries (commonly in europe and north america), the government defines and administers marriages and divorces. while ceremonies may be performed by religious officials on behalf of the state, a civil marriage and thus, civil divorce (without the involvement of a religion) is also possible. due to differing standards and procedures, a couple can be legally unmarried, married, or divorced by the state's definition, but have a different status as defined by a religious order. other countries use religious law to administer marriages and divorces, eliminating this distinction. in these cases, religious officials are generally responsible for interpretation and implementation. islam allows, yet generally advises against divorce, and it can be initiated by either the husband or the wife.[ ] dharmic religions allow divorce under some circumstances.[ ] christian views on divorce vary: catholic teaching allows only annulment, while most other denominations discourage it except in the event of adultery. for example, the allegheny wesleyan methodist connection, in its discipline, teaches:[ ] we believe that the only legitimate marriage is the joining of one man and one woman (gen. : ; rom. : ; cor. : ; eph. : , ). we deplore the evils of divorce and remarriage. we regard adultery as the only scripturally justifiable grounds for divorce; and the party guilty of adultery has by his or her act forfeited membership in the church. in the case of divorce for other cause, neither party shall be permitted to marry again during the lifetime of the other; and violation of this law shall be punished by expulsion from the church (matt. : ; mark : , ). in the carrying out of these principles, guilt shall be established in accordance with judicial procedures set forth in the discipline.[ ] jewish views of divorce differ, with reform judaism considering civil divorces adequate; conservative and orthodox judaism, on the other hand, require that the husband grant his wife a divorce in the form of a get. the millet system, where each religious group regulates its own marriages and divorces, is still present in varying degrees in some post−ottoman countries like iraq, syria, jordan, lebanon, israel, the palestinian authority, egypt, and greece. several countries use sharia (islamic law) to administrate marriages and divorces for muslims. thus, marriage in israel is administered separately by each religious community (jews, christians, muslims, and druze), and there is no provision for interfaith marriages other than marrying in another country. for jews, marriage and divorce are administered by orthodox rabbis. partners can file for divorce either in rabbinical court or israeli civil court.[ ] gender and divorce[edit] according to a study published in the american law and economics review, women have filed slightly more than two-thirds of divorce cases in the united states.[ ] this trend is mirrored in the uk where a recent study into web search behavior found that % of divorce inquiries were from women. these findings also correlate with the office for national statistics publication "divorces in england and wales [ ] which reported that divorce petitions from women outnumber those from men by to . regarding divorce settlements, according to the grant thornton survey in the uk, women obtained a better or considerably better settlement than men in % of cases. in % of cases the assets were split – , and in only % of cases did men achieve better settlements (down from % the previous year). the report concluded that the percentage of shared residence orders would need to increase in order for more equitable financial divisions to become the norm.[ ] some jurisdictions give unequal rights to men and women when filing for divorce.[citation needed] for couples to conservative or orthodox jewish law (which by israeli civil law includes all jews in israel), the husband must grant his wife a divorce through a document called a get. granting the 'get' obligates him to pay the woman a significant sum of money( , -$ , ) as stated on the religious prenuptial contract, which can be in addition to whatever prior settlement he had reached as far as continuous child support and funds he had to pay by court order in the civil divorce. if the man refuses, (and agreeing on condition he won't have to pay the money is still called refusing), the woman can appeal to a court or the community to pressure the husband. a woman whose husband refuses to grant the get or a woman whose husband is missing without sufficient knowledge that he died, is called an agunah, is still married, and therefore cannot remarry. under orthodox law, children of an extramarital affair involving a married jewish woman are considered mamzerim and cannot marry non-mamzerim.[ ] history[edit] greco-roman culture[edit] see also: marriage in ancient rome roman married couple. the ancient athenians liberally allowed divorce, but the person requesting divorce had to submit the request to a magistrate, and the magistrate could determine whether the reasons given were sufficient. divorce was rare in early roman culture but as their empire grew in power and authority roman civil law embraced the maxim, "matrimonia debent esse libera" ("marriages ought to be free"), and either husband or wife could renounce the marriage at will. the christian emperors constantine and theodosius restricted the grounds for divorce to grave cause, but this was relaxed by justinian in the th century. mali empire[edit] in post-classical mali laws on divorced women as well as their status were documented in the timbuktu manuscripts.[ ] medieval europe[edit] after the fall of the roman empire, familial life was regulated more by ecclesiastical authority than civil authority. the catholic and orthodox church had, among others, a differing view of divorce. the orthodox church recognized that there are rare occasions when it is better that couples do separate. for the orthodox, to say that marriage is indissoluble means that it should not be broken, the violation of such a union, perceived as holy, being an offense resulting from either adultery or the prolonged absence of one of the partners. thus, permitting remarriage is an act of compassion of the church towards sinful man.[ ] under the influence of the catholic church, the divorce rate had been greatly reduced by the th or th century,[ ] which considered marriage a sacrament instituted by jesus christ and indissoluble by mere human action.[ ] although divorce, as known today, was generally prohibited in catholic lands after the th century, separation of husband and wife and the annulment of marriage were well-known. what is today referred to as "separate maintenance" (or "legal separation") was termed "divorce a mensa et thoro" ("divorce from bed-and-board"). the husband and wife physically separated and were forbidden to live or cohabit together, but their marital relationship did not fully terminate.[ ] civil courts had no power over marriage or divorce. the grounds for annulment were determined by a catholic church authority and applied in ecclesiastical courts. annulment was for canonical causes of impediment existing at the time of the marriage. "for in cases of total divorce, the marriage is declared null, as having been absolutely unlawful ab initio."[ ][ ][ ] the catholic church held that the sacrament of marriage produced one person from two, inseparable from each other: "by marriage, the husband and wife are one person in law: that is, the very being of legal existence of the woman is suspended during the marriage or at least incorporated and consolidated into that of the husband: under whose wing, protection and cover, she performs everything."[ ] since husband and wife became one person upon marriage, recognition of that oneness could be rescinded only on the grounds that the unity never existed to begin with, i.e., that the proclamation of marriage was erroneous and void from the start. secularisation in europe[edit] henry viii of england broke with the catholic church in order to obtain an annulment. after the reformation, marriage came to be considered a contract in the newly protestant regions of europe, and on that basis, civil authorities gradually asserted their power to decree a "divortium a vinculo matrimonii", or "divorce from all the bonds of marriage". since no precedents existed defining the circumstances under which marriage could be dissolved, civil courts heavily relied on the previous determinations of the ecclesiastic courts and freely adopted the requirements set down by those courts. as the civil courts assumed the power to dissolve marriages, courts still strictly construed the circumstances under which they would grant a divorce,[ ] and considered divorce to be contrary to public policy. because divorce was considered to be against the public interest, civil courts refused to grant a divorce if evidence revealed any hint of complicity between the husband and wife to divorce, or if they attempted to manufacture grounds for a divorce. divorce was granted only because one party to the marriage had violated a sacred vow to the "innocent spouse". if both husband and wife were guilty, "neither would be allowed to escape the bonds of marriage".[ ] eventually, the idea that a marriage could be dissolved in cases in which one of the parties violated the sacred vow gradually allowed expansion of the grounds upon which divorce could be granted from those grounds which existed at the time of the marriage to grounds which occurred after the marriage, but which exemplified violation of that vow, such as abandonment, adultery, or "extreme cruelty".[ ] an exception to this trend was the anglican church, which maintained the doctrine of marital indissolubility. during the english civil war, the puritans briefly passed a law that divested marriage of all sacrament, leaving it as a secular contract that could be broken. john milton wrote four divorce tracts in – that argued for the legitimacy of divorce on grounds of spousal incompatibility. his ideas were ahead of their time; arguing for divorce at all, let alone a version of no-fault divorce, was extremely controversial and religious figures sought to ban his tracts.[ ] in a precedent was first set with an act of parliament allowing lord john manners to divorce his wife, lady anne pierrepont, and until the passage of the matrimonial causes act , divorce could only be obtained through a specific act of parliament.[ ] joséphine, first wife of napoleon, obtained the civil dissolution of her marriage under the napoleonic code of . the move towards secularisation and liberalisation was reinforced by the individualistic and secular ideals of the enlightenment. the enlightened absolutist, king frederick ii ("the great") of prussia decreed a new divorce law in , in which marriage was declared to be a purely private concern, allowing divorce to be granted on the basis of mutual consent. this new attitude heavily influenced the law in neighbouring austria under emperor joseph ii, where it was applied to all non-catholic imperial subjects.[ ] divorce was legalised in france after the french revolution on a similar basis, although the legal order of the ancien regime was reinstated at the bourbon restoration of . the trend in europe throughout the th century, was one of increased liberalisation; by the mid- th century, divorce was generally granted by civil courts in the case of adultery. marilyn monroe signing divorce papers with celebrity attorney jerry giesler. in britain, before wives were regarded as under the economic and legal protection of their husbands, and divorce was almost impossible. it required a very expensive private act of parliament costing perhaps £ , of the sort only the richest could possibly afford. it was very difficult to secure divorce on the grounds of adultery, desertion, or cruelty. the first key legislative victory came with the matrimonial causes act , which passed over the strenuous opposition of the highly traditional church of england. the new law made divorce a civil affair of the courts, rather than a church matter, with a new civil court in london handling all cases. the process was still quite expensive, at about £ , but now became feasible for the middle class. a woman who obtained a judicial separation took the status of a feme sole, with full control of her own civil rights. additional amendments came in , which allowed for separations handled by local justices of the peace. the church of england blocked further reforms until the final breakthrough came with the matrimonial causes act .[ ][ ] in spain, the constitution of the second spanish republic for the first time recognised a right to divorce. the first law to regulate divorce was the divorce act of , which passed the republican parliament despite the opposition of the catholic church and a coalition of the agrarian minority and minority basque-navarre catholic parties. the dictatorship of general franco abolished the law. after the restoration of democracy, a new divorce law was passed in , again over the opposition of the catholic church and part of the christian democrat party, then a part of the ruling union of democratic center. during the first socialist government of felipe gonzález márquez, the law was amended to expedite the process of separation and divorce of marriages, which was again opposed by the church, which called it "express divorce". in italy, the first divorce law was introduced on december , despite the opposition of the christian democrats,[ ] and entered into force on december . in the following years, the christian democrats, supported also by parties opposed to the law, promoted a recall referendum. in , in a referendum, the majority of the population voted against a repeal of the divorce law. a feature of the divorce law was the long period of marital separation of five years required. this period was reduced to three in and to a year in , in the case of judicial separation, and six months in the case of separation by mutual agreement. ireland and malta approved divorce at referenda in and respectively. divorce rates increased markedly during the th century in developed countries, as social attitudes towards family and sex changed dramatically.[ ] divorce has become commonplace in some countries, including the united states,[ ] canada, australia, germany, new zealand, scandinavia, and the united kingdom.[ ] japan[edit] in the edo period ( – ), husbands could divorce their wives by writing letters of divorce. frequently, their relatives or marriage arrangers kept these letters and tried to restore the marriages. wives could not divorce their husbands. some wives were able to gain sanctuary in certain shinto "divorce temples". after a wife had spent three years in a temple, her husband was required to divorce her.[ ] in th century japan, at least one in eight marriages ended in divorce. there are four types of divorce in japan: divorce by agreement in which the divorce is mutual; divorce by mediation, which happens in family court; divorce by decision of family court that takes place when a couple cannot complete a divorce through mediation; and divorce by judgment of a district court.[ ] india[edit] on a national level, the special marriage act, passed in , is an inter-religious marriage law permitting indian nationals to marry and divorce irrespective of their religion or faith. the hindu marriage act, in which legally permitted divorce to hindus and other communities who chose to marry under these acts. the indian divorce act [ ] is the law relating to the divorce of person professing the christian religion. divorce can be sought by a husband or wife on grounds including adultery, cruelty, desertion for two years, religious conversion, mental abnormality, venereal disease, and leprosy.[ ] divorce is also available based on mutual consent of both the spouses, which can be filed after at least one year of separated living. mutual consent divorce can not be appealed, and the law mandates a minimum period of six months (from the time divorce is applied for) for divorce to be granted.[ ] contested divorce is when one of the spouse is not willing to divorce the other spouse, under such condition the divorce is granted only on certain grounds according to the hindu marriage act of . while a muslim husband can unilaterally bring an end to the marriage by pronouncing talaq,[ ] muslim women must go to court, claiming any of the grounds provided under the dissolution of muslim marriage act.[ ] in the first major family law reform in the last decade, the supreme court of india banned the islamic practice of "triple talaq" (divorce by uttering of the "talaq" word thrice by the husband). the landmark supreme court of india judgment was welcomed by women activists across india.[ ] official figures of divorce rates are not available, but it has been estimated that in or another figure of in , marriages in india end up in divorce.[ ] various communities are governed by specific marital legislation, distinct to hindu marriage act, and consequently have their own divorce laws: 	the parsi marriage and divorce act, [ ] 	the dissolution of muslim marriage act, [ ] 	the foreign marriage act, [ ] 	the muslim women (protection of rights on divorce) act, [ ] an amendment to the marriage laws to allow divorce based on "irretrievable breakdown of marriage" (as alleged by one of the spouses) is under consideration in india.[ ] in june , the union cabinet of india approved the marriage laws (amendment) bill , which, if cleared by parliament, would establish "irretrievable breakdown" as a new ground for divorce.[ ] under the proposed amendment, the court before proceeding to the merits of the case must be satisfied by the evidences produced that parties have been living apart for a continuous period of not less than three years immediately preceding the presentation of the petition.[ ] islamic law[edit] main article: divorce in islam divorce in islam can take a variety of forms, some initiated by the husband and some initiated by the wife. the main traditional legal categories are talaq (repudiation), khulʿ (mutual divorce), judicial divorce and oaths. the theory and practice of divorce in the islamic world have varied according to time and place.[ ] historically, the rules of divorce were governed by sharia, as interpreted by traditional islamic jurisprudence, and they differed depending on the legal school.[ ] historical practice sometimes diverged from legal theory.[ ] in modern times, as personal status (family) laws were codified, they generally remained "within the orbit of islamic law", but control over the norms of divorce shifted from traditional jurists to the state.[ ] philippines[edit] divorce as a means of terminating marriage is illegal for all filipinos except filipino muslims. there is only civil annulment after a lengthy legal separation. the process is costly and long, and there are many legally married couples in extramarital relations, even without a divorce law. code of muslim personal laws of the philippines, known as presidential decree (pd) no. , title ii- marriage and divorce, chapter -divorce allows for divorce recognized by the state. there are two sharia courts in the philippine judicial system that hear these cases. on july , , gabriela women's party filed in congress house bill no , or the divorce bill of the philippines, as one of many attempts to introduce pro-divorce legislation. senator pia cayetano has filed a separate divorce bill in the senate. during that time, the philippines, along with malta and the vatican, are the three most conservative countries on the issue of divorce. the bill did not pass any level of legislation because of this. in , the divorce bill was refiled, however, did not pass any level of legislation as well. in a latest attempt, the divorce bill was refiled again in . on february , , the house of representatives committee on population and family relations approved a bill seeking to legalize divorce, the first time in philippine history for such a measure to pass the committee level of legislation. the majority of the members of the house of representatives (lower house of congress), both majority and minority blocs, are in favor of divorce, however, divorce continues to be a divisive issue in the senate (upper house of congress), as stark opposition is present among male senators.[ ][ ] patterns[edit] divorce rates increase during times of hardship, war, and major events. divorce rates increased after world war ii because people were quick to marry each other before they went to war. when soldiers returned, they found out that they didn't have much in common with their spouses, so they divorced.[ ] see also[edit] 	breakup 	community property 	divorce law around the world 	divorce of same-sex couples—legal aspects, divorce rates 	divorce party 	dysfunctional family 	fear of commitment 	grey divorce 	husband selling 	implications of divorce 	list of most expensive divorces 	list of people who remarried the same spouse 	januário lourenço, inventor of electronic 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( ). the effects of marriage and divorce on families and children retrieved march , 	davies, p. t. & cummings e. m. ( ). marital conflict and child adjustment: an emotional security hypothesis. american psychological association psychological bulletin, , – . retrieved march , 	foulkes-jamison, l. ( ). the effects of divorce on children retrieved march , 	hughes r. ( ). the effects of divorce on children retrieved march , 	phillips, roderick ( ). untying the knot: a short history of divorce. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. isbn  - - - - . 	singer, joseph william ( ). "same sex marriage, full faith and credit, and the evasion of obligation". stanford journal of civil rights and civil liberties. : – . 	strong, b., devault c., & cohen t. f. ( ). the marriage and family experience: intimate relationships in a changing society. belmont, ca: wadsworth cengage learning. 	thomas, s. g. ( , october ). the good divorce. the new york times. retrieved march , 	zartler u., heinz-martin, v., arránz becker, o. (edts.) ( ): family dynamics after separation. a life course perspective on post-divorce families. special issue zff, volume , opladen/toronto: barbara budrich. isbn  - - - - . 	fawcett, margaret i. ( ). "the changing family in northern ireland". youth & society. : – . doi: . / x . s cid  . external links[edit] 		look up divorce in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikimedia commons has media related to divorce. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: divorce 		wikisource has original text related to this article: divorce 	societal aspects of divorce at curlie 	legal aspects of divorce at curlie 	eurostat - statistics explained - marriage and divorce statistics 	divorce rates across countries by eurostat 	children and divorce guide ( ) – american academy of child and adolescent psychiatry 	 	v 	t 	e interpersonal relationships 	types of relationships	 	significant	 	domestic partnership 	boyfriend 	girlfriend 	cohabitation 	monogamy 	open marriage 	family 	marriage 	husband 	wife 	soulmate 	siblings 	cousin 	widowhood 	casual	 	open relationship 	gold digging 	enjo kōsai 	sexual partner 	one-night stand 	friendship	 	kinship 	non-monogamy 	polyamory 	polyfidelity 	polygamy 	romantic 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page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 handle system - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	handle system 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from hdl (identifier)) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		specification for persistent identifiers of internet resources the handle system is the corporation for national research initiatives's proprietary registry assigning persistent identifiers, or handles, to information resources, and for resolving "those handles into the information necessary to locate, access, and otherwise make use of the resources".[ ] as with handles used elsewhere in computing, handle system handles are opaque, and encode no information about the underlying resource, being bound only to metadata regarding the resource. consequently, the handles are not rendered invalid by changes to the metadata. the system was developed by bob kahn at the corporation for national research initiatives (cnri). the original work was funded by the defense advanced research projects agency (darpa) between and , as part of a wider framework for distributed digital object services,[ ] and was thus contemporaneous with the early deployment of the world wide web, with similar goals. the handle system was first implemented in autumn , and was administered and operated by cnri until december , when a new "multi-primary administrator" (mpa) mode of operation was introduced. the dona foundation[ ] now administers the system's global handle registry and accredits mpas, including cnri and the international doi foundation.[ ] the system currently provides the underlying infrastructure for such handle-based systems as digital object identifiers and dspace, which are mainly used to provide access to scholarly, professional and government documents and other information resources. cnri provides specifications and the source code for reference implementations for the servers and protocols used in the system under a royalty-free "public license", similar to an open source license.[ ] thousands of handle services are currently running. over of these are at universities and libraries, but they are also in operation at national laboratories, research groups, government agencies, and commercial enterprises, receiving over million resolution requests per month. contents 	 specifications 	 implementation 	 design principles 	 applications 	 licences and use policy 	 related technologies 	 see also 	 references 	 external links specifications[edit] the handle system is defined in informational rfcs ,[ ] [ ] and [ ] of the internet engineering task force (ietf); it includes an open set of protocols, a namespace, and a reference implementation of the protocols. documentation, software, and related information is provided by cnri on a dedicated website[ ] handles consist of a prefix which identifies a "naming authority" and a suffix which gives the "local name" of a resource. similar to domain names, prefixes are issued to naming authorities by one of the "multi-primary administrators" of the system upon payment of a fee, which must be renewed annually. a naming authority may create any number of handles, with unique "local names", within their assigned prefixes. an example of a handle is: 	 . / 	 / in the first example, which is the handle for the handle.net software license, . is the prefix assigned to the naming authority (in this case, handle.net itself) and is the local name within that namespace. the local name may consist of any characters from the unicode ucs- character set. the prefix also consists of any ucs- characters, other than "/". the prefixes consist of one or more naming authority segments, separated by periods, representing a hierarchy of naming authorities. thus, in the example is the naming authority prefix for cnri, while designates a subordinate naming authority within the prefix. other examples of top-level prefixes for the federated naming authorities of the dona foundation are for doi handles; for handles assigned by the itu; for handles issued by the german gesellschaft für wissenschaftliche datenverarbeitung mbh göttingen (gwdg), the scientific computing center of the university of göttingen; and for the coalition of handle services – china. older "legacy" prefixes issued by cnri before the "multi-primary administrator" (mpa) structure was instituted are typically four of five digits, as in the second example above, a handle administered by the university of leicester. all prefixes must be registered in the global handle registry through an dona foundation approved registrar, normally for a fee. as with other uses of handles in computing, the handle is opaque; that is, it encodes no information about the underlying resource and provides only the means to retrieve metadata about the resource. this may be contrasted with a uniform resource locator (url), which may encode within the identifier such attributes of the resource as the protocol to be used to access the server holding the resource, the server host name and port number, and perhaps even location specifics such as the name of a file in the server file system containing the resource. in the handle system, these specifics are not encoded in the handle, but are found in the metadata to which the handle is bound. the metadata may include many attributes of the information resource, such as its locations, the forms in which it is available, the types of access (e.g. "free" versus "paid") offered, and to whom. the processing of the metadata to determine how and where the resource should be accessed, and the provision of the resource to the user, are performed in a separate step, called "resolution", using a resolver, a server which may be different than the ones involved in exchanging the handle for the metadata. unlike urls, which may become invalid if the metadata embedded within them becomes invalid, handles do not become invalid and do not need to change when locations or other metadata attributes change. this helps to prevent link rot, as changes in the information resource (such as location) need only be reflected in changes to the metadata, rather than in changes in every reference to the resource. each handle may have its own administrator and administration of the handles can be done in a distributed environment, similar to dns domain names. the name-to-value bindings may also be secured, both via signatures to verify the data and via challenge response to verify the transmission of the data, allowing handles to be used in trust management applications. it is possible for the same underlying information resource to be associated with multiple handles, as when two university libraries generate handles (and therefore possibly different sets of metadata) for the same book. the handle system is compatible with the domain name system (dns), but does not require it, unlike persistent identifiers such as purls or arks, which are similar to handles, but which utilise domain names. however, unlike these domain-name based approaches, handles do require a separate prefix registration process and handle servers separate from the domain name servers. handles can be used natively. or expressed as uniform resource identifiers (uris) through a namespace within the info uri scheme;[ ][ ] for example, . / may be written as the uri, info:hdl/ . / . some handle system namespaces, such as digital object identifiers, are "info:" uri namespaces in their own right; for example, info:doi/ . / is another way of writing the handle for the current revision of the doi handbook[ ] as a uri. some handle system namespaces define special presentation rules. for example, digital object identifiers, which represent a high percentage of the extant handles, are usually presented with a "doi:" prefix: doi: . / . any handle may be expressed as a uniform resource locator (url) through the use of the generic http proxy server,:[ ] 	https://hdl.handle.net/ . / some handle-based systems offer an http proxy server that is intended for use with their own system such as: 	https://doi.org/ . / . implementation[edit] implementation of the handle system consists of local handle services, each of which is made up of one or more sites that provide the servers that store specific handles. the global handle registry is a unique local handle service which stores information on the prefixes (also known as naming authorities) within the handle system and can be queried to find out where specific handles are stored on other local handle services within this distributed system. the handle system website provides a series of implementation tools, notably the handle.net software[ ] and handle.net client libraries.[ ] handle clients can be embedded in end user software (e.g., a web browser) or in server software (e.g., a web server) and extensions are already available for adobe acrobat[ ] and firefox.[ ] handle client software libraries are available in both c and java. some applications have developed specific add-on tools, e.g., for the doi system.[ ] the interoperable network of distributed handle resolver servers (also known as the proxy server system) are linked through a global resolver (which is one logical entity though physically decentralised and mirrored). users of handle system technology obtain a handle prefix created in the global handle registry. the global handle registry maintains and resolves the prefixes of locally maintained handle services. any local handle service can, therefore, resolve any handle through the global resolver. handles (identifiers) are passed by a client, as a query of the naming authority/prefix, to the handle system's global handle registry (ghr). the ghr responds by sending the client the location information for the relevant local handle service (which may consist of multiple servers in multiple sites); a query is then sent to the relevant server within the local handle service. the local handle service returns the information needed to acquire the resource, e.g., a url which can then be turned into an http re-direct. (note: if the client already has information on the appropriate lhs to query, the initial query to ghr is omitted) though the original model from which the handle system derives dealt with management of digital objects, the handle system does not mandate any particular model of relationships between the identified entities, nor is it limited to identifying only digital objects: non-digital entities may be represented as a corresponding digital object for the purposes of digital object management. some care is needed in the definition of such objects and how they relate to non-digital entities; there are established models that can aid in such definitions e.g., functional requirements for bibliographic records (frbr), cidoc crm, and indecs content model. some applications have found it helpful to marry such a framework to the handle application: for example, the advanced distributed learning (adl) initiative[ ] brings together handle system application with existing standards for distributed learning content, using a shareable content object reference model (scorm),[ ] and the digital object identifier (doi) system implementation of the handle system has adopted it together with the indecs framework to deal with semantic interoperability. the handle system also makes explicit the importance of organizational commitment to a persistent identifier scheme, but does not mandate one model for ensuring such commitment. individual applications may choose to establish their own sets of rules and social infrastructure to ensure persistence (e.g., when used in the dspace application, and the doi application).[ ] design principles[edit] the handle system is designed to meet the following requirements to contribute to persistence[ ] the identifier string: 	is not based on any changeable attributes of the entity (location, ownership, or any other attribute that may change without changing the referent's identity); 	is opaque (preferably a ‘dumb number’: a well known pattern invites assumptions that may be misleading, and meaningful semantics may not translate across languages and may cause trademark conflicts); 	is unique within the system (to avoid collisions and referential uncertainty); 	has optional, but nice to have, features that should be supported (human-readable, cut-and-paste-able, embeddable; fits common systems, e.g., uri specification). the identifier resolution mechanism: 	is reliable (using redundancy, no single points of failure, and fast enough to not appear broken); 	is scalable (higher loads simply managed with more computers); 	is flexible (can adapt to changing computing environments; useful to new applications): 	is trusted (both resolution and administration have technical trust methods; an operating organization is committed to the long term); 	builds on open architecture (encouraging the leverage efforts of a community in building applications on the infrastructure); 	is transparent (users need not know the infrastructure details). applications[edit] among the objects that are currently identified by handles are journal articles, technical reports, books, theses and dissertations, government documents, metadata, distributed learning content, and data sets. handles are being used in digital watermarking applications, grid applications, repositories, and more. although individual users may download and use the handle.net software independently, many users have found it beneficial to collaborate in developing applications in a federation, using common policy or additional technology to provide shared services. as one of the first persistent identifier schemes, the handle system has been widely adopted by public and private institutions and proven over several years. (see paradigm, persistent identifiers.)[ ] handle system applications may use handles as simple persistent identifiers (as most commonly used, to resolve to the current url of an object), or may choose to take advantage of other features. its support for the simultaneous return as output of multiple pieces of current information related to the object, in defined data structures, enables priorities to be established for the order in which the multiple resolutions will be used. handles can, therefore, resolve to different digital versions of the same content, to mirror sites, or to different business models (pay vs. free, secure vs. open, public vs. private). they can also resolve to different digital versions of differing content, such as a mix of objects required for a distance-learning course. there are thousands of handle services running today, located in countries, on continents; over of them run at universities and libraries. handle services are being run by user federations, national laboratories, universities, computing centers, libraries (national and local), government agencies, contractors, corporations, and research groups. major publishers use the handle system for persistent identification of commercially traded and open access content through its implementation with the digital object identifier (doi) system. the number of prefixes, which allow users to assign handles, is growing and stands at over , as of early . there are six top-level global handle registry servers that receive (on average) million resolution requests per month. proxy servers known to cnri, passing requests to the system on the web, receive (on average)  million resolution requests per month. (statistics from handle quick facts.) in , cnri and itu (international telecommunication union) entered into an agreement to collaborate on use of the handle system (and the digital object architecture more generally) and are working on the specific details of that collaboration; in april itu listed the handle system as an "emerging trend".[ ] licences and use policy[edit] handle system, handle.net and global handle registry are trademarks of the corporation for national research initiatives (cnri), a non-profit research and development corporation in the usa. the handle system is the subject of patents by cnri, which licenses its handle system technology through a public license,[ ] similar to an open source license, in order to enable broader use of the technology. handle system infrastructure is supported by prefix registration and service fees, with the majority coming from single prefix holders. the largest current single contributor is the international doi foundation. the public license allows commercial and non-commercial use at low cost of both its patented technology and the reference implementation of the software, and allows the software to be freely embedded in other systems and products. a service agreement[ ] is also available for users who intend to provide identifier and/or resolution services using the handle system technology under the handle system public license. related technologies[edit] the handle system represents several components of a long-term digital object architecture. in january cnri released its general-purpose digital object repository software,[ ] another major component of this architecture. more information[ ] about the release, including protocol specification, source code and ready-to-use system, clients and utilities, is available.[ ][ ] see also[edit] 	archival resource key (ark) 	digital library 	electronic publishing 	hypertext 	institutional repository 	linked data 	openurl 	permalink 	persistent url 	resource description framework 	semantic web 	uniform resource name references[edit] 	^ a b "rfc : handle system overview". 	^ "kahn/wilensky architecture". cnri. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "dona foundation". dona.net. 	^ "digital object identifier system". doi.org. 	^ a b "redirect to current handle.net web site content". handle.net. retrieved march . 	^ "rfc : handle system namespace and service definition". 	^ "rfc : handle system protocol (ver . ) specification". 	^ "handle.net". handle.net. retrieved - - . 	^ "about "info" uris – frequently asked questions". info-uri.info. retrieved - - . 	^ "rfc : the "info" uri scheme for information assats with identifiers in public namespaces". 	^ "doi handbook". doi: . / . cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ "hdl.net services: proxy server system". handle.net. retrieved - - . 	^ "hs software download". handle.net. retrieved - - . 	^ "software client libraries". handle.net. retrieved - - . 	^ "hdl plug-in for adobe acrobat and acrobat reader". handle.net. retrieved - - . 	^ "redirect to current handle.net web site content". handle.net. archived from the original on september , . 	^ "doi system tools". doi.org. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "adlnet.gov". adlnet.gov. retrieved - - . 	^ "scorm". adlnet.gov. archived from the original on - - . 	^ "doi.org". doi.org. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "identifier systems in network architecture, laurence lannom, cnri. video of presentation (or presentation pdf only) from the digital motion picture metadata symposium, science & technology council, academy of motion picture arts & sciences, june ". oscars.org. - - . archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "workbook on digital private papers | administrative and preservation metadata | persistent identifiers". paradigm. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "handle system". itu.int. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "license" (pdf). www.handle.net. retrieved - - . 	^ "dorepository.org". dorepository.org. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "digital object repository server: a component of the digital object architecture". dlib.org. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "do repository". do repository. doi: . /january -reilly. retrieved - - . cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ "cordra". cordra.org. external links[edit] 	official website 	persistent identifiers project at paradigm retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=handle_system&oldid= " 		categories: 	internet protocols 	identifiers 	computer-related introductions in hidden categories: 	cs errors: missing periodical 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			deutsch 	français 	galego 	bahasa indonesia 	kiswahili 	日本語 	polski 	português 	türkçe 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 none grief - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	grief 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		response to loss for other uses, see grief (disambiguation) and griefing. 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e 	grief 	other names	mourning; grieving; bereavement[ ] 	 	"grief" ( th years) 	pronunciation		/ɡɹiːf/ 	specialty	psychology  	treatment	pastoral care; mental health professionals; social workers; support groups[ ] grief is the response to loss, particularly to the loss of someone or something that has died, to which a bond or affection was formed. although conventionally focused on the emotional response to loss, it also has physical, cognitive, behavioral, social, cultural, spiritual and philosophical dimensions. while the terms are often used interchangeably, bereavement refers to the state of loss, and grief is the reaction to that loss. the grief associated with death is familiar to most people, but individuals grieve in connection with a variety of losses throughout their lives, such as unemployment, ill health or the end of a relationship.[ ] loss can be categorized as either physical or abstract.[ ] the physical loss being related to something that the individual can touch or measure—such as losing a spouse through death—while other types of loss are abstract, and relate to aspects of a person's social interactions.[ ] contents 	 grieving process 	 reactions 	 bereavement science 	 . bonanno's four trajectories of grief 	 . five stages theory 	 physiological and neurological processes 	 evolutionary theories 	 risks 	 . complicated grief 	 . disenfranchised grief 	 examples of bereavement 	 . death of a child 	 . suicide 	 . death of a spouse 	 . death of a parent 	 . death of a sibling 	 . loss during childhood 	 . . loss of a friend or classmate 	 . other losses 	 . gradual bereavement 	 support 	 . professional support 	 . support groups 	 cultural differences in grieving 	 in those with cognitive impairment 	 in animals 	 . mammals 	 . birds 	 . monogamous animals 	 see also 	 references[ ] 	 further reading 	 external links grieving process[edit] a grief-stricken soldier is comforted by a fellow soldier after a friend is killed in action during the korean war. a family mourns during a funeral at the lion's cemetery during the siege of sarajevo in . between and , there was extensive skepticism about a universal and predictable "emotional pathway" that leads from distress to "recovery" with an appreciation that grief is a more complex process of adapting to loss than stage and phase models have previously suggested. the two-track model of bereavement, created by simon shimshon rubin in , is a grief theory that provided deeper focus on the grieving process. the model examines the long-term effects of bereavement by measuring how well the person is adapting to the loss of a significant person in their life. the main objective of the two-track model of bereavement is for the individual to "manage and live in reality in which the deceased is absent" as well as returning to normal biological functioning. (malkinson, ) track one is focused on the biopsychosocial functioning of grief. this focuses on the anxiety, depression, somatic concerns, traumatic responses, familial relationships, interpersonal relationships, self-esteem, meaning structure, work, and investment in life tasks. rubin ( ) points out, “track , the range of aspects of the individuals functioning across affective, interpersonal, somatic and classical psychiatric indicators is considered”(shimshon ). all of the terms listed above are noted for the importance they have in relation to people's responses to grief and loss. the significance of the closeness between the bereaved and the deceased is important to track because this could determine the severity of the mourning and grief the bereaved will endure. this first track is the response to the extremely stressful life events and requires adaption along with change and integration. the second track focuses on the ongoing relationship between the griever and the deceased. track two mainly focuses on how the bereaved was connected to the deceased, and on what level of closeness was shared. the two main components considered are memories, both positive and negative, and emotional involvement shared with the decedent.. the stronger the relationship to the deceased, the greater the evaluation of the relationship with heightened shock. any memory could be a trigger for the bereaved, the way the bereaved chose to remember their loved ones, and how the bereaved integrate the memory of their loved ones into their daily lives. ten main attributes to this track include; imagery/memory, emotional distance, positive effect, negative effect, preoccupation with the loss, conflict, idealization, memorialization/transformation of the loss, impact on self-perception and loss process (shock, searching, disorganized) (rubin, ). an outcome of this track is being able to recognize how transformation has occurred beyond grief and mourning (rubin, ). by outlining the main aspects of the bereavement process into two interactive tracks, individuals can examine and understand how grief has affected their life following loss and begin to adapt to this post-loss life.the model offers a better understanding with the duration of time in the wake of one's loss and the outcomes that evolve from death. by using this model, researchers can effectively examine the response to an individual's loss by assessing the behavioral-psychological functioning and the relationship with the deceased. [ ] the authors from what's your grief?, litza williams and eleanor haley, state in their understanding of the clinical and therapeutic uses of the model: “in terms of functioning, this model can help the bereaved identify which areas of his/her life has been impacted by the grief in a negative way as well as areas that the bereaved has already begun to adapt to after the loss. if the bereaved is unable to return to their normal functioning as in before loss occurred, it is likely they will find difficulty in the process of working through the loss as well as their separation from the deceased. along the relational aspect, the bereaved can become aware of their relationship with the deceased and how it has changed or may change in the future” (williams & haley, ).[ ] “the two-track model of bereavement can help specify areas of mutuality (how people respond affectivity to trauma and change) and also difference (how bereaved people may be preoccupied with the deceased following loss compared to how they may be preoccupied with trauma following the exposure to it)” (rubin, s.s, ).[ ] reactions[edit] crying is a normal and natural part of grieving. it has also been found, however, that crying and talking about the loss is not the only healthy response and, if forced or excessive, can be harmful.[ ][ ] responses or actions in the affected person, called "coping ugly" by researcher george bonanno, may seem counter-intuitive or even appear dysfunctional, e.g., celebratory responses, laughter, or self-serving bias in interpreting events.[ ] lack of crying is also a natural, healthy reaction, potentially protective of the individual, and may also be seen as a sign of resilience.[ ][ ][ ] science has found that some healthy people who are grieving do not spontaneously talk about the loss. pressing people to cry or retell the experience of a loss can be damaging.[ ] genuine laughter is healthy.[ ][ ] when a loved one dies, it is not unusual for the bereaved to report that they have "seen" or "heard" the person they have lost. in a survey, % of respondents who had lost a loved one said they had this kind of "contact" experience.[ ] 	 bereavement science[edit] grief can be caused by the loss of one's home and possessions, as occurs with refugees. bonanno's four trajectories of grief[edit] main article: george bonanno george bonanno, a professor of clinical psychology at columbia university, conducted more than two decades of scientific studies on grief and trauma, which have been published in several papers in the most respected peer-reviewed journals in the field of psychology, such as psychological science and the journal of abnormal psychology. subjects of his studies number in the several thousand and include people who have suffered losses in the u.s. and cross-cultural studies in various countries around the world, such as israel, bosnia-herzegovina, and china. his subjects suffered losses through war, terrorism, deaths of children, premature deaths of spouses, sexual abuse, childhood diagnoses of aids, and other potentially devastating loss events or potential trauma events. in bonanno's book, the other side of sadness: what the new science of bereavement tells us about life after a loss (isbn  - - - - ), he summarizes his research. his findings include that a natural resilience is the main component of grief and trauma reactions.[ ] the first researcher to use pre-loss data, he outlined four trajectories of grief.[ ] bonanno's work has also demonstrated that absence of grief or trauma symptoms is a healthy outcome, rather than something to be feared as has been the thought and practice until his research.[ ] because grief responses can take many forms, including laughter, celebration, and bawdiness, in addition to sadness,[ ][ ] bonanno coined the phrase "coping ugly" to describe the idea that some forms of coping may seem counter intuitive.[ ] bonanno has found that resilience is natural to humans, suggesting that it cannot be "taught" through specialized programs[ ] and that there is virtually no existing research with which to design resilience training, nor is there existing research to support major investment in such things as military resilience training programs.[ ] the four trajectories are as follows: 	resilience: "the ability of adults in otherwise normal circumstances who are exposed to an isolated and potentially highly disruptive event, such as the death of a close relation or a violent or life-threatening situation, to maintain relatively stable, healthy levels of psychological and physical functioning" as well as "the capacity for generative experiences and positive emotions." 	recovery: when "normal functioning temporarily gives way to threshold or sub-threshold psychopathology (e.g., symptoms of depression or posttraumatic stress disorder, or ptsd), usually for a period of at least several months, and then gradually returns to pre-event levels." 	chronic dysfunction: prolonged suffering and inability to function, usually lasting several years or longer. 	delayed grief or trauma: when adjustment seems normal but then distress and symptoms increase months later. researchers have not found evidence of delayed grief, but delayed trauma appears to be a genuine phenomenon. five stages theory[edit] main article: kübler-ross model the kübler-ross model, commonly known as the five stages of grief, is a theory first introduced by elisabeth kübler-ross in her book, on death and dying.[ ] based on the uncredited earlier work of john bowlby and colin murray-parkes, kübler-ross actually applied the stages to persons who were dying, not persons who were grieving. her studies involved her work with the terminally ill. the popular but empirically unsupported model describes in five distinct stages how people deal with their impending death. the five stages are: 	denial 	anger 	bargaining 	depression 	acceptance the theory holds that the stages are a part of the framework that helps people learn to live without what they have lost. the stages model, which came about in the s, is a theory based on observation of people who are dying, not people who experienced the death of a loved one. this model found limited empirical support in a study by maciejewski et al.[ ] that is that the sequence was correct although acceptance was highest at all points throughout the persons experience. the research of george bonanno, however, is acknowledged as debunking the five stages of grief because his large body of peer-reviewed studies show that the vast majority of people who have experienced a loss are resilient and that there are multiple trajectories following loss. physiological and neurological processes[edit] "pietà" by el greco, – . philadelphia museum of art studies of fmri scans of women from whom grief was elicited about the death of a mother or a sister in the past years resulted in the conclusion that grief produced a local inflammation response as measured by salivary concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines. these responses were correlated with activation in the anterior cingulate cortex and orbitofrontal cortex. this activation also correlated with the free recall of grief-related word stimuli. this suggests that grief can cause stress, and that this reaction is linked to the emotional processing parts of the frontal lobe.[ ] activation of the anterior cingulate cortex and vagus nerve is similarly implicated in the experience of heartbreak whether due to social rejection or bereavement. among those persons who have been bereaved within the previous three months of a given report, those who report many intrusive thoughts about the deceased show ventral amygdala and rostral anterior cingulate cortex hyperactivity to reminders of their loss. in the case of the amygdala, this links to their sadness intensity. in those individuals who avoid such thoughts, there is a related opposite type of pattern in which there is a decrease in the activation of the dorsal amygdala and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. in those not so emotionally affected by reminders of their loss, studies of fmri scans have been used to conclude that there is a high functional connectivity between the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and amygdala activity, suggesting that the former regulates activity in the latter. in those people who had greater intensity of sadness, there was a low functional connection between the rostal anterior cingulate cortex and amygdala activity, suggesting a lack of regulation of the former part of the brain upon the latter.[ ] evolutionary theories[edit] from an evolutionary perspective, grief is perplexing because it appears costly, and it is not clear what benefits it provides the sufferer. several researchers have proposed functional explanations for grief, attempting to solve this puzzle. sigmund freud argued that grief is a process of libidinal reinvestment. the griever must, freud argued, disinvest from the deceased, which is a painful process.[ ] but this disinvestment allows the griever to use libidinal energies on other, possibly new attachments, so it provides a valuable function. john archer, approaching grief from an attachment theory perspective, argued that grief is a byproduct of the human attachment system.[ ] generally, a grief-type response is adaptive because it compels a social organism to search for a lost individual (e.g., a mother or a child). however, in the case of death, the response is maladaptive because the individual is not simply lost and the griever cannot reunite with the deceased. grief, from this perspective, is a painful cost of the human capacity to form commitments. other researchers such as randolph nesse have proposed that grief is a kind of psychological pain that orients the sufferer to a new existence without the deceased and creates a painful but instructive memory.[ ] if, for example, leaving an offspring alone at a watering hole led to the offspring's death, grief creates an intensively painful memory of the event, dissuading a parent from ever again leaving an offspring alone at a watering hole. more recently, bo winegard and colleagues argued that grief might be a socially selected signal of an individual's propensity for forming strong, committed relationships.[ ] from this social signaling perspective, grief targets old and new social partners, informing them that the griever is capable of forming strong social commitments. that is, because grief signals a person's capacity to form strong and faithful social bonds, those who displayed prolonged grief responses were preferentially chosen by alliance partners. the authors argue that throughout human evolution, grief was therefore shaped and elaborated by the social decisions of selective alliance partners. risks[edit] bereavement, while a normal part of life, carries a degree of risk when severe. severe reactions affect approximately % to % of people.[ ] severe reactions mainly occur in people with depression present before the loss event.[ ] severe grief reactions may carry over into family relations. some researchers have found an increased risk of marital breakup following the death of a child, for example. others have found no increase. john james, author of the grief recovery handbook and founder of the grief recovery institute, reported that his marriage broke up after the death of his infant son. many studies have looked at the bereaved in terms of increased risks for stress-related illnesses. colin murray parkes in the s and s in england noted increased doctor visits, with symptoms such as abdominal pain, breathing difficulties, and so forth in the first six months following a death. others have noted increased mortality rates (ward, a.w. ) and bunch et al. found a five times greater risk of suicide in teens following the death of a parent.[ ] complicated grief[edit] prolonged grief disorder (pgd), formerly known as complicated grief disorder (cgd), is a pathological reaction to loss representing a cluster of empirically derived symptoms that have been associated with long-term physical and psycho-social dysfunction. individuals with pgd experience severe grief symptoms for at least six months and are stuck in a maladaptive state.[ ] an attempt is being made to create a diagnosis category for complicated grief in the dsm- .[ ][ ] it is currently an "area for further study" in the dsm, under the name persistent complex bereavement disorder. critics of including the diagnosis of complicated grief in the dsm- say that doing so will constitute characterizing a natural response as a pathology, and will result in wholesale medicating of people who are essentially normal.[ ][ ] shear and colleagues found an effective treatment for complicated grief, by treating the reactions in the same way as trauma reactions.[ ][ ] complicated grief is not synonymous with grief. complicated grief is characterised by an extended grieving period and other criteria, including mental and physical impairments.[ ] an important part of understanding complicated grief is understanding how the symptoms differ from normal grief. the mayo clinic states that with normal grief the feelings of loss are evident. when the reaction turns into complicated grief, however, the feelings of loss become incapacitating and continue even though time passes.[ ] the signs and symptoms characteristic of complicated grief are listed as "extreme focus on the loss and reminders of the loved one, intense longing or pining for the deceased, problems accepting the death, numbness or detachment… bitterness about your loss, inability to enjoy life, depression or deep sadness, trouble carrying out normal routines, withdrawing from social activities, feeling that life holds no meaning or purpose, irritability or agitation, lack of trust in others."[ ] the symptoms seen in complicated grief are specific because the symptoms seem to be a combination of the symptoms found in separation as well as traumatic distress. they are also considered to be complicated because, unlike normal grief, these symptoms will continue regardless of the amount of time that has passed and despite treatment given from tricyclic antidepressants.[ ] in an article by the nejm (the new england journal of medicine) complicated grief cases are multifactorial, and that complicated grief is distinguished from major depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. evidence shows that complicated grief is a more severe and prolonged version of acute grief than a completely different type of grief. while only affecting to % of people in the world, complicated grief is usually contracted when a loved one passes away suddenly and in a violent way. in the study "bereavement and late-life depression: grief and its complications in the elderly" six subjects with symptoms of complicated grief were given a dose of paroxetine, a selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor, and showed a % decrease in their symptoms within a three-month period. the mental health clinical research team theorizes that the symptoms of complicated grief in bereaved elderly are an alternative of post-traumatic stress. these symptoms were correlated with cancer, hypertension, anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation, increased smoking, and sleep impairments at around six months after spousal death.[ ] a treatment that has been found beneficial in dealing with the symptoms associated with complicated grief is the use of serotonin specific reuptake inhibitors such as paroxetine. these inhibitors have been found to reduce intrusive thoughts, avoidant behaviors, and hyperarousal that are associated with complicated grief. in addition psychotherapy techniques are in the process of being developed.[ ] disenfranchised grief[edit] main article: disenfranchised grief examples of bereavement[edit] "bereavement" redirects here. for other uses, see bereavement (disambiguation). 	 	this section needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (april ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) death of a child[edit] “it is a fearful thing to love what death can touch.” josephine jacobson, the instant of knowing (library of congress, ), . this woodcut by julius schnorr von karolsfeld depicts the death of bathsheba's first child with david, who lamented, "i shall go to him, but he will not return to me"( samuel : ) death of a child can take the form of a loss in infancy such as miscarriage or stillbirth[ ] or neonatal death, sids, or the death of an older child. in most cases, parents find the grief almost unbearably devastating, and it tends to hold greater risk factors than any other loss. this loss also bears a lifelong process: one does not get 'over' the death but instead must assimilate and live with it.[ ] intervention and comforting support can make all the difference to the survival of a parent in this type of grief but the risk factors are great and may include family breakup or suicide.[ ] feelings of guilt, whether legitimate or not, are pervasive, and the dependent nature of the relationship disposes parents to a variety of problems as they seek to cope with this great loss. parents who suffer miscarriage or a regretful or coerced abortion may experience resentment towards others who experience successful pregnancies. suicide[edit] parents may feel they cannot openly discuss their grief and feel their emotions because of how their child died and how the people around them may perceive the situation. parents, family members and service providers have all confirmed the unique nature of suicide-related bereavement following the loss of a child.[ ] death of a spouse[edit] many widows and widowers describe losing 'half' of themselves. a factor is the manner in which the spouse died. the survivor of a spouse who died of an illness has a different experience of such loss than a survivor of a spouse who died by an act of violence. often, the spouse who is "left behind" may suffer from depression and loneliness, and may feel it necessary to seek professional help in dealing with their new life. furthermore, most couples have a division of 'tasks' or 'labor', e.g., the husband mows the yard, the wife pays the bills, etc. which, in addition to dealing with great grief and life changes, means added responsibilities for the bereaved. planning and financing a funeral can be very difficult if pre-planning was not completed. changes in insurance, bank accounts, claiming of life insurance, securing childcare can also be intimidating to someone who is grieving. social isolation may also become imminent, as many groups composed of couples find it difficult to adjust to the new identity of the bereaved, and the bereaved themselves have great challenges in reconnecting with others. widows of many cultures, for instance, wear black for the rest of their lives to signify the loss of their spouse and their grief. only in more recent decades has this tradition been reduced to a period of two years, while some religions such as christian orthodox many widows will still continue to wear black for the remainder of their lives.[ ] death of a parent[edit] for a child, the death of a parent, without support to manage the effects of the grief, may result in long-term psychological harm. this is more likely if the adult carers are struggling with their own grief and are psychologically unavailable to the child. there is a critical role of the surviving parent or caregiver in helping the children adapt to a parent's death. however, losing a parent at a young age also has some positive effects. some children had an increased maturity, better coping skills and improved communication. adolescents who lost a parent valued other people more than those who have not experienced such a close loss.[ ] when an adult child loses a parent in later adulthood, it is considered to be "timely" and to be a normative life course event. this allows the adult children to feel a permitted level of grief. however, research shows that the death of a parent in an adult's midlife is not a normative event by any measure, but is a major life transition causing an evaluation of one's own life or mortality. others may shut out friends and family in processing the loss of someone with whom they have had the longest relationship.[ ] death of a sibling[edit] grieving siblings are often referred to as the 'forgotten mourners' who are made to feel as if their grief is not as severe as their parents' grief (n.a., ).[ ] however, the sibling relationship tends to be the longest significant relationship of the lifespan and siblings who have been part of each other's lives since birth, such as twins, help form and sustain each other's identities; with the death of one sibling comes the loss of that part of the survivor's identity because “your identity is based on having them there.”[ ][ ] if siblings were not on good terms or close with each other, then intense feelings of guilt may ensue on the part of the surviving sibling (guilt may also ensue for having survived, not being able to prevent the death, having argued with their sibling, etc.)[ ] loss during childhood[edit] when a parent or caregiver dies or leaves, children may have symptoms of psychopathology, but they are less severe than in children with major depression.[ ] the loss of a parent, grandparent or sibling can be very troubling in childhood, but even in childhood there are age differences in relation to the loss. a very young child, under one or two, may be found to have no reaction if a carer dies, but other children may be affected by the loss. at a time when trust and dependency are formed, even mere separation can cause problems in well-being. this is especially true if the loss is around critical periods such as – months, when attachment and separation are at their height and even a brief separation from a parent or other caregiver can cause distress.[ ] even as a child grows older, death is still difficult to fathom and this affects how a child responds. for example, younger children see death more as a separation, and may believe death is curable or temporary. reactions can manifest themselves in "acting out" behaviors, a return to earlier behaviors such as thumb sucking, clinging to a toy or angry behavior. though they do not have the maturity to mourn as an adult, they feel the same intensity.[citation needed] as children enter pre-teen and teen years, there is a more mature understanding. adolescents may respond by delinquency, or oppositely become "over-achievers". repetitive actions are not uncommon such as washing a car repeatedly or taking up repetitive tasks such as sewing, computer games, etc. it is an effort to stay above the grief.[citation needed] childhood loss can predispose a child not only to physical illness but to emotional problems and an increased risk for suicide, especially in the adolescent period.[citation needed] children can experience grief as a result of losses due to causes other than death. for example, children who have been physically, psychologically or sexually abused often grieve over the damage to or the loss of their ability to trust. since such children usually have no support or acknowledgement from any source outside the family unit, this is likely to be experienced as disenfranchised grief.[citation needed] relocations can cause children significant grief particularly if they are combined with other difficult circumstances such as neglectful or abusive parental behaviors, other significant losses, etc.[ ][ ] loss of a friend or classmate[edit] children may experience the death of a friend or a classmate through illness, accidents, suicide, or violence. initial support involves reassuring children that their emotional and physical feelings are normal.[ ] survivor guilt (or survivor's guilt; also called survivor syndrome or survivor's syndrome) is a mental condition that occurs when a person perceives themselves to have done wrong by surviving a traumatic event when others did not. it may be found among survivors of combat, natural disasters, epidemics, among the friends and family of those who have died by suicide, and in non-mortal situations such as among those whose colleagues are laid off. other losses[edit] people who become unemployed, such as these california workers, may face grief from the loss of their job parents may grieve due to loss of children through means other than death, for example through loss of custody in divorce proceedings; legal termination of parental rights by the government, such as in cases of child abuse; through kidnapping; because the child voluntarily left home (either as a runaway or, for overage children, by leaving home legally); or because an adult refuses or is unable to have contact with a parent. this loss differs from the death of a child in that the grief process is prolonged or denied because of hope that the relationship will be restored.[citation needed] grief may occur after the loss of a romantic relationship (i.e. divorce or break up), a vocation, a pet (animal loss), a home, children leaving home (empty nest syndrome), sibling(s) leaving home, a friend, a faith in one's religion, etc. a person who strongly identifies with their occupation may feel a sense of grief if they have to stop their job due to retirement, being laid off, injury, or loss of certification. those who have experienced a loss of trust will often also experience some form of grief.[ ] gradual bereavement[edit] many of the above examples of bereavement happen abruptly, but there are also cases of being gradually bereft of something or someone. for example, the gradual loss of a loved one by alzheimer's produces a “gradual grief.” [ ] the author kara tippetts described her dying of cancer, as dying “by degrees”: her “body failing” and her “abilities vanishing.”[ ] milton crum, writing about gradual bereavement says that “every degree of death, every death of a person’s characteristics, every death of a person’s abilities, is a bereavement.”[ ] support[edit] professional support[edit] many people who grieve do not need professional help.[ ] some, however, may seek additional support from licensed psychologists or psychiatrists. support resources available to the bereaved may include grief counseling, professional support-groups or educational classes, and peer-led support groups. in the united states of america, local hospice agencies may provide a first contact for those seeking bereavement support.[ ] it is important to recognize when grief has turned into something more serious, thus mandating contacting a medical professional. grief can result in depression or alcohol- and drug-abuse and, if left untreated, it can become severe enough to impact daily living.[ ] it recommends contacting a medical professional if "you can’t deal with grief, you are using excessive amounts of drugs or alcohol, you become very depressed, or you have prolonged depression that interferes with your daily life."[ ] other reasons to seek medical attention may include: "can focus on little else but your loved one’s death, have persistent pining or longing for the deceased person, have thoughts of guilt or self-blame, believe that you did something wrong or could have prevented the death, feel as if life isn’t worth living, have lost your sense of purpose in life, wish you had died along with your loved one."[ ] professionals can use multiple ways to help someone cope and move through their grief. hypnosis is sometimes used as an adjunct therapy in helping patients experiencing grief.[ ] hypnosis enhances and facilitates mourning and helps patients to resolve traumatic grief.[ ] lichtenthal and cruess ( ) studied how bereavement-specific written disclosure had benefits in helping adjust to loss, and in helping improve the effects of post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd), prolonged grief disorder, and depression. directed writing helped many of the individuals who had experienced a loss of a significant relationship. it involved individuals trying to make meaning out of the loss through sense making, (making sense of what happened and the cause of the death), or through benefit finding (consideration of the global significance of the loss of one's goals, and helping the family develop a greater appreciation of life). this meaning-making can come naturally for some, but many need direct intervention to "move on".[ ] support groups[edit] support groups for bereaved individuals follow a diversity of patterns.[ ] [ ] many are organized purely as peer-to-peer groups such as local chapters of the compassionate friends, an international group for bereaved parents. other grief support groups are led by professionals, perhaps with the assistance of peers. some support groups deal with specific problems, such as learning to plan meals and cook for only for one person.[ ] cultural differences in grieving[edit] main article: mourning each culture specifies manners such as rituals, styles of dress, or other habits, as well as attitudes, in which the bereaved are encouraged or expected to take part. an analysis of non-western cultures suggests that beliefs about continuing ties with the deceased varies. in japan, maintenance of ties with the deceased is accepted and carried out through religious rituals. in the hopi of arizona, the deceased are quickly forgotten and life continues on.[citation needed] different cultures grieve in different ways, but all have ways that are vital in healthy coping with the death of a loved one.[ ] the american family's approach to grieving was depicted in "the grief committee", by t. glen coughlin. the short story gives an inside look at how the american culture has learned to cope with the tribulations and difficulties of grief. (the story is taught in the course, the politics of mourning: grief management in a cross-cultural fiction. columbia university)[ ] in those with cognitive impairment[edit] contrary to the belief that those who have a high degree of cognitive impairment, such as an intellectual disability, are unable to process the loss of those around them, those with cognitive impairments are able to process grief in a similar manner to those without cognitive impairment.[ ] one of the main differences between those with an intellectual disability and those without is typically the ability to verbalize their feelings about the loss, which is why non-verbal cues and changes in behavior become so important, because these are usually signs of distress and expression of grief among this population.[ ] it is important when working with individuals with these such impairments that caregivers and family members meet them where their level of functioning is and allow them to process the loss and grief with assistance given where needed, and not to ignore the grief that these individuals undergo.[ ] an important aspect of treatment of grief for those with an intellectual disability is family involvement where possible, which may take the form of a biological family or a family created in a group home or clinical setting. by having the family involved in an open and supporting dialogue with the individual it helps them to process. however, if the family is not properly educated on how these individuals handle loss, their involvement may not be as beneficial than those who are educated. the importance of the family unit is very crucial in a socio-cognitive approach to bereavement counseling. in this approach the individual with intellectual disability has the opportunity to see how those around them handle the loss and have the opportunity to act accordingly by modeling behavior. this approach also helps the individual know that their emotions are acceptable and normal.[ ] in animals[edit] 	 	this section needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (april ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) in august friedrich schenck's painting anguish, held at the national gallery of victoria, a grieving ewe mourns the death of her lamb. previously it was believed that grief was only a human emotion, but studies have shown that other animals have shown grief or grief-like states during the death of another animal, most notably elephants, wolves, apes, and goats. this can occur between bonded animals which are animals that attempt to survive together (i.e. a pack of wolves or mated prairie voles). animals are bonded species like humans. there is evidence that animals experience grief in the loss of their group member, a mate, or their owner for many days. some animals show their grief for their loss for many years. when animals are grieving, their life routines change the same as humans. for instance, they may stop eating, isolate themselves, or change their sleeping routine by taking naps instead of sleeping during the night. after the death of their group member or a mate, some of the animals go become depressed, while others like the bonobo keep the dead bodies of their babies for a long time. cats try to find their dead fellow with a mourning cry, and dogs and horses become depressed. [ ] mammals[edit] mammals have demonstrated grief-like states, especially between a mother and her offspring. she will often stay close to her dead offspring for short periods of time and may investigate the reasons for the baby's non-response. for example, some deer will often sniff, poke, and look at its lifeless fawn before realising it is dead and leaving it to rejoin the herd shortly afterwards. other animals, such as a lioness, will pick up its cub in its mouth and place it somewhere else before abandoning it. when a baby chimpanzee or gorilla dies, the mother will carry the body around for several days before it may finally be able to move on without it; this behavior has been observed in other primates, as well. jane goodall has described chimpanzees as exhibiting mournful behavior toward the loss of a group member with silence and by showing more attention to it. and they will often continue grooming it and stay close to the carcass until the group must move on without it. another notable example is koko, a gorilla who was taught sign language, who expressed sadness and even described sadness about the death of her pet cat, all ball. elephants, have shown unusual behavior upon encountering the remains of another deceased elephant. they will often investigate it by touching and grabbing it with their trunks and have the whole herd stand around it for long periods of time until they must leave it behind. it is unknown whether they are mourning over it and showing sympathy, or are just curious and investigating the dead body. elephants are thought to be able to discern relatives even from their remains. an episode of the acclaimed bbc documentary life on earth shows this in detail – the elephants, upon finding a dead herd member, pause for several minutes at a time, and carefully touch and hold the dead creature's bones. birds[edit] some birds seem to lack the perception of grief or quickly accept it; mallard hens, although shocked for a moment when losing one of their young to a predator, will soon return to doing what they were doing before the predator attacked. however, some other waterbirds, such as mute swans are known to grieve for the loss of a partner or cygnet, and are known to engage in pining for days, weeks or even months at a time.[ ][ ] other species of swans such as the black swan have also been observed mourning the loss of a close relative.[ ] monogamous animals[edit] another form of grief in animals is when an individual loses its mate; this can be especially brutal when the species is monogamous. so when a pair bonding species, such as a black-backed jackal, loses its mate it can be very difficult for it to detach itself from its dead mate. see also[edit] 	anomalous experiences 	anticipatory grief 	association for death education and counseling 	coping (psychology) 	disenfranchised grief 	grief counseling 	the grief recovery institute 	list of counseling topics 	major depressive disorder 	miscarriage and grief 	postponement of grief 	post traumatic stress disorder 	psychological trauma 	stress 	support group 	thanatosensitivity references[ ][edit] 	^ a b "grief: medlineplus medical encyclopedia". medlineplus.gov. retrieved - - . 	^ america, h. f. 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( ). "hypnotherapy for traumatic grief: janetian and modern approaches integrated". american journal of clinical hypnosis. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . pmid  . 	^ hart, o.; brown, p.; turco, r.n. (april ). "hypnotherapy for traumatic grief: janetian and modern approaches integrated" (pdf). american journal of clinical hypnosis. ( ): – . 	^ lichtenthal, w.g.; cruess d.g. ( ). "effects of directed written disclosure on grief and distress symptoms among bereaved individuals". death studies. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ hoy, william g. ( ). bereavement groups and the role of social support: integrating theory, research, and practice. new york, ny: routledge. isbn  - . 	^ rosenstein, d. & yopp, j. ( ). the group: seven widowed fathers reimagine life. oxford university press. isbn  - - - - .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ nierenberg, amelia ( - - ). "for many widows, the hardest part is mealtime (published )". the new york times. issn  - . retrieved - - . 	^ santrock, j. w. ( ). a topical approach to life-span development- th ed. new york : mcgraw-hill higher education.[page needed] 	^ the politics of mourning: grief management in a cross-cultural fiction, by rochelle almeida, by rosemont publishing company, associated university press.[page needed] 	^ mcritchie, r., mckenzie, k., quayle, e., harlin, m., neumann, k. ( ). how adults with intellectual disability experience bereavement and grief: a qualitative exploration. death studies, ( ), - . 	^ gilrane-mcgarry, u., taggart, l. ( ). an exploration of the support received by people with intellectual disabilities who have been bereaved. journal of research in nursing, ( ), - . 	^ mcevoy, j., smith, e. ( ). families perceptions of the grieving process and concept of death in individuals with intellectual disabilities. british journal of developmental disabilities, ( , pt. ), - . 	^ clute, m. ( ). bereavement interventions for adults with intellectual disabilities: what works. omega: journal of death and dying, ( ), - . 	^ kluger, jefferey ( - - ). "the mystery of animal grief". time. retrieved - - . 	^ frequently asked questions about swans archived september , , at the wayback machine, the swan sanctuary 	^ wedderburn, pete. "animals grieve just as people do". the telegraph. retrieved - - . 	^ "male swan holds vigil at nest after teens kill his mate". treehugger. retrieved - - . 	^ shear, m. katherine ( - - ). "complicated grief". new england journal of medicine. ( ): – . doi: . /nejmcp . issn  - . pmid  . further reading[edit] 	black, h. k.; santanello, h. r. ( ). "the salience of family worldview in mourning an elderly husband and father". the gerontologist. ( ): – . doi: . /geront/gnr . pmc  . pmid  . 	hoy, w.g. ( ). bereavement groups and the role of social support: integrating theory, research, and practice. new 	mayo clinic staff, ( , sept. ). in complicated grief. retrieved may , , from http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/complicated-grief/ds 	newson, rachel s.; boelen, paul a.; hek, karin; hofman, albert; tiemeier, henning ( ). "the prevalence and characteristics of complicated grief in older adults". journal of affective disorders. ( – ): – . doi: . /j.jad. . . . pmid  . 	schmid, wilhelm, what we gain as we grow older: on gelassenheit. new york: upper west side philosophers, inc. (living now gold award) 	smith, m., robinson, l., & segal, j. ( ). depression in older adults and the elderly. helpguide, retrieved feb. , , from https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://helpguide.org/mental/depression_elderly.htm 	span, p. ( , dec. ). the unspoken diagnosis: old age. the new york times. retrieved feb. , , from http://newoldage.blogs.nytimes.com/ / / /the-unspoken-diagnosis-old-age/?ref=deathanddying 	stengel, kathrin, november rose: a speech on death. new york: upper west side philosophers, inc. (independent publisher book award for aging/death & dying) 	rosenstein, d. & yopp, j. ( january ). the group: seven widowed fathers reimagine life. oxford university press. isbn  - - - - .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	yarbrough, julie ( ). a journey through grief: beyond the broken heart, retrieved apr. , from http://www.beyondthebrokenheart.com/resources/category, external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: grief 		look up grief in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	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wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 frustration - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	frustration 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		common emotional response to opposition, related to anger, annoyance and disappointment this article is about the emotional response of frustration. for other uses, see frustration (disambiguation). 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e a frustrated man sitting at a desk a woman who is frustrated a frustrated man sitting in a traffic jam in psychology, frustration is a common emotional response to opposition, related to anger, annoyance and disappointment. frustration arises from the perceived resistance to the fulfillment of an individual's will or goal and is likely to increase when a will or goal is denied or blocked.[ ][ ][ ] there are two types of frustration: internal and external. internal frustration may arise from challenges in fulfilling personal goals, desires, instinctual drives and needs, or dealing with perceived deficiencies, such as a lack of confidence or fear of social situations. conflict, such as when one has competing goals that interfere with one another, can also be an internal source of frustration or annoyance and can create cognitive dissonance. external causes of frustration involve conditions outside an individual's control, such as a physical roadblock, a difficult task, or the perception of wasting time.[ ] there are multiple ways individuals cope with frustration such as passive–aggressive behavior, anger, or violence, although frustration may also propel positive processes via enhanced effort and strive.[ ] this broad range of potential outcomes makes it difficult to identify the original cause(s) of frustration, as the responses may be indirect. however, a more direct and common response is a propensity towards aggression.[ ][ ] contents 	 causes 	 frustration tolerance 	 see also 	 references 	 external links causes[edit] frustration originates from feelings of uncertainty and insecurity which stems from a sense of inability to fulfill needs.[ ] if the needs of an individual are blocked, uneasiness and frustration are more likely to occur. when these needs are constantly ignored or unsatisfied, anger, depression, loss of self-confidence,[ ] annoyance, aggression, and sometimes violence are likely to follow.[ ] needs can be blocked two different ways; internally and externally. internal blocking happens within an individual's mind, either through lack of ability, confidence, conflicting goals and desires, and/or fears. external blocking happens to an individual outside their control such as physical roadblocks, difficult tasks, or perceived waste of time, especially when those roadblocks or challenges were unexpected, or if the individual expected the goal to be easy to accomplish. frustration is usually less when an individual expected, or knew beforehand, that the goal would be "challenging." some people are predisposed towards feelings of frustration, indexed in terms of temperament (frustration), in adolescence and neuroticism in adulthood.[ ] temperamental frustration is associated with perceptual alterations including changes in perceived relationship affection.[ ] frustration can be classed as a mental health problem–response behavior and can have a number of effects, depending on the mental health of the individual. in positive cases, this frustration will build until a level that is too great for the individual to contain or allow to continue, and thus produce action directed at solving the inherent problem in a disposition that does not cause social or physical harm. in negative cases, however, the individual may perceive the source of frustration to be outside their control, and thus the frustration will continue to build, leading eventually to further problematic behavior (e.g. violent reaction against perceived oppressors or enemies).[ ] stubborn refusal to respond to new conditions affecting the goal, such as removal or modification of the barrier, sometimes occurs. as pointed out by j.a.c. brown, severe punishment may cause individuals to continue non-adaptive behavior blindly: "either it may have an effect opposite to that of reward and as such, discourage the repetition of the act, or, by functioning as a frustrating agent, it may lead to fixation and the other symptoms of frustration as well. it follows that punishment is a dangerous tool, since it often has effects which are entirely the opposite of those desired".[ ] frustration tolerance[edit] frustration tolerance is one's ability to resist becoming frustrated when facing difficult tasks. having a low frustration tolerance is related to trait anger and a higher level of frustration tolerance is related to lower levels of anger and longer persistence on difficult tasks.[ ] for example, a child with a high frustration tolerance may be able to deal with repeated challenges and failures without experiencing significant frustration. the child with a low frustration tolerance can be quick to experience frustration when asked to perform tasks of moderate difficulty.[ ] see also[edit] 	frustration–aggression hypothesis 	anger 	aggression 	disappointment 	depression references[edit] 	^ a. m., m. w., d. m., m, crossman, sullivan, hitchcock, lewis ( ). "when frustration is repeated: behavioral and emotion responses during extinction over time". emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmc  . pmid  .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ de botton, alain (april ). the consolations of philosophy. new york: vintage books, a division of random house inc. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ tl, boyd ( ). "learned helplessness in humans: a frustration-produced response pattern". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . 	^ "frustration". psychologist anywhere anytime. retrieved november . 	^ a b jeronimus; et al. (january ). "frustration". in zeigler-hill, v.; shackelford, t.k. (eds.). encyclopedia of personality and individual differences. new york: springer. pp.  – . doi: . / - - - - _ - . isbn  - - - - . 	^ miller, ne (july ), "the frustration–aggression hypothesis", psychological review, ( ): – , doi: . /h . 	^ a.h., buss ( ). "instrumentality of aggression, feedback, and frustration as determinants of physical aggression". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /h . pmid  . 	^ cull, ian. "frustration". psychologistanywhereanytime.com. retrieved may . 	^ k, gelbrick ( ). "anger, frustration, and helplessness after service failure: coping strategies and effective informational support". journal of the academy of marketing science. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . 	^ "how to overcome frustration". erupting mind. november . retrieved november . 	^ laceulle, o.m.; et al. ( ). "why not everyone gets their fair share of stress: adolescent's perceived relationship affection mediates associations between temperament and subsequent stressful social events". european journal of personality. ( ): . doi: . /per. . 	^ berkowitz, leonard ( ). "frustration-aggression hypothesis: examination and reformulation". psychological bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ brown, jac ( ), the social psychology of industry, baltimore, md: penguin, pp.  – . 	^ szasz, p.l.; szentagotai, a.; hofmann, s. ( november ). "the effect of emotion regulation strategies on anger". behaviour research and therapy. ( ): – . doi: . /j.brat. . . . pmid  . 	^ liden, c. (february ). " traits you should know about your temperament". behaviour research and therapy. 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	cookie statement 		 	 	 empathy - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	empathy 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for other uses, see empathy (disambiguation) and empath (disambiguation). not to be confused with sympathy. the capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing hugging someone who is hurt is a signal of empathy 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e empathy is the capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing from within their frame of reference, that is, the capacity to place oneself in another's position.[ ] definitions of empathy encompass a broad range of emotional states. types of empathy include cognitive empathy, emotional (or affective) empathy, and somatic empathy.[ ][ ] contents 	 etymology 	 definitions 	 . general 	 . distinctions between empathy and related concepts 	 classification 	 . affective empathy 	 . cognitive empathy 	 . somatic 	 development 	 . evolutionary across species 	 . ontogenetic development 	 . individual differences 	 . sex differences 	 . environmental influences 	 empathic anger and distress 	 . anger 	 . distress 	 influence on helping behavior 	 genetics 	 . general 	 . neuroscientific basis of empathy 	 . impairment 	 . . autism 	 . . psychopathy 	 . . other conditions 	 in educational contexts 	 in intercultural contexts 	 applications 	 practical issues 	 ethical issues 	 empathic distress fatigue 	 disciplinary approaches 	 . philosophy 	 . . ethics 	 . . phenomenology 	 . history 	 . psychotherapy 	 . business and management 	 measurement 	 . self-report measures 	 international comparison of country-wide empathy 	 other animals and empathy between species 	 see also 	 references 	 external links etymology[edit] understanding another's view the english word empathy is derived from the ancient greek word ἐμπάθεια (empatheia, meaning "physical affection or passion").[ ] this, in turn, comes from ἐν (en, "in, at") and πάθος (pathos, "passion" or "suffering").[ ] the term was adapted by hermann lotze and robert vischer to create the german word einfühlung ("feeling into"). this was described for the first time in english by the british critic and author, vernon lee, who explained "the word sympathy, with-feeling... is exercised only when our feelings enter, and are absorbed into, the form we perceive."[ ] einfühlung was officially translated by edward b. titchener in into the english word "empathy".[ ][ ][ ] however, in modern greek: εμπάθεια means, depending on context: prejudice, malevolence, malice, and hatred.[ ] definitions[edit] general[edit] empathy definitions encompass a broad range of phenomena, including caring for other people and having a desire to help them; experiencing emotions that match another person's emotions; discerning what another person is thinking or feeling;[ ] and making less distinct the differences between the self and the other.[ ] having empathy can include having the understanding that there are many factors that go into decision making and cognitive thought processes. past experiences have an influence on the decision making of today. understanding this allows a person to have empathy for individuals who sometimes make illogical decisions to a problem that most individuals would respond with an obvious response. broken homes, childhood trauma, lack of parenting and many other factors can influence the connections in the brain which a person uses to make decisions in the future.[ ] according to martin hoffman everyone is born with the capability of feeling empathy.[ ] since empathy involves understanding the emotional states of other people, the way it is characterized is derived from the way emotions themselves are characterized. if, for example, emotions are taken to be centrally characterized by bodily feelings, then grasping the bodily feelings of another will be central to empathy. on the other hand, if emotions are more centrally characterized by a combination of beliefs and desires, then grasping these beliefs and desires will be more essential to empathy. the ability to imagine oneself as another person is a sophisticated imaginative process. however, the basic capacity to recognize emotions is probably innate[ ] and may be achieved unconsciously. yet it can be trained[ ] and achieved with various degrees of intensity or accuracy. empathy necessarily has a "more or less" quality. the paradigm case of an empathic interaction, however, involves a person communicating an accurate recognition of the significance of another person's ongoing intentional actions, associated emotional states, and personal characteristics in a manner that the recognized person can tolerate. recognitions that are both accurate and tolerable are central features of empathy.[ ][ ] the human capacity to recognize the bodily feelings of another is related to one's imitative capacities, and seems to be grounded in an innate capacity to associate the bodily movements and facial expressions one sees in another with the proprioceptive feelings of producing those corresponding movements or expressions oneself.[ ] humans seem to make the same immediate connection between the tone of voice and other vocal expressions and inner feeling. distinctions between empathy and related concepts[edit] compassion and sympathy are terms associated with empathy. definitions vary, contributing to the challenge of defining empathy. compassion is often defined as an emotion people feel when others are in need, which motivates people to help them. sympathy is a feeling of care and understanding for someone in need. some include in sympathy an empathic concern, a feeling of concern for another, in which some scholars include the wish to see them better off or happier.[ ] empathy is distinct also from pity and emotional contagion.[ ] pity is a feeling that one feels towards others that might be in trouble or in need of help as they cannot fix their problems themselves, often described as "feeling sorry" for someone. emotional contagion is when a person (especially an infant or a member of a mob) imitatively "catches" the emotions that others are showing without necessarily recognizing this is happening.[ ] alexithymia describes a deficiency in understanding, processing or describing emotions in oneself, unlike empathy which is about someone else.[ ] classification[edit] empathy is generally divided into two major components:[ ] affective empathy[edit] affective empathy, also called emotional empathy:[ ] the capacity to respond with an appropriate emotion to another's mental states.[ ] our ability to empathize emotionally is based on emotional contagion:[ ] being affected by another's emotional or arousal state.[ ] affective empathy can be subdivided into the following scales:[ ][ ] 	empathic concern: sympathy and compassion for others in response to their suffering.[ ][ ][ ] 	personal distress: self-centered feelings of discomfort and anxiety in response to another's suffering.[ ][ ][ ] there is no consensus regarding whether personal distress is a basic form of empathy or instead does not constitute empathy.[ ] there may be a developmental aspect to this subdivision. infants respond to the distress of others by getting distressed themselves; only when they are years old do they start to respond in other-oriented ways, trying to help, comfort and share.[ ] cognitive empathy[edit] cognitive empathy: the capacity to understand another's perspective or mental state.[ ][ ][ ] the terms cognitive empathy, social cognition, and theory of mind or mentalizing are often used synonymously, but due to a lack of studies comparing theory of mind with types of empathy, it is unclear whether these are equivalent.[ ] although science has not yet agreed upon a precise definition of these constructs, there is consensus about this distinction.[ ][ ] affective and cognitive empathy are also independent from one another; someone who strongly empathizes emotionally is not necessarily good in understanding another's perspective.[ ][ ] cognitive empathy can be subdivided into the following scales:[ ][ ] 	perspective-taking: the tendency to spontaneously adopt others' psychological perspectives.[ ] 	fantasy: the tendency to identify with fictional characters.[ ] 	tactical (or "strategic") empathy: the deliberate use of perspective-taking to achieve certain desired ends.[ ] although measures of cognitive empathy include self-report questionnaires and behavioral measures, a meta analysis[ ] found only a negligible association between self report and behavioral measures, suggesting that people are generally not able to accurately assess their own cognitive empathy abilities. somatic[edit] 	somatic empathy is a physical reaction, probably based on mirror neuron responses, in the somatic nervous system.[ ] development[edit] evolutionary across species[edit] an increasing number of studies in animal behavior and neuroscience indicate that empathy is not restricted to humans, and is in fact as old as the mammals, or perhaps older. examples include dolphins saving humans from drowning or from shark attacks. professor tom white suggests that reports of cetaceans having three times as many spindle cells—the nerve cells that convey empathy—in their brains as we do might mean these highly-social animals have a great awareness of one another's feelings.[ ] a multitude of behaviors has been observed in primates, both in captivity and in the wild, and in particular in bonobos, which are reported as the most empathetic of all the primates.[ ][ ] a recent study has demonstrated prosocial behavior elicited by empathy in rodents.[ ] rodents have been shown to demonstrate empathy for cagemates (but not strangers) in pain.[ ] one of the most widely read studies on the evolution of empathy, which discusses a neural perception-action mechanism (pam), is the one by stephanie preston and de waal.[ ] this review postulates a bottom-up model of empathy that ties together all levels, from state matching to perspective-taking. for university of chicago neurobiologist jean decety, [empathy] is not specific to humans. he argues that there is strong evidence that empathy has deep evolutionary, biochemical, and neurological underpinnings, and that even the most advanced forms of empathy in humans are built on more basic forms and remain connected to core mechanisms associated with affective communication, social attachment, and parental care.[ ] core neural circuits that are involved in empathy and caring include the brainstem, the amygdala, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, insula and orbitofrontal cortex.[ ] since all definitions of empathy involves an element of for others, all distinctions between egoism and empathy fail at least for beings lacking self-awareness. since the first mammals lacked a self-aware distinction between self and other, as shown by most mammals failing at mirror tests, the first mammals or anything more evolutionarily primitive than them cannot have had a context of default egoism requiring an empathy mechanism to be transcended. however, there are numerous examples in artificial intelligence research showing that simple reactions can carry out de facto functions the agents have no concept of, so this does not contradict evolutionary explanations of parental care. however, such mechanisms would be unadapted to self-other distinction and beings already dependent on some form of behavior benefitting each other or their offspring would never be able to evolve a form of self-other distinction that necessitated evolution of specialized non-preevolved and non-preevolvable mechanisms for retaining empathic behavior in the presence of self-other distinction, and so a fundamental neurological distinction between egoism and empathy cannot exist in any species.[ ][ ][ ] ontogenetic development[edit] by the age of two years, children normally begin to display the fundamental behaviors of empathy by having an emotional response that corresponds with another person's emotional state.[ ] even earlier, at one year of age, infants have some rudiments of empathy, in the sense that they understand that, just like their own actions, other people's actions have goals.[ ][ ][ ] sometimes, toddlers will comfort others or show concern for them at as early an age as two. also during the second year, toddlers will play games of falsehood or "pretend" in an effort to fool others, and this requires that the child know what others believe before he or she can manipulate those beliefs.[ ] in order to develop these traits, it is essential to expose your child to face-to-face interactions and opportunities and lead them away from a sedentary lifestyle. according to researchers at the university of chicago who used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri), children between the ages of and years appear to be naturally inclined to feel empathy for others in pain. their findings[ ] are consistent with previous fmri studies of pain empathy with adults. the research also found additional aspects of the brain were activated when youngsters saw another person intentionally hurt by another individual, including regions involved in moral reasoning.[ ] despite being able to show some signs of empathy, including attempting to comfort a crying baby, from as early as months to two years, most children do not show a fully fledged theory of mind until around the age of four.[ ] theory of mind involves the ability to understand that other people may have beliefs that are different from one's own, and is thought to involve the cognitive component of empathy.[ ] children usually become capable of passing "false belief" tasks, considered to be a test for a theory of mind, around the age of four. individuals with autism often find using a theory of mind very difficult. e.g. the sally–anne test.[ ][ ] empathetic maturity is a cognitive structural theory developed at the yale university school of nursing and addresses how adults conceive or understand the personhood of patients. the theory, first applied to nurses and since applied to other professions, postulates three levels that have the properties of cognitive structures. the third and highest level is held to be a meta-ethical theory of the moral structure of care. those adults operating with level-iii understanding synthesize systems of justice and care-based ethics.[ ] individual differences[edit] empathy in the broadest sense refers to a reaction of one individual to another's emotional state. recent years have seen increased movement toward the idea that empathy occurs from motor neuron imitation. it cannot be said that empathy is a single unipolar construct but rather a set of constructs. in essence, not every individual responds equally and uniformly the same to various circumstances. the empathic concern scale assesses "other-oriented" feelings of sympathy and concern and the personal distress scale measures "self-oriented" feelings of personal anxiety and unease. the combination of these scales helps reveal those that might not be classified as empathetic and expands the narrow definition of empathy. using this approach we can enlarge the basis of what it means to possess empathetic qualities and create a multi-faceted definition.[ ] behavioral and neuroimaging research show that two underlying facets of the personality dimensions extraversion and agreeableness (the warmth-altruistic personality profile) are associated with empathic accuracy and increased brain activity in two brain regions important for empathic processing (medial prefrontal cortex and temporoparietal junction).[ ] sex differences[edit] see also: sex differences in psychology § empathy the literature commonly indicates that females tend to have more cognitive empathy than males. reviews, meta-analysis and studies of physiological measures, behavioral tests, and brain neuroimaging, however, have revealed some mixed findings.[ ][ ] whereas some experimental and neuropsychological measures show no reliable sex effect, self-report data consistently indicates greater empathy in females. on average, female subjects score higher than males on the empathy quotient (eq), while males tend to score higher on the systemizing quotient (sq). both males and females with autistic spectrum disorders usually score lower on the eq and higher on sq (see below for more detail on autism and empathy).[ ] however, a series of studies, using a variety of neurophysiological measures, including meg,[ ] spinal reflex excitability,[ ] electroencephalography[ ][ ] and n paradigm[ ] have documented the presence of an overall gender difference in the human mirror neuron system, with female participants tending to exhibit stronger motor resonance than male participants. in addition, these aforementioned studies found that female participants tended to score higher on empathy self-report dispositional measures and that these measures positively correlated with the physiological response. other studies show no significant difference, and instead suggest that gender differences are the result of motivational differences.[ ][ ] a review published in the journal neuropsychologia found that women tended to be better at recognizing facial effects, expression processing and emotions in general.[ ] men only tended to be better at recognizing specific behavior which includes anger, aggression and threatening cues.[ ] a meta-analysis by researcher rena a kirkland in the journal north american journal of psychology found small significant sex differences favoring females in "reading of the mind" test. "reading of the mind" test is an advanced ability measure of cognitive empathy in which kirkland's analysis involved studies across countries.[ ] another meta-analysis in the journal of cognition and emotion, found a small overall female advantage in non-verbal emotional recognition across samples.[ ] using fmri, neuroscientist tania singer showed that empathy-related neural responses tended to be significantly lower in males when observing an "unfair" person experiencing pain.[ ] an analysis from the journal of neuroscience & biobehavioral reviews also found that, overall, there are sex differences in empathy from birth, growing larger with age and which remains consistent and stable across lifespan.[ ] females, on average, were found to have higher empathy than males, while children with higher empathy regardless of gender continue to be higher in empathy throughout development.[ ] further analysis of brain tools such as event related potentials found that females who saw human suffering tended to have higher erp waveforms than males.[ ] another investigation with similar brain tools such as n amplitudes found, on average, higher n in females in response to social situations which positively correlated with self-reported empathy.[ ] structural fmri studies also found females to have larger grey matter volumes in posterior inferior frontal and anterior inferior parietal cortex areas which are correlated with mirror neurons in fmri literature.[ ] females also tended to have a stronger link between emotional and cognitive empathy.[ ] the researchers found that the stability of these sex differences in development are unlikely to be explained by any environment influences but rather might have some roots in human evolution and inheritance.[ ] throughout prehistory, females were the primary nurturers and caretakers of children; so this might have led to an evolved neurological adaptation for women to be more aware and responsive to non-verbal expressions. according to the primary caretaker hypothesis, prehistoric males did not have the same selective pressure as primary caretakers; so therefore this might explain modern day sex differences in emotion recognition and empathy.[ ] environmental influences[edit] the environment has been another interesting topic of study. many theorize that environmental factors, such as parenting style and relationships, play a significant role in the development of empathy in children. empathy promotes pro social relationships, helps mediate aggression, and allows us to relate to others, all of which make empathy an important emotion among children. a study done by caroline tisot looked at how a variety of environmental factors affected the development of empathy in young children. parenting style, parent empathy, and prior social experiences were looked at. the children participating in the study were asked to complete an effective empathy measure, while the children's parents completed the parenting practices questionnaire, which assesses parenting style, and the balanced emotional empathy scale. this study found that a few parenting practices – as opposed to parenting style as a whole – contributed to the development of empathy in children. these practices include encouraging the child to imagine the perspectives of others and teaching the child to reflect on his or her own feelings. the results also show that the development of empathy varied based on the gender of the child and parent. paternal warmth was found to be significantly important, and was positively related to empathy within children, especially in boys. however, maternal warmth was negatively related to empathy within children, especially in girls.[ ] it has also been found that empathy can be disrupted due to trauma in the brain such as a stroke. in most cases empathy is usually impaired if a lesion or stroke occurs on the right side of the brain.[ ] in addition to this it has been found that damage to the frontal lobe, which is primarily responsible for emotional regulation, can impact profoundly on a person's capacity to experience empathy toward another individual.[ ] people who have suffered from an acquired brain injury also show lower levels of empathy according to previous studies. in fact, more than % of people who suffer from a traumatic brain injury self-report a deficit in their empathic capacity.[ ] again, linking this back to the early developmental stages of emotion, if emotional growth has been stunted at an early age due to various factors, empathy will struggle to infest itself in that individual's mind-set as a natural feeling, as they themselves will struggle to come to terms with their own thoughts and emotions. this is again suggestive of the fact that understanding one's own emotions is key in being able to identify with another individual's emotional state. empathic anger and distress[edit] anger[edit] empathic anger is an emotion, a form of empathic distress.[ ] empathic anger is felt in a situation where someone else is being hurt by another person or thing. it is possible to see this form of anger as a pro-social emotion.[citation needed] empathic anger has direct effects on both helping and punishing desires. empathic anger can be divided into two sub-categories: trait empathic anger and state empathic anger.[ ] the relationship between empathy and anger response towards another person has also been investigated, with two studies basically finding that the higher a person's perspective taking ability, the less angry they were in response to a provocation. empathic concern did not, however, significantly predict anger response, and higher personal distress was associated with increased anger.[ ][ ] distress[edit] empathic distress is feeling the perceived pain of another person. this feeling can be transformed into empathic anger, feelings of injustice, or guilt. these emotions can be perceived as pro-social; however, views differ as to whether they serve as motives for moral behavior.[ ][ ] influence on helping behavior[edit] see also: empathy-altruism emotions motivate individual behavior that aids in solving communal challenges as well as guiding group decisions about social exchange. additionally, recent research has shown individuals who report regular experiences of gratitude engage more frequently in prosocial behaviors. positive emotions like empathy or gratitude are linked to a more positive continual state and these people are far more likely to help others than those not experiencing a positive emotional state.[ ] thus, empathy's influence extends beyond relating to other's emotions, it correlates with an increased positive state and likeliness to aid others. measures of empathy show that mirror neurons are activated during arousal of sympathetic responses and prolonged activation shows increased probability to help others. research investigating the social response to natural disasters looked at the characteristics associated with individuals who help victims. researchers found that cognitive empathy, rather than emotional empathy, predicted helping behavior towards victims.[ ] others have posited that taking on the perspectives of others (cognitive empathy) allows these individuals to better empathize with victims without as much discomfort, whereas sharing the emotions of the victims (emotional empathy) can cause emotional distress, helplessness, victim-blaming, and ultimately can lead to avoidance rather than helping.[ ] despite this evidence for empathy-induced altruistic motivation, egoistic explanations may still be possible. for example, one alternative explanation for the problem-specific helping pattern may be that the sequence of events in the same problem condition first made subjects sad when they empathized with the problem and then maintained or enhanced subjects’ sadness when they were later exposed to the same plight. consequently, the negative state relief model would predict substantial helping among imagine-set subjects in the same condition, which is what occurred. an intriguing question arises from such findings concerning whether it is possible to have mixed motivations for helping. if this is the case, then simultaneous egoistic and altruistic motivations would occur. this would allow for a stronger sadness-based motivation to obscure the effects of an empathic concern-based altruistic motivation. the observed study would then have sadness as less intense than more salient altruistic motivation. consequently, relative strengths of different emotional reactions, systematically related to the need situation, may moderate the predominance of egoistic or altruistic motivation.[ ] but it has been shown that researchers in this area who have used very similar procedures sometimes obtain apparently contradictory results. superficial procedural differences such as precisely when a manipulation is introduced could also lead to divergent results and conclusions. it is therefore vital for any future research to move toward even greater standardization of measurement. thus, an important step in solving the current theoretical debate concerning the existence of altruism may involve reaching common methodological ground.[ ] genetics[edit] general[edit] research suggests that empathy is also partly genetically determined.[ ] for instance, carriers of the deletion variant of adra b show more activation of the amygdala when viewing emotionally arousing images.[ ][ ] the gene -httlpr seems to determine sensitivity to negative emotional information and is also attenuated by the deletion variant of adra b.[ ] carriers of the double g variant of the oxtr gene were found to have better social skills and higher self-esteem.[ ] a gene located near lrrn on chromosome then again controls the human ability to read, understand and respond to emotions in others.[ ] neuroscientific basis of empathy[edit] contemporary neuroscience has allowed us to understand the neural basis of the human mind's ability to understand and process emotion. studies today enable us to see the activation of mirror neurons and attempt to explain the basic processes of empathy. by isolating these mirror neurons and measuring the neural basis for human mind reading and emotion sharing abilities,[ ] science has come one step closer to finding the reason for reactions like empathy. neuroscientists have already discovered that people scoring high on empathy tests have especially busy mirror neuron systems in their brains.[ ] empathy is a spontaneous sharing of affect, provoked by witnessing and sympathizing with another's emotional state. in a way we mirror or mimic the emotional response that we would expect to feel in that condition or context, much like sympathy. unlike personal distress, empathy is not characterized by aversion to another's emotional response. additionally, empathizing with someone requires a distinctly sympathetic reaction where personal distress demands avoidance of distressing matters. this distinction is vital because empathy is associated with the moral emotion sympathy, or empathetic concern, and consequently also prosocial or altruistic action.[ ] empathy leads to sympathy by definition unlike the over-aroused emotional response that turns into personal distress and causes a turning-away from another's distress. in empathy, people feel what we believe are the emotions of another, which makes it both affective and cognitive by most psychologists.[ ] in this sense, arousal and empathy promote prosocial behavior as we accommodate each other to feel similar emotions. for social beings, negotiating interpersonal decisions is as important to survival as being able to navigate the physical landscape.[ ] a meta-analysis of recent fmri studies of empathy confirmed that different brain areas are activated during affective–perceptual empathy and cognitive–evaluative empathy.[ ] also, a study with patients with different types of brain damage confirmed the distinction between emotional and cognitive empathy.[ ] specifically, the inferior frontal gyrus appears to be responsible for emotional empathy, and the ventromedial prefrontal gyrus seems to mediate cognitive empathy.[ ] research in recent years has focused on possible brain processes underlying the experience of empathy. for instance, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri) has been employed to investigate the functional anatomy of empathy.[ ][ ] these studies have shown that observing another person's emotional state activates parts of the neuronal network involved in processing that same state in oneself, whether it is disgust,[ ] touch,[ ][ ] or pain.[ ][ ][ ][ ] the study of the neural underpinnings of empathy has received increased interest following the target paper published by preston and frans de waal,[ ] following the discovery of mirror neurons in monkeys that fire both when the creature watches another perform an action as well as when they themselves perform it. in their paper, they argue that attended perception of the object's state automatically activates neural representations, and that this activation automatically primes or generates the associated autonomic and somatic responses (idea of perception-action-coupling),[ ] unless inhibited. this mechanism is similar to the common coding theory between perception and action. another recent study provides evidence of separate neural pathways activating reciprocal suppression in different regions of the brain associated with the performance of "social" and "mechanical" tasks. these findings suggest that the cognition associated with reasoning about the "state of another person's mind" and "causal/mechanical properties of inanimate objects" are neurally suppressed from occurring at the same time.[ ][ ] a recent meta-analysis of fmri studies found that affective empathy is correlated with increased activity in the insula while cognitive empathy is correlated with activity in the mid cingulate cortex and adjacent dorsomedial prefrontal cortex.[ ] it has been suggested that mirroring-behavior in motor neurons during empathy may help duplicate feelings.[ ] such sympathetic action may afford access to sympathetic feelings for another and, perhaps, trigger emotions of kindness, forgiveness.[ ] impairment[edit] a difference in distribution between affective and cognitive empathy has been observed in various conditions. psychopathy and narcissism have been associated with impairments in affective but not cognitive empathy, whereas bipolar disorder and borderline traits have been associated with deficits in cognitive but not affective empathy.[ ] autism spectrum disorders have been associated with various combinations, including deficits in cognitive empathy as well as deficits in both cognitive and affective empathy.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] schizophrenia, too, has been associated with deficits in both types of empathy.[ ] however, even in people without conditions such as these, the balance between affective and cognitive empathy varies.[ ] atypical empathic responses have been associated with autism and particular personality disorders such as psychopathy, borderline, narcissistic, and schizoid personality disorders; conduct disorder;[ ] schizophrenia; bipolar disorder;[ ] and depersonalization.[ ] lack of affective empathy has also been associated with sex offenders. it was found that offenders that had been raised in an environment where they were shown a lack of empathy and had endured the same type of abuse, felt less affective empathy for their victims.[ ] autism[edit] the interaction between empathy and autism is a complex and ongoing field of research. several different factors are proposed to be at play. a study of high-functioning adults with autistic spectrum disorders found an increased prevalence of alexithymia,[ ] a personality construct characterized by the inability to recognize and articulate emotional arousal in oneself or others.[ ][ ][ ] based on fmri studies, alexithymia is responsible for a lack of empathy.[ ] the lack of empathic attunement inherent to alexithymic states may reduce quality[ ] and satisfaction[ ] of relationships. recently, a study has shown that high-functioning autistic adults appear to have a range of responses to music similar to that of neurotypical individuals, including the deliberate use of music for mood management. clinical treatment of alexithymia could involve using a simple associative learning process between musically induced emotions and their cognitive correlates.[ ] a study has suggested that the empathy deficits associated with the autism spectrum may be due to significant comorbidity between alexithymia and autism spectrum conditions rather than a result of social impairment.[ ] one study found that, relative to typically developing children, high-functioning autistic children showed reduced mirror neuron activity in the brain's inferior frontal gyrus (pars opercularis) while imitating and observing emotional expressions.[ ] eeg evidence revealed that there was significantly greater mu suppression in the sensorimotor cortex of autistic individuals. activity in this area was inversely related to symptom severity in the social domain, suggesting that a dysfunctional mirror neuron system may underlie social and communication deficits observed in autism, including impaired theory of mind and cognitive empathy.[ ] the mirror neuron system is essential for emotional empathy.[ ] previous studies have suggested that autistic individuals have an impaired theory of mind. theory of mind is the ability to understand the perspectives of others.[ ] the terms cognitive empathy and theory of mind are often used synonymously, but due to a lack of studies comparing theory of mind with types of empathy, it is unclear whether these are equivalent.[ ] theory of mind relies on structures of the temporal lobe and the pre-frontal cortex, and empathy, i.e. the ability to share the feelings of others, relies on the sensorimotor cortices as well as limbic and para-limbic structures.[citation needed] the lack of clear distinctions between theory of mind and cognitive empathy may have resulted in an incomplete understanding of the empathic abilities of those with asperger syndrome; many reports on the empathic deficits of individuals with asperger syndrome are actually based on impairments in theory of mind.[ ][ ][ ] studies have found that individuals on the autistic spectrum self-report lower levels of empathic concern, show less or absent comforting responses toward someone who is suffering, and report equal or higher levels of personal distress compared to controls.[ ] the combination in those on the autism spectrum of reduced empathic concern and increased personal distress may lead to the overall reduction of empathy.[ ] professor simon baron-cohen suggests that those with classic autism often lack both cognitive and affective empathy.[ ] however, other research has found no evidence of impairment in autistic individuals' ability to understand other people's basic intentions or goals; instead, data suggests that impairments are found in understanding more complex social emotions or in considering others' viewpoints.[ ] research also suggests that people with asperger syndrome may have problems understanding others' perspectives in terms of theory of mind, but the average person with the condition demonstrates equal empathic concern as, and higher personal distress, than controls.[ ] the existence of individuals with heightened personal distress on the autism spectrum has been offered as an explanation as to why at least some people with autism would appear to have heightened emotional empathy,[ ][ ] although increased personal distress may be an effect of heightened egocentrism, emotional empathy depends on mirror neuron activity (which, as described previously, has been found to be reduced in those with autism), and empathy in people on the autism spectrum is generally reduced.[ ][ ] the empathy deficits present in autism spectrum disorders may be more indicative of impairments in the ability to take the perspective of others, while the empathy deficits in psychopathy may be more indicative of impairments in responsiveness to others’ emotions. these “disorders of empathy” further highlight the importance of the ability to empathize by illustrating some of the consequences to disrupted empathy development.[ ] the empathizing–systemizing theory (e-s) suggests that people may be classified on the basis of their capabilities along two independent dimensions, empathizing (e) and systemizing (s). these capabilities may be inferred through tests that measure someone's empathy quotient (eq) and systemizing quotient (sq). five different "brain types" can be observed among the population based on the scores, which should correlate with differences at the neural level. in the e-s theory, autism and asperger syndrome are associated with below-average empathy and average or above-average systemizing. the e-s theory has been extended into the extreme male brain theory, which suggests that people with an autism spectrum condition are more likely to have an "extreme type s" brain type, corresponding with above-average systemizing but challenged empathy.[ ] it has been shown that males are generally less empathetic than females.[ ] [ ] the extreme male brain (emb) theory proposes that individuals on the autistic spectrum are characterized by impairments in empathy due to sex differences in the brain: specifically, people with autism spectrum conditions show an exaggerated male profile. a study showed that some aspects of autistic neuroanatomy seem to be extremes of typical male neuroanatomy, which may be influenced by elevated levels of fetal testosterone rather than gender itself.[ ] [ ][ ] another study involving brain scans of men and women suggested that autism affects male and female brains differently; females with autism had brains that appeared to be closer to those of non-autistic males than females, yet the same kind of difference was not observed in males with autism.[ ] while the discovery of a higher incidence of diagnosed autism in some groups of second generation immigrant children was initially explained as a result of too little vitamin d during pregnancy in dark-skinned people further removed from the equator, that explanation did not hold up for the later discovery that diagnosed autism was most frequent in children of newly immigrated parents and decreased if they immigrated many years earlier as that would further deplete the body's store of vitamin d. nor could it explain the similar effect on diagnosed autism for some european migrants america in the s that was reviewed in the s as a shortage of vitamin d was never a problem for these light-skinned immigrants to america. the decrease of diagnosed autism with the number of years the parents had lived in their new country also cannot be explained by the theory that the cause is genetic no matter if it is said to be caused by actual ethnic differences in autism gene prevalence or a selective migration of individuals predisposed for autism since such genes, if present, would not go away over time. it has therefore been suggested that autism is not caused by an innate deficit in a specific social circuitry in the brain, also citing other research suggesting that specificalized social brain mechanisms may not exist even in neurotypical people, but that particular features of appearance and/or minor details in behavior are met with exclusion from socialization that shows up as apparently reduced social ability.[ ][ ] psychopathy[edit] psychopathy is a personality disorder partly characterized by antisocial and aggressive behaviors, as well as emotional and interpersonal deficits including shallow emotions and a lack of remorse and empathy.[ ][ ] the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (dsm) and international classification of diseases (icd) list antisocial personality disorder (aspd) and dissocial personality disorder, stating that these have been referred to or include what is referred to as psychopathy.[ ][ ][ ][ ] a large body of research suggests that psychopathy is associated with atypical responses to distress cues (e.g. facial and vocal expressions of fear and sadness), including decreased activation of the fusiform and extrastriate cortical regions, which may partly account for impaired recognition of and reduced autonomic responsiveness to expressions of fear, and impairments of empathy.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] studies on children with psychopathic tendencies have also shown such associations.[ ][ ][ ] the underlying biological surfaces for processing expressions of happiness are functionally intact in psychopaths, although less responsive than those of controls.[ ][ ][ ][ ] the neuroimaging literature is unclear as to whether deficits are specific to particular emotions such as fear. some recent fmri studies have reported that emotion perception deficits in psychopathy are pervasive across emotions (positives and negatives).[ ][ ] a recent study on psychopaths found that, under certain circumstances, they could willfully empathize with others, and that their empathic reaction initiated the same way it does for controls. psychopathic criminals were brain-scanned while watching videos of a person harming another individual. the psychopaths' empathic reaction initiated the same way it did for controls when they were instructed to empathize with the harmed individual, and the area of the brain relating to pain was activated when the psychopaths were asked to imagine how the harmed individual felt. the research suggests how psychopaths could switch empathy on at will, which would enable them to be both callous and charming. the team who conducted the study say it is still unknown how to transform this willful empathy into the spontaneous empathy most people have, though they propose it could be possible to bring psychopaths closer to rehabilitation by helping them to activate their "empathy switch". others suggested that despite the results of the study, it remained unclear whether psychopaths' experience of empathy was the same as that of controls, and also questioned the possibility of devising therapeutic interventions that would make the empathic reactions more automatic.[ ][ ] work conducted by professor jean decety with large samples of incarcerated psychopaths offers additional insights. in one study, psychopaths were scanned while viewing video clips depicting people being intentionally hurt. they were also tested on their responses to seeing short videos of facial expressions of pain. the participants in the high-psychopathy group exhibited significantly less activation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, amygdala and periaqueductal gray parts of the brain, but more activity in the striatum and the insula when compared to control participants.[ ] in a second study, individuals with psychopathy exhibited a strong response in pain-affective brain regions when taking an imagine-self perspective, but failed to recruit the neural circuits that were activated in controls during an imagine-other perspective—in particular the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and amygdala—which may contribute to their lack of empathic concern.[ ] it was predicted that people who have high levels of psychopathy would have sufficient levels of cognitive empathy but would lack in their ability to use affective empathy. people that scored highly on psychopathy measures were less likely to portray affective empathy. there was a strong negative correlation showing that psychopathy and affective empathy correspond strongly. the danva- portrayed those who scored highly on the psychopathy scale do not lack in recognising emotion in facial expressions. therefore, individuals who have high scores on psychopathy and do not lack in perspective-talking ability but do lack in compassion and the negative incidents that happen to others.[ ] despite studies suggesting deficits in emotion perception and imagining others in pain, professor simon baron-cohen claims psychopathy is associated with intact cognitive empathy, which would imply an intact ability to read and respond to behaviors, social cues and what others are feeling. psychopathy is, however, associated with impairment in the other major component of empathy—affective (emotional) empathy—which includes the ability to feel the suffering and emotions of others (what scientists would term as emotional contagion), and those with the condition are therefore not distressed by the suffering of their victims. such a dissociation of affective and cognitive empathy has indeed been demonstrated for aggressive offenders.[ ] those with autism, on the other hand, are claimed to be often impaired in both affective and cognitive empathy.[ ] one problem with the theory that the ability to turn empathy on and off constitutes psychopathy is that such a theory would classify socially sanctioned violence and punishment as psychopathy, as it means suspending empathy towards certain individuals and/or groups. the attempt to get around this by standardizing tests of psychopathy for cultures with different norms of punishment is criticized in this context for being based on the assumption that people can be classified in discrete cultures while cultural influences are in reality mixed and every person encounters a mosaic of influences (e.g. non-shared environment having more influence than family environment). it is suggested that psychopathy may be an artefact of psychiatry's standardization along imaginary sharp lines between cultures, as opposed to an actual difference in the brain.[ ][ ] other conditions[edit] research indicates atypical empathic responses are also correlated with a variety of other conditions. borderline personality disorder is characterized by extensive behavioral and interpersonal difficulties that arise from emotional and cognitive dysfunction.[ ] dysfunctional social and interpersonal behavior has been shown to play a crucial role in the emotionally intense way people with borderline personality disorder react.[ ] while individuals with borderline personality disorder may show their emotions too much, several authors have suggested that they might have a compromised ability to reflect upon mental states (impaired cognitive empathy), as well as an impaired theory of mind.[ ] people with borderline personality disorder have been shown to be very good at recognizing emotions in people's faces, suggesting increased empathic capacities.[ ][ ] it is, therefore, possible that impaired cognitive empathy (the capacity for understanding another person's experience and perspective) may account for borderline personality disorder individuals' tendency for interpersonal dysfunction, while "hyper-emotional empathy"[verification needed] may account for the emotional over-reactivity observed in these individuals.[ ] one primary study confirmed that patients with borderline personality disorder were significantly impaired in cognitive empathy, yet there was no sign of impairment in affective empathy.[ ] one diagnostic criterion of narcissistic personality disorder is a lack of empathy and an unwillingness or inability to recognize or identify with the feelings and needs of others.[ ] characteristics of schizoid personality disorder include emotional coldness, detachment, and impaired affect corresponding with an inability to be empathetic and sensitive towards others.[ ][ ][ ] a study conducted by jean decety and colleagues at the university of chicago demonstrated that subjects with aggressive conduct disorder elicit atypical empathic responses to viewing others in pain.[ ] subjects with conduct disorder were at least as responsive as controls to the pain of others but, unlike controls, subjects with conduct disorder showed strong and specific activation of the amygdala and ventral striatum (areas that enable a general arousing effect of reward), yet impaired activation of the neural regions involved in self-regulation and metacognition (including moral reasoning), in addition to diminished processing between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex.[ ] schizophrenia is characterized by impaired affective empathy,[ ][ ] as well as severe cognitive and empathy impairments as measured by the empathy quotient (eq).[ ] these empathy impairments are also associated with impairments in social cognitive tasks.[ ] bipolar individuals have been observed to have impaired cognitive empathy and theory of mind, but increased affective empathy.[ ][ ] despite cognitive flexibility being impaired, planning behavior is intact. it has been suggested that dysfunctions in the prefrontal cortex could result in the impaired cognitive empathy, since impaired cognitive empathy has been related with neurocognitive task performance involving cognitive flexibility.[ ] lieutenant colonel dave grossman, in his book on killing, suggests that military training artificially creates depersonalization in soldiers, suppressing empathy and making it easier for them to kill other human beings.[ ] in educational contexts[edit] another growing focus of investigation is how empathy manifests in education between teachers and learners.[ ] although there is general agreement that empathy is essential in educational settings, research has found that it is difficult to develop empathy in trainee teachers.[ ] according to one theory, there are seven components involved in the effectiveness of intercultural communication; empathy was found to be one of the seven. this theory also states that empathy is learnable. however, research also shows that it is more difficult to empathize when there are differences between people including status, culture, religion, language, skin colour, gender, age and so on.[ ] an important target of the method learning by teaching (lbt) is to train systematically and, in each lesson, teach empathy. students have to transmit new content to their classmates, so they have to reflect continuously on the mental processes of the other students in the classroom. this way it is possible to develop step-by-step the students' feeling for group reactions and networking. carl r. rogers pioneered research in effective psychotherapy and teaching which espoused that empathy coupled with unconditional positive regard or caring for students and authenticity or congruence were the most important traits for a therapist or teacher to have. other research and publications by tausch, aspy, roebuck. lyon, and meta-analyses by cornelius-white, corroborated the importance of these person-centered traits.[ ][ ] in intercultural contexts[edit] to achieve intercultural empathy, psychologists have employed empathy training. one study hypothesized that empathy training would increase the measured level of relational empathy among the individuals in the experimental group when compared to the control group.[ ] the study also hypothesized that empathy training would increase communication among the experimental group, and that perceived satisfaction with group dialogue would also increase among the experimental group. to test this, the experimenters used the hogan empathy scale, the barrett-lennard relationship inventory, and questionnaires. using these measures, the study found that empathy training was not successful in increasing relational empathy. also, communication and satisfaction among groups did not increase as a result of the empathy training. while there didn't seem to be a clear relationship between empathy and relational empathy training, the study did report that "relational empathy training appeared to foster greater expectations for a deep dialogic process resulting in treatment differences in perceived depth of communication". us researchers william weeks, paul pedersen et al. state that developing intercultural empathy enables the interpretation of experiences or perspectives from more than one worldview.[ ] intercultural empathy can also improve self-awareness and critical awareness of one's own interaction style as conditioned by one's cultural views[ ] and promote a view of self-as-process.[ ] applications[edit] the empathy-altruism relationship also has broad and practical implications. knowledge of the power of the empathic feeling to evoke altruistic motivation may lead to strategies for learning to suppress or avoid these feelings; such numbing or loss of the capacity to feel empathy for clients has been suggested as a factor in the experience of burnout among case workers in helping professions. awareness of this impending futile effort— nurses caring for terminal patients or pedestrians walking by the homeless—may make individuals try to avoid feelings of empathy in order to avoid the resulting altruistic motivation. promoting an understanding about the mechanisms by which altruistic behavior is driven, whether it is from minimizing sadness or the arousal of mirror neurons allows people to better cognitively control their actions. however, empathy-induced altruism may not always produce pro-social effects. it could lead one to increase the welfare of those for whom empathy is felt at the expense of other potential pro-social goals, thus inducing a type of bias. researchers suggest that individuals are willing to act against the greater collective good or to violate their own moral principles of fairness and justice if doing so will benefit a person for whom empathy is felt.[ ] on a more positive note, aroused individuals in an empathetic manner may focus on the long-term welfare rather than just the short-term of those in need. empathy-based socialization is very different from current practices directed toward inhibition of egoistic impulses through shaping, modeling and internalized guilt. therapeutic programs built around facilitating altruistic impulses by encouraging perspective taking and empathetic feelings might enable individuals to develop more satisfactory interpersonal relations, especially in the long-term. at a societal level, experiments have indicated that empathy-induced altruism can be used to improve attitudes toward stigmatized groups, even used to improve racial attitudes, actions toward people with aids, the homeless and even convicts. such resulting altruism has also been found to increase cooperation in competitive situations.[ ] in the field of positive psychology, empathy has also been compared with altruism and egotism. altruism is behavior that is aimed at benefitting another person, while egotism is a behavior that is acted out for personal gain. sometimes, when someone is feeling empathetic towards another person, acts of altruism occur. however, many question whether or not these acts of altruism are motivated by egotistical gains. according to positive psychologists, people can be adequately moved by their empathies to be altruistic,[ ][ ] and there are others who consider the wrong moral leaning perspectives and having empathy can lead to polarization, ignite violence and motivate dysfunctional behavior in relationships.[ ] practical issues[edit] the capacity to empathize is a revered trait in society.[ ] empathy is considered a motivating factor for unselfish, prosocial behavior,[ ] whereas a lack of empathy is related to antisocial behavior.[ ][ ][ ][ ] empathic engagement helps an individual understand and anticipate the behavior of another. apart from the automatic tendency to recognize the emotions of others, one may also deliberately engage in empathic reasoning. two general methods have been identified here. an individual may simulate fictitious versions of the beliefs, desires, character traits and context of another individual to see what emotional feelings it provokes. or, an individual may simulate an emotional feeling and then access the environment for a suitable reason for the emotional feeling to be appropriate for that specific environment.[ ] some research suggests that people are more able and willing to empathize with those most similar to themselves. in particular, empathy increases with similarities in culture and living conditions. empathy is more likely to occur between individuals whose interaction is more frequent.[ ][ ] a measure of how well a person can infer the specific content of another person's thoughts and feelings has been developed by william ickes.[ ] in , team led by grit hein and tania singer gave two groups of men wristbands according to which football team they supported. each participant received a mild electric shock, then watched another go through the same pain. when the wristbands matched, both brains flared: with pain, and empathic pain. if they supported opposing teams, the observer was found to have little empathy.[ ] bloom calls improper use of empathy and social intelligence as a tool can lead to shortsighted actions and parochialism,[ ] he further defies conventional supportive research findings as gremlins from biased standards. he ascertains empathy as an exhaustive process that limits us in morality and if low empathy makes for bad people, bundled up in that unsavoury group would be many who have asperger's or autism and reveals his own brother is severely autistic.[citation needed] early indicators for a lack of empathy: 	frequently finding oneself in prolonged arguments 	forming opinions early and defending them vigorously 	thinking that other people are overly sensitive 	refusing to listen to other points of view 	blaming others for mistakes 	not listening when spoken to 	holding grudges and having difficulty to forgive 	inability to work in a team[citation needed] there are concerns that the empathizer's own emotional background may affect or distort what emotions they perceive in others. [ ] it is evidenced that societies that promote individualism have lower ability for empathy.[ ] empathy is not a process that is likely to deliver certain judgments about the emotional states of others. it is a skill that is gradually developed throughout life, and which improves the more contact we have with the person with whom one empathizes. empathizers report finding it easier to take the perspective of another person when they have experienced a similar situation,[ ] as well as experience greater empathic understanding.[ ] research regarding whether similar past experience makes the empathizer more accurate is mixed.[ ][ ] ethical issues[edit] the extent to which a person's emotions are publicly observable, or mutually recognized as such has significant social consequences. empathic recognition may or may not be welcomed or socially desirable. this is particularly the case where we recognize the emotions that someone has towards us during real time interactions. based on a metaphorical affinity with touch, philosopher edith wyschogrod claims that the proximity entailed by empathy increases the potential vulnerability of either party.[ ] the appropriate role of empathy in our dealings with others is highly dependent on the circumstances. for instance, tania singer says that clinicians or caregivers must be objective to the emotions of others, to not over-invest their own emotions for the other, at the risk of draining away their own resourcefulness.[ ] furthermore, an awareness of the limitations of empathic accuracy is prudent in a caregiving situation. empathic distress fatigue[edit] excessive empathy can lead to empathic distress fatigue, especially if it is associated with pathological altruism. the medical risks are fatigue, occupational burnout, guilt, shame, anxiety, and depression.[ ][ ] disciplinary approaches[edit] philosophy[edit] ethics[edit] in his book, how to make good decisions and be right all the time:solving the riddle of right and wrong, writer iain king presents two reasons why empathy is the "essence" or "dna" of right and wrong. first, he argues that empathy uniquely has all the characteristics we can know about an ethical viewpoint[ ] – including that it is "partly self-standing", and so provides a source of motivation that is partly within us and partly outside, as moral motivations seem to be.[ ] this allows empathy-based judgements to have sufficient distance from a personal opinion to count as "moral". his second argument is more practical: he argues, "empathy for others really is the route to value in life", and so the means by which a selfish attitude can become a moral one. by using empathy as the basis for a system of ethics, king is able to reconcile ethics based on consequences with virtue-ethics and act-based accounts of right and wrong.[ ] his empathy-based system has been taken up by some buddhists,[ ] and is used to address some practical problems, such as when to tell lies,[ ] and how to develop culturally-neutral rules for romance. in the book the ethics of care and empathy, philosopher michael slote introduces a theory of care-based ethics that is grounded in empathy. his claim is that moral motivation does, and should, stem from a basis of empathic response. he claims that our natural reaction to situations of moral significance are explained by empathy. he explains that the limits and obligations of empathy and in turn morality are natural. these natural obligations include a greater empathic, and moral obligation to family and friends, along with an account of temporal and physical distance. in situations of close temporal and physical distance, and with family or friends, our moral obligation seems stronger to us than with strangers at a distance naturally. slote explains that this is due to empathy and our natural empathic ties. he further adds that actions are wrong if and only if they reflect or exhibit a deficiency of fully developed empathic concern for others on the part of the agent.[ ] phenomenology[edit] in phenomenology, empathy describes the experience of something from the other's viewpoint, without confusion between self and other. this draws on the sense of agency. in the most basic sense, this is the experience of the other's body and, in this sense, it is an experience of "my body over there". in most other respects, however, the experience is modified so that what is experienced is experienced as being the other's experience; in experiencing empathy, what is experienced is not "my" experience, even though i experience it. empathy is also considered to be the condition of intersubjectivity and, as such, the source of the constitution of objectivity.[ ] history[edit] some postmodern historians such as keith jenkins in recent years have debated whether or not it is possible to empathize with people from the past. jenkins argues that empathy only enjoys such a privileged position in the present because it corresponds harmoniously with the dominant liberal discourse of modern society and can be connected to john stuart mill's concept of reciprocal freedom. jenkins argues the past is a foreign country and as we do not have access to the epistemological conditions of by gone ages we are unable to empathize.[ ] it is impossible to forecast the effect of empathy on the future.[citation needed] a past subject may take part in the present by the so-called historic present. if we watch from a fictitious past, can tell the present with the future tense, as it happens with the trick of the false prophecy. there is no way of telling the present with the means of the past.[ ] psychotherapy[edit] heinz kohut is the main introducer of the principle of empathy in psychoanalysis. his principle applies to the method of gathering unconscious material. the possibility of not applying the principle is granted in the cure, for instance when you must reckon with another principle, that of reality. in evolutionary psychology, attempts at explaining pro-social behavior often mention the presence of empathy in the individual as a possible variable. while exact motives behind complex social behaviors are difficult to distinguish, the "ability to put oneself in the shoes of another person and experience events and emotions the way that person experienced them" is the definitive factor for truly altruistic behavior according to batson's empathy-altruism hypothesis. if empathy is not felt, social exchange (what's in it for me?) supersedes pure altruism, but if empathy is felt, an individual will help by actions or by word, regardless of whether it is in their self-interest to do so and even if the costs outweigh potential rewards.[ ] business and management[edit] in the book wired to care, strategy consultant dev patnaik argues that a major flaw in contemporary business practice is a lack of empathy inside large corporations. he states that lacking any sense of empathy, people inside companies struggle to make intuitive decisions and often get fooled into believing they understand their business if they have quantitative research to rely upon. patnaik claims that the real opportunity for companies doing business in the st century is to create a widely held sense of empathy for customers, pointing to nike, harley-davidson, and ibm as examples of "open empathy organizations". such institutions, he claims, see new opportunities more quickly than competitors, adapt to change more easily, and create workplaces that offer employees a greater sense of mission in their jobs.[ ] in the book the empathy factor, organizational consultant marie miyashiro similarly argues the value of bringing empathy to the workplace, and offers nonviolent communication as an effective mechanism for achieving this.[ ] in studies by the management research group, empathy was found to be the strongest predictor of ethical leadership behavior out of competencies in its management model, and empathy was one of the three strongest predictors of senior executive effectiveness.[ ] a study by the center for creative leadership found empathy to be positively correlated to job performance amongst employees as well.[ ] measurement[edit] research into the measurement of empathy has sought to answer a number of questions: who should be carrying out the measurement? what should pass for empathy and what should be discounted? what unit of measure (uom) should be adopted and to what degree should each occurrence precisely match that uom are also key questions that researchers have sought to investigate. researchers have approached the measurement of empathy from a number of perspectives. behavioral measures normally involve raters assessing the presence or absence of certain either predetermined or ad hoc behaviors in the subjects they are monitoring. both verbal and non-verbal behaviors have been captured on video by experimenters such as truax.[ ] other experimenters, including mehrabian and epstein,[ ] have required subjects to comment upon their own feelings and behaviors, or those of other people involved in the experiment, as indirect ways of signaling their level of empathic functioning to the raters. physiological responses tend to be captured by elaborate electronic equipment that has been physically connected to the subject's body. researchers then draw inferences about that person's empathic reactions from the electronic readings produced.[ ] bodily or "somatic" measures can be looked upon as behavioral measures at a micro level. their focus is upon measuring empathy through facial and other non-verbally expressed reactions in the empathizer. these changes are presumably underpinned by physiological changes brought about by some form of "emotional contagion" or mirroring.[ ] these reactions, whilst appearing to reflect the internal emotional state of the empathizer, could also, if the stimulus incident lasted more than the briefest period, be reflecting the results of emotional reactions that are based upon more pieces of thinking through (cognitions) associated with role-taking ("if i were him i would feel ..."). for the very young, picture or puppet-story indices for empathy have been adopted to enable even very young, pre-school subjects to respond without needing to read questions and write answers.[ ] dependent variables (variables that are monitored for any change by the experimenter) for younger subjects have included self reporting on a -point smiley face scale and filmed facial reactions.[ ] paper-based indices involve one or more of a variety of methods of responding. in some experiments, subjects are required to watch video scenarios (either staged or authentic) and to make written responses which are then assessed for their levels of empathy;[ ] scenarios are sometimes also depicted in printed form.[ ] self-report measures[edit] measures of empathy also frequently require subjects to self-report upon their own ability or capacity for empathy, using likert-style numerical responses to a printed questionnaire that may have been designed to tap into the affective, cognitive-affective or largely cognitive substrates of empathic functioning. some questionnaires claim to have been able to tap into both cognitive and affective substrates.[ ] however, a meta analysis questions the validity of self-report measures of cognitive empathy in particular, finding that such self-report measures have negligibly small correlations with corresponding behavioral measures.[ ] in the field of medicine, a measurement tool for carers is the jefferson scale of physician empathy, health professional version (jspe-hp).[ ] the interpersonal reactivity index (iri) is among the oldest published measurement tools (first published in ) that provides a multi-dimensional assessment of empathy. it comprises a self-report questionnaire of items, divided into four -item scales covering the above subdivisions of affective and cognitive empathy.[ ][ ] more recent self-report tools include the empathy quotient (eq) created by baron-cohen and wheelwright[ ] which comprises a self-report questionnaire consisting of items. also among more recent multi-dimensional scales is the questionnaire of cognitive and affective empathy (qcae, first published in ).[ ] the empathic experience scale is a -item questionnaire that was developed to cover the measurement of empathy from a phenomenological perspective on intersubjectivity, which provides a common basis for the perceptual experience (vicarious experience dimension) and a basic cognitive awareness (intuitive understanding dimension) of others' emotional states.[ ] international comparison of country-wide empathy[edit] in a study by a us research team, self-report data from the mentioned interreactivity index (see measurement) were compared across countries. from the surveyed nations, the five highest empathy scores had (in descending order): ecuador, saudi arabia, peru, denmark and united arab emirates. bulgaria, poland, estonia, venezuela and lithuania ranked as having lowest empathy scores.[ ] other animals and empathy between species[edit] see also: emotion in animals researchers zanna clay and frans de waal studied the socio-emotional development of the bonobo chimpanzee.[ ] they focused on the interplay of numerous skills such as empathy-related responding, and how different rearing backgrounds of the juvenile bonobo affected their response to stressful events, related to themselves (loss of a fight) and of stressful events of others. it was found that the bonobos sought out body contact as a coping mechanism with one another. a finding of this study was that the bonobos sought out more body contact after watching a distressing event upon the other bonobos rather than their individually experienced stressful event. mother-reared bonobos as opposed to orphaned bonobos sought out more physical contact after a stressful event happened to another. this finding shows the importance of mother-child attachment and bonding, and how it may be crucial to successful socio-emotional development, such as empathic-like behaviors. empathic-like responding has been observed in chimpanzees in various different aspects of their natural behaviors. for example, chimpanzees are known to spontaneously contribute comforting behaviors to victims of aggressive behavior in natural and unnatural settings, a behavior recognized as consolation. researchers teresa romero and co-workers observed these empathic and sympathetic-like behaviors in chimpanzees at two separate outdoor housed groups.[ ] the act of consolation was observed in both of the groups of chimpanzees. this behavior is found in humans, and particularly in human infants. another similarity found between chimpanzees and humans is that empathic-like responding was disproportionately provided to individuals of kin. although comforting towards non-family chimpanzees was also observed, as with humans, chimpanzees showed the majority of comfort and concern to close/loved ones. another similarity between chimpanzee and human expression of empathy is that females provided more comfort than males on average. the only exception to this discovery was that high-ranking males showed as much empathy-like behavior as their female counterparts. this is believed to be because of policing-like behavior and the authoritative status of high-ranking male chimpanzees. it is thought that species that possess a more intricate and developed prefrontal cortex have more of an ability of experiencing empathy. it has however been found that empathic and altruistic responses may also be found in sand dwelling mediterranean ants. researcher hollis studied the cataglyphis cursor sand dwelling mediterranean ant and their rescue behaviors by ensnaring ants from a nest in nylon threads and partially buried beneath the sand.[ ] the ants not ensnared in the nylon thread proceeded to attempt to rescue their nest mates by sand digging, limb pulling, transporting sand away from the trapped ant, and when efforts remained unfruitful, began to attack the nylon thread itself; biting and pulling apart the threads. similar rescue behavior was found in other sand-dwelling mediterranean ants, but only cataglyphis floricola and lasius grandis species of ants showed the same rescue behaviors of transporting sand away from the trapped victim and directing attention towards the nylon thread. it was observed in all ant species that rescue behavior was only directed towards nest mates. ants of the same species from different nests were treated with aggression and were continually attacked and pursued, which speaks to the depths of ants discriminative abilities. this study brings up the possibility that if ants have the capacity for empathy and/or altruism, these complex processes may be derived from primitive and simpler mechanisms. canines have been hypothesized to share empathic-like responding towards human species. researchers custance and mayer put individual dogs in an enclosure with their owner and a stranger.[ ] when the participants were talking or humming, the dog showed no behavioral changes, however when the participants were pretending to cry, the dogs oriented their behavior toward the person in distress whether it be the owner or stranger. the dogs approached the participants when crying in a submissive fashion, by sniffing, licking and nuzzling the distressed person. the dogs did not approach the participants in the usual form of excitement, tail wagging or panting. since the dogs did not direct their empathic-like responses only towards their owner, it is hypothesized that dogs generally seek out humans showing distressing body behavior. although this could insinuate that dogs have the cognitive capacity for empathy, this could also mean that domesticated dogs have learned to comfort distressed humans through generations of being rewarded for that specific behavior. when witnessing chicks in distress, domesticated hens, gallus gallus domesticus show emotional and physiological responding. researchers edgar, paul and nicol[ ] found that in conditions where the chick was susceptible to danger, the mother hens heart rate increased, vocal alarms were sounded, personal preening decreased and body temperature increased. this responding happened whether or not the chick felt as if they were in danger. mother hens experienced stress-induced hyperthermia only when the chick's behavior correlated with the perceived threat. animal maternal behavior may be perceived as empathy, however, it could be guided by the evolutionary principles of survival and not emotionality. at the same time, humans can empathize with other species. a study by miralles et al. ( ) showed that human empathic perceptions (and compassionate reactions) toward an extended sampling of organisms are strongly negatively correlated with the divergence time separating them from us. in other words, the more phylogenetically close a species is to us, the more likely we are to feel empathy and compassion towards it.[ ] see also[edit] 	against empathy: the case for rational compassion (book by paul bloom) 	artificial empathy 	attribution (psychology) 	digital empathy 	emotional contagion 	emotional intelligence 	emotional literacy 	empathic concern 	empathizing–systemizing theory 	ethnocultural empathy 	fake empathy 	grounding in communication 	highly sensitive person 	humanistic coefficient 	identification (psychology) 	life skills 	mimpathy 	moral emotions 	nonviolent communication 	oxytocin 	people skills 	philip k. dick's do androids dream of electric sheep? 	schema (psychology) 	self-conscious emotions 	sensibility 	simulation theory of empathy 	social emotions 	soft skills 	theory of mind in animals 	vicarious embarrassment references[edit] 	^ bellet, paul s.; michael j. maloney ( ). 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( ): . doi: . /s - - - . pmc  . pmid  . external links[edit] 	 the dictionary definition of empathy at wiktionary 	 quotations related to empathy at wikiquote 	 media related to empathy at wikimedia commons 	"empathy and sympathy in ethics". internet encyclopedia of philosophy. 	zalta, edward n. (ed.). "empathy". stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. 	toward a consensus on the nature of empathy: a review of reviews 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 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	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion 	 	v 	t 	e pervasive developmental disorders and autism spectrum 	main	 	causes 	comorbid conditions 	epidemiology 	heritability 	societal and cultural aspects 	medical model 	therapies 	diagnoses	 	autism spectrum (high-functioning autism 	classic autism 	asperger syndrome 	pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified 	childhood disintegrative disorder 	rett syndrome) 	related conditions	 	alexithymia 	attention deficit hyperactivity disorder 	anxiety disorder (obsessive–compulsive disorder) 	late talker 	epilepsy 	fragile x syndrome 	hyperlexia 	savant syndrome 	sensory processing disorder 	intellectual disability 	developmental coordination disorder 	multiple complex developmental disorder 	controversies	 	autism rights movement 	autistic enterocolitis 	facilitated communication 	mmr vaccine 	rapid prompting method 	thiomersal (chelation) 	diagnostic scales	 	gilliam asperger's disorder scale 	autism diagnostic observation schedule 	autism diagnostic interview 	autism-spectrum quotient 	childhood autism rating scale 	lists	 	autism-related topics 	fictional characters 	schools 	 	v 	t 	e narcissism 	types	 	collective 	egomania 	flying monkeys 	healthy 	malignant 	narcissistic personality disorder 	spiritual 	workplace 	characteristics	 	betrayal 	boasting 	egocentrism 	egotism 	empathy (lack of) 	envy 	entitlement (exaggerated sense of) 	fantasy 	grandiosity 	hubris 	magical thinking 	manipulative 	narcissistic abuse 	narcissistic elation 	narcissistic rage and narcissistic injury 	narcissistic mortification 	narcissistic supply 	narcissistic withdrawal 	perfectionism 	self-esteem 	self-righteousness 	shamelessness 	superficial charm 	superiority complex 	true self and false self 	vanity 	defences	 	denial 	idealization and devaluation 	distortion 	projection 	splitting 	cultural phenomena	 	control freak 	don juanism 	dorian gray syndrome 	my way or the highway 	selfie 	related articles	 	codependency 	counterdependency 	dark triad 	ego ideal 	"egomania" (film) 	egotheism 	empire-building 	god complex 	history of narcissism 	messiah complex 	micromanagement 	narcissism of small differences 	narcissistic leadership 	narcissistic parent 	narcissistic personality inventory 	narcissus (mythology) 	on narcissism 	sam vaknin 	self-love 	self-serving bias 	spoiled child 	the culture of narcissism 	workplace bullying 	 	v 	t 	e 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wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	help:category 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 for guidelines on the use of categories in wikipedia, see wikipedia:categorization. for a basic readers' guide see help:categories. for quick answers, see the readers' faq or the editors' faq on categories. for a list of categories, see special:categories. wikipedia information page 		this is an information page. it is not one of wikipedia's policies or guidelines, but rather intends to describe some aspect(s) of wikipedia's norms, customs, technicalities, or practices. it may reflect varying levels of consensus and vetting. 	 shortcut 	h:cat wikipedia data structure 	 namespaces 	subject namespaces 	talk namespaces 	 	(main/article) 	talk 	 	 	user 	user talk 	 	 	wikipedia 	wikipedia talk 	 	 	file 	file talk 	 	 	mediawiki 	mediawiki talk 	 	 	template 	template talk 	 	 	help 	help talk 	 	 	category 	category talk 	 	 	portal 	portal talk 	 	 	draft 	draft talk 	 	 	timedtext 	timedtext talk 	 	 	module 	module talk 	 	currently unused 	 	book 	book talk 	 	 	education program 	education program talk 	 	 	gadget 	gadget talk 	 	 	gadget definition 	gadget definition talk 	 	virtual namespaces 	- 	special 	- 	media categories are intended to group together pages on similar subjects. they are implemented by a mediawiki feature that adds any page with a text like [[category:xyz]] in its wikimarkup to the automated listing that is the category with name xyz. categories help readers to find, and navigate around, a subject area, to see pages sorted by title, and to thus find article relationships. categories are normally found at the bottom of an article page. clicking a category name brings up a category page listing the articles (or other pages) that have been added to that particular category. there may also be a section listing the subcategories of that category. the subcategorization feature makes it possible to organize categories into tree-like structures to aid navigation. the term category does refer to both the title of a category page—the category pagename—and the category itself. keeping this in mind while reading about categorization, plus learning a category page layout is a worthwhile investment in research techniques. (see also the search box parameter "incategory".) the layout of a category page is mostly text, but see about displaying category trees below. contents 	 summary 	 category page definition 	 . putting pages into categories 	 working with category pages 	 . linking to category pages 	 . retrieving raw category information 	 . sorting category pages 	 . . default sort key 	 . searching for pages in categories 	 . listing all categories 	 . displaying category trees and page counts 	 . moving and redirecting category pages 	 . hiding categories 	 finding articles for a category 	 categorizing 	 . categorizing templates 	 . categories and templates 	 . categorizing redirect pages 	 . "related changes" with categories 	 . watching category additions and removals 	 see also 	 notes summary the mediawiki software maintains tables of categories, to which any editable page can be added. to add a page to a category, include "[[category:category name]]" or "[[category:category name|sortkey]]" in that page's wikimarkup. the categories to which a page belongs appear in a box at the bottom of the page. a category is usually associated with a category page in the "category:" namespace.[ ] a category page contains text that can be edited, like any other page, but when the page is displayed, the last part of what is displayed is an automatically generated list of all pages in that category, in the form of links. other category pages which appear in this list are treated separately, as subcategories. the bottom of a wikipedia article on chicken eyeglasses. at the very bottom of the page, below the references, navigation templates and external links are a series of links. these links are the categories used on the page, which include: category:animal welfare, category:animal equipment, category:eyewear, and category:poultry farming . by clicking on the category link at the bottom of the page, readers can navigate the category tree. category page definition a category page is any page in the category namespace. they each act as a category, and are termed a "category". the category page has one section titled subcategories listing other "categories", and one section titled pages, listing pages as categorized (in other namespaces). new categories are created by creating a page in the category namespace. a category page can be edited like any other page. however, when it is displayed, the editable part of the page is followed by automatically generated lists of pages belonging to the category, as follows: 	first a count and list of subcategories (other category pages belonging to the category) is shown, if any exist. the name of each subcategory is followed by counts like "( c, p, f)", meaning this subcategory contains subcategories, pages, and files. counts of are omitted. the further subcategories are expanded in the display if the ► sign alongside the subcategory is clicked (but this "widget" is only visible if your browser has javascript enabled). note: ► is shown if there are no further subcategories. the subcategory is collapsed again if ▼ is clicked. 	next a count and list of pages in the category (excluding subcategories and images) is shown. if the category has no members, a message to that effect is displayed. 	next a count and list of image and other media files in the category appears, if any exist. these are shown with thumbnails. the first characters of the file name are shown, with an ellipsis if that is not the full name; also the file size is shown. the items in the lists all link to the pages concerned; in the case of the images this applies both to the image itself and to the text below it (the name of the image). for the way in which the lists are ordered, see sorting category pages below. the first and second lists are divided into sections, according to the first character of the sort key. these initial characters are displayed above the sections. to suppress these, make all sort keys start with a space. a category page can only display a limited number of items (currently ). if more pages belong to the category, there will be a link to the next ones. the categories box for the category page appears at the bottom, in the same place as for other pages. this contains the categories to which the current category page has been added, i.e. its parent categories (the categories of which it is a subcategory). add a category page to other categories in the normal way, using the "[[category:category name]]" or "[[category:category name|sortkey]]" syntax. putting pages into categories shortcut 	wp:pagecat a page belongs to a category if the page's wikimarkup contains a declaration for that category. a category declaration takes the form [[category:category name]] or [[category:category name|sortkey]]. the declaration must be processed, i.e. it will not work if it appears between <nowiki>...</nowiki> or <includeonly>...</includeonly> tags, or in a comment. the declaration may however come from a transcluded page; see categories and templates below. a category name can be any string that would be a legitimate page title. if the category name begins with a lower-case letter it will be capitalized. in wikipedia, it is customary to place category declarations at the end of the wikimarkup, but before any stub templates (which themselves transclude categories) and interlanguage links. when a page has been added to one or more categories, a categories box appears at the bottom of the page (or possibly elsewhere, if a non-default skin is being used). this box contains a list of the categories the page belongs to, in the order in which the category declarations appear in the processed wikimarkup. the category names are linked to the corresponding category pages. they appear as redlinks if the corresponding category page does not exist. if a user has enabled the hotcat gadget, the categories box will also provide links to quickly add, remove, or modify category declarations on the page, without having to edit the whole page. hidden categories are not displayed, except as described below under hiding categories. working with category pages the following subsections are ordered from simple actions to more elaborate or rarer actions. linking to category pages to link to a category page without putting the current page in that category, precede the link with a colon: [[:category:category name]]. such a link can be piped like a normal wikilink. (the {{cl}} template, and others listed on its documentation page, may sometimes be helpful.) retrieving raw category information raw information about the members of a category, their sortkeys and timestamps (time when last added to the category) can be obtained from the api, using a query of the form: 	http://en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?cmtitle=category:category_name&action=query&list=categorymembers&cmlimit= &cmprop=title|sortkey|timestamp listings of up to members are possible. if there are more members then the results will include text near the end like this: <categorymembers cmcontinue="page|nnnn|title" />. this can be added to the previous one, without quotation marks, for the next page of members: ...&cmcontinue=page|nnnn|title sorting category pages see also: help:sorting shortcut 	wp:sortcat by default, a page is sorted under the first character of its name, without the namespace. english wikipedia groups accented characters together with their unaccented version, so pages starting with À, Á, Ä, will be listed under heading a. sorting is case-insensitive, so "abc" comes after "abacus". unlike at special:allpages and special:prefixindex, a space is treated as a space (coming before all other characters), not as an underscore. the english wikipedia has numerical sorting in categories. this means a page whose title begins with a number will be sorted according to the numeric value of the number (even if it is multiple digits). thus " dogs", " dogs", and " dogs" will all appear under the " – " heading in numeric order. if the number includes a comma, space, or period, the sorting algorithm will only consider the part of the number before the separator. each of the three lists (subcategories, pages, media files) is arranged in the order explained above (except that, in the subcategories list, the namespace indicator "category:" is not considered). if an item ought to be positioned within a list on the basis of an alternative name (sort key) for that item, then this can be specified in the category tag that places the item in the list: [[category:category name|sortkey]] for example, to add an article called albert einstein to the category "people" and have the article sorted by "einstein, albert", you would type: [[category:people|einstein, albert]] unlike a piped link (which uses the same syntax), the sort key itself is not displayed to readers. it affects only the order in which pages are listed on the category page. it is useful to document the system being used for sort keys on the category page. for guidelines about the use of sort keys on wikipedia, see wp:sortkey. default sort key shortcut 	wp:defaultsort see also: wp:namesort and wp:sortkey it is possible to set a default sort key which is different from {{pagename}} by using the magic word {{defaultsort}}: {{defaultsort:new key}} in the case of multiple default sort key tags, the last defaultsort on the final rendering of a page applies for all categories, regardless of the position of the category tags. this also means that a defaultsort tag included from a template is not effective if another defaultsort tag occurs later on the page, even if the later defaultsort tag is also "hidden" (included by another template). searching for pages in categories further information: help:searching § syntax see also: § searching for articles in categories, wikipedia:category intersection, and wikimedia bug t "hierarchical category system is urgently needed" in addition to browsing through hierarchies of categories, it is possible to use the search tool to find specific articles in specific categories. to search for articles in a specific category, type incategory:"categoryname" in the search box. an "or" can be added to join the contents of one category with the contents of another. for example, enter 		incategory:"suspension bridges" or incategory:"bridges in new york city" to return all pages that belong to either (or both) of the categories, as here. note that using search to find categories will not find articles which have been categorized using templates. this feature also doesn't return pages in subcategories. listing all categories special:categories provides an alphabetic list of all categories, with the number of members of each; this number does not include the content of the subcategories, but it includes the subcategories themselves, i.e., each counting as one. the above list contains all categories that have members, regardless of whether they have corresponding category pages. to list all existing category pages (regardless of whether they have members), use special:allpages/category:. displaying category trees and page counts as described at mw:help:magic words, {{pagesincategory:example}} or {{pagesincat:example}} returns the number of pages in "category:example". each subcategory counts as one page; pages in subcategories are not counted. the page special:categorytree enables you to see the tree structure of a category (its subcategories, their subcategories and so on; the display of files and other member pages is optional). the categorytree extension can be used to display such a tree on any page. (this is sometimes done on the category page itself, if the category is split over multiple screens, to make all subcategories available on every screen.) the basic syntax is 	<categorytree>category name</categorytree> to display just the subcategory tree, and 	<categorytree mode=pages>category name</categorytree> to display member pages as well. they will be indicated by italics. dapete's category-visualizer vcat will render charts of the tree structure. you may also use template:category tree or template:category tree all, instead. warning: 	the following code {{pagesincategory:{{pagename}}}} will not work as expected when used in the wikitext or in a transcluded template in a category page whose title contains some ascii punctuations. 	for legacy reasons, {{pagename}} may return the page name with these characters being html-encoded using numeric character entities : this still works for generating derived wikilinks or displaying page names, or when html-encoded this page name is used in a conditional "#switch", but pagesincategory does not recognize the category name given in parameter if some characters are html-encoded (this is the case notably when the category name contains ascii apostrophes ' and a few other ascii punctuations. (the same html-encoding is also applied to the values returned by {{fullpagename}}, {{subpagename}}, or {{namespace}}). 	in that case, as the category is not found by its html-encoded pagename, pagesincategory will unexpectedly return and not its effective number of member pages. 	a simple workaround is to transform these html-encoded characters back into standard utf- -encoded characters, by using the {{titleparts:}} parser function, like this: 	{{pagesincategory:{{titleparts:{{pagename}}}}}} moving and redirecting category pages categories can be moved in the same way as an ordinary page; but a certain amount of cleanup may be necessary. a redirect is left at the old category name, and this is not a normal #redirect [[...]] but a {{category redirect}}. once all the pages have been moved out of the old category, it may be left as a category redirect or deleted. for categories entirely populated through templates (see above), modifying the templates enables all affected articles to be moved to another category, but with the refresh problem mentioned. almost all category name changes are made pursuant to a consensus decision at wikipedia:categories for discussion. do not create intercategory redirects other than with a {{category redirect}} template. see wikipedia:categories for discussion#redirecting categories for more on category redirects. hiding categories when the magic word __hiddencat__ is placed on a category page, that category becomes hidden, meaning that it will not be displayed on the pages belonging to that category. on wikipedia, the magic word is not normally used explicitly, but is applied through the {{hidden category}} template. the feature is mostly used to prevent project maintenance categories from showing up to ordinary readers on article pages. however, hidden categories are displayed (although listed as hidden): 	on category pages (whether as parent categories or subcategories); 	at preview during editing; 	if the user has selected "show hidden categories" in user preferences. hidden categories are automatically added to category:hidden categories. for guidelines on the hiding of categories on wikipedia, see wp:hiddencat. finding articles for a category the most effective way of finding entries of a category is using the "what links here" tool on the category's main article. an easy way to find relevant articles for a new category or missing entries in an existing one is by finding the most relevant list and checking its entries. sometimes categories are about things that are intersections of other categories for which the petscan tool can be used. more relevant articles may also be found linked in a category's main article and the articles already featured in the category − especially in their "see also" sections (if existent) and the automatically suggested "related articles" below them. furthermore, a category's superordinate categories often feature articles that should be subcategorized to the category. other ways to find relevant articles include searching wikipedia for the category's topic and searching the web for the topic in quotes " (with synonyms also in quotes and appended after an or) and appending the word wiki or wikipedia or site:wikipedia.org to them. categorizing main page: wikipedia:categorization categorizing templates templates are categorized the same way as articles, except that [[category: some-topic templates]] should be placed on the template's documentation page (or inside <noinclude>...</noinclude> tags, if there is no documentation page), this is necessary to avoid categorizing pages by template inclusion (see below). categories and templates a template can be used to add pages to a category, usually by placing the category link inside <includeonly></includeonly> tags on the template (e.g. <includeonly>[[category:category name]]</includeonly>). when the template is transcluded into the page, the category link becomes active, and the page is added to the category page. this is useful for categories that have high turnover or many pages included, like cleanup categories. changes to the template, however, may not be reflected immediately on the category page. when you edit an article to add a category tag directly, the list of category members is updated immediately when the page is saved. when a category link is contained in a template, however, this does not happen immediately: instead, whenever a template is edited, all the pages that transclude it are put into the job queue to be recached during periods of low server load. this means that, in busy periods, it may take hours or even days before individual pages are recached and they start to appear in the category list. performing a null edit to a page will allow it to jump the queue and be immediately recached. to add the template itself to the category page as well, omit the "includeonly" tags. to add the template to a category without categorizing pages on which the template is transcluded, place the category declaration between <noinclude>...</noinclude> tags, or add it to the template documentation page between <includeonly></includeonly> (the latter allows recategorizing the template without editing it, which is helpful if it is protected, or so complicated that mere mortals hesitate to touch it). parser functions can be used to make the transcluded categories, or the sort key used in them, dependent on other variables, notably pagename. 	passing a category name as a parameter 	<includeonly>[[category:{{{cat|default}}}]]</includeonly> or <includeonly>{{{cat|[[category:default]]}}}</includeonly> if the user provides a parameter 'cat=xxx' the page will be categorized at the page [[category:xxx]], otherwise it will be categorized at the page [[category:default]]. calling the template with "cat=" (equal to nothing) disables putting the page in any category. 	excluding non-article pages 	<includeonly>{{#if:{{namespace}} | | [[category:xxx]]}}</includeonly> the variable namespace is null for mainspace articles. for any space other than mainspace, this parserfunction will produce an empty string, but for regular articles this will include the article in category:xxx. on wikipedia it is not recommended that templates be used to populate ordinary content categories of articles. see categorization using templates in the categorization guideline. categorizing redirect pages main page: wikipedia:categorizing redirects redirect pages can be categorized and there are conventions how to do it. the redirect link must be first on the page. on a category page, redirects are listed in italics. "related changes" with categories for a category, the "related changes" feature, when applied to the corresponding category page, lists recent changes to the pages which are currently listed as belonging to a category. where those pages are subcategories or image pages, only changes to their editable parts are listed. notice that "related changes" does not show edits to pages that have been removed from the category. also, "related changes" does not list recent changes to pages linked from the editable part of the category page (as it would normally, with a non-category page). if a workaround would be required, the links in question could be placed in a template and transcluded onto the category page. as usual – unlike with watchlists – recent changes to corresponding talk pages are not shown under "related changes". pages one is watching are bolded on the list. this can help to find which pages in a given category one has on one's watchlist. the dynamicpagelist (third-party) extension 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	Українська 	اردو 	yorùbá 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on august , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 file:plutchik-wheel.svg - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	file:plutchik-wheel.svg 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 			file 	file history 	file usage 	global file usage 	metadata size of this png preview of this svg file: × pixels. other resolutions: × pixels | × pixels | × pixels | × pixels | , × , pixels | × pixels. original file ‎(svg file, nominally × pixels, file size: kb) render this image in vietnamese (vi) japanese (ja) (default language) . 		this is a file from the wikimedia commons. information from its description page there is shown below. commons is a freely licensed media file repository. you can help. summary 	descriptionplutchik-wheel.svg	 deutsch: robert plutchiks rad der emotionen español: la rueda de emociones de robert plutchik english: robert plutchik's wheel of emotions. polski: koło emocji roberta plutchik'a 	date	 february 	source	 own work 	author	 machine elf 	other versions	 	 			 			 deutsch 			 		 	 			 			 español 			 		 	 			 			 français 			 		 	 			 			 nederlands 			 		 	 			 			 esperanto 			 		 	 			 			 português 			 		 	 			 			 русский 			 		 	 	this svg file contains embedded text that can be translated into your language, using the svg translate tool or any capable svg editor. for more information see: about translating svg files. licensing 	public domainpublic domainfalsefalse 	 	this work is ineligible for copyright and therefore in the public domain because it consists entirely of information that is common property and contains no original authorship. captions englishthis wheel represents the list of emotions as proposed by plutchik. burmeseစိတၱမာလာပန္းစၾကာ malayalamഈ ചക്രം പ്ലച്ചിക് നിർദ്ദേശിച്ച വികാരങ്ങളുടെ പട്ടികയെ പ്രതിനിധീകരിക്കുന്നു. items portrayed in this file depicts inception february file history click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. 		date/time	thumbnail	dimensions	user	comment 	current	 : , july 		 × ( kb)	kapki 	file uploaded using svgtranslate tool (https://svgtranslate.toolforge.org/). added translation for ja. 		 : , july 		 × ( kb)	kapki 	file uploaded using svgtranslate tool (https://svgtranslate.toolforge.org/). added translation for ja. 		 : , may 		 × ( kb)	liuchong	file uploaded using svgtranslate tool (https://tools.wmflabs.org/svgtranslate/). added translation for zh-hans. 		 : , january 		 × ( kb)	yellowtailshark	file uploaded using svgtranslate tool (https://tools.wmflabs.org/svgtranslate/). added translation for vi. 		 : , june 		 × ( kb)	seb 	code reduction using https://jakearchibald.github.io/svgomg/ identical output. also has the benefit of being easier to translate 		 : , july 		 × ( kb)	raphaelqs	reverted to version as of : , september (utc) please don't overwrite this file 		 : , june 		 , × , ( kb)	eaposztrof	more precise design 		 : , september 		 × ( kb)	llarson	spelling correction: wikt:ecstasy instead of <s>ecstasy</s> 		 : , october 		 × ( kb)	codename lisa	user:machine elf version: removed "filter " filter and two stray rects. result: dashed borders are now rendered on firefox and chromium ; internet explorer and won't refuse to render. 		 : , february 		 × ( kb)	machine elf 	{{information |description ={{en| =roda emosi plutchik's wheel of emotions}} |source ={{own}} |author =machine elf |date = - - |permission = |other_versions = }} category:emotions file usage more than pages use this file. the following list shows the first pages that use this file only. a full list is available. 	acceptance 	acute stress disorder 	adoration 	affect theory 	affection 	affective computing 	affective spectrum 	ambivalence 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	annoyance 	anticipation 	antipathy 	anxiety 	apathy 	appeal to emotion 	arousal 	boredom 	compassion 	confusion 	contempt 	courage 	curiosity 	defeatism 	depression (mood) 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy (emotion) 	embarrassment 	emotion 	emotional expression 	emotional intelligence 	emotional intimacy 	emotional labor 	emotional reasoning 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	epiphany (feeling) 	euthymia (medicine) 	fear 	feeling 	forgiveness 	friend zone 	gratification 	gratitude 	grief 	guilt (emotion) 	han (cultural) 	happiness 	homesickness 	hope 	horror and terror 	hubris 	humiliation 	hysteria 	infatuation 	insult 	interpersonal attraction 	isolation (psychology) 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	limerence 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	melancholia 	mono no aware 	nostalgia 	pain 	panic 	passion (emotion) 	pathognomy 	pathos 	pessimism 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	psychomotor agitation 	rage (emotion) 	recluse 	remorse 	resentment 	revenge 	robert plutchik 	sadness 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	self-love 	sentimentality 	sex differences in psychology 	shame 	shyness 	solitude 	somatic marker hypothesis 	stimulation 	suffering 	sympathy 	trust (social science) view more links to this file. global file usage the following other wikis use this file: 	usage on ar.wikipedia.org 	شهوة 	وحدة (علم نفس) 	امتنان 	إحباط نفسي 	قالب:عاطفة 	usage on arz.wikipedia.org 	انفعال (سايكولوجيا) 	usage on az.wikipedia.org 	qorxu 	duyğu və qavramanın pozuntuları 	xeyirxahlıq 	utancaqlıq 	Şablon:duyğular 	usage on ba.wikipedia.org 	Эмоция 	usage on be-tarask.wikipedia.org 	Эмоцыя 	Шаблён:Эмоцыя 	usage on bh.wikipedia.org 	भावना 	टेम्पलेट:emotion 	करुणा 	टेम्पलेट:emotion-footer 	मजा 	usage on bn.wikipedia.org 	সুখ 	ভালোবাসা 	ক্রোধ 	ভীতি 	হতাশা 	আবেগ 	আনন্দ 	হিস্টেরিয়া 	টেমপ্লেট:আবেগ 	কাম 	লজ্জা 	লাজুকতা 	ভালোবাসার জীববৈজ্ঞানিক ভিত্তি 	শ্রদ্ধা 	চমক (আবেগ) 	দুঃখ 	উদ্বেগ 	টেমপ্লেট:আবেগ/নথি 	usage on ce.wikipedia.org 	Ачо 	Кеп:Эмоцин процессаш 	Дог-ойла 	Эмоцин процесс 	usage on el.wikipedia.org 	Αγάπη 	Φόβος 	Λατρεία 	Κατάθλιψη 	Συναίσθημα 	Έκσταση 	Λύπη 	Ευτυχία 	Ψυχαγωγία view more global usage of this file. metadata this file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. if the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. 	width	 . 	height	 . retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/file:plutchik-wheel.svg" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			file 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	view on commons 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	upload file 	special pages 	printable version 	page information 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 [pdf] oxytocin increases trust in humans | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /nature corpus id: oxytocin increases trust in humans @article{kosfeld oxytocinit, title={oxytocin increases trust in humans}, author={m. kosfeld and m. heinrichs and paul j. zak and urs fischbacher and e. fehr}, journal={nature}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	m. kosfeld, m. heinrichs, + authors e. fehr 	published 	psychology, medicine 	nature trust pervades human societies. trust is indispensable in friendship, love, families and organizations, and plays a key role in economic exchange and politics. in the absence of trust among trading partners, market transactions break down. in the absence of trust in a country's institutions and leaders, political legitimacy breaks down. much recent evidence indicates that trust contributes to economic, political and social success. little is known, however, about the biological basis of trust… continue reading view on nature archive-ouverte.unige.ch save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper , citationshighly influencial citations background citations , methods citations results citations view all figures, tables, and topics from this paper. figures and tables 	 figure 	 table 	 figure 	 figure explore further: topics discussed in this paper 	oxytocin 	administration, intranasal paper mentions news article a touchy subject: why we can’t shake the handshake dutchnews.nl june interventional clinical trial oxytocin intranasal administrations in children with prader-willi syndrome aged from to years positive results in preclinical and clinical studies in adults and infants with prader-willi syndrome lead investigators to set up a new study in children with prader-willi syndrome. the… expand 	conditions	prader-willi syndrome 	intervention	drug university hospital, toulouse november - december interventional clinical trial study of the effects of oxytocin on attentional bias and startle in ptsd the investigators will test whether intranasal oxytocin ( iu vs placebo) will induce effects on attention bias and startle comparable to those the investigators have shown to be… expand 	conditions	posttraumatic stress disorder 	intervention	drug palo alto veterans institute for research july - july interventional clinical trial effects of intranasal oxytocin administration on social influence effects on pain this experiment will explore the joint effects of social information, social support, associative learning, and oxytocin on the development of placebo analgesia. the investigators… expand 	conditions	pain 	intervention	drug university of colorado, boulder june - april show more , citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency oxytocin and the biological basis for interpersonal and political trust 	jennifer merolla, g. burnett, kenneth v. pyle, sheila ahmadi, paul j. zak 	psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background and results save alert research feed testosterone decreases trust in socially naïve humans 	p. bos, d. terburg, j. van honk 	psychology, medicine 	proceedings of the national academy of sciences 	 	 	highly influenced 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed oxytocin facilitates social learning by promoting conformity to trusted individuals 	l. xu, b. becker, k. kendrick 	psychology, medicine 	front. neurosci. 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed oxytocin shapes the neural circuitry of trust and trust adaptation in humans 	t. baumgartner, m. heinrichs, aline vonlanthen, urs fischbacher, e. fehr 	psychology, medicine 	neuron 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites results and background save alert research feed u-shaped relation between plasma oxytocin levels and behavior in the trust game 	songfa zhong, m. monakhov, + authors r. ebstein 	biology, medicine 	plos one 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites methods and background save alert research feed oxytocin, trust, and trustworthiness: the moderating role of music 	r. riedl, a. javor, d. gefen, a. felten, m. reuter 	psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites results save alert research feed does oxytocin increase trust in humans? a critical review of research 	g. nave, c. camerer, m. mccullough 	psychology, medicine 	perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the association for psychological science 	 	 	highly influenced 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background and results save alert research feed human behaviour: brain trust 	a. damasio 	business, medicine 	nature 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed oxytocin, vasopressin and trust: associations with aggressive behavior in healthy young males 	youri r. berends, j. tulen, a. i. wierdsma, j. v. pelt, h. j. v. marle 	psychology, medicine 	physiology & behavior 	 	 save alert research feed on the economics and biology of trust 	e. fehr 	biology, political science 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	 	 	› references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency explaining altruistic behavior in humans 	herbert gintis, herbert gintis, s. bowles, s. bowles, r. boyd, e. fehr 	economics 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed status and distrust: the relevance of inequality and betrayal aversion 	k. hong, i. bohnet 	psychology 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed cellular mechanisms of social attachment 	l. young, m. lim, b. gingrich, t. insel 	biology, medicine 	hormones and behavior 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed social support and oxytocin interact to suppress cortisol and subjective responses to psychosocial stress 	m. heinrichs, t. baumgartner, clemens kirschbaum, u. ehlert 	psychology, medicine 	biological psychiatry 	 	 , 	pdf save alert research feed oxytocin receptor distribution reflects social organization in monogamous and polygamous voles 	l. shapiro, t. insel 	medicine, biology 	proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed oxytocin may mediate the benefits of positive social interaction and emotions 	k. uvnäs-moberg 	psychology, medicine 	psychoneuroendocrinology 	 	 save alert research feed trust and growth 	paul j. zak, s. knack 	economics 	 	 , 	pdf save alert research feed trust, reciprocity, and social history 	joyce e. berg, john dickhaut, k. mccabe 	psychology 	 	 , 	pdf save alert research feed selective amnesic effects of oxytocin on human memory 	m. heinrichs, g. meinlschmidt, w. wippich, u. ehlert, d. hellhammer 	psychology, medicine 	physiology & behavior 	 	 save alert research feed does social capital have an economic payoff? a cross-country investigation 	s. knack, p. keefer 	economics 	 	 , 	pdf save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	 	 	› related papers 	abstract 	figures, tables, and topics 	paper mentions 	 , citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators blog posts, news 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		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on july , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 ecstasy (emotion) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	ecstasy (emotion) 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		subjective experience of total involvement of subject with object of their awareness for other uses, see ecstasy. this article is about the informal use of the term. for its usage in the philosophical perspective, see ecstasy (philosophy). "ecstatic" redirects here. for the mos def album, see the ecstatic. the ecstasy of st. theresa by gianlorenzo bernini ( ). left transept of santa maria della vittoria ( th century) in rome. 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e ecstasy (from ancient greek ἔκστασις ékstasis, meaning 'outside of oneself') is a subjective experience of total involvement of the subject, with an object of their awareness. in classical greek literature it refers to removal of the mind or body "from its normal place of function."[ ] total involvement with an object of interest is not an ordinary experience because of being aware of other objects, thus ecstasy is an example of an altered state of consciousness characterized by diminished awareness of other objects or the total lack of the awareness of surroundings and everything around the object. the word is also used to refer to any heightened state of consciousness or intensely pleasant experience. it is also used more specifically to denote states of awareness of non-ordinary mental spaces, which may be perceived as spiritual (the latter type of ecstasy often takes the form of religious ecstasy). contents 	 description 	 types 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links description[edit] st filippo neri in ecstasy by guido reni from a psychological perspective, ecstasy is a loss of self-control and sometimes a temporary loss of consciousness, which is often associated with religious mysticism, sexual intercourse and the use of certain drugs.[ ] for the duration of the ecstasy the ecstatic is out of touch with ordinary life and is capable neither of communication with other people nor of undertaking normal actions. the experience can be brief in physical time, or it can go on for hours. subjective perception of time, space or self may strongly change or disappear during ecstasy. for instance, if one is concentrating on a physical task, then any intellectual thoughts may cease. on the other hand, making a spirit journey in an ecstatic trance involves the cessation of voluntary bodily movement. types[edit] ecstasy, by jean benner (strasbourg museum of modern and contemporary art) ecstasy can be deliberately induced using religious or creative activities, meditation, music, dancing, breathing exercises, physical exercise, sexual intercourse or consumption of psychotropic drugs. the particular technique that an individual uses to induce ecstasy is usually also associated with that individual's particular religious and cultural traditions. sometimes an ecstatic experience takes place due to occasional contact with something or somebody perceived as extremely beautiful or holy, or without any known reason. "in some cases, a person might obtain an ecstatic experience 'by mistake'. maybe the person unintentionally triggers one of the, probably many, physiological mechanisms through which such an experience can be reached. in such cases, it is not rare to find that the person later, by reading, looks for an interpretation and maybe finds it within a tradition."[ ] people interpret the experience afterward according to their culture and beliefs (as a revelation from god, a trip to the world of spirits or a psychotic episode). "when a person is using an ecstasy technique, he usually does so within a tradition. when he reaches an experience, a traditional interpretation of it already exists."[ ] the experience together with its subsequent interpretation may strongly and permanently change the value system and the worldview of the subject (e.g. to cause religious conversion). in , james leuba wrote: "among most uncivilized populations, as among civilized peoples, certain ecstatic conditions are regarded as divine possession or as union with the divine. these states are induced by means of drugs, by physical excitement, or by psychical means. but, however produced and at whatever level of culture they may be found, they possess certain common features which suggest even to the superficial observer some profound connection. always described as delightful beyond expression, these awesome ecstatic experiences end commonly in mental quiescence or even in total unconsciousness." he prepares his readers "... to recognize a continuity of impulse, of purpose, of form and of result between the ecstatic intoxication of the savage and the absorption in god of the christian mystic."[ ] "in everyday language, the word 'ecstasy' denotes an intense, euphoric experience. for obvious reasons, it is rarely used in a scientific context; it is a concept that is extremely hard to define."[ ] see also[edit] 	entheogen 	flow (psychology) 	poem of ecstasy references[edit] 	^ h. s. versnal. "ecstasy". the oxford classical dictionary (third, revised ed.). p.  . 	^ "ecstasy". the free dictionary by farlex. retrieved - - . 	^ a b c björkqvist, kaj. "ecstasy from a physiological point of view". (scripta instituti donneriani aboensis xi: religious ecstasy. based on papers read at the symposium on religions ecstasy held at Åbo, finland, on the th- th of august . edited by nils g. holm. archived from the original on september , . 	^ james h. leuba, "the psychology of religious mysticism", p. . routledge, uk, . further reading[edit] 	william james, "varieties of religious experience", . 	milan kundera on ecstasy: a quote from milan kundera's book "testaments betrayed" ( ) 	marghanita laski, "ecstasy. a study of some secular and religious experiences", london, cresset press, . review 	marghanita laski, "everyday ecstasy", thames and hudson, . isbn  - - - . 	evelyn underhill, "mysticism", . ch. 	timothy leary, "the politics of ecstasy", . external links[edit] 	 media related to ecstasy (emotion) at wikimedia commons 	 the dictionary definition of ecstasy at wiktionary 	st. francis in ecstasy (painting by caravaggio) 	"dances of ecstasy", documentary by michelle mahrer and nichole 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		eight stages model of psychoanalytic development 	part of a series of articles on 	psychoanalysis 	 	 concepts 	psychosexual development 	psychosocial development (erikson) 	unconscious 	preconscious 	consciousness 	psychic apparatus 	id, ego and super-ego 	libido 	drive 	transference 	countertransference 	ego defenses 	resistance 	projection 	denial 	dreamwork 	 important figures 	karl abraham 	alfred adler 	michael balint 	wilfred bion 	josef breuer 	nancy chodorow 	max eitingon 	erik erikson 	ronald fairbairn 	paul federn 	otto fenichel 	sándor ferenczi 	anna freud 	sigmund freud 	erich fromm 	harry guntrip 	karen horney 	edith jacobson 	ernest jones 	carl jung 	abram kardiner 	heinz kohut 	melanie klein 	jacques lacan 	ronald laing 	jean laplanche 	margaret mahler 	jacques-alain miller 	sandor rado 	otto rank 	wilhelm reich 	joan riviere 	isidor sadger 	ernst simmel 	sabina spielrein 	wilhelm stekel 	james strachey 	harry stack sullivan 	susan sutherland isaacs 	donald winnicott 	slavoj Žižek 	 important works 	the interpretation of dreams ( ) 	the psychopathology of everyday life ( ) 	three essays on the theory of sexuality ( ) 	beyond the pleasure principle ( ) 	the ego and the id ( ) 	 schools of thought 	adlerian 	ego psychology 	jungian 	lacanian 	interpersonal 	intersubjective 	marxist 	object relations 	reichian 	relational 	self psychology 	 training 	boston graduate school of psychoanalysis 	british psychoanalytic council 	british psychoanalytical society 	columbia university center for psychoanalytic training and research 	international psychoanalytical association 	world association of psychoanalysis 	list of schools of psychoanalysis 	 see also 	child psychoanalysis 	depth psychology 	psychodynamics 	psychoanalytic theory 	 	 psychology portal 		v 	t 	e erikson's stages of psychosocial development, as articulated in the second half of the th century by erik erikson in collaboration with joan erikson,[ ] is a comprehensive psychoanalytic theory that identifies a series of eight stages that a healthy developing individual should pass through from infancy to late adulthood. erikson's stage theory characterizes an individual advancing through the eight life stages as a function of negotiating their biological and sociocultural forces. each stage is characterized by a psychosocial crisis of these two conflicting forces. if an individual does indeed successfully reconcile these forces (favoring the first mentioned attribute in the crisis), they emerge from the stage with the corresponding virtue. for example, if an infant enters into the toddler stage (autonomy vs. shame and doubt) with more trust than mistrust, they carry the virtue of hope into the remaining life stages.[ ] the challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to return as problems in the future. however, mastery of a stage is not required to advance to the next stage. the outcome of one stage is not permanent and can be modified by later experiences.[citation needed] contents 	 stages 	 . hope: trust vs. mistrust (oral-sensory, infancy, under years)[ ] 	 . will: autonomy vs. shame/doubt (muscular-anal, toddlerhood, – years)[ ] 	 . purpose: initiative vs. guilt (locomotor-genital, early childhood, – years)[ ] 	 . competence: industry vs. inferiority (latency, middle childhood, – years)[ ] 	 . fidelity: identity vs. role confusion (adolescence, – years)[ ] 	 . love: intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood, – years)[ ] 	 . care: generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood, – years)[ ] 	 . wisdom: ego integrity vs. despair (late adulthood, years and above)[ ] 	 . ninth stage 	 development of post-freudian theory 	 criticism 	 see also 	 references 	 . sources 	 publications stages[edit] 	approximate age[ ]	virtues[ ]	psychosocial crisis[ ]	significant relationship[ ]	existential question[ ]	examples[ ] 	infancy under years 	hope	trust vs. mistrust	mother	can i trust the world?	feeding, abandonment 	toddlerhood – years 	will	autonomy vs. shame/doubt	parents	is it okay to be me?	toilet training, clothing themselves 	early childhood – years [ ] 	purpose	initiative vs. guilt	family	is it okay for me to do, move, and act?	exploring, using tools or making art 	middle childhood – years [ ] 	competence	industry vs. inferiority	neighbors, school	can i make it in the world of people and things?	school, sports 	adolescence – years [ ] 	fidelity	identity vs. role confusion	peers, role model	who am i? who can i be?	social relationships 	early adulthood – years [ ] 	love	intimacy vs. isolation	friends, partners	can i love?	romantic relationships 	middle adulthood – years [ ] 	care	generativity vs. stagnation	household, workmates	can i make my life count?	work, parenthood 	late adulthood and above [ ] 	wisdom	ego integrity vs. despair	mankind, my kind	is it okay to have been me?	reflection on life hope: trust vs. mistrust (oral-sensory, infancy, under years)[ ][edit] 	existential question: can i trust the world?[ ] the first stage of erik erikson's theory centers around the infant's basic needs being met by the parents and how this interaction leads to trust or mistrust. trust as defined by erikson is "an essential trustfulness of others as well as a fundamental sense of one's own trustworthiness."[ ] the infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for sustenance and comfort. the child's relative understanding of world and society comes from the parents and their interaction with the child. a child's first trust is always with the parent or caregiver; whoever that might be, however, the caregiver is secondary whereas the parents are primary in the eyes of the child. if the parents expose the child to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant's view of the world will be one of trust. should parents fail to provide a secure environment and to meet the child's basic needs; a sense of mistrust will result.[ ] development of mistrust can lead to feelings of frustration, suspicion, withdrawal, and a lack of confidence.[ ] according to erik erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. if caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust — that others are dependable and reliable. if they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust — that the world is an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place. while negative, having some experience with mistrust allows the infant to gain an understanding of what constitutes dangerous situations later in life; yet being at the stage of infant or toddler, it is a good idea not to put them in prolonged situations of mistrust: the child's number one needs are to feel safe, comforted, and well cared for.[ ] will: autonomy vs. shame/doubt (muscular-anal, toddlerhood, – years)[ ][edit] 	existential question: is it okay to be me?[ ] as the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to explore their surroundings. parents still provide a strong base of security from which the child can venture out to assert their will. the parents' patience and encouragement help to foster autonomy in the child. children at this age like to explore the world around them and they are constantly learning about their environment. caution must be taken at this age while children may explore things that are dangerous to their health and safety. at this age children develop their first interests. for example, a child who enjoys music may like to play with the radio. children who enjoy the outdoors may be interested in animals and plants. highly restrictive parents are more likely to instill in the child a sense of doubt, and reluctance to try new and challenging opportunities. as the child gains increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable of satisfying some of their own needs. they begin to feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the bathroom. if caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy—a sense of being able to handle many problems on their own. but if caregivers demand too much too soon, or refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency, children may instead develop shame and doubt about their ability to handle problems. purpose: initiative vs. guilt (locomotor-genital, early childhood, – years)[ ][edit] 	existential question: is it okay for me to do, move, and act? [ ] initiative adds to autonomy the quality of planning, undertaking and attacking a task for the sake of just being active and on the move. the child is learning to master the world around them, learning basic skills and principles of physics. things fall down, not up. round things roll. they learn how to zip and tie, count and speak with ease. at this stage, the child wants to begin and complete their own actions for a purpose. guilt is a confusing new emotion. they may feel guilty over things that logically should not cause guilt. they may feel guilt when this initiative does not produce desired results. the development of courage and independence are what set preschoolers, ages three to six years of age, apart from other age groups. young children in this category face the challenge of initiative versus guilt. as described in bee and boyd ( ),[ ] the child during this stage faces the complexities of planning and developing a sense of judgment. during this stage, the child learns to take initiative, and prepares for leadership and goal achievement roles. activities sought out by a child in this stage may include risk-taking behaviors, such as crossing a street alone or riding a bike without a helmet; both these examples involve self-limits. within instances requiring initiative, the child may also develop negative behaviors. these negative behaviors are a result of the child developing a sense of frustration for not being able to achieve a goal as planned and may engage in negative behaviors that seem aggressive, ruthless, and overly assertive to parents. aggressive behaviors, such as throwing objects, hitting, or yelling, are examples of observable behaviors during this stage. preschoolers are increasingly able to accomplish tasks on their own and can explore new areas. with this growing independence comes many choices about activities to be pursued. sometimes children take on projects they can readily accomplish, but at other times they undertake projects that are beyond their capabilities or that interfere with other people's plans and activities. if parents and preschool teachers encourage and support children's efforts, while also helping them make realistic and appropriate choices, children develop initiative—independence in planning and undertaking activities. but if, instead, adults discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children develop guilt about their needs and desires.[ ] competence: industry vs. inferiority (latency, middle childhood, – years)[ ][edit] 	existential question: can i make it in the world of people and things?[ ] the aim to bring a productive situation to completion gradually supersedes the whims and wishes of play. the fundamentals of technology are developed. the failure to master trust, autonomy, and industrious skills may cause the child to doubt his or her future, leading to shame, guilt, and the experience of defeat and inferiority.[ ] the child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure, and incompetence. "children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals." they work hard at "being responsible, being good and doing it right." they are now more reasonable to share and cooperate. allen and marotz ( )[ ] also list some perceptual cognitive developmental traits specific for this age group. children grasp the concepts of space and time in more logical, practical ways. they gain a better understanding of cause and effect, and of calendar time. at this stage, children are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills: reading, writing, telling time. they also get to form moral values, recognize cultural and individual differences and are able to manage most of their personal needs and grooming with minimal assistance.[ ] at this stage, children might express their independence by talking back and being disobedient and rebellious. erikson viewed the elementary school years as critical for the development of self-confidence. ideally, elementary school provides many opportunities to achieve the recognition of teachers, parents and peers by producing things—drawing pictures, solving addition problems, writing sentences, and so on. if children are encouraged to make and do things and are then praised for their accomplishments, they begin to demonstrate industry by being diligent, persevering at tasks until completed, and putting work before pleasure. if children are instead ridiculed or punished for their efforts or if they find they are incapable of meeting their teachers' and parents' expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority about their capabilities.[ ] at this age, children start recognizing their special talents and continue to discover interests as their education improves. they may begin to choose to do more activities to pursue that interest, such as joining a sport if they know they have athletic ability, or joining the band if they are good at music. if not allowed to discover their own talents in their own time, they will develop a sense of lack of motivation, low self-esteem, and lethargy. they may become "couch potatoes" if they are not allowed to develop interests. fidelity: identity vs. role confusion (adolescence, – years)[ ][edit] 	existential question: who am i and what can i be?[ ] the adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others. superego identity is the accrued confidence that the outer sameness and continuity prepared in the future are matched by the sameness and continuity of one's meaning for oneself, as evidenced in the promise of a career. the ability to settle on a school or occupational identity is pleasant. in later stages of adolescence, the child develops a sense of sexual identity. as they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents ponder the roles they will play in the adult world. initially, they are apt to experience some role confusion—mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit into society—and may experiment with a variety of behaviors and activities (e.g. tinkering with cars, baby-sitting for neighbors, affiliating with certain political or religious groups). eventually, erikson proposed, most adolescents achieve a sense of identity regarding who they are and where their lives are headed. the teenager must achieve identity in occupation, gender roles, politics, and, in some cultures, religion. erikson is credited with coining the term "identity crisis".[ ]: each stage that came before and that follows has its own 'crisis', but even more so now, for this marks the transition from childhood to adulthood. this passage is necessary because "throughout infancy and childhood, a person forms many identifications. but the need for identity in youth is not met by these."[ ] this turning point in human development seems to be the reconciliation between 'the person one has come to be' and 'the person society expects one to become'. this emerging sense of self will be established by 'forging' past experiences with anticipations of the future. in relation to the eight life stages as a whole, the fifth stage corresponds to the crossroads: what is unique about the stage of identity is that it is a special sort of synthesis of earlier stages and a special sort of anticipation of later ones. youth has a certain unique quality in a person's life; it is a bridge between childhood and adulthood. youth is a time of radical change—the great body changes accompanying puberty, the ability of the mind to search one's own intentions and the intentions of others, the suddenly sharpened awareness of the roles society has offered for later life.[ ] adolescents "are confronted by the need to re-establish boundaries for themselves and to do this in the face of an often potentially hostile world".[ ] this is often challenging since commitments are being asked for before particular identity roles have formed. at this point, one is in a state of 'identity confusion', but society normally makes allowances for youth to "find themselves", and this state is called 'the moratorium': the problem of adolescence is one of role confusion—a reluctance to commit which may haunt a person into his mature years. given the right conditions—and erikson believes these are essentially having enough space and time, a psychosocial moratorium, when a person can freely experiment and explore—what may emerge is a firm sense of identity, an emotional and deep awareness of who they are.[ ] as in other stages, bio-psycho-social forces are at work. no matter how one has been raised, one's personal ideologies are now chosen for oneself. often, this leads to conflict with adults over religious and political orientations. another area where teenagers are deciding for themselves is their career choice, and often parents want to have a decisive say in that role. if society is too insistent, the teenager will acquiesce to external wishes, effectively forcing him or her to ‘foreclose' on experimentation and, therefore, true self-discovery. once someone settles on a worldview and vocation, will they be able to integrate this aspect of self-definition into a diverse society? according to erikson, when an adolescent has balanced both perspectives of "what have i got?" and "what am i going to do with it?" they have established their identity:[ ] dependent on this stage is the ego quality of fidelity—the ability to sustain loyalties freely pledged in spite of the inevitable contradictions and confusions of value systems. (italics in original)[ ] given that the next stage (intimacy) is often characterized by marriage, many are tempted to cap off the fifth stage at years of age. however, these age ranges are actually quite fluid, especially for the achievement of identity, since it may take many years to become grounded, to identify the object of one's fidelity, to feel that one has "come of age". in the biographies young man luther and gandhi's truth, erikson determined that their crises ended at ages and , respectively: erikson does note that the time of identity crisis for persons of genius is frequently prolonged. he further notes that in our industrial society, identity formation tends to be long, because it takes us so long to gain the skills needed for adulthood's tasks in our technological world. so… there is not exact time span in which to find oneself. it does not happen automatically at eighteen or at twenty-one. a very approximate rule of thumb for our society would put the end somewhere in one's twenties.[ ] love: intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood, – years)[ ][edit] 	existential question: can i love?[ ] the intimacy vs. isolation conflict occurs around the age of . at the start of this stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end, though it still lingers at the foundation of the stage.[ ] young adults are still eager to blend their identities with their friends because they want to fit in. erikson believes that people are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. people are afraid of rejections such as being turned down or their partners breaking up with them. human beings are familiar with pain, and to some people rejection is so painful that their egos cannot bear it. erikson also argues that distantiation occurs with intimacy. distantiation is the desire to isolate or destroy things that may be dangerous to one's own ideals or life. this can occur if a person has their intimate relationship invaded by outsiders.[ ] once people have established their identities, they are ready to make long-term commitments to others. they become capable of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships (e.g. through close friendships or marriage) and willingly make the sacrifices and compromises that such relationships require. if people cannot form these intimate relationships—perhaps because of their own needs—a sense of isolation may result; arousing feelings of darkness and angst. care: generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood, – years)[ ][edit] 	existential question: can i make my life count?[ ] generativity is the concern of guiding the next generation. socially-valued work and disciplines are expressions of generativity. the adult stage of generativity has broad application to family, relationships, work, and society. "generativity, then is primarily the concern in establishing and guiding the next generation... the concept is meant to include... productivity and creativity."[ ] during middle age the primary developmental task is one of contributing to society and helping to guide future generations. when a person makes a contribution during this period, perhaps by raising a family or working toward the betterment of society, a sense of generativity—a sense of productivity and accomplishment—results. in contrast, a person who is self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of stagnation—a dissatisfaction with the relative lack of productivity. 	central tasks of middle adulthood[ ] 	express love through more than sexual contacts. 	maintain healthy life patterns. 	develop a sense of unity with mate. 	help growing and grown children to be responsible adults. 	relinquish central role in lives of grown children. 	accept children's mates and friends. 	create a comfortable home. 	be proud of accomplishments of self and mate/spouse. 	reverse roles with aging parents. 	achieve mature, civic and social responsibility. 	adjust to physical changes of middle age. 	use leisure time creatively. wisdom: ego integrity vs. despair (late adulthood, years and above)[ ][edit] 	existential question: is it okay to have been me?[ ][ ] as people grow older and become senior citizens they tend to slow down their productivity and explore life as a retired person. it is during this time that they contemplate their accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if they see themselves as leading a successful life. if they see their life as unproductive or feel that they did not accomplish their life goals, they become dissatisfied with life and develop despair. this can often lead to feelings of depression and hopelessness.[ ] during this time there may be a renewal in interest in many things. this is believed to occur because the individuals in this time of life strive to be autonomous. as their bodies and minds start to deteriorate, they want to find a sense of balance. they will cling to their autonomy so that they will not need to be reliant on others for everything. [ ] the final developmental task is retrospection: people look back on their lives and accomplishments. they develop feelings of contentment and integrity if they believe that they have led a happy, productive life. they may instead develop a sense of despair if they look back on a life of disappointments and unachieved goals. this stage can occur out of the sequence when an individual feels they are near the end of their life (such as when receiving a terminal disease diagnosis).[ ] ninth stage[edit] 	psychosocial crises: all first eight stages in reverse quotient order joan m. erikson, who married and collaborated with erik erikson, added a ninth stage in the life cycle completed: extended version.[ ] living in the ninth stage, she wrote, "old age in one's eighties and nineties brings with it new demands, reevaluations, and daily difficulties". addressing these new challenges requires "designating a new ninth stage". erikson was ninety-three years old when she wrote about the ninth stage.[ ] joan erikson showed that all the eight stages "are relevant and recurring in the ninth stage".[ ] in the ninth stage, the psychosocial crises of the eight stages are faced again, but with the quotient order reversed. for example, in the first stage (infancy), the psychosocial crisis was "trust vs. mistrust" with trust being the "syntonic quotient" and mistrust being the "dystonic".[ ] joan erikson applies the earlier psychosocial crises to the ninth stage as follows: "basic mistrust vs. trust: hope" in the ninth stage, "elders are forced to mistrust their own capabilities" because one's "body inevitably weakens". yet, joan erikson asserts that "while there is light, there is hope" for a "bright light and revelation".[ ] "shame and doubt vs. autonomy: will" ninth stage elders face the "shame of lost control" and doubt "their autonomy over their own bodies". so it is that "shame and doubt challenge cherished autonomy".[ ] "inferiority vs. industry: competence" industry as a "driving force" that elders once had is gone in the ninth stage. being incompetent "because of aging is belittling" and makes elders "like unhappy small children of great age".[ ] "identity confusion vs. identity: fidelity" elders experience confusion about their "existential identity" in the ninth stage and "a real uncertainty about status and role".[ ] "isolation vs. intimacy: love" in the ninth stage, the "years of intimacy and love" are often replaced by "isolation and deprivation". relationships become "overshadowed by new incapacities and dependencies".[ ] "stagnation vs. generativity: care" the generativity in the seventh stage of "work and family relationships", if it goes satisfactorily, is "a wonderful time to be alive". in one's eighties and nineties, there is less energy for generativity or caretaking. thus, "a sense of stagnation may well take over".[ ] "despair and disgust vs. integrity: wisdom" integrity imposes "a serious demand on the senses of elders". wisdom requires capacities that ninth stage elders "do not usually have". the eighth stage includes retrospection that can evoke a "degree of disgust and despair". in the ninth stage, introspection is replaced by the attention demanded to one's "loss of capacities and disintegration".[ ] living in the ninth stage, joan erikson expressed confidence that the psychosocial crisis of the ninth stage can be met as in the first stage with the "basic trust" with which "we are blessed".[ ] development of post-freudian theory[edit] erikson was a student of anna freud,[ ] the daughter of sigmund freud, whose psychoanalytic theory and psychosexual stages contributed to the basic outline of the eight stages, at least those concerned with childhood. namely, the first four of erikson's life stages correspond to freud's oral, anal, phallic, and latency phases, respectively. also, the fifth stage of adolescence is said to parallel the genital stage in psychosexual development: although the first three phases are linked to those of the freudian theory, it can be seen that they are conceived along very different lines. emphasis is not so much on sexual modes and their consequences as on the ego qualities which emerge from each stages. there is an attempt also to link the sequence of individual development to the broader context of society.[ ] erikson saw a dynamic at work throughout life, one that did not stop at adolescence. he also viewed the life stages as a cycle: the end of one generation was the beginning of the next. seen in its social context, the life stages were linear for an individual but circular for societal development:[ ] in freud's view, development is largely complete by adolescence. in contrast, one of freud's students, erik erikson ( – ) believed that development continues throughout life. erikson took the foundation laid by freud and extended it through adulthood and into late life.[ ] criticism[edit] one major criticism of erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is that it primarily describes the development of european or american males.[ ] erikson's theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential, and only occurring within the age ranges he suggests. there is debate[ ] as to whether people only search for identity during the adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before other stages can be completed. however, erikson states that each of these processes occur throughout the lifetime in one form or another, and he emphasizes these "phases" only because it is at these times that the conflicts become most prominent.[ ] most empirical research into erikson has related to his views on adolescence and attempts to establish identity. his theoretical approach was studied and supported, particularly regarding adolescence, by james e. marcia.[ ] marcia's work has distinguished different forms of identity, and there is some empirical evidence that those people who form the most coherent self-concept in adolescence are those who are most able to make intimate attachments in early adulthood. this supports the part of eriksonian theory, that suggests that those best equipped to resolve the crisis of early adulthood are those who have most successfully resolved the crisis of adolescence. see also[edit] 	psychology portal 	child development 	developmental psychology 	ethnic identity development 	kohlberg's stages of moral development 	neo-freudianism 	positive disintegration references[edit] 	^ robert mcg. thomas jr., "joan erikson is dead at ; shaped thought on life cycles," new york times obituary, august , . online at https://www.nytimes.com/ / / /us/joan-erikson-is-dead-at- -shaped-thought-on-life-cycles.html. 	^ a b crain, william ( ). theories of development: concepts and applications ( th ed.). upper saddle river, nj: pearson education, inc. isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "erik erikson". webspace.ship.edu. retrieved - - . 	^ a b c d e f g h i j macnow, alexander stone, ed. ( ). mcat behavioral science review. new york city: kaplan publishing. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ human development: a psychological, biological, and sociological approach to the life span: "iii – (play age) initiative vs. guilt family purpose". 	^ human development: a psychological, biological, and sociological approach to the life span: "iv – (school age) industry vs. inferiority neighborhood, school competence ". 	^ human development: a psychological, biological, and sociological approach to the life span: "v – (adolescence) identity vs. identity confusion peer groups leadership models fidelity". 	^ intergenerational programs: imperatives, strategies, impacts, trends: "first, he considers young adulthood (age – ) which he describes as the struggle of "intamacy vs isolation."". 	^ intergenerational programs: imperatives, strategies, impacts, trends: "in middle adulthood (age – ), the conflict of "generativity vs stagnation" arises". 	^ intergenerational programs: imperatives, strategies, impacts, trends: "finally, erikson takes us to the eighth stage of adulthood known as "later adulthood" (over ) where development focuses on the integration of life's experiences, on embracing these experiences as inevitable aspects of oneself, and on accepting an orderliness in life and death". 	^ a b "archived copy". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) 	^ a b c bee, helen; boyd, denise (march ). the developing child ( th ed.). boston, ma: pearson. isbn  - - - - . 	^ axia college materials ( ) 	^ "stages of social-emotional development – erik erikson". childdevelopmentinfo.com. child development institute. retrieved may . 	^ a b allen, eileen; marotz, lynn ( ). developmental profiles pre-birth through twelve ( th ed.). albany, ny: thomson delmar learning. isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b c d gross, francis l. ( ). introducing erik erikson: an invitation to his thinking. lanham, md: university press of america. p.  . isbn  - - - . 	^ wright, jr, j. eugene ( ). erikson: identity and religion. new york, ny: seabury press. p.  . isbn  - - - . 	^ a b c d stevens, richard ( ). erik erikson: an introduction. new york, ny: st. martin's press. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b c erikson, erik h. ( ) [ ]. childhood and society. new york, ny: w. w. norton & company. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ slater, charles l. ( ), "generativity versus stagnation: an elaboration of erikson's adult stage of human development", journal of adult development, ( ): – , doi: . /a: , s cid  	^ "early and middle adulthood | boundless psychology". courses.lumenlearning.com. retrieved - - . 	^ "psychosocial development in late adulthood | lifespan development". courses.lumenlearning.com. retrieved - - . 	^ a b perry, tam e.; ruggiano, nicole; shtompel, natalia; hassevoort, luke ( - - ). "applying erikson's wisdom to self-management practices of older adults: findings from two field studies". research on aging. doi: . / . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ andrews, paul ( - - ). "developmental tasks of terminally ill patients". journal of religion and health. ( ): – . doi: . /bf . issn  - . 	^ erik h. erikson, joan m. erikson, the life cycle completed: extended version (w. w. norton, ). 	^ erik h. erikson, joan m. erikson, the life cycle completed: extended version (w. w. norton, ), , . 	^ james mooney, "erik erikson" in joe l. kincheloe, raymond a. horn, editors, the praeger handbook of education and psychology, volume (praeger, ), . 	^ erik h. erikson, joan m. erikson, the life cycle completed: extended version (w. w. norton, ), . 	^ erik h. erikson, joan m. erikson, the life cycle completed: extended version (w. w. norton, ), – . 	^ erik h. erikson, joan m. erikson, the life cycle completed: extended version (w. w. norton, ), – . 	^ erik h. erikson, joan m. erikson, the life cycle completed: extended version (w. w. norton, ), . 	^ erik h. erikson, joan m. erikson, the life cycle completed: extended version (w. w. norton, ), – . 	^ erik h. erikson, joan m. erikson, the life cycle completed: extended version (w. w. norton, ), – . 	^ erik h. erikson, joan m. erikson, the life cycle completed: extended version (w. w. norton, ), – . 	^ erik h. erikson, joan m. erikson, the life cycle completed: extended version (w. w. norton, ), – . 	^ erik h. erikson, joan m. erikson, the life cycle completed: extended version (w. w. norton, ), – . 	^ wrightsman, lawrence s. ( ). adult personality development. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications, inc. p.  . isbn  - - - . 	^ kail, robert v. & cavanaugh, john c. ( ). human development: a life-span view ( rd ed.). belmont, ca: thomson/wadsworth. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ gilligan, c. ( ). in a different voice: psychological theory and women's psychological development. harvard university press. 	^ arnett, jeffrey jensen ( august ). emerging adulthood : the winding road from the late teens through the twenties (second ed.). new york, new york. isbn  - - - - . oclc  . 	^ erikson, erik ( ). "the problem of ego identity" (pdf). journal of the american psychoanalytic association. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . retrieved - - . 	^ marcia, james e. ( ). "development and validation of ego identity status" (pdf). journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /h . pmid  . retrieved - - . sources[edit] 	library resources about erikson's stages of psychosocial development 	 	resources in your library 	resources in other libraries publications[edit] 	erikson, e. ( ). childhood and society ( st ed.). new york: norton 	erikson, erik h. ( ) identity and the life cycle. new york: international universities press. 	erikson, erik h. ( ) identity, youth and crisis. new york: norton. 	erikson, erik h. and joan m. ( ) the life cycle completed: extended version. new york: w. w. norton 	sheehy, gail ( ) passages: predictable crises of adult life. new york: e. p. dutton. 	stevens, richard ( ) erik erikson: an introduction. new york: st. martin's. 	 	v 	t 	e human psychological development 	developmental psychology	 	antenatal 	cognitive development of infants 	positive youth development 	young adult 	adult development 	positive adult development 	maturity 	theorists and theories 	 	freud ( – ) (psychosexual development) 	piaget ( – ) (theory of cognitive development) 	vygotsky ( – ) (cultural-historical psychology) 	erikson ( – ) (psychosocial development) 	bowlby ( – ) (attachment theory) 	bronfenbrenner ( – ) (ecological systems theory) 	kohlberg ( – ) (stages of moral development) 	commons (b. ), fischer (b. ), kegan (b. ), demetriou (b. ), and others (neo-piagetian theories of cognitive development) 	evolutionary developmental psychology retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=erikson% s_stages_of_psychosocial_development&oldid= " 		categories: 	developmental psychology 	psychological concepts 	stage theories hidden categories: 	cs maint: archived copy as title 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from december 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	Български 	deutsch 	euskara 	français 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	हिन्दी 	עברית 	ქართული 	magyar 	norsk bokmål 	polski 	português 	Русский 	simple english 	slovenčina 	தமிழ் 	tiếng việt 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 faith - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	faith 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		this article is about religious belief. for trust in people or other things, see trust (emotion). for other types of faith, see faith (disambiguation). confidence or trust in a person, thing, or concept faith (armani), by mino da fiesole. faith, derived from latin fides and old french feid,[ ] is confidence or trust in a person, thing, or concept.[ ][ ] in the context of religion, one can define faith as "belief in god or in the doctrines or teachings of religion".[ ] religious people often think of faith as confidence based on a perceived degree of warrant,[ ][ ] while others who are more skeptical of religion tend to think of faith as simply belief without evidence.[ ] contents 	 etymology 	 stages of faith development 	 . stages of faith 	 religious views 	 . baháʼí faith 	 . buddhism 	 . christianity 	 . . christian apologetic views 	 . . catholicism 	 . . the church of jesus christ of latter-day saints 	 . hinduism 	 . islam 	 . judaism 	 . sikhism 	 epistemological validity 	 . fideism 	 . support 	 . criticism 	 see also 	 references 	 sources 	 further reading 	 . classic reflections on the nature of faith 	 . the reformation view of faith 	 external links etymology[edit] the english word faith is thought to date from – , from the middle english feith, via anglo-french fed, old french feid, feit from latin fidem, accusative of fidēs (trust), akin to fīdere (to trust).[ ] stages of faith development[edit] main article: james w. fowler § stages of faith james w. fowler ( – ) proposes a series of stages of faith-development (or spiritual development) across the human life-span. his stages relate closely to the work of piaget, erikson, and kohlberg regarding aspects of psychological development in children and adults. fowler defines faith as an activity of trusting, committing, and relating to the world based on a set of assumptions of how one is related to others and the world.[ ] stages of faith[edit] 	intuitive-projective: a stage of confusion and of high impressionability through stories and rituals (pre-school period). 	mythic-literal: a stage where provided information is accepted in order to conform with social norms (school-going period). 	synthetic-conventional: in this stage the faith acquired is concreted in the belief system with the forgoing of personification and replacement with authority in individuals or groups that represent one's beliefs (early-late adolescence). 	individuative-reflective: in this stage the individual critically analyzes adopted and accepted faith with existing systems of faith. disillusion or strengthening of faith happens in this stage. based on needs, experiences and paradoxes (early adulthood). 	conjunctive faith: in this stage people realize the limits of logic and, facing the paradoxes or transcendence of life, accept the "mystery of life" and often return to the sacred stories and symbols of the pre-acquired or re-adopted faith system. this stage is called negotiated settling in life (mid-life). 	universalizing faith: this is the "enlightenment" stage where the individual comes out of all the existing systems of faith and lives life with universal principles of compassion and love and in service to others for upliftment, without worries and doubt (middle-late adulthood ( – years old and plus).[ ][full citation needed] no hard-and-fast rule requires individuals pursuing faith to go through all six stages. there is a high probability for individuals to be content and fixed in a particular stage for a lifetime; stages from - are such stages. stage is the summit of faith development. this state is often[quantify] considered as "not fully" attainable.[ ] religious views[edit] baháʼí faith[edit] see also: role of faith in the baháʼí faith in the baháʼí faith, faith is meant, first, conscious knowledge, and second, the practice of good deeds,[citation needed] ultimately the acceptance of the divine authority of the manifestations of god.[ ] in the religion's view, faith and knowledge are both required for spiritual growth.[ ] faith involves more than outward obedience to this authority, but also must be based on a deep personal understanding of religious teachings.[ ] buddhism[edit] main article: faith in buddhism faith in buddhism (pali: saddhā, sanskrit: śraddhā) refers to a serene commitment in the practice of the buddha's teaching and trust in enlightened or highly developed beings, such as buddhas or bodhisattvas (those aiming to become a buddha).[ ][ ] buddhists usually recognize multiple objects of faith, but many are especially devoted to one particular object of faith, such as one particular buddha.[ ][ ][ ] in early buddhism, faith was focused on the triple gem, that is, gautama buddha, his teaching (the dhamma), and the community of spiritually developed followers, or the monastic community seeking enlightenment (the sangha). although offerings to the monastic community were valued highest, early buddhism did not morally condemn peaceful offerings to deities.[ ] a faithful devotee was called upāsaka or upāsika, for which no formal declaration was required.[ ] in early buddhism, personal verification was valued highest in attaining the truth, and sacred scriptures, reason or faith in a teacher were considered less valuable sources of authority.[ ] as important as faith was, it was a mere initial step to the path to wisdom and enlightenment, and was obsolete or redefined at the final stage of that path.[ ][ ] while faith in buddhism does not imply "blind faith", buddhist practice nevertheless requires a degree of trust, primarily in the spiritual attainment of gautama buddha. faith in buddhism centers on the understanding that the buddha is an awakened being, on his superior role as teacher, in the truth of his dharma (spiritual teachings), and in his sangha (community of spiritually developed followers). faith in buddhism can be summarised as faith in the three jewels: the buddha, dharma and sangha. it is intended to lead to the goal of enlightenment, or bodhi, and nirvana. volitionally, faith implies a resolute and courageous act of will. it combines the steadfast resolution that one will do a thing with the self-confidence that one can do it.[ ] in the later stratum of buddhist history, especially mahāyāna buddhism, faith was given a much more important role.[ ][ ] the concept of the buddha nature was developed, as devotion to buddhas and bodhisattvas residing in pure lands became commonplace.[ ][ ] with the arising of the cult of the lotus sūtra, faith gained a central role in buddhist practice,[ ] which was further amplified with the development of devotion to the amitabha buddha in pure land buddhism.[ ][ ] in the japanese form of pure land buddhism, under the teachers hōnen and shinran, only entrusting faith toward the amitabha buddha was believed to be a fruitful form of practice, as the practice of celibacy, morality and other buddhist disciplines were dismissed as no longer effective in this day and age, or contradicting the virtue of faith.[ ][ ][ ] faith was defined as a state similar to enlightenment, with a sense of self-negation and humility.[ ][ ] thus, the role of faith increased throughout buddhist history. however, from the nineteenth century onward, buddhist modernism in countries like sri lanka and japan, and also in the west, has downplayed and criticized the role of faith in buddhism. faith in buddhism still has a role in modern asia or the west, but is understood and defined differently from traditional interpretations.[ ][ ][ ] within the dalit buddhist movement communities, taking refuge is defined not only as a religious, but also a political choice.[ ] christianity[edit] triumph of faith over idolatry by jean-baptiste théodon ( – ) main article: faith in christianity the word translated as "faith" in english-language editions of the new testament, the greek word πίστις (pístis), can also be translated as "belief", "faithfulness", or "trust".[ ] christianity encompasses various views regarding the nature of faith. some see faith as being persuaded or convinced that something is true.[ ] in this view, a person believes something when they are presented with adequate evidence that it is true. the theologian saint thomas aquinas did not hold that faith is mere opinion: on the contrary, he held that it represents a mean (understood in the platonic sense) between excessive reliance on science (i.e. demonstration) and excessive reliance on opinion.[ ] numerous views discuss the results of faith. some believe that true faith results in good works, while others believe that while faith in jesus brings eternal life, it does not necessarily result in good works.[ ] regardless of which approach to faith a christian takes, all agree that the christian faith is aligned with the ideals and the example of the life of jesus. the christian sees the mystery of god and his grace, and seeks to know and become obedient to god. to a christian, faith is not static but causes one to learn more of god and to grow; christian faith has its origin in god.[ ] the definition of faith given by the author of the epistle to the hebrews at hebrews : carries particular weight with christians who respect the bible as the source of divine truth. there the author writes: "now faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen." — king james version "now faith is the assurance that what we hope for will come about and the certainty that what we cannot see exists." — international standard version “the naive or inexperienced person is easily misled and believes every word he hears, but the prudent man is discreet and astute.” (proverbs : , amplified bible) the christian apostle paul wrote: "test everything that is said to be sure it is true, and if it is, then accept it." ( thessalonians : , living bible) in christianity, faith causes change as it seeks a greater understanding of god. faith is not only fideism or simple obedience to a set of rules or statements.[ ] before christians have faith, they must understand in whom and in what they have faith. without understanding, there cannot be true faith, and that understanding is built on the foundation of the community of believers, the scriptures and traditions and on the personal experiences of the believer.[ ] in english translations of the new testament, the word "faith" generally corresponds to the greek noun πίστις (pistis) or to the greek verb πιστεύω (pisteuo), meaning "to trust, to have confidence, faithfulness, to be reliable, to assure".[ ] christians may recognise different degrees of faith when they encourage each other to and themselves strive to develop, grow, and/or deepen their faith.[ ] this may imply that one can measure faith. willingness to undergo martyrdom indicates a proxy for depth of faith, but does not provide an everyday measurement for the average contemporary christian. within the calvinist tradition the degree of prosperity[ ] may serve as an analog of level of faith.[ ] other christian strands may rely on personal self-evaluation to measure the intensity of an individual's faith, with associated difficulties in calibrating to any scale. solemn affirmations of a creed (a statement of faith) provide broad measurements of details. various tribunals of the inquisition, however, concerned themselves with precisely evaluating the orthodoxy of the faith of those it examined - in order to acquit or to punish in varying degrees.[ ] christian apologetic views[edit] in contrast to richard dawkins' view of faith as "blind trust, in the absence of evidence, even in the teeth of evidence",[ ] alister mcgrath quotes the oxford anglican theologian w. h. griffith-thomas ( – ), who states that faith is "not blind, but intelligent" and that it "commences with the conviction of the mind based on adequate evidence...", which mcgrath sees as "a good and reliable definition, synthesizing the core elements of the characteristic christian understanding of faith".[ ] american biblical scholar archibald thomas robertson stated that the greek word pistis used for faith in the new testament (over two hundred forty times), and rendered "assurance" in acts : (kjv), is "an old verb meaning "to furnish", used regularly by demosthenes for bringing forward evidence."[ ] tom price (oxford centre for christian apologetics) affirms that when the new testament talks about faith positively it only uses words derived from the greek root [pistis] which means "to be persuaded".[ ] british christian apologist john lennox argues that "faith conceived as belief that lacks warrant is very different from faith conceived as belief that has warrant". he states that "the use of the adjective 'blind' to describe 'faith' indicates that faith is not necessarily, or always, or indeed normally, blind". "the validity, or warrant, of faith or belief depends on the strength of the evidence on which the belief is based." "we all know how to distinguish between blind faith and evidence-based faith. we are well aware that faith is only justified if there is evidence to back it up." "evidence-based faith is the normal concept on which we base our everyday lives."[ ] peter s williams[ ] holds that "the classic christian tradition has always valued rationality, and does not hold that faith involves the complete abandonment of reason while believing in the teeth of evidence."[page needed] quoting moreland, faith is defined as "a trust in and commitment to what we have reason to believe is true." regarding doubting thomas in john : - , williams points out that "thomas wasn't asked to believe without evidence". he was asked to believe on the basis of the other disciples' testimony. thomas initially lacked the first-hand experience of the evidence that had convinced them... moreover, the reason john gives for recounting these events is that what he saw is evidence... jesus did many other miraculous signs in the presence of his disciples...but these are written that you may believe that jesus is the christ, the son of god, and that believing ye might have life in his name. john : , .[ ] concerning doubting thomas, michael r. allen wrote, "thomas's definition of faith implies adherence to conceptual propositions for the sake of personal knowledge, knowledge of and about a person qua person".[ ] kenneth boa and robert m. bowman jr. describe a classic understanding of faith that is referred to[by whom?]as evidentialism, and which is part of a larger epistemological tradition called classical foundationalism, which is accompanied by deontologism, which holds that humans have an obligation to regulate their beliefs in accordance with evidentialist structures. they show how this can go too far,[ ] and alvin plantinga deals with it. while plantinga upholds that faith may be the result of evidence testifying to the reliability of the source (of the truth claims), yet he sees having faith as being the result of hearing the truth of the gospel with the internal persuasion by the holy spirit moving and enabling him to believe. "christian belief is produced in the believer by the internal instigation of the holy spirit, endorsing the teachings of scripture, which is itself divinely inspired by the holy spirit. the result of the work of the holy spirit is faith."[ ] catholicism[edit] the four-part catechism of the catholic church (ccc) gives part one to "the profession of faith". this section describes the content of faith. it elaborates and expands particularly upon the apostles' creed. ccc initiates a section on the "obedience of faith". in the theology of pope john paul ii, faith is understood in personal terms as a trusting commitment of person to person and thus involves christian commitment to the divine person of jesus christ.[ ] the church of jesus christ of latter-day saints[edit] some alternative, yet impactful, ideas regarding the nature of faith were presented by joseph smith in a collection of sermons, but was not the sole author,[ ] now presented as lectures on faith. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	lecture explains what faith is; 	lecture describes how mankind comes to know about god; 	lectures and make clear the necessary and unchanging attributes of god; 	lecture deals with the nature of god the father, his son jesus christ, and the holy ghost; 	lecture proclaims that the willingness to sacrifice all earthly things is prerequisite to gaining faith unto salvation; 	lecture treats the fruits of faith—perspective, power, and eventually perfection.[ ][date missing] hinduism[edit] main article: bhakthi bhakti (sanskrit: भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".[ ] it was originally used in hinduism, referring to devotion and love for a personal god or a representational god by a devotee.[ ][ ] in ancient texts such as the shvetashvatara upanishad, the term simply means participation, devotion and love for any endeavor, while in the bhagavad gita, it connotes one of the possible paths of spirituality and towards moksha, as in bhakti marga.[ ] ahimsa, also referred to as nonviolence, is the fundamental tenet of hinduism which advocates harmonious and peaceful co-existence and evolutionary growth in grace and wisdom for all humankind unconditionally. in hinduism, most of the vedic prayers begins with the chants of om. om is the sanskrit symbol that amazingly resonates the peacefulness ensconced within one's higher self. om is considered to have a profound effect on the body and mind of the one who chants and also creates a calmness, serenity, healing, strength of its own to prevail within and also in the surrounding environment. islam[edit] main article: iman (concept) in islam, a believer's faith in the metaphysical aspects of islam is called iman (arabic: الإيمان‎), which is complete submission to the will of god, not unquestionable or blind belief.[ ][ ] a man must build his faith on well-grounded convictions beyond any reasonable doubt and above uncertainty.[ ][citation needed] according to the quran, iman must be accompanied by righteous deeds and the two together are necessary for entry into paradise.[ ] in the hadith of gabriel, iman in addition to islam and ihsan form the three dimensions of the islamic religion. muhammad referred to the six axioms of faith in the hadith of gabriel: "iman is that you believe in god and his angels and his books and his messengers and the hereafter and the good and evil fate [ordained by your god]."[ ] the first five are mentioned together in the qur'an[ ] the quran states that faith can grow with remembrance of god.[ ] the qur'an also states that nothing in this world should be dearer to a true believer than faith.[ ] judaism[edit] main article: jewish principles of faith judaism recognizes the positive value of emunah[ ] (generally translated as faith, trust in god) and the negative status of the apikorus (heretic), but faith is not as stressed or as central as it is in other religions, especially compared with christianity and islam.[ ] it could be a necessary means for being a practicing religious jew, but the emphasis is placed on true knowledge, true prophecy and practice rather than on faith itself. very rarely does it relate to any teaching that must be believed.[ ] judaism does not require one to explicitly identify god (a key tenet of christian faith, which is called avodah zarah in judaism, a minor form of idol worship, a big sin and strictly forbidden to jews). rather, in judaism, one is to honour a (personal) idea of god, supported by the many principles quoted in the talmud to define judaism, mostly by what it is not. thus there is no established formulation of jewish principles of faith which are mandatory for all (observant) jews. in the jewish scriptures, trust in god – emunah – refers to how god acts toward his people and how they are to respond to him; it is rooted in the everlasting covenant established in the torah, notably[ ] deuteronomy : : know, therefore, that the lord, your god he is god, the faithful god, who keeps the covenant and loving kindness with those who love him and keep his commandments to a thousand generations.[ ] — tanakh, deuteronomy : the specific tenets that compose required belief and their application to the times have been disputed throughout jewish history. today many, but not all, orthodox jews have accepted maimonides' thirteen principles of belief.[ ][ ] a traditional example of emunah as seen in the jewish annals is found in the person of abraham. on a number of occasions, abraham both accepts statements from god that seem impossible and offers obedient actions in response to direction from god to do things that seem implausible (see genesis - ). "the talmud describes how a thief also believes in g‑d: on the brink of his forced entry, as he is about to risk his life—and the life of his victim—he cries out with all sincerity, 'g‑d help me!' the thief has faith that there is a g‑d who hears his cries, yet it escapes him that this g‑d may be able to provide for him without requiring that he abrogate g‑d’s will by stealing from others. for emunah to affect him in this way he needs study and contemplation."[ ] sikhism[edit] main articles: sikhism and five ks faith itself is not a religious concept in sikhism. however, the five sikh symbols, known as kakaars or five ks (in punjabi known as pañj kakkē or pañj kakār), are sometimes referred to as the five articles of faith. the articles include kēs (uncut hair), kaṅghā (small wooden comb), kaṛā (circular steel or iron bracelet), kirpān (sword/dagger), and kacchera (special undergarment). baptised sikhs are bound to wear those five articles of faith, at all times, to save them from bad company and keep them close to god.[ ] epistemological validity[edit] there is a wide spectrum of opinion with respect to the epistemological validity of faith[ ] - that is, whether it is a reliable way to acquire true beliefs. fideism[edit] main article: fideism fideism is an epistemological theory which maintains that faith is independent of reason, or that reason and faith are hostile to each other and faith is superior at arriving at particular truths (see natural theology). fideism is not a synonym for religious belief, but describes a particular philosophical proposition in regard to the relationship between faith's appropriate jurisdiction at arriving at truths, contrasted against reason. it states that faith is needed to determine some philosophical and religious truths, and it questions the ability of reason to arrive at all truth. the word and concept had its origin in the mid- to late- th century by way of catholic thought, in a movement called traditionalism. the roman catholic magisterium has, however, repeatedly condemned fideism.[ ] support[edit] religious epistemologists have formulated and defended reasons for the rationality of accepting belief in god without the support of an argument.[ ] some religious epistemologists hold that belief in god is more analogous to belief in a person than belief in a scientific hypothesis. human relations demand trust and commitment. if belief in god is more like belief in other persons, then the trust that is appropriate to persons will be appropriate to god. american psychologist and philosopher william james offers a similar argument in his lecture the will to believe.[ ][ ] foundationalism is a view about the structure of justification or knowledge.[ ] foundationalism holds that all knowledge and justified belief are ultimately based upon what are called properly basic beliefs. this position is intended to resolve the infinite regress problem in epistemology. according to foundationalism, a belief is epistemically justified only if it is justified by properly basic beliefs. one of the significant developments in foundationalism is the rise of reformed epistemology.[ ] reformed epistemology is a view about the epistemology of religious belief, which holds that belief in god can be properly basic. analytic philosophers alvin plantinga and nicholas wolterstorff develop this view.[ ] plantinga holds that an individual may rationally believe in god even though the individual does not possess sufficient evidence to convince an agnostic. one difference between reformed epistemology and fideism is that the former requires defence against known objections, whereas the latter might dismiss such objections as irrelevant.[ ] plantinga has developed reformed epistemology in warranted christian belief as a form of externalism that holds that the justification conferring factors for a belief may include external factors.[ ] some theistic philosophers have defended theism by granting evidentialism but supporting theism through deductive arguments whose premises are considered justifiable. some of these arguments are probabilistic, either in the sense of having weight but being inconclusive, or in the sense of having a mathematical probability assigned to them.[ ] notable in this regard are the cumulative arguments presented by british philosopher basil mitchell and analytic philosopher richard swinburne, whose arguments are based on bayesian probability.[ ][ ] in a notable exposition of his arguments, swinburne appeals to an inference for the best explanation.[ ][ ] professor of mathematics and philosopher of science at university of oxford john lennox has stated, "faith is not a leap in the dark; it’s the exact opposite. it’s a commitment based on evidence… it is irrational to reduce all faith to blind faith and then subject it to ridicule. that provides a very anti-intellectual and convenient way of avoiding intelligent discussion.” he criticises richard dawkins as a famous proponent of asserting that faith equates to holding a belief without evidence, thus that it is possible to hold belief without evidence, for failing to provide evidence for this assertion.[ ][clarification needed] criticism[edit] bertrand russell wrote:[ ] christians hold that their faith does good, but other faiths do harm. at any rate, they hold this about the communist faith. what i wish to maintain is that all faiths do harm. we may define “faith” as a firm belief in something for which there is no evidence. where there is evidence, no one speaks of “faith.” we do not speak of faith that two and two are four or that the earth is round. we only speak of faith when we wish to substitute emotion for evidence. the substitution of emotion for evidence is apt to lead to strife, since different groups substitute different emotions. christians have faith in the resurrection; communists have faith in marx’s theory of value. neither faith can be defended rationally, and each therefore is defended by propaganda and, if necessary, by war. — will religious faith cure our troubles? evolutionary biologist richard dawkins criticizes all faith by generalizing from specific faith in propositions that conflict directly with scientific evidence.[ ] he describes faith as belief without evidence; a process of active non-thinking. he states that it is a practice that only degrades our understanding of the natural world by allowing anyone to make a claim about nature that is based solely on their personal thoughts, and possibly distorted perceptions, that does not require testing against nature, has no ability to make reliable and consistent predictions, and is not subject to peer review.[ ] philosophy professor peter boghossian argues that reason and evidence are the only way to determine which "claims about the world are likely true". different religious traditions make different religious claims, and boghossian asserts that faith alone cannot resolve conflicts between these without evidence. he gives as an example of the belief held by that muslims that muhammad (who died in the year ) was the last prophet, and the contradictory belief held by mormons that joseph smith (born in ) was a prophet. boghossian asserts that faith has no "built-in corrective mechanism". for factual claims, he gives the example of the belief that the earth is , years old. with only faith and no reason or evidence, he argues, there is no way to correct this claim if it is inaccurate. boghossian advocates thinking of faith either as "belief without evidence" or "pretending to know things you don't know".[ ] see also[edit] shinto faith. 	blue skies research 	delusion 	dogma 	faith and rationality 	incorrigibility 	life stance 	major religious groups 	numinous 	pascal's wager 	piety 	rationalism 	religious conversion 	saint faith 	simple church 	spectrum of theistic probability 	theological virtues 	there are no atheists in foxholes 	truthiness 	worldview references[edit] 	^ a b "definition of faith in english". oxford living dictionaries. oxford university press. retrieved march , . 	^ "meaning of faith in english". cambridge dictionary. cambridge university press. retrieved march , . 	^ compare: "dictionary.com". www.dictionary.com. dictionary.com, llc. . retrieved - - . faith [...] noun [...] . belief in god or in the doctrines or teachings of religion [...] 	^ plantinga, alvin (january , ). warranted christian belief. usa: oxford university press. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . retrieved november , . 	^ boa, kenneth (march , ). faith has its reasons: integrative approaches to defending the christian faith. usa: ivp books. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b russell, bertrand. 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"rising caste-related violence pushes many indians to new faith". houston chronicle. religion news service. hearst newspapers. retrieved september . 	^ "strong's greek: . πίστις (pistis) -- faith, faithfulness". biblehub.com. retrieved october . 	^ wilkin, robert n. ( ). the ten most misunderstood words in the bible. corinth, tx: ges. p.  . 	^ "summa theologiae: faith (secunda secundae partis, q. )". www.newadvent.org. 	^ (pdf) jeremy myers, the gospel under siege: views on the relationship between faith and good works 	^ wuerl, by donald w. ( ). the teaching of christ: a catholic catechism for adults, edition: , revised. huntingdon, in: our sunday visitor pub. division. p.  . isbn  - - - . retrieved april . 	^ migliore, daniel l. . faith seeking understanding: an introduction to christian theology. grand rapids, mich: w.b. eerdmans. pp. - . 	^ inbody, tyron. . the faith of the christian church: an introduction to theology. grand rapids, mich: william b. eerdmans pub. pp. - 	^ thomas, robert l.; editor, general ( ). new american standard exhaustive concordance of the bible. nashville, tenn.: a.j. holman. pp.  – . isbn  - - - .cs maint: extra text: authors list (link) 	^ for example: draw near to god: bible verses to deepen your faith. zondervan. . isbn  . retrieved september . 	^ compare prosperity theology. 	^ compare: weber, max ( ). the protestant ethic and the 'spirit' of capitalism: and other writings. penguin twentieth-century classics. translated by baehr, peter; wells, gordon c. new york: penguin (published ). isbn  . retrieved september . in the course of its development, calvinism made a positive addition: the idea of the necessity of putting one's faith to the test [bewährung des glaubens] in secular working life. [...] it thus provided the positive motivation [antrieb] for asceticism, and with the firm establishment of its ethics in the doctrine of predestination, the spiritual aristocracy of the monks, who stood outside and above the world, was replaced by the spiritual aristocracy of the saints in the world, predestined by god from eternity [...]. 	^ peters, edward ( ). "the inquisition in literature and art". inquisition (reprint ed.). berkeley: university of california press (published ). p.  . isbn  . retrieved september . the costuming of those convicted [...] was the result of careful planning and indicated specific gradations of guilt. there was never a single, simple sanbenito, for example, but a different kind of sanbenito for different crimes and degrees of heresy, with corresponding headgear [...]. the garb of the penitents, the procession with inquisitorial banners and crosses, the careful design of the seating and sequence of the ceremony made the auto-de-fé itself 'a work of art [...]' [...]. [...] the aim of the auto-de-fé, as its name suggests, is the 'act of faith,' that is, the liturgical demonstration of the truth of the faith and the error and evil of its enemies. 	^ richard dawkins, the selfish gene. nd edn. oxford: oxford university press, , . 	^ mcgrath, alister e. ( ). the order of things: explorations in scientific theology. john wiley & sons. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ robertson, archibald thomas. word pictures in the new testament. pp. chapter . 	^ price, thomas. "faith is about 'just trusting' god isn't it?". retrieved january . 	^ lennox, john ( ). gunning for god: why the new atheists are missing the target. united kingdom: lion. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ "peter s. williams". peterswilliams.com. retrieved october . 	^ williams, peter s. ( ). a faithful guide to philosophy: a christian introduction to the love of wisdom. authentic media. pp. chapter . . isbn  - - - - . 	^ allen, michael ( ). the christ's faith: a dogmatic account. london: t&t clark studies in systematic theology. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ boa, kenneth; robert m.bowman (march , ). faith has its reasons: integrative approaches to defending the christian faith. usa: ivp books. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ plantinga, alvin ( ). warranted christian belief. usa: oxford university press. pp.  , . isbn  - - - . 	^ dulles sj, avery cardinal ( ). the splendor of faith: the theological vision of pope john paul ii. new york: crossroad publishing company. pp. vii–viii. isbn  - - - . 	^ "authorship and history of the lectures on faith | religious studies center". rsc.byu.edu. retrieved - - . 	^ dahl, larry e. authorship and history of the lectures on faith. provo, utah: brigham young university, religious studies center. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ see monier-williams, sanskrit dictionary, . 	^ bhakti, encyclopædia britannica ( ) 	^ pechelis, karen ( ). "bhakti traditions". in frazier, jessica; flood, gavin (eds.). the continuum companion to hindu studies. bloomsbury. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ john lochtefeld ( ), the illustrated encyclopedia of hinduism, rosen publishing (new york), isbn  - , pages - . also see articles on bhaktimārga and jnanamārga. 	^ farāhī, majmū‘ah tafāsīr, nd ed. (faran foundation, ), . 	^ frederick m. denny, an introduction to islam, rd ed., p. 	^ swartley, keith e. ( - - ). encountering the world of islam. intervarsity press. isbn  . 	^ quran  : 	^ muslim, al-jami‘ al-sahih, , (no. ). 	^ quran  : 	^ quran  : 	^ quran  : 	^ a b "what is emunah – beyond belief – essentials". chabad.org. retrieved october . 	^ alan segal, paul the convert, , p. , "for a jew, faith fundamentally precedes anything as well, but there is no need to distinguish between it and law. jews perform the commandments because they are commanded by god, not because they guarantee justification. this arrangement assumes a prior faith commitment and prior act on god's part in justifying that never needs to be discussed"..."for paul, giving up special claims to the performance of ceremonial torah was part of his dissonance over leaving pharisiasism and entering an apocalyptic community based on faith".."the rabbi..."felt indiviudals maintain righteousness through observing god's commandments"..."paul"..."through faith,"...justification is something that god grants in response to faith and thought the rabbis would not disagree they did not see torah and faith in opposition" pp. , , isbn  - - - 	^ a b brueggemann, walter ( ). reverberations of faith: a theological handbook of old testament themes. louisville, ky.: westminster john knox press. pp.  – . isbn  - - - . 	^ (the torah – a modern commentary; union of american hebrew congregations, ny by w. g. plaut) 	^ the principles and the resurrection of the dead archived - - at the wayback machine from the wolf shall lie with the lamb, rabbi shmuel boteach 	^ for a wide history of this dispute see: shapiro, marc: the limits of orthodox theology: maimonides' thirteen principles reappraised (littman library of jewish civilization (series).) 	^ "sikhism: five articles of faith". realsikhism.com. retrieved october . 	^ lewis, c.s. ( ). mere christianity: a revised and amplified edition, with a new introduction, of the three books, broadcast talks, christian behaviour, and beyond personality. san francisco: harpersanfrancisco. isbn  - - - . 	^ "fideism". stanford.edu. retrieved october . 	^ a b c clark, kelly james ( october ). "religious epistemology". internet encyclopedia of philosophy. archived from the original on november . retrieved october . 	^ james, william. " ". new world. : – . retrieved october . 	^ a b poston, ted ( june ). "foundationalism". internet encyclopedia of philosophy. archived from the original on november . retrieved october . 	^ plantinga, alvin; nicholas wolterstorff ( ). faith and rationality: reason and belief in god. notre dame, in: university of notre dame press. isbn  - - - . 	^ forrest, peter ( march ). "the epistemology of religion". stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. retrieved october . 	^ plantinga, alvin ( ). warranted christian belief. new york: oxford university press. isbn  - - - . 	^ basic, mitchell. the justification of religious belief. london: macmillan. 	^ swinburne, richard. the existence of god. oxford: clarendon press. 	^ forrest, peter. god without the supernatural. ithaca: cornell university press. 	^ swinburne, richard. is there a god?. oxford: oxford university press. 	^ lennox, john ( ). god's undertaker: has science buried god?. lion uk. 	^ dawkins, richard ( ). the god delusion. bantam books. 	^ dawkins, richard (january–february ). "is science a religion?". american humanist association. archived from the original on october . retrieved march . 	^ peter boghossian ( ). a manual for creating atheists. pitchstone publishing. p.  . isbn  - - - - . sources[edit] 	green, ronald s. ( ), "east asian buddhism" (pdf), in emmanuel, steven m. (ed.), a companion to buddhist philosophy, chichester, west sussex: wiley-blackwell, isbn  - - - - 	harvey, peter ( ), an introduction to buddhism: teachings, history and practices (pdf) ( nd ed.), new york: cambridge university press, isbn  - - - - 	jayatilleke, k.n. ( ), early buddhist theory of knowledge (pdf), george allen & unwin, isbn  - - - 	lamotte, etienne ( ), histoire du bouddhisme indien, des origines à l'ère Śaka [history of indian buddhism: from the origins to the saka era] (pdf) (in french), translated by webb-boin, sara, louvain-la-neuve: université catholique de louvain, institut orientaliste, isbn  x further reading[edit] 	sam harris, the end of faith: religion, terror, and the future of reason, w. w. norton ( ), hardcover, pages, isbn  - - - 	stephen palmquist, "faith as kant's key to the justification of transcendental reflection", the heythrop journal : (october ), pp.  – . reprinted as chapter v in stephen palmquist, kant's system of perspectives (lanham: university press of america, ). 	d. mark parks, "faith/faithfulness" holman illustrated bible dictionary. eds. chad brand, charles draper, archie england. nashville: holman publishers, . 	on faith and reason by swami tripurari 	baba, meher: discourses, san francisco: sufism reoriented, . classic reflections on the nature of faith[edit] 	martin buber, i and thou 	paul tillich, the dynamics of faith the reformation view of faith[edit] 	john calvin, the institutes of the christian religion, 	r.c. sproul, faith alone, baker books, february , isbn  external links[edit] 		look up πίστις in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		look up faith in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: faith 		wikimedia commons has media related to faith. 	john bishop (jul , ). "faith". stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. 	peter forrest (jul , ). "epistemology of the religion". stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. 	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wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	in-group and out-group 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		"us and them" redirects here. for other uses, see us and them. "us vs. them" redirects here. for the defunct website, see reach plc § digital. sociological notions the people in this stadium form an in-group of football fans, their out-group are those who are not fans of football. however, supporters of one team also form their own in-group where the supporters of the opponent team are the out-group. in sociology and social psychology, an in-group is a social group to which a person psychologically identifies as being a member. by contrast, an out-group is a social group with which an individual does not identify. people may for example identify with their peer group, family, community, sports team, political party, gender, religion, or nation. it has been found that the psychological membership of social groups and categories is associated with a wide variety of phenomena. the terminology was made popular by henri tajfel and colleagues during his work in formulating social identity theory. the significance of in-group and out-group categorization was identified using a method called the minimal group paradigm. tajfel and colleagues found that people can form self-preferencing in-groups within a matter of minutes and that such groups can form even on the basis of completely arbitrary and invented discriminatory characteristics, such as preferences for certain paintings.[ ][ ][ ][ ] contents 	 associated phenomena 	 . in-group favoritism 	 . neural mechanisms of in-group favoritism and out-group bias 	 . group homogeneity 	 . out-group derogation 	 . social influence 	 . group polarization 	 postulated role in human evolution 	 see also 	 references associated phenomena[edit] the psychological categorization of people into in-group and out-group members is associated with a variety of phenomena. the following examples have all received a great deal of academic attention. in-group favoritism[edit] main article: in-group favoritism this refers to the fact that under certain conditions, people will prefer and have affinity for one's in-group over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group. this can be expressed in one's evaluation of others, linking, allocation of resources, and many other ways.[ ] this can be expressed in one's evaluation of others, linking, allocation of resources, and many other ways. how we perceive the actions of others are also affected by in-group favoritism. people may percieve the same action very differently depending on whether the action was executed by a member of the same group or a member of a different group.[ ] in fact, people tend to evaluate actions of their own group or team members much more favorably than those of outgroup members.[ ] an illustrative example of the way this phenomenon takes place can be demonstrated just by arbitrarily assigning a person to a distinct and objectively meaningless novel group; this alone is sufficient to create intergroup biases in which members of the perceiver’s own group are preferentially favored.[ ] this phenomenon was perfectly demonstrated in an empirical study conducted by, molenberghs and colleagues in .[ ] in the study participants were arbitrarily dividied into two teams where they watched videos of individuals of competing teams and individuals from their own team perfom hand actions. participants were then asked to judge the speed of the hand movements.[ ] on average participants judged members of their own teams to be faster, although the hand movements were the exact same speed across the board. similarly, hastorf and cantril conducted a pioneering study in , where students of both princeton and dartmouth viewed a contentious football game between their two teams.[ ] although they had watched the same motion picture of the game, their versions of what transpired were so starkly different it appeared as though they had watched two totally different games.[ ] neural mechanisms of in-group favoritism and out-group bias[edit] some may wonder why in-group favoritism takes place, even in arbitrarily assigned groups where group members have nothing in common other than the group to which they were assigned. research points to unconscious decision making processes that takes place at the neurological level, where in-group favoritism and out-group bias occurs very early in perception. this process can begin by simply viewing a person's face.[ ] research indicates that individuals are faster and more accurate at recognizing faces of ingroup vs outgroup members.[ ] for example, researchers in a cross-race recognition study recorded blood oxygenation level-dependent signal (bold) activity from black and white participants while they viewed and attempted to remember pictures of unfamiliar black faces, white faces and objects.[ ] they found that participants in this study exhibited greater activity in the fusiform face area (ffa),an area of the fusiform gyrus located in the inferior temporal cortex of the brain linked to object and face recognition, when viewing same race faces compared to other race faces[ ] lower activity in the ffa reflects a failure to encode outgroup members at the individual level rather than the categorical level, which comes at the expense of encoding individuating information.[ ][ ][ ] this suggests out-group or unfamiliar faces may not be “faces” with the same intensity as in-group faces.[ ] prior research has also shown that the devaluation and dehumanization of outgroup members is exacerbated when the initial encoding and configural processing of an outgroup face is impeded.[ ] so not only does this initial encoding process dehumanize outgroup members, it also contributes to a homogeneity effect, whereby outgroup members are perceived as more similar to each other than ingroup members.[ ] group homogeneity[edit] main article: outgroup homogeneity categorization of people into social groups increases the perception that group members are similar to one another. an outcome of this is the out-group homogeneity effect. this refers to the perception of members of an out-group as being homogenous, while members of one's in-group are perceived as being diverse, e.g. "they are alike; we are diverse”.[ ][ ] this is especially likely to occur in regard to negative characteristics. under certain conditions, in-group members can be perceived as being similar to one another in regard to positive characteristics. this effect is called in-group homogeneity.[ ] out-group derogation[edit] discrimination between in-groups and out-groups is a matter of favoritism towards an in-group and the absence of equivalent favoritism towards an out-group.[ ] out-group derogation is the phenomenon in which an out-group is perceived as being threatening to the members of an in-group.[ ] this phenomenon often accompanies in-group favoritism, as it requires one to have an affinity towards their in-group. some research suggests that out-group derogation occurs when an out-group is perceived as blocking or hindering the goals of an in-group. it has also been argued that out-group derogation is a natural consequence of the categorization process.[ ] social influence[edit] main article: social influence people have been shown to be differentially influenced by in-group members. that is, under conditions where group categorization is psychologically salient, people will shift their beliefs in line with in-group social norms. group polarization[edit] main article: group polarization this generally refers to the tendency of groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members, although polarization toward the most central beliefs has also been observed. it has been shown that this effect is related to a psychologically salient in-group and outgroup categorization. postulated role in human evolution[edit] in evolutionary psychology, in-group favoritism is seen as an evolved mechanism selected for the advantages of coalition affiliation.[ ] it has been argued that characteristics such as gender and ethnicity are inflexible or even essential features of such systems.[ ][ ] however, there is evidence that elements of favoritism are flexible in that they can be erased by changes in social categorization.[ ] one study in the field of behavioural genetics suggests that biological mechanisms may exist which favor a coexistence of both flexible and essentialist systems.[ ] see also[edit] 	allosemitism 	amity-enmity complex 	antilocution 	ambivalent prejudice 	autarky 	bandwagon effect 	benevolent prejudice 	cultural identity 	cronyism 	collective narcissism 	common ingroup identity 	endogamy 	elitism 	false consensus effect 	groupthink 	homophobia 	hostile prejudice 	insider 	microculture 	nationalism 	nepotism 	paradox of tolerance 	prejudice 	racism 	scapegoating 	sexism 	shibboleth 	social class 	social dominance orientation 	subculture 	tribalism 	uchi-soto references[edit] 	^ see "kandinsky versus klee experiment", tajfel et al. ( ) in tajfel, h. ( ). experiments in intergroup discrimination. 	^ taijfel, h. ( ). "experiments in intergroup discrimination" (pdf). scientific american. ( ): – . bibcode: sciam. e.. t. doi: . /scientificamerican - . jstor  . pmid  . archived from the original (pdf) on - - . 	^ tajfel, henri; billig, m. g.; bundy, r. p.; flament, claude ( ). "social categorization and intergroup behaviour". european journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /ejsp. . 	^ tajfel, h. ( ). "social identity and intergroup behaviour". social science information. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ aronson, e., wilson, t. d., akert, r. d. & sommers, s. r. ( ). social psychology ( th, illustrated, revised ed.). london: pearson education. isbn  - - - .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ a b c d molenberghs, pascal; halász, veronika; mattingley, jason b.; vanman, eric j.; cunnington, ross ( ). "seeing is believing: neural mechanisms of action–perception are biased by team membership". human brain mapping. ( ): – . doi: . /hbm. . issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ tajfel, henri; billig, m. g.; bundy, r. p.; flament, claude ( ). "social categorization and intergroup behaviour". european journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /ejsp. . issn  - . 	^ a b hastorf, albert h.; cantril, hadley ( ). "they saw a game; a case study". the journal of abnormal and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /h . issn  - x. 	^ senholzi, keith b.; kubota, jennifer t. ( ), "the neural mechanisms of prejudice intervention", neuroimaging personality, social cognition, and character, elsevier, pp.  – , isbn  - - - - , retrieved - - 	^ corenblum, b.; meissner, christian a. (march ). "recognition of faces of ingroup and outgroup children and adults". journal of experimental child psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /j.jecp. . . . 	^ a b golby, alexandra j.; gabrieli, john d. e.; chiao, joan y.; eberhardt, jennifer l. (august ). "differential responses in the fusiform region to same-race and other-race faces". nature neuroscience. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . 	^ young, steven g.; hugenberg, kurt ( - - ). "individuation motivation and face experience can operate jointly to produce the own-race bias". social psychological and personality science. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . 	^ sangrigoli, sandy; de schonen, scania (october ). "recognition of own-race and other-race faces by three-month-old infants". journal of child psychology and psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. issn  - . 	^ ostrom, thomas m.; carpenter, sandra l.; sedikides, constantine; li, fan ( ). "differential processing of in-group and out-group information". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . issn  - . 	^ brosch, tobias; bar-david, eyal; phelps, elizabeth a. ( - - ). "implicit race bias decreases the similarity of neural representations of black and white faces". psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . 	^ krosch, amy r.; amodio, david m. (november ). "scarcity disrupts the neural encoding of black faces: a socioperceptual pathway to discrimination". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /pspa . issn  - . 	^ kubota, jennifer t; banaji, mahzarin r; phelps, elizabeth a (july ). "the neuroscience of race". nature neuroscience. ( ): – . doi: . /nn. . issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ leyens, jacques-philippe; yzerbyt, vincent; schadron, georges ( ). stereotypes and social cognition. thousand oaks, california: sage publications. pp.  – . isbn  - - - . 	^ quattrone, george a.; jones, edward e. ( ). "the perception of variability within in-groups and out-groups: implications for the law of small numbers". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . issn  - . 	^ jackson, lynne m. ( ). the psychology of prejudice: from attitudes to social action. washington, dc: american psychological association. pp.  – . isbn  - - - . 	^ brewer, marilynn b. (fall ). "the psychology of prejudice: in-group love and out-group hate?". journal of social issues. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . 	^ hewstone, miles; rubin, mark; willis, hazel (february ). "intergroup bias". annual review of psychology. : – . doi: . /annurev.psych. . . . pmid  . 	^ zhong, chen-bo; phillips, katherine w.; leonardelli, geoffrey j.; galinsky, adam d. ( ). "negational categorization and intergroup behavior". personality and social psychology bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ l. cosmides; j. tooby; r. kurzban (april , ). "perceptions of race". trends in cognitive sciences. ( ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . pmid  . 	^ l. a. hirschfeld ( ). race in the making: cognition, culture, and the child's construction of human kinds. cambridge, massachusetts: mit press. isbn  - - - . 	^ f. j. gil-white (august–october ). "are ethnic groups biological "species" to the human brain? essentialism in our cognition of some social categories". current anthropology. university of chicago press. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . / . 	^ r. kurzban; j. tooby; l. cosmides (december , ). "can race be erased? coalitional computation and social categorization". proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america. ( ): – . bibcode: pnas... k. doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ g. j. lewis; t. c. bates (november ). "genetic evidence for multiple biological mechanisms underlying in-group favoritism". psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=in-group_and_out-group&oldid= " 		categories: 	sociological terminology 	group processes 	dichotomies 	discrimination 	prejudices 	authoritarianism 	collective identity hidden categories: 	cs maint: multiple names: authors list 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	use american english from december 	all wikipedia articles written in american english 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	Čeština 	deutsch 	español 	français 	עברית 	nederlands 	svenska 	ไทย 	türkçe 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 on the origins of human emotions : a sociological inquiry into the evolution of human affect : turner, jonathan h : free download, borrow, and streaming : internet archive skip to main content see what's new with book lending at the internet archive can you chip in? in the internet archive has seen unprecedented use—and we need your help. when the covid- pandemic hit, our bandwidth demand skyrocketed. right now we’re getting over . million daily unique visitors and storing more than petabytes of data. we build and maintain all our own systems, but we don’t charge for access, sell user information, or run ads. instead, we rely on individual generosity to fund our infrastructure; we're powered by donations averaging $ . right now, we have a -to- matching gift campaign, tripling the impact of every donation. if each of our users gave just $ , we could end this fundraiser today—so if you find all these bits and bytes useful, please pitch in. —brewster kahle, founder, internet archive continue maybe later send me an email reminder email address (required) please enter a valid email address. first name last name submit by submitting, you agree to receive donor-related emails from the internet archive. your privacy is important to us. we do not sell or trade your information with anyone. a line drawing of the internet archive headquarters building façade. an illustration of a magnifying glass. an illustration of a magnifying glass. an illustration of a horizontal line over an up pointing arrow. upload an illustration of a person's head and chest. sign up | log in an illustration of a computer application window wayback machine an illustration of an open book. books an illustration of two cells of a film strip. video an illustration of an audio speaker. audio an illustration of a . " floppy disk. software an illustration of two photographs. images an illustration of a heart shape donate an illustration of text ellipses. more an icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. 	 about 	 blog 	 projects 	 help 	 donate an illustration of a heart shape 	 contact 	 jobs 	 volunteer 	 people search metadata search text contents search tv news captions search archived websites advanced search 	sign up for free 	log in on the origins of human emotions : a sociological inquiry into the evolution of human affect item preview remove-circle share or embed this item embed embed (for wordpress.com hosted blogs and archive.org item <description> tags) [archiveorg onoriginsofhuman turn width= height= frameborder= webkitallowfullscreen=true mozallowfullscreen=true] want more? advanced embedding details, examples, and help! no_favorite share flag flag this item for 	 graphic violence 	 graphic sexual content texts on the origins of human emotions : a sociological inquiry into the evolution of human affect 	by 	turner, jonathan h 	publication date 	 	topics 	emoties, sociologische aspecten, oorsprong, emotions -- social aspects, emotions, biological evolution, nervous system physiological phenomena, hominidae -- psychology, émotions, social behavior, émotions -- aspect social 	publisher 	stanford, calif. : stanford university press 	collection 	inlibrary; printdisabled; internetarchivebooks 	digitizing sponsor 	kahle/austin foundation 	contributor 	internet archive 	language 	english xiii, pages : cm "language and culture are often seen as unique characteristics of human beings. in this book the author argues that our ability to use a wide array of emotions evolved long before spoken language and, in fact, constituted a preadaptation for the speech and culture that developed among later hominids. long before humans could speak with words, they communicated their emotional dispositions through body language; and it is the neurological wiring of the brain for these emotional languages that represented the key evolutionary breakthrough for our species."--jacket includes bibliographical references (pages - ) and indexes 	access-restricted-item 	true 	addeddate 	 - - : : 	boxid 	ia 	camera 	sony alpha-a (control) 	collection_set 	printdisabled 	external-identifier 	 urn:oclc:record: 	foldoutcount 	 	identifier 	onoriginsofhuman turn 	identifier-ark 	ark:/ /t s b t 	invoice 	 	isbn 	 	lccn 	 	noindex 	true 	ocr 	abbyy finereader . (extended ocr) 	old_pallet 	ia 	openlibrary_edition 	 ol m 	openlibrary_work 	 ol w 	pages 	 	ppi 	 	republisher_date 	 	republisher_operator 	associate-radel-luchavez@gmail.com 	republisher_time 	 	scandate 	 	scanner 	station .cebu.archive.org 	scanningcenter 	cebu 	scribe _search_catalog 	marygrove 	scribe _search_id 	 	source 	 removednel 	tts_version 	 . -initial- -g bf show more show less 	full catalog record 	marcxml plus-circle add review comment reviews there are no reviews yet. be the first one to write a review. previews favorite purchase options better world books download options download file encrypted daisy download for print-disabled users day loan required to access epub and pdf files. in collections books to borrow books for people with print disabilities internet archive books uploaded by station .cebu on february , similar items (based on metadata) terms of service (last updated / / ) emotion - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	emotion 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		subjective, conscious experience characterised primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, and mental states for other uses, see emotion (disambiguation). "emotional" redirects here. for other uses, see emotional (disambiguation). 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e emotions are biological states associated with the nervous system[ ][ ][ ] brought on by neurophysiological changes variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioural responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure.[ ][ ] there is currently no scientific consensus on a definition. emotions are often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, creativity,[ ] and motivation.[ ] research on emotion has increased significantly over the past two decades with many fields contributing including psychology, neuroscience, affective neuroscience, endocrinology, medicine, history, sociology of emotions, and computer science. the numerous theories that attempt to explain the origin, neurobiology, experience, and function of emotions have only fostered more intense research on this topic. current areas of research in the concept of emotion include the development of materials that stimulate and elicit emotion. in addition, pet scans and fmri scans help study the affective picture processes in the brain.[ ] from a purely mechanistic perspective, "emotions can be defined as a positive or negative experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity." emotions produce different physiological, behavioral and cognitive changes. the original role of emotions was to motivate adaptive behaviors that in the past would have contributed to the passing on of genes through survival, reproduction, and kin selection.[ ][ ] in some theories, cognition is an important aspect of emotion. for those who act primarily on emotions, they may assume that they are not thinking, but mental processes involving cognition are still essential, particularly in the interpretation of events. for example, the realization of our believing that we are in a dangerous situation and the subsequent arousal of our body's nervous system (rapid heartbeat and breathing, sweating, muscle tension) is integral to the experience of our feeling afraid. other theories, however, claim that emotion is separate from and can precede cognition. consciously experiencing an emotion is exhibiting a mental representation of that emotion from a past or hypothetical experience, which is linked back to a content state of pleasure or displeasure.[ ] the content states are established by verbal explanations of experiences, describing an internal state.[ ] emotions are complex. according to some theories, they are states of feeling that result in physical and psychological changes that influence our behavior.[ ] the physiology of emotion is closely linked to arousal of the nervous system with various states and strengths of arousal relating, apparently, to particular emotions. emotion is also linked to behavioral tendency. extroverted people are more likely to be social and express their emotions, while introverted people are more likely to be more socially withdrawn and conceal their emotions. emotion is often the driving force behind motivation, positive or negative.[ ] according to other theories, emotions are not causal forces but simply syndromes of components, which might include motivation, feeling, behavior, and physiological changes, but no one of these components is the emotion. nor is the emotion an entity that causes these components.[ ] emotions involve different components, such as subjective experience, cognitive processes, expressive behavior, psychophysiological changes, and instrumental behavior. at one time, academics attempted to identify the emotion with one of the components: william james with a subjective experience, behaviorists with instrumental behavior, psychophysiologists with physiological changes, and so on. more recently, emotion is said to consist of all the components. the different components of emotion are categorized somewhat differently depending on the academic discipline. in psychology and philosophy, emotion typically includes a subjective, conscious experience characterized primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, and mental states. a similar multi-componential description of emotion is found in sociology. for example, peggy thoits[ ] described emotions as involving physiological components, cultural or emotional labels (anger, surprise, etc.), expressive body actions, and the appraisal of situations and contexts. contents 	 history 	 etymology 	 definitions 	 components 	 differentiation 	 purpose and value 	 classification 	 . basic emotions 	 . multi-dimensional analysis 	 theories 	 . pre-modern history 	 . western theological 	 . evolutionary theories 	 . . th century 	 . . contemporary 	 . somatic theories 	 . . james–lange theory 	 . . cannon–bard theory 	 . . two-factor theory 	 . cognitive theories 	 . situated perspective on emotion 	 . genetics 	 formation 	 . neurobiological explanation 	 . . prefrontal cortex 	 . . homeostatic/primordial emotion 	 . emergent explanation 	 disciplinary approaches 	 . history 	 . sociology 	 . psychotherapy and regulation 	 . cross-cultural research 	 . computer science 	 the effects on memory 	 notable theorists 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links history[edit] human nature and the following bodily sensations have been always part of the interest of thinkers and philosophers. far most extensively, this interest has been of great interest by both western and eastern societies. emotional states have been associated with the divine and the enlightenment of the human mind and body.[ ] the ever changing actions of individuals and its mood variations have been of great importance by most of the western philosophers (aristotle, plato, descartes, aquinas, hobbes) that lead them to propose vast theories; often competing theories, that sought to explain emotion and the following motivators of human action and its consequences. in the age of enlightenment scottish thinker david hume[ ] proposed a revolutionary argument that sought to explain the main motivators of human action and conduct. he proposed that actions are motivated by "fears, desires, and passions". as he wrote in his book treatise of human nature ( ): "reason alone can never be a motive to any action of the will… it can never oppose passion in the direction of the will… reason is, and ought to be the slave of the passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them".[ ] with these lines hume pretended to explain that reason and further action will be subjected to the desires and experience of the self. later thinkers would propose that actions and emotions are deeply interrelated to social, political, historical, and cultural aspects of reality that would be also associated with sophisticated neurological and physiological research on the brain and other parts of the physical body. etymology[edit] sixteen faces expressing the human passions-coloured engraving by j. pass, , after charles le brun the word "emotion" dates back to , when it was adapted from the french word émouvoir, which means "to stir up". the term emotion was introduced into academic discussion as a catch-all term to passions, sentiments and affections.[ ] the word "emotion" was coined in the early s by thomas brown and it is around the s that the modern concept of emotion first emerged for the english language.[ ] "no one felt emotions before about . instead they felt other things - "passions", "accidents of the soul", "moral sentiments" - and explained them very differently from how we understand emotions today."[ ] some cross-cultural studies indicate that the categorization of "emotion" and classification of basic emotions such as "anger" and "sadness" are not universal and that the boundaries and domains of these concepts are categorized differently by all cultures.[ ] however, others argue that there are some universal bases of emotions (see section . ).[ ] in psychiatry and psychology, an inability to express or perceive emotion is sometimes referred to as alexithymia.[ ] definitions[edit] the oxford dictionaries definition of emotion is "a strong feeling deriving from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others."[ ] emotions are responses to significant internal and external events.[ ] emotions can be occurrences (e.g., panic) or dispositions (e.g., hostility), and short-lived (e.g., anger) or long-lived (e.g., grief).[ ] psychotherapist michael c. graham describes all emotions as existing on a continuum of intensity.[ ] thus fear might range from mild concern to terror or shame might range from simple embarrassment to toxic shame.[ ] emotions have been described as consisting of a coordinated set of responses, which may include verbal, physiological, behavioral, and neural mechanisms.[ ] emotions have been categorized, with some relationships existing between emotions and some direct opposites existing. graham differentiates emotions as functional or dysfunctional and argues all functional emotions have benefits.[ ] in some uses of the word, emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something.[ ] on the other hand, emotion can be used to refer to states that are mild (as in annoyed or content) and to states that are not directed at anything (as in anxiety and depression). one line of research looks at the meaning of the word emotion in everyday language and finds that this usage is rather different from that in academic discourse.[ ] in practical terms, joseph ledoux has defined emotions as the result of a cognitive and conscious process which occurs in response to a body system response to a trigger.[ ] components[edit] according to scherer's component process model (cpm) of emotion,[ ] there are five crucial elements of emotion. from the component process perspective, emotional experience requires that all of these processes become coordinated and synchronized for a short period of time, driven by appraisal processes. although the inclusion of cognitive appraisal as one of the elements is slightly controversial, since some theorists make the assumption that emotion and cognition are separate but interacting systems, the cpm provides a sequence of events that effectively describes the coordination involved during an emotional episode. 	cognitive appraisal: provides an evaluation of events and objects. 	bodily symptoms: the physiological component of emotional experience. 	action tendencies: a motivational component for the preparation and direction of motor responses. 	expression: facial and vocal expression almost always accompanies an emotional state to communicate reaction and intention of actions. 	feelings: the subjective experience of emotional state once it has occurred. differentiation[edit] see also: affect measures § differentiating affect from other terms emotion can be differentiated from a number of similar constructs within the field of affective neuroscience:[ ] 	feeling; not all feelings include emotion, such as the feeling of knowing. in the context of emotion, feelings are best understood as a subjective representation of emotions, private to the individual experiencing them.[ ][better source needed] 	moods are diffuse affective states that generally last for much longer durations than emotions, are also usually less intense than emotions and often appear to lack a contextual stimulus.[ ] 	affect is used to describe the underlying affective experience of an emotion or a mood. purpose and value[edit] one view is that emotions facilitate adaptive responses to environmental challenges. emotions have been described as a result of evolution because they provided good solutions to ancient and recurring problems that faced our ancestors.[ ] emotions can function as a way to communicate what's important to us, such as values and ethics.[ ] however some emotions, such as some forms of anxiety, are sometimes regarded as part of a mental illness and thus possibly of negative value.[ ] classification[edit] main article: emotion classification a distinction can be made between emotional episodes and emotional dispositions. emotional dispositions are also comparable to character traits, where someone may be said to be generally disposed to experience certain emotions. for example, an irritable person is generally disposed to feel irritation more easily or quickly than others do. finally, some theorists place emotions within a more general category of "affective states" where affective states can also include emotion-related phenomena such as pleasure and pain, motivational states (for example, hunger or curiosity), moods, dispositions and traits.[ ] basic emotions[edit] examples of basic emotions the emotion wheel. for more than years, paul ekman has supported the view that emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically distinct. ekman's most influential work revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media. another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (for example, disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions. ekman's facial-expression research examined six basic emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise.[ ] later in his career,[ ] ekman theorized that other universal emotions may exist beyond these six. in light of this, recent cross-cultural studies led by daniel cordaro and dacher keltner, both former students of ekman, extended the list of universal emotions. in addition to the original six, these studies provided evidence for amusement, awe, contentment, desire, embarrassment, pain, relief, and sympathy in both facial and vocal expressions. they also found evidence for boredom, confusion, interest, pride, and shame facial expressions, as well as contempt, relief, and triumph vocal expressions.[ ][ ][ ] robert plutchik agreed with ekman's biologically driven perspective but developed the "wheel of emotions", suggesting eight primary emotions grouped on a positive or negative basis: joy versus sadness; anger versus fear; trust versus disgust; and surprise versus anticipation.[ ] some basic emotions can be modified to form complex emotions. the complex emotions could arise from cultural conditioning or association combined with the basic emotions. alternatively, similar to the way primary colors combine, primary emotions could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience. for example, interpersonal anger and disgust could blend to form contempt. relationships exist between basic emotions, resulting in positive or negative influences.[ ] multi-dimensional analysis[edit] two dimensions of emotions. made accessible for practical use.[ ] two dimensions of emotion psychologists have used methods such as factor analysis to attempt to map emotion-related responses onto a more limited number of dimensions. such methods attempt to boil emotions down to underlying dimensions that capture the similarities and differences between experiences.[ ] often, the first two dimensions uncovered by factor analysis are valence (how negative or positive the experience feels) and arousal (how energized or enervated the experience feels). these two dimensions can be depicted on a d coordinate map.[ ] this two-dimensional map has been theorized to capture one important component of emotion called core affect.[ ][ ] core affect is not theorized to be the only component to emotion, but to give the emotion its hedonic and felt energy. using statistical methods to analyze emotional states elicited by short videos, cowen and keltner identified varieties of emotional experience: admiration, adoration, aesthetic appreciation, amusement, anger, anxiety, awe, awkwardness, boredom, calmness, confusion, craving, disgust, empathic pain, entrancement, excitement, fear, horror, interest, joy, nostalgia, relief, romance, sadness, satisfaction, sexual desire and surprise.[ ] theories[edit] see also: functional accounts of emotion pre-modern history[edit] in buddhism, emotions occur when an object is considered as attractive or repulsive. there is a felt tendency impelling people towards attractive objects and impelling them to move away from repulsive or harmful objects; a disposition to possess the object (greed), to destroy it (hatred), to flee from it (fear), to get obsessed or worried over it (anxiety), and so on.[ ] in stoic theories it was seen as a hindrance to reason and therefore a hindrance to virtue. aristotle believed that emotions were an essential component of virtue.[ ] in the aristotelian view all emotions (called passions) corresponded to appetites or capacities. during the middle ages, the aristotelian view was adopted and further developed by scholasticism and thomas aquinas[ ] in particular. in chinese antiquity, excessive emotion was believed to cause damage to qi, which in turn, damages the vital organs.[ ] the four humours theory made popular by hippocrates contributed to the study of emotion in the same way that it did for medicine. in the early th century, avicenna theorized about the influence of emotions on health and behaviors, suggesting the need to manage emotions.[ ] early modern views on emotion are developed in the works of philosophers such as rené descartes, niccolò machiavelli, baruch spinoza,[ ] thomas hobbes[ ] and david hume. in the th century emotions were considered adaptive and were studied more frequently from an empiricist psychiatric perspective. western theological[edit] christian perspective on emotion presupposes a theistic origin to humanity. god who created humans gave humans the ability to feel emotion and interact emotionally. biblical content expresses that god is a person who feels and expresses emotion. though a somatic view would place the locus of emotions in the physical body, christian theory of emotions would view the body more as a platform for the sensing and expression of emotions. therefore emotions themselves arise from the person, or that which is "imago-dei" or image of god in humans. in christian thought, emotions have the potential to be controlled through reasoned reflection. that reasoned reflection also mimics god who made mind. the purpose of emotions in human life are therefore summarized in god's call to enjoy him and creation, humans are to enjoy emotions and benefit from them and use them to energize behavior. evolutionary theories[edit] main articles: evolution of emotion and evolutionary psychology illustration from charles darwin's the expression of the emotions in man and animals ( ) th century[edit] perspectives on emotions from evolutionary theory were initiated during the mid-late th century with charles darwin's book the expression of the emotions in man and animals.[ ] surprisingly, darwin argued that emotions served no evolved purpose for humans, neither in communication, nor in aiding survival.[ ] darwin largely argued that emotions evolved via the inheritance of acquired characters.[ ] he pioneered various methods for studying non-verbal expressions, from which he concluded that some expressions had cross-cultural universality. darwin also detailed homologous expressions of emotions that occur in animals. this led the way for animal research on emotions and the eventual determination of the neural underpinnings of emotion. contemporary[edit] more contemporary views along the evolutionary psychology spectrum posit that both basic emotions and social emotions evolved to motivate (social) behaviors that were adaptive in the ancestral environment.[ ] emotion is an essential part of any human decision-making and planning, and the famous distinction made between reason and emotion is not as clear as it seems.[ ] paul d. maclean claims that emotion competes with even more instinctive responses, on one hand, and the more abstract reasoning, on the other hand. the increased potential in neuroimaging has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient parts of the brain. important neurological advances were derived from these perspectives in the s by joseph e. ledoux and antónio damásio. research on social emotion also focuses on the physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and humans (see affect display). for example, spite seems to work against the individual but it can establish an individual's reputation as someone to be feared.[ ] shame and pride can motivate behaviors that help one maintain one's standing in a community, and self-esteem is one's estimate of one's status.[ ][ ] somatic theories[edit] somatic theories of emotion claim that bodily responses, rather than cognitive interpretations, are essential to emotions. the first modern version of such theories came from william james in the s. the theory lost favor in the th century, but has regained popularity more recently due largely to theorists such as john cacioppo,[ ] antónio damásio,[ ] joseph e. ledoux[ ] and robert zajonc[ ] who are able to appeal to neurological evidence.[ ] james–lange theory[edit] main article: james–lange theory simplified graph of james-lange theory of emotion in his article[ ] william james argued that feelings and emotions were secondary to physiological phenomena. in his theory, james proposed that the perception of what he called an "exciting fact" directly led to a physiological response, known as "emotion."[ ] to account for different types of emotional experiences, james proposed that stimuli trigger activity in the autonomic nervous system, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain. the danish psychologist carl lange also proposed a similar theory at around the same time, and therefore this theory became known as the james–lange theory. as james wrote, "the perception of bodily changes, as they occur, is the emotion." james further claims that "we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and either we cry, strike, or tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be."[ ] an example of this theory in action would be as follows: an emotion-evoking stimulus (snake) triggers a pattern of physiological response (increased heart rate, faster breathing, etc.), which is interpreted as a particular emotion (fear). this theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state induces a desired emotional state.[ ] some people may believe that emotions give rise to emotion-specific actions, for example, "i'm crying because i'm sad," or "i ran away because i was scared." the issue with the james–lange theory is that of causation (bodily states causing emotions and being a priori), not that of the bodily influences on emotional experience (which can be argued and is still quite prevalent today in biofeedback studies and embodiment theory).[ ] although mostly abandoned in its original form, tim dalgleish argues that most contemporary neuroscientists have embraced the components of the james-lange theory of emotions.[ ] the james–lange theory has remained influential. its main contribution is the emphasis it places on the embodiment of emotions, especially the argument that changes in the bodily concomitants of emotions can alter their experienced intensity. most contemporary neuroscientists would endorse a modified james–lange view in which bodily feedback modulates the experience of emotion. (p. ) cannon–bard theory[edit] main article: cannon–bard theory walter bradford cannon agreed that physiological responses played a crucial role in emotions, but did not believe that physiological responses alone could explain subjective emotional experiences. he argued that physiological responses were too slow and often imperceptible and this could not account for the relatively rapid and intense subjective awareness of emotion.[ ] he also believed that the richness, variety, and temporal course of emotional experiences could not stem from physiological reactions, that reflected fairly undifferentiated fight or flight responses.[ ][ ] an example of this theory in action is as follows: an emotion-evoking event (snake) triggers simultaneously both a physiological response and a conscious experience of an emotion. phillip bard contributed to the theory with his work on animals. bard found that sensory, motor, and physiological information all had to pass through the diencephalon (particularly the thalamus), before being subjected to any further processing. therefore, cannon also argued that it was not anatomically possible for sensory events to trigger a physiological response prior to triggering conscious awareness and emotional stimuli had to trigger both physiological and experiential aspects of emotion simultaneously.[ ] two-factor theory[edit] main article: two-factor theory of emotion stanley schachter formulated his theory on the earlier work of a spanish physician, gregorio marañón, who injected patients with epinephrine and subsequently asked them how they felt. marañón found that most of these patients felt something but in the absence of an actual emotion-evoking stimulus, the patients were unable to interpret their physiological arousal as an experienced emotion. schachter did agree that physiological reactions played a big role in emotions. he suggested that physiological reactions contributed to emotional experience by facilitating a focused cognitive appraisal of a given physiologically arousing event and that this appraisal was what defined the subjective emotional experience. emotions were thus a result of two-stage process: general physiological arousal, and experience of emotion. for example, the physiological arousal, heart pounding, in a response to an evoking stimulus, the sight of a bear in the kitchen. the brain then quickly scans the area, to explain the pounding, and notices the bear. consequently, the brain interprets the pounding heart as being the result of fearing the bear.[ ] with his student, jerome singer, schachter demonstrated that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of epinephrine. subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation (a confederate) displayed that emotion. hence, the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and the participants' reception of adrenaline or a placebo together determined the response. this experiment has been criticized in jesse prinz's ( ) gut reactions.[ ] cognitive theories[edit] with the two-factor theory now incorporating cognition, several theories began to argue that cognitive activity in the form of judgments, evaluations, or thoughts were entirely necessary for an emotion to occur. one of the main proponents of this view was richard lazarus who argued that emotions must have some cognitive intentionality. the cognitive activity involved in the interpretation of an emotional context may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing. lazarus' theory is very influential; emotion is a disturbance that occurs in the following order: 	cognitive appraisal – the individual assesses the event cognitively, which cues the emotion. 	physiological changes – the cognitive reaction starts biological changes such as increased heart rate or pituitary adrenal response. 	action – the individual feels the emotion and chooses how to react. for example: jenny sees a snake. 	jenny cognitively assesses the snake in her presence. cognition allows her to understand it as a danger. 	her brain activates the adrenal glands which pump adrenaline through her blood stream, resulting in increased heartbeat. 	jenny screams and runs away. lazarus stressed that the quality and intensity of emotions are controlled through cognitive processes. these processes underline coping strategies that form the emotional reaction by altering the relationship between the person and the environment. george mandler provided an extensive theoretical and empirical discussion of emotion as influenced by cognition, consciousness, and the autonomic nervous system in two books (mind and emotion, ,[ ] and mind and body: psychology of emotion and stress, [ ]) there are some theories on emotions arguing that cognitive activity in the form of judgments, evaluations, or thoughts are necessary in order for an emotion to occur. a prominent philosophical exponent is robert c. solomon (for example, the passions, emotions and the meaning of life, [ ]). solomon claims that emotions are judgments. he has put forward a more nuanced view which responds to what he has called the 'standard objection' to cognitivism, the idea that a judgment that something is fearsome can occur with or without emotion, so judgment cannot be identified with emotion. the theory proposed by nico frijda where appraisal leads to action tendencies is another example. it has also been suggested that emotions (affect heuristics, feelings and gut-feeling reactions) are often used as shortcuts to process information and influence behavior.[ ] the affect infusion model (aim) is a theoretical model developed by joseph forgas in the early s that attempts to explain how emotion and mood interact with one's ability to process information. 	perceptual theory theories dealing with perception either use one or multiples perceptions in order to find an emotion.[ ] a recent hybrid of the somatic and cognitive theories of emotion is the perceptual theory. this theory is neo-jamesian in arguing that bodily responses are central to emotions, yet it emphasizes the meaningfulness of emotions or the idea that emotions are about something, as is recognized by cognitive theories. the novel claim of this theory is that conceptually-based cognition is unnecessary for such meaning. rather the bodily changes themselves perceive the meaningful content of the emotion because of being causally triggered by certain situations. in this respect, emotions are held to be analogous to faculties such as vision or touch, which provide information about the relation between the subject and the world in various ways. a sophisticated defense of this view is found in philosopher jesse prinz's book gut reactions,[ ] and psychologist james laird's book feelings.[ ] 	affective events theory affective events theory is a communication-based theory developed by howard m. weiss and russell cropanzano ( ),[ ] that looks at the causes, structures, and consequences of emotional experience (especially in work contexts). this theory suggests that emotions are influenced and caused by events which in turn influence attitudes and behaviors. this theoretical frame also emphasizes time in that human beings experience what they call emotion episodes –\ a "series of emotional states extended over time and organized around an underlying theme." this theory has been utilized by numerous researchers to better understand emotion from a communicative lens, and was reviewed further by howard m. weiss and daniel j. beal in their article, "reflections on affective events theory", published in research on emotion in organizations in .[ ] situated perspective on emotion[edit] a situated perspective on emotion, developed by paul e. griffiths and andrea scarantino, emphasizes the importance of external factors in the development and communication of emotion, drawing upon the situationism approach in psychology.[ ] this theory is markedly different from both cognitivist and neo-jamesian theories of emotion, both of which see emotion as a purely internal process, with the environment only acting as a stimulus to the emotion. in contrast, a situationist perspective on emotion views emotion as the product of an organism investigating its environment, and observing the responses of other organisms. emotion stimulates the evolution of social relationships, acting as a signal to mediate the behavior of other organisms. in some contexts, the expression of emotion (both voluntary and involuntary) could be seen as strategic moves in the transactions between different organisms. the situated perspective on emotion states that conceptual thought is not an inherent part of emotion, since emotion is an action-oriented form of skillful engagement with the world. griffiths and scarantino suggested that this perspective on emotion could be helpful in understanding phobias, as well as the emotions of infants and animals. genetics[edit] emotions can motivate social interactions and relationships and therefore are directly related with basic physiology, particularly with the stress systems. this is important because emotions are related to the anti-stress complex, with an oxytocin-attachment system, which plays a major role in bonding. emotional phenotype temperaments affect social connectedness and fitness in complex social systems.[ ] these characteristics are shared with other species and taxa and are due to the effects of genes and their continuous transmission. information that is encoded in the dna sequences provides the blueprint for assembling proteins that make up our cells. zygotes require genetic information from their parental germ cells, and at every speciation event, heritable traits that have enabled its ancestor to survive and reproduce successfully are passed down along with new traits that could be potentially beneficial to the offspring. in the five million years since the lineages leading to modern humans and chimpanzees split, only about . % of their genetic material has been modified. this suggests that everything that separates us from chimpanzees must be encoded in that very small amount of dna, including our behaviors. students that study animal behaviors have only identified intraspecific examples of gene-dependent behavioral phenotypes. in voles (microtus spp.) minor genetic differences have been identified in a vasopressin receptor gene that corresponds to major species differences in social organization and the mating system.[ ] another potential example with behavioral differences is the focp gene, which is involved in neural circuitry handling speech and language.[ ] its present form in humans differed from that of the chimpanzees by only a few mutations and has been present for about , years, coinciding with the beginning of modern humans.[ ] speech, language, and social organization are all part of the basis for emotions. formation[edit] timeline of some of the most prominent brain models of emotion in affective neuroscience. neurobiological explanation[edit] based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. if distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures and postures. emotions can likely be mediated by pheromones (see fear).[ ] for example, the emotion of love is proposed to be the expression of paleocircuits of the mammalian brain (specifically, modules of the cingulate gyrus) which facilitate the care, feeding, and grooming of offspring. paleocircuits are neural platforms for bodily expression configured before the advent of cortical circuits for speech. they consist of pre-configured pathways or networks of nerve cells in the forebrain, brain stem and spinal cord. other emotions like fear and anxiety long thought to be exclusively generated by the most primitive parts of the brain (stem) and more associated to the fight-or-flight responses of behavior, have also been associated as adaptive expressions of defensive behavior whenever a threat is encountered. although defensive behaviors have been present in a wide variety of species, blanchard et al. ( ) discovered a correlation of given stimuli and situation that resulted in a similar pattern of defensive behavior towards a threat in human and non-human mammals.[ ] whenever, potentially dangerous stimuli is presented additional brain structures activate that previously thought (hippocampus, thalamus, etc). thus, giving the amygdala an important role on coordinating the following behavioral input based on the presented neurotransmitters that respond to threat stimuli. these biological functions of the amygdala are not only limited to the "fear-conditioning" and "processing of aversive stimuli", but also are present on other components of the amygdala. therefore, it can referred the amygdala as a key structure to understand the potential responses of behavior in danger like situations in human and non-human mammals.[ ] the motor centers of reptiles react to sensory cues of vision, sound, touch, chemical, gravity, and motion with pre-set body movements and programmed postures. with the arrival of night-active mammals, smell replaced vision as the dominant sense, and a different way of responding arose from the olfactory sense, which is proposed to have developed into mammalian emotion and emotional memory. the mammalian brain invested heavily in olfaction to succeed at night as reptiles slept – one explanation for why olfactory lobes in mammalian brains are proportionally larger than in the reptiles. these odor pathways gradually formed the neural blueprint for what was later to become our limbic brain.[ ] emotions are thought to be related to certain activities in brain areas that direct our attention, motivate our behavior, and determine the significance of what is going on around us. pioneering work by paul broca ( ),[ ] james papez ( ),[ ] and paul d. maclean ( )[ ] suggested that emotion is related to a group of structures in the center of the brain called the limbic system, which includes the hypothalamus, cingulate cortex, hippocampi, and other structures. more recent research has shown that some of these limbic structures are not as directly related to emotion as others are while some non-limbic structures have been found to be of greater emotional relevance. prefrontal cortex[edit] there is ample evidence that the left prefrontal cortex is activated by stimuli that cause positive approach.[ ] if attractive stimuli can selectively activate a region of the brain, then logically the converse should hold, that selective activation of that region of the brain should cause a stimulus to be judged more positively. this was demonstrated for moderately attractive visual stimuli[ ] and replicated and extended to include negative stimuli.[ ] two neurobiological models of emotion in the prefrontal cortex made opposing predictions. the valence model predicted that anger, a negative emotion, would activate the right prefrontal cortex. the direction model predicted that anger, an approach emotion, would activate the left prefrontal cortex. the second model was supported.[ ] this still left open the question of whether the opposite of approach in the prefrontal cortex is better described as moving away (direction model), as unmoving but with strength and resistance (movement model), or as unmoving with passive yielding (action tendency model). support for the action tendency model (passivity related to right prefrontal activity) comes from research on shyness[ ] and research on behavioral inhibition.[ ] research that tested the competing hypotheses generated by all four models also supported the action tendency model.[ ][ ] homeostatic/primordial emotion[edit] another neurological approach proposed by bud craig in distinguishes two classes of emotion: "classical" emotions such as love, anger and fear that are evoked by environmental stimuli, and "homeostatic emotions" – attention-demanding feelings evoked by body states, such as pain, hunger and fatigue, that motivate behavior (withdrawal, eating or resting in these examples) aimed at maintaining the body's internal milieu at its ideal state.[ ] derek denton calls the latter "primordial emotions" and defines them as "the subjective element of the instincts, which are the genetically programmed behavior patterns which contrive homeostasis. they include thirst, hunger for air, hunger for food, pain and hunger for specific minerals etc. there are two constituents of a primordial emotion--the specific sensation which when severe may be imperious, and the compelling intention for gratification by a consummatory act."[ ] emergent explanation[edit] joseph ledoux differentiates between the human's defense system, which has evolved over time, and emotions such as fear and anxiety. he has said that the amygdala may release hormones due to a trigger (such as an innate reaction to seeing a snake), but "then we elaborate it through cognitive and conscious processes".[ ] lisa feldman barrett highlights differences in emotions between different cultures,[ ] and says that emotions (such as anxiety) "are not triggered; you create them. they emerge as a combination of the physical properties of your body, a flexible brain that wires itself to whatever environment it develops in, and your culture and upbringing, which provide that environment."[ ] she has termed this approach the theory of constructed emotion. disciplinary approaches[edit] many different disciplines have produced work on the emotions. human sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes, disorders, and neural mechanisms. in psychiatry, emotions are examined as part of the discipline's study and treatment of mental disorders in humans. nursing studies emotions as part of its approach to the provision of holistic health care to humans. psychology examines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes. in neuroscience sub-fields such as social neuroscience and affective neuroscience, scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. in linguistics, the expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds. in education, the role of emotions in relation to learning is examined. social sciences often examine emotion for the role that it plays in human culture and social interactions. in sociology, emotions are examined for the role they play in human society, social patterns and interactions, and culture. in anthropology, the study of humanity, scholars use ethnography to undertake contextual analyses and cross-cultural comparisons of a range of human activities. some anthropology studies examine the role of emotions in human activities. in the field of communication sciences, critical organizational scholars have examined the role of emotions in organizations, from the perspectives of managers, employees, and even customers. a focus on emotions in organizations can be credited to arlie russell hochschild's concept of emotional labor. the university of queensland hosts emonet,[ ] an e-mail distribution list representing a network of academics that facilitates scholarly discussion of all matters relating to the study of emotion in organizational settings. the list was established in january and has over members from across the globe. in economics, the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, emotions are analyzed in some sub-fields of microeconomics, in order to assess the role of emotions on purchase decision-making and risk perception. in criminology, a social science approach to the study of crime, scholars often draw on behavioral sciences, sociology, and psychology; emotions are examined in criminology issues such as anomie theory and studies of "toughness," aggressive behavior, and hooliganism. in law, which underpins civil obedience, politics, economics and society, evidence about people's emotions is often raised in tort law claims for compensation and in criminal law prosecutions against alleged lawbreakers (as evidence of the defendant's state of mind during trials, sentencing, and parole hearings). in political science, emotions are examined in a number of sub-fields, such as the analysis of voter decision-making. in philosophy, emotions are studied in sub-fields such as ethics, the philosophy of art (for example, sensory–emotional values, and matters of taste and sentimentality), and the philosophy of music (see also music and emotion). in history, scholars examine documents and other sources to interpret and analyze past activities; speculation on the emotional state of the authors of historical documents is one of the tools of interpretation. in literature and film-making, the expression of emotion is the cornerstone of genres such as drama, melodrama, and romance. in communication studies, scholars study the role that emotion plays in the dissemination of ideas and messages. emotion is also studied in non-human animals in ethology, a branch of zoology which focuses on the scientific study of animal behavior. ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with strong ties to ecology and evolution. ethologists often study one type of behavior (for example, aggression) in a number of unrelated animals. history[edit] the history of emotions has become an increasingly popular topic recently, with some scholars[who?] arguing that it is an essential category of analysis, not unlike class, race, or gender. historians, like other social scientists, assume that emotions, feelings and their expressions are regulated in different ways by both different cultures and different historical times, and the constructivist school of history claims even that some sentiments and meta-emotions, for example schadenfreude, are learnt and not only regulated by culture. historians of emotion trace and analyze the changing norms and rules of feeling, while examining emotional regimes, codes, and lexicons from social, cultural, or political history perspectives. others focus on the history of medicine, science, or psychology. what somebody can and may feel (and show) in a given situation, towards certain people or things, depends on social norms and rules; thus historically variable and open to change.[ ] several research centers have opened in the past few years in germany, england, spain,[ ] sweden, and australia. furthermore, research in historical trauma suggests that some traumatic emotions can be passed on from parents to offspring to second and even third generation, presented as examples of transgenerational trauma. sociology[edit] main article: sociology of emotions a common way in which emotions are conceptualized in sociology is in terms of the multidimensional characteristics including cultural or emotional labels (for example, anger, pride, fear, happiness), physiological changes (for example, increased perspiration, changes in pulse rate), expressive facial and body movements (for example, smiling, frowning, baring teeth), and appraisals of situational cues.[ ] one comprehensive theory of emotional arousal in humans has been developed by jonathan turner ( : ).[ ][ ] two of the key eliciting factors for the arousal of emotions within this theory are expectations states and sanctions. when people enter a situation or encounter with certain expectations for how the encounter should unfold, they will experience different emotions depending on the extent to which expectations for self, other and situation are met or not met. people can also provide positive or negative sanctions directed at self or other which also trigger different emotional experiences in individuals. turner analyzed a wide range of emotion theories across different fields of research including sociology, psychology, evolutionary science, and neuroscience. based on this analysis, he identified four emotions that all researchers consider being founded on human neurology including assertive-anger, aversion-fear, satisfaction-happiness, and disappointment-sadness. these four categories are called primary emotions and there is some agreement amongst researchers that these primary emotions become combined to produce more elaborate and complex emotional experiences. these more elaborate emotions are called first-order elaborations in turner's theory and they include sentiments such as pride, triumph, and awe. emotions can also be experienced at different levels of intensity so that feelings of concern are a low-intensity variation of the primary emotion aversion-fear whereas depression is a higher intensity variant. attempts are frequently made to regulate emotion according to the conventions of the society and the situation based on many (sometimes conflicting) demands and expectations which originate from various entities. the expression of anger is in many cultures discouraged in girls and women to a greater extent than in boys and men (the notion being that an angry man has a valid complaint that needs to be rectified, while an angry women is hysterical or oversensitive, and her anger is somehow invalid), while the expression of sadness or fear is discouraged in boys and men relative to girls and women (attitudes implicit in phrases like "man up" or "don't be a sissy").[ ][ ] expectations attached to social roles, such as "acting as man" and not as a woman, and the accompanying "feeling rules" contribute to the differences in expression of certain emotions. some cultures encourage or discourage happiness, sadness, or jealousy, and the free expression of the emotion of disgust is considered socially unacceptable in most cultures. some social institutions are seen as based on certain emotion, such as love in the case of contemporary institution of marriage. in advertising, such as health campaigns and political messages, emotional appeals are commonly found. recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaigns emphasizing the fear of terrorism.[ ] sociological attention to emotion has varied over time. Émile durkheim ( / )[ ] wrote about the collective effervescence or emotional energy that was experienced by members of totemic rituals in australian aborigine society. he explained how the heightened state of emotional energy achieved during totemic rituals transported individuals above themselves giving them the sense that they were in the presence of a higher power, a force, that was embedded in the sacred objects that were worshipped. these feelings of exaltation, he argued, ultimately lead people to believe that there were forces that governed sacred objects. in the s, sociologists focused on different aspects of specific emotions and how these emotions were socially relevant. for cooley ( ),[ ] pride and shame were the most important emotions that drive people to take various social actions. during every encounter, he proposed that we monitor ourselves through the "looking glass" that the gestures and reactions of others provide. depending on these reactions, we either experience pride or shame and this results in particular paths of action. retzinger ( )[ ] conducted studies of married couples who experienced cycles of rage and shame. drawing predominantly on goffman and cooley's work, scheff ( )[ ] developed a micro sociological theory of the social bond. the formation or disruption of social bonds is dependent on the emotions that people experience during interactions. subsequent to these developments, randall collins ( )[ ] formulated his interaction ritual theory by drawing on durkheim's work on totemic rituals that was extended by goffman ( / ; )[ ][ ] into everyday focused encounters. based on interaction ritual theory, we experience different levels or intensities of emotional energy during face-to-face interactions. emotional energy is considered to be a feeling of confidence to take action and a boldness that one experiences when they are charged up from the collective effervescence generated during group gatherings that reach high levels of intensity. there is a growing body of research applying the sociology of emotion to understanding the learning experiences of students during classroom interactions with teachers and other students (for example, milne & otieno, ;[ ] olitsky, ;[ ] tobin, et al., ;[ ] zembylas, [ ]). these studies show that learning subjects like science can be understood in terms of classroom interaction rituals that generate emotional energy and collective states of emotional arousal like emotional climate. apart from interaction ritual traditions of the sociology of emotion, other approaches have been classed into one of six other categories:[ ] 	evolutionary/biological theories 	symbolic interactionist theories 	dramaturgical theories 	ritual theories 	power and status theories 	stratification theories 	exchange theories this list provides a general overview of different traditions in the sociology of emotion that sometimes conceptualise emotion in different ways and at other times in complementary ways. many of these different approaches were synthesized by turner ( ) in his sociological theory of human emotions in an attempt to produce one comprehensive sociological account that draws on developments from many of the above traditions.[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] psychotherapy and regulation[edit] emotion regulation refers to the cognitive and behavioral strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience.[ ] for example, a behavioral strategy in which one avoids a situation to avoid unwanted emotions (trying not to think about the situation, doing distracting activities, etc.).[ ] depending on the particular school's general emphasis on either cognitive components of emotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial expression components of emotion different schools of psychotherapy approach the regulation of emotion differently. cognitively oriented schools approach them via their cognitive components, such as rational emotive behavior therapy. yet others approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components (like in contemporary gestalt therapy).[ ] cross-cultural research[edit] research on emotions reveals the strong presence of cross-cultural differences in emotional reactions and that emotional reactions are likely to be culture-specific.[ ] in strategic settings, cross-cultural research on emotions is required for understanding the psychological situation of a given population or specific actors. this implies the need to comprehend the current emotional state, mental disposition or other behavioral motivation of a target audience located in a different culture, basically founded on its national political, social, economic, and psychological peculiarities but also subject to the influence of circumstances and events.[ ] computer science[edit] main article: affective computing in the s, research in computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience has been aimed at developing devices that recognize human affect display and model emotions.[ ] in computer science, affective computing is a branch of the study and development of artificial intelligence that deals with the design of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, and process human emotions. it is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences, psychology, and cognitive science.[ ] while the origins of the field may be traced as far back as to early philosophical enquiries into emotion,[ ] the more modern branch of computer science originated with rosalind picard's paper[ ] on affective computing.[ ][ ] detecting emotional information begins with passive sensors which capture data about the user's physical state or behavior without interpreting the input. the data gathered is analogous to the cues humans use to perceive emotions in others. another area within affective computing is the design of computational devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that are capable of convincingly simulating emotions. emotional speech processing recognizes the user's emotional state by analyzing speech patterns. the detection and processing of facial expression or body gestures is achieved through detectors and sensors. the effects on memory[edit] emotion affects the way autobiographical memories are encoded and retrieved. emotional memories are reactivated more, they are remembered better and have more attention devoted to them.[ ] through remembering our past achievements and failures, autobiographical memories affect how we perceive and feel about ourselves.[ ] notable theorists[edit] william james in the late th century, the most influential theorists were william james ( – ) and carl lange ( – ). james was an american psychologist and philosopher who wrote about educational psychology, psychology of religious experience/mysticism, and the philosophy of pragmatism. lange was a danish physician and psychologist. working independently, they developed the james–lange theory, a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions. the theory states that within human beings, as a response to experiences in the world, the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. emotions, then, are feelings which come about as a result of these physiological changes, rather than being their cause.[ ] silvan tomkins ( – ) developed the affect theory and script theory. the affect theory introduced the concept of basic emotions, and was based on the idea that the dominance of the emotion, which he called the affected system, was the motivating force in human life.[ ] some of the most influential deceased theorists on emotion from the th century include magda b. arnold ( – ), an american psychologist who developed the appraisal theory of emotions;[ ] richard lazarus ( – ), an american psychologist who specialized in emotion and stress, especially in relation to cognition; herbert a. simon ( – ), who included emotions into decision making and artificial intelligence; robert plutchik ( – ), an american psychologist who developed a psychoevolutionary theory of emotion;[ ] robert zajonc ( – ) a polish–american social psychologist who specialized in social and cognitive processes such as social facilitation; robert c. solomon ( – ), an american philosopher who contributed to the theories on the philosophy of emotions with books such as what is an emotion?: classic and contemporary readings ( );[ ] peter goldie ( – ), a british philosopher who specialized in ethics, aesthetics, emotion, mood and character; nico frijda ( – ), a dutch psychologist who advanced the theory that human emotions serve to promote a tendency to undertake actions that are appropriate in the circumstances, detailed in his book the emotions ( );[ ] jaak panksepp ( - ), an estonian-born american psychologist, psychobiologist, neuroscientist and pioneer in affective neuroscience. influential theorists who are still active include the following psychologists, neurologists, philosophers, and sociologists: 	lisa feldman barrett – (born ) neuroscientist and psychologist specializing in affective science and human emotion 	john cacioppo – (born ) from the university of chicago, founding father with gary berntson of social neuroscience 	randall collins – (born ) american sociologist from the university of pennsylvania developed the interaction ritual theory which includes the emotional entrainment model 	antónio damásio (born ) – portuguese behavioral neurologist and neuroscientist who works in the us 	richard davidson (born ) – american psychologist and neuroscientist; pioneer in affective neuroscience 	paul ekman (born ) – psychologist specializing in the study of emotions and their relation to facial expressions 	barbara fredrickson – social psychologist who specializes in emotions and positive psychology. 	arlie russell hochschild (born ) – american sociologist whose central contribution was in forging a link between the subcutaneous flow of emotion in social life and the larger trends set loose by modern capitalism within organizations 	joseph e. ledoux (born ) – american neuroscientist who studies the biological underpinnings of memory and emotion, especially the mechanisms of fear 	george mandler (born ) – american psychologist who wrote influential books on cognition and emotion 	konstantinos v. petrides – greek-british psychologist who specializes in emotion, personality, psychometrics, and philosophy of mind. professor of psychology and psychometrics at university college london 	jesse prinz – american philosopher who specializes in emotion, moral psychology, aesthetics and consciousness 	james a. russell (born ) – american psychologist who developed or co-developed the pad theory of environmental impact, circumplex model of affect, prototype theory of emotion concepts, a critique of the hypothesis of universal recognition of emotion from facial expression, concept of core affect, developmental theory of differentiation of emotion concepts, and, more recently, the theory of the psychological construction of emotion 	klaus scherer (born ) – swiss psychologist and director of the swiss center for affective sciences in geneva; he specializes in the psychology of emotion 	ronald de sousa (born ) – english–canadian philosopher who specializes in the philosophy of emotions, philosophy of mind and philosophy of biology 	jonathan h. turner (born ) – american sociologist from the university of california, riverside, who is a general sociological theorist with specialty areas including the sociology of emotions, ethnic relations, social institutions, social stratification, and bio-sociology 	dominique moïsi (born ) – authored a book titled the geopolitics of emotion focusing on emotions related to globalization[ ] see also[edit] 	affect measures 	affective forecasting 	emoticons 	emotion and memory 	emotion review 	emotional 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"understanding engagement: science demonstrations and emotional energy". science education. ( ): – . bibcode: scied.. .. m. doi: . /sce. . 	^ olitsky, s. ( ). science learning, status and identity formation in an urban middle school. in w.-m. roth & k.g. tobin (eds.), science, learning, identity: sociocultural and cultural-historical perspectives. (pp. - ). rotterdam, the netherlands: sense. 	^ tobin k, ritchie sm, oakley j, mergard v, hudson p ( ). "relationships between emotional climate and the fluency of classroom interactions". learning environments research. : – . doi: . /s - - -y. s cid  . 	^ zembylas m ( ). "constructing genealogies of teachers' emotions in science teaching". journal of research in science teaching. ( ): – . bibcode: jrsct.. ... z. doi: . /tea. . 	^ schacter, daniel. "psychology". worth publishers. . p. 	^ schacter, daniel. "psychology". worth publishers. . p. 	^ "on emotion – an article from manchester gestalt centre website". webpages.co.uk. archived from the original on may . retrieved november . 	^ shaver, phillip r.; wu, shelley; schwartz, judith c. cross-cultural similarities and differences in emotion and its representation in: clark, margaret s. (ed), ( ). emotion. review of personality and social psychology, no. ., (pp. - ). thousand oaks, ca, us: sage publications, inc, ix, pp 	^ north atlantic treaty organization, nato standardization agency aap- - glossary of terms and definitions, p . 	^ fellous, armony & ledoux, 	^ tao j, tan t ( ). "affective computing: a review". affective computing and intelligent interaction; lncs. . springer. pp.  – . doi: . / . 	^ "affective computing" mit technical report # (abstract), 	^ kleine-cosack c (october ). "recognition and simulation of emotions" (pdf). archived from the original (pdf) on may . retrieved may . the introduction of emotion to computer science was done by pickard (sic) who created the field of affective computing. 	^ diamond d (december ). "the love machine; building computers that care". wired. retrieved may . rosalind picard, a genial mit professor, is the field's godmother; her book, affective computing, triggered an explosion of interest in the emotional side of computers and their users. 	^ d'argembeau, arnaud; comblain, christine; van der linden, martial ( ). "phenomenal characteristics of autobiographical memories for positive, negative, and neutral events". applied cognitive psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /acp. . issn  - . 	^ d'argembeau, arnaud; comblain, christine; van der linden, martial ( ). "phenomenal characteristics of autobiographical memories for positive, negative, and neutral events". applied cognitive psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /acp. . issn  - . 	^ cherry k. "what is the james-lange theory of emotion?". retrieved april . 	^ the tomkins institute. "applied studies in motivation, emotion, and cognition". archived from the original on march . retrieved april . 	^ reisenzein, r ( ). "arnold's theory of emotion in historical perspective". cognition & emotion. ( ): – . doi: . / . hdl: . . / . s cid  . 	^ plutchik, r ( ). "a psychoevolutionary theory of emotions". social science information. ( – ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ solomon, robert c. ( ). what is an emotion?: classic and contemporary readings. oxford: oxford university press. isbn  - - - - . 	^ frijda, n.h. ( ). the emotions. maison des sciences de l'homme and cambridge university press 	^ moisi, dominique ( ). the geopolitics of emotion: how cultures of fear, humiliation and hope are reshaping the world. london: bodley head. isbn  - - - - . further reading[edit] 	dana sugu & amita chaterjee "flashback: reshuffling emotions", international journal on humanistic ideology, vol. no. , spring–summer . 	cornelius, r. ( ). the science of emotion. new jersey: prentice hall. 	denton d ( ). the primordial emotions: the dawning of consciousness. oxford university press. isbn  - - - - . 	fox e ( ). emotion science: an integration of cognitive and neuroscientific approaches. palgrave macmillan. isbn  - - - - . 	gonzález, ana marta ( ). the emotions and cultural analysis. burlington, vt : ashgate. isbn  - - - - 	ekman, p. ( ). "basic emotions". in: t. dalgleish and m. power (eds.). handbook of cognition and emotion. john wiley & sons ltd, sussex, uk:. 	frijda, n.h. ( ). the emotions. maison des sciences de l'homme and cambridge university press 	russell hochschild, arlie ( ). the managed heart: commercialization of human feeling. berkeley: university of california press. isbn  	hogan, patrick colm. ( ). what literature teaches us about emotion cambridge: cambridge university press. 	hordern, joshua. ( ). political affections: civic participation and moral theology. oxford: oxford university press. isbn  	ledoux, j.e. ( ). the neurobiology of emotion. chap. in j.e. ledoux & w. hirst (eds.) mind and brain: dialogues in cognitive neuroscience. new york: cambridge. 	mandler, g. ( ). mind and body: psychology of emotion and stress. new york: norton.[ ] 	nussbaum, martha c. ( ) upheavals of thought: the intelligence of emotions. cambridge: cambridge university press. 	plutchik, r. ( ). a general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. in r. plutchik & h. kellerman (eds.), emotion: theory, research, and experience: vol. . theories of emotion (pp.  – ). new york: academic. 	roberts, robert. ( ). emotions: an essay in aid of moral psychology. cambridge: cambridge university press. 	robinson dl ( ). "brain function, emotional experience and personality" (pdf). netherlands journal of psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /bf . s cid  . 	scherer, k ( ). "what are emotions and how can they be measured?" (pdf). social science information. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . archived from the original (pdf) on february . 	solomon, r. ( ). the passions: emotions and the meaning of life. indianapolis: hackett publishing. 	zeki s, romaya jp ( ). "neural correlates of hate". plos one. ( ): e . bibcode: ploso... . z. doi: . /journal.pone. . pmc  . pmid  . 	wikibook cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience 	dror green ( ). "emotional training, the art of creating a sense of a safe place in a changing world". bulgaria: books, publishers and the institute of emotional training. external links[edit] emotionat wikipedia's sister projects 	definitions from wiktionary 	media from wikimedia commons 	quotations from wikiquote 	resources from wikiversity 	zalta, edward n. (ed.). "emotion". stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. 	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search 				look up expectation in wiktionary, the free dictionary. expectation or expectations may refer to: science[edit] 	expectation (epistemic) 	expected value, in mathematical probability theory 	expectation value (quantum mechanics) 	expectation–maximization algorithm, in statistics music[edit] 	expectation (album), a album by girl's day 	expectation, a album by matt harding 	expectations (keith jarrett album), 	expectations (dance exponents album), 	expectations (hayley kiyoko album), 	"expectations/overture", a song from the album 	expectations (bebe rexha album), 	expectations (katie pruitt album), 	"expectations", a song from the album 	"expectation" (waltz), a waltz composed by ilya herold lavrentievich kittler 	"expectation" (song), a song by tame impala 	"expectations" (song), a song by lauren jauregui see also[edit] 	great expectations, a novel by charles dickens 	xpectation, studio album by prince 	 	 disambiguation page providing links to topics that could be referred to by the same search term this disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title expectation. if an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=expectation&oldid= " 		categories: 	disambiguation pages hidden categories: 	disambiguation pages with short descriptions 	short description is different from wikidata 	all article disambiguation pages 	all disambiguation pages 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikisource 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			français 	português 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on april , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 envy - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	envy 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		pain at the sight of another's good fortune for other uses, see envy (disambiguation). portrait of a demented woman or the monomaniac of jealousy (also named the hyena of la salpêtrière), by théodore géricault, c. – , museum of fine arts of lyon 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e envy (from latin invidia) is an emotion which "occurs when a person lacks another's superior quality, achievement, or possession and either desires it or wishes that the other lacked it".[ ] aristotle defined envy as pain at the sight of another's good fortune, stirred by “those who have what we ought to have.”[ ] bertrand russell said that envy was one of the most potent causes of unhappiness.[ ] not only is the envious person rendered unhappy by their envy, russell argued, but that person may also wish to inflict misfortune on others to reduce their status. contents 	 types of envy 	 socioevolutionary view 	 schadenfreude 	 regarding possessions or status 	 overcoming 	 benefits 	 in adolescence 	 in adulthood 	 narcissists 	 in philosophy 	 religious views 	 . in buddhism 	 . in christianity 	 . in hinduism 	 . in islam 	 . in judaism 	 cultural references 	 see also 	 references 	 bibliography 	 further reading 	 external links types of envy[edit] psychologists have suggested that real or malicious envy should be distinguished from "benign envy"—malicious envy being proposed as an unpleasant emotion that causes the envious person to want to bring down the better-off even at their own cost, while benign envy involves recognition of other's being better-off, but causes the person to aspire to be as good.[ ][ ] however, sherry turkle considers that the advent of social media and selfie culture is creating an alienating sense of “self-envy” psyche in users, and posits this further affects problem areas attached to attachments.[ ] envy and gloating have parallel structures as emotions.[ ][ ] the only type of envy that can have positive effects also is benign envy. according to researchers, benign envy can provide emulation, improvement motivation, positive thoughts about the other person, and admiration.[ ] this type of envy, if dealt with correctly, can positively affect a person's future by motivating them to be a better person and to succeed.[ ] our human instinct is to avoid negative aspects in life such as the negative emotion, envy. however, it is possible to turn this negative emotional state into a motivational tool that can help a person to become successful in the future. socioevolutionary view[edit] invidia, allegorical painting by giotto di bondone, ca. - one theory that helps explain envy and its effects on human behavior is the socioevolutionary theory. based upon charles darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, modern socio-evolutionary theory predicts that humans behave in ways that enhance the reproduction of their genes. consistent with envy being a motivation, it may boost attention and memory.[ ] based on a model of evolved responses to those who are better off, sznycer has argued that envy increases support for economic redistribution.[ ] schadenfreude[edit] main article: schadenfreude schadenfreude means taking pleasure in the misfortune of others and can be understood as an outgrowth of envy in certain situations. envy and schadenfreude are very similar and are linked emotional states. both emotions are considered very complex and oftentimes looked down upon, which is understandable considering they are both antisocial behaviors.[ ] given the detrimental states of these emotions, it is very important to understand their development in the early stages of childhood. the two social emotions, envy and schadenfreude, act together as sister emotions during the developmental stages in adolescents. both emotions have a strong presence during these early stages in a child's life. in previous studies[which?], it has been shown that envy becomes less prevalent as a child gets older. researchers[who?] believe that this results from an increase in the regulation of envious type emotions as a person ages and gains more wisdom about life. depending on age, the correlation of envy and schadenfreude increases. for example, a younger child is more likely to make spiteful decisions when they feel envious towards a person.[citation needed] regarding possessions or status[edit] hieronymus bosch, the seven deadly sins and the four last things (invidia) often, envy involves a motive to "outdo or undo the rival's advantages".[ ] in part, this type of envy may be based on materialistic possessions rather than psychological states. basically, people find themselves experiencing an overwhelming emotion due to someone else owning or possessing desirable items that they do not. for example, your next door neighbor just bought a brand new ocarina—a musical instrument you've been infatuated with for months now but can't afford. feelings of envy in this situation would occur in the forms of emotional pain, a lack of self-worth, and a lowered self-esteem and well-being. in nelson aldrich's old money, he states that "envy is so integral and painful a part of what animates human behavior in market societies that many people have forgotten the full meaning of the word, simplifying it into one of the symptoms of desire. it is that (a symptom of desire), which is why it flourishes in market societies: democracies of desire, they might be called, with money for ballots, stuffing permitted. but envy is more or less than desire. it begins with the almost frantic sense of emptiness inside oneself, as if the pump of one's heart were sucking on air. one has to be blind to perceive the emptiness, of course, but that's what envy is, a selective blindness. invidia, latin for envy, translates as "nonsight," and dante had the envious plodding along under cloaks of lead, their eyes sewn shut with leaden wire. what they are blind to is what they have, god-given and humanly nurtured, in themselves".[ ] overcoming[edit] envy may negatively affect the closeness and satisfaction of relationships. overcoming envy might be similar to dealing with other negative emotions (anger, resentment, etc.). individuals experiencing anger often seek professional treatment (anger management) to help understand why they feel the way they do and how to cope. subjects experiencing envy often have a skewed perception on how to achieve true happiness. by helping people to change these perceptions, they will be more able to understand the real meaning of fortune and satisfaction with what they do have. according to lazarus "coping is an integral feature of the emotion process".[ ] there are very few theories that emphasize the coping process for emotions as compared to the information available concerning the emotion itself. there are numerous styles of coping, of which there has been a significant amount of research done; for example, avoidant versus approach. coping with envy can be similar to coping with anger. the issue must be addressed cognitively in order to work through the emotion. according to the research done by salovey and rodin ( ), "more effective strategies for reducing initial envy appear to be stimulus-focused rather than self-focused".[ ] salovey and rodin ( ) also suggest "self-bolstering (e.g., "thinking about my good qualities") may be an effective strategy for moderating these self-deprecating thoughts and muting negative affective reactions".[ ] further research needs to be done in order to better understand envy, as well as to help people cope with this emotion. benefits[edit] russell believed that envy may be driving force behind the movement of economies and must be endured to achieve the "keep up with the joneses" system. he believed this is what helps to maintain "democracy" as a system in which no one can achieve more than anyone else.[ ] attended too, envy may inform a person about who they admire and what they want. benign envy may lead a person to work harder to achieve more success[citation needed]. in adolescence[edit] children show evidence of envy at an early age. adults can be just as envious; however, they tend to be better at concealing the emotion. envy plays a significant role in the development of adolescents. comparing oneself is a universal aspect of human nature. no matter the age or culture, social comparison happens all over the globe. comparison can range from physical attributes, material possessions, and intelligence.[ ] however, children are more likely to envy over material objects such as shoes, video games, iphones, etc. kids believe these material objects are correlated to their status. social status has been found to have a strong connection with self-esteem.[ ] an adolescent's self-esteem is very fragile during early years and is heavily impacted by peer opinion. if a child is comfortable with who they are and self-confident they are less likely to become envious of others' material objects, because they do not self-identify with materials. material objects are not the only things that adolescents become envious over; however, it is the most prevalent. as children get older they develop stronger non-materialistic envy such as romantic relationships, physical appearance, achievement, and popularity. sometimes envious feelings are internalized in children, having a negative impact on their self-esteem. envy comes from comparing; these comparisons can serve as a reminder that they have failed social norms and do not fit in with their peers. a feeling of inadequacy can arise and become destructive to a child's happiness and cause further internal damage. a child's identity is formed during their early years. identity development is considered the central task during adolescence.[ ] when children grow up understanding who they are, they are able to better define what their strengths and weaknesses are while comparing themselves to others.[ ] comparison can have two outcomes: it can be healthy in aiding in self-improvement or it can be unhealthy and result in envy/jealousy which can develop into depression. this is why self-exploration and identity development are critical in adolescent years. it is important to identify healthy and unhealthy envy in a child at an early age. if a child is showing signs of unhealthy envy, it is best to teach the child productive ways to handle these emotions. it is much easier to teach a child how to control their emotions while they are young rather than allowing them to develop a habit that is hard to break when they are older. in adulthood[edit] the things that drive people mad with envy change throughout their lifetime. studies have shown that the younger the person, the more likely they are to be envious of others.[ ] adults under the age of are more likely to experience envy compared to those years and older. however, what people become envious over differs across adulthood. younger adults, under the age of , have been found to envy others social status, relationships, and attractiveness.[ ] this starts to fade when a person hits their s. typically, at this point in life, the person begins to accept who they are as an individual and compare themselves to others less often. however, they still envy others, just over different aspects in life, such as career or salary.[ ] studies have shown a decrease in envy as a person ages; however, envious feelings over money was the only thing that consistently increased as a person got older.[ ] as a person ages, they begin to accept their social status. nonetheless, envious feelings will be present throughout a person's life. it is up to the individual whether they will let these envious feelings motivate or destroy them. narcissists[edit] individuals with narcissistic personality disorder are often envious of others or believe others are envious of them.[ ] a narcissist may secure a sense of superiority in the face of another person's ability by using contempt to minimize the other person.[ ] in philosophy[edit] aristotle, in rhetoric, defined envy (φθόνος phthonos) as "the pain caused by the good fortune of others",[ ][ ] while kant, in metaphysics of morals, defined it as "a reluctance to see our own well-being overshadowed by another's because the standard we use to see how well off we are is not the intrinsic worth of our own well-being but how it compares with that of others". religious views[edit] in buddhism[edit] see also: irshya in buddhism, the term irshya is commonly translated as either envy or jealousy. irshya is defined as a state of mind in which one is highly agitated to obtain wealth and honor for oneself, but unable to bear the excellence of others. the term mudita (sympathetic joy) is defined as taking joy in the good fortune of others. this virtue is considered the antidote to envy and the opposite of schadenfreude. in christianity[edit] 	 	this subsection relies largely or entirely on a single source. relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. find sources: "envy" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (august ) both in the old and new testament there are various descriptions of envy and events related to it, mostly with a dramatic outcome. envy is one of the seven deadly sins in roman catholicism. in the book of genesis envy is said to be the motivation behind cain murdering his brother, abel, as cain envied abel because god favored abel's sacrifice over cain's. envy is among the things that comes from the heart, defiling a person.[ ] the whole body is full of darkness when the eye, the lamp of body, is bad.[ ] he who is glad at calamity will not go unpunished, said solomon.[ ] envy ruins the body's health, making bones rot[ ] and prohibiting the inheritance of the kingdom of god.[ ] sometimes, as a punishment, people are left in their sins, falling prey to envy and other heavy sins.[ ] envy is credited as the basis of all toil and skills of people.[ ] for example, mankind will choose occupations to gain wealth, fame and pleasures to equal or exceed their neighbours. envy is, therefore, a sin deeply ingrained in human nature.[ ] it comes into being when man lacks certain things, a circumstance that exists when god is not approached for provision or when the provision is used for one's own selfish passions and pleasures.[ ] envy may be caused by wealth[ ] (isaac, envied by the philistines),[ ] by the brightness of wealth, power and beauty (assyria kingdom envied of other kingdoms),[ ] by political and military rising (saul eyed david from the moment he heard the women song of joy),[ ] fertility (leah, envied of rachel),[ ] social ascent (joseph whom his brothers were jealous of),[ ][ ] countless miracles and healings (the apostles envied of high priest and the sadducees),[ ] popularity (paul and barnabas, envied of unfaithful jewish from antioch),[ ] the success of christianization of many thessalonians (paul and silas, envied of unfaithful jews from thessalonica),[ ] virtues and true power to heal, to make miracles and to teach people (jesus envied of the chief priests).[ ][ ] in the nt, jewish christians are admonished to not look with evil eye at the last converts ("gentiles" or pagan christians) to avoid therefore becoming the last ones, missing the kingdom of god.[ ] they should be happy for anyone saved, like christ, who came to save the lost, as the shepherd seeking the lost sheep.[ ][ ] zacchaeus, the chief tax collector, was among the lost ones and he succeeded in bringing salvation to him and to his house.[ ] sometimes arisen out of sophistry,[ ] envy cannot coexist with true and spiritual wisdom, but with false, earthly, unspiritual, demonic wisdom.[ ] throwing away envy is a crucial condition in our path to salvation.[ ][ ][ ] envy was seen by the apostle paul as a real danger even within the first christian communities.[ ][ ] envy should remain a sin of the past, defeated by god's teaching,[ ][ ] which, as in the tenth commandment, forbids us from coveting our neighbour's things, woman, and servants,[ ][ ] and urges us to rejoice with those who rejoice and weep with those who weep, as apostle paul said,[ ] and to love our neighbours as ourselves.[ ] because brotherly, christian love banishes definitively envy from our hearts.[ ] 	 			 			 the seven deadly sins - envy, engraving by jacques callot. the snake and the dog are both symbols for envy.[citation needed] 			 		 	 			 			 cain killing abel, painting by bartolomeo manfredi, c. , kunsthistorisches museum 			 		 	 			 			 envy arch in the nave with a gothic fresco from of a man with a dog-head, which symbolizes envy (dalbyneder church [da], denmark) 			 		 in hinduism[edit] "one who does not envy but is a compassionate friend to all ... such a devotee is very dear to me." - lord krishna in the bhagavad gita, chapter , verse . in hinduism, envy is considered a disastrous emotion. hinduism maintains that anything which causes the mind to lose balance with itself leads to misery. this concept is put forth in the epic mahabharata, wherein duryodhana launches the kurukshetra war out of envy of the perceived prosperity of his cousins. he is known to have remarked: "father! the prosperity of the pandavas (cousins) is burning me deeply! i cannot eat, sleep or live in the knowledge that they are better off than me!" thus, hinduism teaches that envy can be overcome simply by recognizing that the man or woman who is the object of one's envy is merely enjoying the fruits of their past karmic actions and that one should not allow such devious emotions to take control of their mind, lest they suffer the same fate as the antagonists of the mahabharata. in islam[edit] in islam, envy (ḥasad حسد in arabic) is an impurity of the heart and can destroy one's good deeds.[citation needed] one must be content with what god has willed and believe in the justice of the creator. a muslim should not allow his envy to inflict harm upon the envied person.[citation needed] muhammad said, "do not envy each other, do not hate each other, do not oppose each other, and do not cut relations, rather be servants of allah as brothers. it is not permissible for a muslim to disassociate from his brother for more than three days such that they meet and one ignores the other, and the best of them is the one who initiates the salaam." sahih al-bukhari [eng. trans. / no. ], sahih muslim [eng. trans. / no. , ] a muslim may wish for himself a blessing like that which someone else has, without wanting it to be taken away from the other person. this is permissible and is not called ḥasad. rather, it is called ghibṭa. "there is to be no envy except in two cases: (towards) a person to whom allah has granted wisdom, and who rules by this and teaches it to the people, and (towards) a person to whom allah has granted wealth and property along with the power to spend it in the cause of the truth." [al-bukhaari & muslim] in judaism[edit] in judaism (in the hebrew bible 'jealousy', is a key feature of god's personality – he is furious in jealousy (for his own people's undivided worship). yehovah is jealous for his own.[citation needed] the god of israel is, "slow to anger and great in compassion" (exodus : ) but when his jealousy and anger had accumulated there was an outburst of punishment. (exodus : ; numbers : ; psalm : ; ps : ; ps : ; jonah : ; nahum : ; nehemiah : ; joel : etc.) while jealousy is branded as a negative and unwanted emotion generally in society today and also in christianity, which had developed out of judaism, in the biblical (so-called old testament) context it is a strong aspect of god's character and therefore not a flawed characteristic – unlike envy, which god does denounce. (exodus : ; deuteronomy : and verse ) we envy people when we want what they have. we are jealous when we want to keep for ourselves what belongs exclusively to us. therefore, we see the frightening permission god gave husbands who became jealous of their wives, to make them take a curse upon themselves, in case they had slept with another man while they belonged to their husband. (numbers : – ) this points to the intimacy and exclusivity he is interested in, from his own people. ephraim 'committed harlotry' against yhvh and thereby defiled the nation of israel. therefore, he withdrew himself from them, to their detriment: "woe to those when i depart from them!" (hosea : ), he warns. "they will cry to yhvh, but he will hide his face from them". (micah : ) a wounded lover speaking. "you paid, but were not paid; for your harlotry. therefore, oh harlot, hear the word of yhvh: i shall set my jealousy against you and they will deal furiously with you." (ezekiel : ) yhvh showed ezekiel how the people in jerusalem set up 'an image that provokes jealousy'. (ezekiel : , , kings : , chronicles : ) god also loves like a jealous lover: he told moses to make a breastplate for aaron the priest, to wear when he goes into the most holy place. on the breastplate he had to display the names of all the tribes of israel, so he could see it whenever aaron went in to work where yhvh's presence was (exodus : ). somewhere else he says, i have your name engraved in the palm of my hand. (isaiah : ) the god of israel wants with his people a marriage of faithfulness, fairness, kindness and compassion – and that they should know him. (hosea : , ) he is even jealous for the land itself, the land of israel. (joel : ) "i am jealous for jerusalem and for zion with a great jealousy.. yhvh will yet comfort zion and will yet choose jerusalem.. for i will be to her a wall of fire all around; and the glory in her midst." (zechariah : , , zechariah : ) the hebrew bible says judah provoked yhvh to jealousy with all their sins and their false gods. ( kings : ) there is a notable difference in meaning between jealousy (of something that is one's own) and envy (which is covetousness of another one's possessions). (exodus : ; proverbs : ) cultural references[edit] in english-speaking cultures, envy is often associated with the color green, as in "green with envy", and yellow.[ ] yellow is the color of ambivalence and contradiction; a color associated with optimism and amusement; but also with betrayal, duplicity, and jealousy.[ ] the phrase "green-eyed monster" refers to an individual whose current actions appear motivated by jealousy, not envy. this is based on a line from shakespeare's othello. shakespeare mentions it also in the merchant of venice when portia states: "how all the other passions fleet to air, as doubtful thoughts and rash embraced despair and shuddering fear and green-eyed jealousy!" the character envy from fullmetal alchemist series is one of the seven homunculi named after the seven deadly sins. the character of zelena on abc's once upon a time takes on the title "the wicked witch of the west" after envy itself dyes her skin in the episode "it's not easy being green". in the parable "garden of statues",[ ] a character goes mad with envy because of all the attention his sculptor neighbor is getting. in nelson w. aldrich jr.'s old money, he states that people who suffer from a case of malicious envy are blind to what good things they already have, thinking they have nothing, causing them to feel emptiness and despair.[ ] see also[edit] 	competition 	envy-freeness 	jealousy 	narcissism 	penis envy 	resentment 	self-envy 	seven deadly sins 	spite (sentiment) 	womb and vagina envy references[edit] 	^ parrott, w. g.; smith, r. h. ( ). "distinguishing the experiences of envy and jealousy". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . 	^ rhetoric by aristotle 	^ russell, bertrand ( ). the conquest of happiness. new york: h. liverwright. 	^ van de ven n; et al. ( ). "leveling up and down: the experiences of benign and malicious envy". emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ "why envy motivates us". - - . 	^ sherry turkle ( ). alone together: why we expect more from technology and less from each other. basic books. isbn  - - - - . 	^ "emotional competency - envy". emotionalcompetency.com. 	^ "lncs - the hourglass of emotions" (pdf). sentic.net. retrieved - - . 	^ lange, jens; crusius, jan; weidman, aaron. "the painful duality of envy: evidence for an integrative theory and a meta-analysis on the relation of envy and schadenfreude". pmid  . cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ van de ven, niels ( ). "envy and its consequences: why it is useful to distinguish between benign and malicious envy". social and personality psychology compass. ( ): – . doi: . /spc . . 	^ fields, r ( ). "eat your guts out: why envy hurts and why it's good for your brain". 	^ sznycer, daniel; lopez seal, maria florencia; sell, aaron; lim, julian; porat, roni; shalvi, shaul; halperin, eran; cosmides, leda; tooby, john ( - - ). "support for redistribution is shaped by compassion, envy, and self-interest, but not a taste for fairness". proceedings of the national academy of sciences. ( ): – . doi: . /pnas. . issn  - . 	^ zizzo, daniel ( ). "money burning and rank egalitarianism with random dictators". . cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ d'arms, j. ( ). envy. unpublished manuscript, stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, stanford, retrieved from plato.stanford.edu/entries/envy/ 	^ a b hacker, diana. a canadian writer's reference, nd ed. nelson canada, . p. . 	^ lazarus, r. s. ( ). "emotions and interpersonal relationships: toward a person-centered conceptualization of emotions and coping". journal of personality. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . 	^ a b salovey, p.; rodin, j. ( ). "coping with envy and jealousy". journal of social and clinical psychology. : – . doi: . /jscp. . . . . 	^ russell ( ), pp. – 	^ festinger, leon (may , ). "a theory of social comparison processes". human relations. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ harter, susan ( ). the construction of the self: developmental and sociocultural foundations. guilford publishing. 	^ erikson, erik ( ). identity youth and crisis. w.w. norton and company. 	^ marcia, james. ego identity. 	^ a b c dahl, melissa ( - - ). "how envy changes as you get older". 	^ dahl, melissa ( - - ). "how envy changes as you get older". 	^ narcissistic personality disorder archived - - at the wayback machine - diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders fourth edition text revision (dsm-iv-tr) american psychiatric association ( ) 	^ hotchkiss, sandy & masterson, james f. why is it always about you? : the seven deadly sins of narcissism ( ) 	^ pedrick, victoria; oberhelman, steven m. ( ). the soul of tragedy: essays on athenian drama. chicago, illinois: university of chicago press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ . . b - 	^ "mark . - esv - what defiles a person - and he called - bible gateway". bible gateway. retrieved - - . 	^ "luke . - esv - your eye is the lamp of your body. when - bible gateway". bible gateway. retrieved - - . 	^ "proverbs . esv - whoever mocks the poor insults his - bible gateway". bible gateway. retrieved - - . 	^ "proverbs . esv - a tranquil heart gives life to the - bible gateway". bible gateway. retrieved - - . 	^ "galatians . - esv, - now the works of the flesh are evident: - bible gateway". bible gateway. retrieved - - . 	^ romans : - - , bible, english standard version, , biblegateway 	^ a b "ecclesiastes . esv - then i saw that all toil and all skill - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ james . - - 	^ "psalm . esv - for i was envious of the arrogant when - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "genesis . - esv - and isaac sowed in that land and reaped - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "ezekiel . - esv - pharaoh to be slain - in the eleventh - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ " samuel . - esv - and david went out and was successful - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "genesis . - esv - when rachel saw that she bore jacob no - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "genesis . - esv - joseph's dreams - jacob lived in the - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "acts . esv, - "and the patriarchs, jealous of - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "acts . - esv - many signs and wonders done - now many - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "acts . - esv - the next sabbath almost the whole city - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "acts . - esv - paul and silas in thessalonica - now - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "mark . - esv - pilate delivers jesus to be crucified - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "matthew . - esv - the crowd chooses barabbas - now at the - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "matthew . - esv - laborers in the vineyard - "for the - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "matthew . - esv - the parable of the lost sheep - "see - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "luke . - esv - a samaritan village rejects jesus - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "luke . - esv - jesus and zacchaeus - he entered - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ " timothy . - esv - he is puffed up with conceit and - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "james . - esv - wisdom from above - who is wise and - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ " peter . - esv - a living stone and a holy people - so - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "job ". bible gateway. 	^ "obadiah . esv - but do not gloat over the day of your - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ " corinthians . esv - for i fear that perhaps when i come i - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "galatians . - esv - if we live by the spirit, let us also - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "titus . - esv - be ready for every good work - remind - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "romans . - esv - the night is far gone; the day is at - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "exodus . esv - "you shall not covet your neighbor's - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "deuteronomy . esv - "'and you shall not covet your - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "romans . esv - rejoice with those who rejoice, weep - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ "matthew . - esv - the great commandment - but when the - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ " corinthians . - esv - the way of love - if i speak in the - bible gateway". bible gateway. 	^ a b eva heller ( ), psychologie de la couleur- effets et symboliques, p. . 	^ "garden of statues". bibliography[edit] 	bible, english standard version revised, further reading[edit] 	epstein, joseph. ( ) envy: the seven deadly sins. new york, oxford university press. 	salovey, p. ( ) the psychology of jealousy and envy 	schoeck, h. ( ) envy: a theory of social behavior. new york: harcourt, brace and world. 	smith, r.h. ( ) envy: theory and research. new york, oxford university press. 	westhues, kenneth ( ) the envy of excellence: administrative mobbing of high-achieving professors. lewiston, new york: edwin mellen press. 	lindholm, charles ( ) generous envy. digital development debates, issue "sharing". external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: envy 		look up envious in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikimedia commons has media related to envy. 	stanford encyclopedia of philosophy entry 	 	v 	t 	e bullying 	types	 	abusive supervision 	cyberbullying 	disability bullying 	doxing 	gay bashing 	hazing 	military bullying 	mobbing 	parental bullying of children 	passive aggression 	peer victimization 	prison bullying 	rankism 	relational aggression 	school bullying 	higher education 	sexual bullying 	workplace bullying (academia 	information technology 	legal aspects 	legal profession 	medicine 	nursing 	teaching 	toxic leader) 	elements	 	betrayal 	blacklisting 	bullying and 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attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 erik erikson - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	erik erikson 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for other people with similar names, see eric erickson (disambiguation). american german-born psychoanalyst & essayist 	erik erikson 	 	born	erik salomonsen ( - - ) june frankfurt, hesse, germany[ ] 	died	 may ( - - ) (aged  ) harwich, massachusetts, u.s.[ ] 	citizenship		american 	german 	spouse(s)	joan serson erikson ​ (m.  )​ 	children		kai t. erikson 	jon erikson 	sue erikson bloland 	neil 	awards		pulitzer prize ( ) 	national book award ( ) 	 	academic background 	influences		ruth benedict[ ] 	anna freud[ ] 	sigmund freud[ ] 	margaret mead[ ] 	academic work 	discipline	psychology 	sub-discipline		developmental psychology 	psychoanalysis 	institutions		yale university 	university of california, berkeley 	university of pittsburgh 	harvard university 	notable students	richard sennett 	notable works		childhood and society ( ) 	young man luther ( ) 	gandhi's truth ( ) 	the life cycle completed ( ) 	notable ideas	theory on psychological development 	influenced		eric berne[ ] 	robert coles[ ] 	james w. fowler[ ] 	howard gardner[ ] 	james marcia 	 erik homburger erikson (born erik salomonsen; june – may ) was a german-american developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychological development of human beings. he may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis. his son, kai t. erikson, is a noted american sociologist. despite lacking a bachelor's degree, erikson served as a professor at prominent institutions, including harvard, university of california, berkeley,[ ] and yale. a review of general psychology survey, published in , ranked erikson as the th most cited psychologist of the th century.[ ] contents 	 early life 	 psychoanalytic experience and training 	 united states 	 theories of development and the ego 	 erikson's theory of personality 	 personal life 	 bibliography 	 . major works 	 . collections 	 see also 	 references 	 . citations 	 . works cited 	 further reading 	 external links early life[edit] erikson's mother, karla abrahamsen, came from a prominent jewish family in copenhagen, denmark. she was married to jewish stockbroker valdemar isidor salomonsen, but had been estranged from him for several months at the time erik was conceived. little is known about erik's biological father except that he was a non-jewish dane. on discovering her pregnancy, karla fled to frankfurt am main in germany where erik was born on june and was given the surname salomonsen.[ ] she fled due to conceiving erik out of wedlock, and the identity of erik's birth father was never made clear.[ ] following erik's birth, karla trained to be a nurse and moved to karlsruhe. in she married erik's jewish pediatrician, theodor homburger. in , erik salomonsen's name was changed to erik homburger, and in he was officially adopted by his stepfather.[ ] karla and theodor told erik that theodor was his real father, only revealing the truth to him in late childhood; he remained bitter about the deception all his life.[ ] the development of identity seems to have been one of erikson's greatest concerns in his own life as well as being central to his theoretical work. as an older adult, he wrote about his adolescent "identity confusion" in his european days. "my identity confusion", he wrote "[was at times on] the borderline between neurosis and adolescent psychosis." erikson's daughter writes that her father's "real psychoanalytic identity" was not established until he "replaced his stepfather's surname [homburger] with a name of his own invention [erikson]."[ ] the change in last name occurred as he started his job at yale, and the "erikson" name was accepted by erik's family when they became american citizens.[ ] it is said his children enjoyed the fact they would not be called "hamburger" any longer.[ ] erik was a tall, blond, blue-eyed boy who was raised in the jewish religion. due to these mixed identities, he was a target of bigotry by both jewish and gentile children. at temple school, his peers teased him for being nordic; while at grammar school, he was teased for being jewish.[ ] at das humanistische gymnasium his main interests were art, history and languages, but he lacked a general interest in school and graduated without academic distinction.[ ] after graduation, instead of attending medical school as his stepfather had desired, he attended art school in munich, much to the likes of his mother and her friends. uncertain about his vocation and his fit in society, erik dropped out of school and began a lengthy period of roaming about germany and italy as a wandering artist with his childhood friend peter blos and others. for children from prominent german families taking a "wandering year" was not uncommon. during his travels he often sold or traded his sketches to people he met. eventually, erik realized he would never become a full-time artist and returned to karlsruhe and became an art teacher. during the time he worked at his teaching job erik was hired by an heiress to sketch and eventually tutor her children. erik worked very well with these children and was eventually hired by many other families that were close to anna and sigmund freud.[ ] during this period, which lasted until he was years old, he continued to contend with questions about his father and competing ideas of ethnic, religious, and national identity.[ ] psychoanalytic experience and training[edit] when erikson was twenty-five, his friend peter blos invited him to vienna to tutor art [ ] at the small burlingham-rosenfeld school for children whose affluent parents were undergoing psychoanalysis by sigmund freud's daughter, anna freud.[ ] anna noticed erikson's sensitivity to children at the school and encouraged him to study psychoanalysis at the vienna psychoanalytic institute, where prominent analysts august aichhorn, heinz hartmann, and paul federn were among those who supervised his theoretical studies. he specialized in child analysis and underwent a training analysis with anna freud. helene deutsch and edward bibring supervised his initial treatment of an adult.[ ] simultaneously he studied the montessori method of education, which focused on child development and sexual stages.[ ][failed verification] in he received his diploma from the vienna psychoanalytic institute. this and his montessori diploma were to be erikson's only earned academic credentials for his life's work. united states[edit] in erikson married joan mowat serson, a canadian dancer and artist whom erikson had met at a dress ball.[ ][ ][ ] during their marriage erikson converted to christianity.[ ][ ] in , with adolf hitler's rise to power in germany, the burning of freud's books in berlin and the potential nazi threat to austria, the family left an impoverished vienna with their two young sons and emigrated to copenhagen.[ ] unable to regain danish citizenship because of residence requirements, the family left for the united states, where citizenship would not be an issue.[ ] in the united states, erikson became the first child psychoanalyst in boston and held positions at massachusetts general hospital, the judge baker guidance center, and at harvard medical school and psychological clinic, establishing a singular reputation as a clinician. in , erikson left harvard and joined the staff at yale university, where he worked at the institute of social relations and taught at the medical school. erikson continued to deepen his interest in areas beyond psychoanalysis and to explore connections between psychology and anthropology. he made important contacts with anthropologists such as margaret mead, gregory bateson, and ruth benedict.[ ] erikson said his theory of the development of thought derived from his social and cultural studies. in , he left yale to study the sioux tribe in south dakota on their reservation. after his studies in south dakota he traveled to california to study the yurok tribe. erikson discovered differences between the children of the sioux and yurok tribe. this marked the beginning of erikson's life passion of showing the importance of events in childhood and how society affects them.[ ] in he left yale, and the eriksons moved to california, where erik had been invited to join a team engaged in a longitudinal study of child development for the university of california at berkeley's institute of child welfare. in addition, in san francisco he opened a private practice in child psychoanalysis. while in california he was able to make his second study of american indian children when he joined anthropologist alfred kroeber on a field trip to northern california to study the yurok.[ ] in , after publishing the book, childhood and society, for which he is best known, erikson left the university of california when california's levering act required professors there to sign loyalty oaths.[ ] from to he worked and taught at the austen riggs center, a prominent psychiatric treatment facility in stockbridge, massachusetts, where he worked with emotionally troubled young people. another famous stockbridge resident, norman rockwell, became erikson's patient and friend. during this time he also served as a visiting professor at the university of pittsburgh where he worked with benjamin spock and fred rogers at arsenal nursery school of the western psychiatric institute.[ ] he returned to harvard in the s as a professor of human development and remained there until his retirement in . in the national endowment for the humanities selected erikson for the jefferson lecture, the united states' highest honor for achievement in the humanities. erikson's lecture was titled dimensions of a new identity.[ ][ ] theories of development and the ego[edit] erikson is also credited with being one of the originators of ego psychology, which stressed the role of the ego as being more than a servant of the id. although erikson accepted freud's theory, he did not focus on the parent-child relationship and gave more importance to the role of the ego, particularly the person's progression as self.[ ] according to erikson, the environment in which a child lived was crucial to providing growth, adjustment, a source of self-awareness and identity. erikson won a pulitzer prize[ ] and a us national book award in category philosophy and religion[ ] for gandhi's truth ( ), which focused more on his theory as applied to later phases in the life cycle. in erikson's discussion of development, rarely did he mention a stage of development by age but in fact did refer to a prolonged adolescence which has led to further investigation into a period of development between adolescence and young adulthood called emerging adulthood.[ ] on ego identity versus role confusion: ego identity enables each person to have a sense of individuality, or as erikson would say, "ego identity, then, in its subjective aspect, is the awareness of the fact that there is a self-sameness and continuity to the ego's synthesizing methods and a continuity of one's meaning for others".[ ] role confusion, however, is, according to barbara engler, "the inability to conceive of oneself as a productive member of one's own society."[ ] this inability to conceive of oneself as a productive member is a great danger; it can occur during adolescence, when looking for an occupation. erikson's theory of personality[edit] main article: erikson's stages of psychosocial development 	 	this section needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "erik erikson" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (january ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) the erikson life-stage virtues, in order of the eight stages in which they may be acquired, are: 	hope, basic trust vs. basic mistrust—this stage covers the period of infancy, – months, which is the most fundamental stage of life. whether the baby develops basic trust or basic mistrust is not merely a matter of nurture. it is multi-faceted and has strong social components. it depends on the quality of the maternal relationship. the mother carries out and reflects her inner perceptions of trustworthiness, a sense of personal meaning, etc. on the child. an important part of this stage is providing stable and constant care of the infant. this helps the child develop trust that can transition into relationships other than parental. additionally, children develop trust in others to support them.[ ] if successful in this, the baby develops a sense of trust, which "forms the basis in the child for a sense of identity." failure to develop this trust will result in a feeling of fear and a sense that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. 	will, autonomy vs. shame—covers early childhood around – years old. introduces the concept of autonomy vs. shame and doubt. the child begins to discover the beginnings of his or her independence, and parents must facilitate the child's sense of doing basic tasks "all by himself/herself." discouragement can lead to the child doubting his or her efficacy. during this stage the child is usually trying to master toilet training. additionally, the child discovers his talents or abilities, and it is important to ensure the child is able to explore those activities. erikson states it is essential to allow the children freedom in exploration but also create an environment welcoming of failures. therefore, the parent should not punish or reprimand the child for failing at the task. shame and doubt occurs when the child feels incompetent in ability to complete task and survive. will is achieved with success of the stage. children successful in this stage will have "self-control without a loss of self-esteem." [ ] 	purpose, initiative vs. guilt—preschool / – years. does the child have the ability to do things on her own, such as dress herself? children in this stage are interacting with peers, and creating their own games and activities. if allowed to make these decisions, the child will develop confidence in her ability to lead others. if the child is not allowed to make certain decisions the sense of guilt develops. guilt in this stage is characterized by a sense of being a burden to others, and the child will therefore usually present herself as a follower. additionally, the child is asking many questions to build knowledge of the world. if the questions earn responses that are critical and condescending, the child will also develop feelings of guilt. success in this stage leads to the virtue of purpose, which is the normal balance between the two extremes.[ ] 	competence, industry vs. inferiority—school-age / – years. child comparing self-worth to others (such as in a classroom environment). child can recognize major disparities in personal abilities relative to other children. erikson places some emphasis on the teacher, who should ensure that children do not feel inferior. during this stage the child's friend group increases in importance in his life. often during this stage the child will try to prove competency with things rewarded in society, and also develop satisfaction with his abilities. encouraging the child increases feelings of adequacy and competency in ability to reach goals. restriction from teachers or parents leads to doubt, questioning, and reluctance in abilities and therefore may not reach full capabilities. competence, the virtue of this stage, is developed when a healthy balance between the two extremes is reached.[ ] 	fidelity, identity vs. role confusion—adolescent / – years. questioning of self. who am i, how do i fit in? where am i going in life? the adolescent is exploring and seeking for her own unique identity. this is done by looking at personal beliefs, goals, and values. the morality of the individual is also explored and developed.[ ] erikson believes that if the parents allow the child to explore, she will determine her own identity. if, however, the parents continually push her to conform to their views, the teen will face identity confusion. the teen is also looking towards the future in terms of employment, relationships, and families. learning the roles she provides in society is essential since the teen begins to develop the desire to fit in to society. fidelity is characterized by the ability to commit to others and acceptance of others even with differences. identity crisis is the result of role confusion and can cause the adolescent to try out different lifestyles.[ ] 	love, intimacy vs. isolation—this is the first stage of adult development. this development usually happens during young adulthood, which is between the ages of to . dating, marriage, family and friendships are important during the stage in their life. this is due to the increase in the growth of intimate relationships with others.[ ] by successfully forming loving relationships with other people, individuals are able to experience love and intimacy. they also feel safety, care, and commitment in these relationships.[ ] furthermore, if individuals are able to successfully resolve the crisis of intimacy versus isolation, they are able to achieve the virtue of love.[ ] those who fail to form lasting relationships may feel isolated and alone. 	care, generativity vs. stagnation—the second stage of adulthood happens between the ages of – . during this time people are normally settled in their lives and know what is important to them. a person is either making progress in his career or treading lightly in his career and unsure if this is what he wants to do for the rest of his working life. also during this time, if a person is enjoying raising his children and participating in activities, that gives him a sense of purpose. this is one way of contributing to society along with productivity at work and involvement in community activities and organizations.[ ] if a person is not comfortable with the way his life is progressing, he's usually regretful about the decisions that he has made in the past and feels a sense of uselessness. 	wisdom, ego integrity vs. despair—this stage affects the age group of and on. during this time an individual has reached the last chapter in her life and retirement is approaching or has already taken place. ego-integrity means the acceptance of life in its fullness: the victories and the defeats, what was accomplished and what was not accomplished. wisdom is the result of successfully accomplishing this final developmental task. wisdom is defined as "informed and detached concern for life itself in the face of death itself."[ ] having a guilty conscience about the past or failing to accomplish important goals will eventually lead to depression and hopelessness. achieving the virtue of the stage involves the feeling of living a successful life.[ ] 	for the ninth stage see erikson's stages of psychosocial development § ninth stage. favorable outcomes of each stage are sometimes known as virtues, a term used in the context of erikson's work as it is applied to medicine, meaning "potencies". these virtues are also interpreted to be the same as "strengths", which are considered inherent in the individual life cycle and in the sequence of generations.[ ] erikson's research suggests that each individual must learn how to hold both extremes of each specific life-stage challenge in tension with one another, not rejecting one end of the tension or the other. only when both extremes in a life-stage challenge are understood and accepted as both required and useful, can the optimal virtue for that stage surface. thus, 'trust' and 'mis-trust' must both be understood and accepted, in order for realistic 'hope' to emerge as a viable solution at the first stage. similarly, 'integrity' and 'despair' must both be understood and embraced, in order for actionable 'wisdom' to emerge as a viable solution at the last stage. personal life[edit] erikson married canadian-born american dancer and artist joan erikson (née sarah lucretia serson) in and they remained together until his death.[ ] the eriksons had four children, the eldest of whom is the sociologist kai t. erikson. jon erikson. their daughter, sue erikson bloland, "an integrative psychotherapist and psychoanalyst",[ ] described her father as plagued by "lifelong feelings of personal inadequacy".[ ] he thought that by combining resources with his wife, he could "achieve the recognition" that might produce a feeling of adequacy.[ ] their youngest son is neil erikson. erikson died on may in harwich, massachusetts. he is buried in the first congregational church cemetery in harwich.[ ] bibliography[edit] major works[edit] 	childhood and society ( ) 	young man luther: a study in psychoanalysis and history ( ) 	insight and responsibility ( ) 	identity: youth and crisis ( ) 	gandhi's truth: on the origins of militant nonviolence ( ) 	life history and the historical moment ( ) 	toys and reasons: stages in the ritualization of experience ( ) 	adulthood (edited book, ) 	vital involvement in old age (with j. m. erikson and h. kivnick, ) 	the life cycle completed (with j. m. erikson, ) collections[edit] 	identity and the life cycle. selected papers ( ) 	"a way of looking at things – selected papers from to , erik h. erikson" ed. by s. schlein, w. w. norton & co, new york, ( ) see also[edit] 	erikson institute references[edit] citations[edit] 	^ a b c "erik erikson, , psychoanalyst who reshaped views of human growth, dies". the new york times. march . retrieved october . 	^ a b burston , p.  . 	^ stevens , p.  . 	^ mcleod, saul ( ) [ ]. "erik erikson". simply psychology. retrieved october . 	^ heathcoate , p.  . 	^ eckenfels , p. vii. 	^ osmer & bridgers . 	^ ireland, corydon ( october ). "howard gardner: 'a blessing of influences'". harvard gazette. cambridge, massachusetts: harvard university. retrieved october . 	^ a b c d e f g "erik erikson". encyclopedia. . 	^ haggbloom et al. . 	^ friedman , p.  . 	^ "erik h. erikson". sweet briar, virginia: sweet briar college. archived from the original on may . retrieved august . 	^ erikson bloland , pp.  , . 	^ hoare , p.  . 	^ a b stevens , ch. . 	^ hoare , pp.  – . 	^ a b hoare , p.  . 	^ "erik h. erikson". erikson institute. retrieved april . 	^ stevens , p.  . 	^ schlein, stephen, ed. ( ) [ ]. "stephen schlein erik erikson papers". cambridge, massachusetts: harvard university. archived from the original on march . retrieved march . 	^ a b thomas, robert mcg., jr. ( august ). "joan erikson is dead at ; shaped thought on life cycles". the new york times. retrieved august . 	^ engler , p.  ; fadiman & frager , p.  . 	^ olsen, rodney d.; friedman, lawrence j. (december ). "identity's architect: a biography of erik h. erikson". the journal of american history. ( ): . doi: . / . issn  - . jstor  . 	^ hoare , p.  . 	^ hoare , p.  . 	^ "on this day". new york times. . 	^ boeree, c. george ( ) [ ]. "erik erikson, – ". shippensburg, pennsylvania: shippensburg university. retrieved august . 	^ friedman , pp.  , – . 	^ erikson . 	^ stade, george ( may ). "byways of our national character". the new york times. retrieved october . 	^ bynum-grant, daminga; travis-dinkins, margaret ( ). schaum's outline of psychiatric nursing. new york: mcgraw hill professional. p.  . isbn  . 	^ " pulitzer prizes". the pulitzer prizes. new york: columbia university. retrieved october . 	^ "national book awards – ". new york: national book foundation. retrieved march . 	^ arnett . 	^ erikson, erik h. ( ). childhood and society ( nd ed.). new york: w. w. norton & company. cited in engler , p.  . 	^ engler , p.  . 	^ a b c d e f g h i j mcleod, saul ( ). "erik erikson". simply psychology. 	^ hutchison, elizabeth ( ). dimensions of human behavior: the changing life course. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. p.  . isbn  . 	^ erikson & erikson , p.  . 	^ capps, donald ( ). erik erikson's verbal portraits: luther, gandhi, einstein, jesus. lanham, md: rowman & littlefield. p.  . isbn  . 	^ erikson bloland, sue ( ). "show me a hero and i will write you a tragedy". new philosopher. no.  . interviewed by boag, zan. issn  - . retrieved october . 	^ leiter, robert ( november ). "the corrosive nature of fame". jewish world review. retrieved october . 	^ erikson bloland , pp.  . 	^ scribner's encyclopedia of american lives works cited[edit] 	arnett, jeffrey jensen ( ). "emerging adulthood: a theory of development from the late teens through the twenties". american psychologist. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / - x. . . . issn  - x. pmid  .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	burston, daniel ( ). erik erikson and the american psyche: ego, ethics, and evolution. lanham, maryland: jason aronson. isbn  - - - - .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	eckenfels, edward j. ( ). doctors serving people: restoring humanism to medicine through student community service. new brunswick, new jersey: rutgers university press. isbn  - - - - .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	engler, barbara ( ). personality theories: an introduction ( th ed.). belmont, california: wadsworth publishing. isbn  - - - - .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	 ———  ( ). personality theories: an introduction ( th ed.). belmont, california: wadsworth publishing. isbn  - - - - .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	erikson, erik h. ( ). dimensions of a new identity. jefferson lectures in the humanities. new york: w. w. norton & company. isbn  - - - - .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	erikson, erik h.; erikson, joan m. ( ). the life cycle completed (extended ed.). new york: w. w. norton & company (published ). isbn  - - - - .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	erikson bloland, sue ( ). in the shadow of fame: a memoir by the daughter of erik h. erikson. new york: viking press. isbn  - - - - .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	fadiman, james; frager, robert ( ). personality and personal growth ( th ed.). upper saddle river, new jersey: prentice hall. isbn  - - - - .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	friedman, lawrence jacob ( ). identity's architect: a biography of erik h. erikson. cambridge, massachusetts: harvard university press. isbn  - - - - .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	haggbloom, steven j.; warnick, renee; warnick, jason e.; jones, vinessa k.; yarbrough, gary l.; russell, tenea m.; borecky, chris m.; mcgahhey, reagan; powell, john l., iii; beavers, jamie; monte, emmanuelle ( ). "the most eminent psychologists of the th century". review of general psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . issn  - . s cid  . retrieved october . 	heathcoate, ann ( ). "eric berne's development of ego state theory: where did it all begin and who influenced him?" (pdf). transactional analysis journal. ( – ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . s cid  . retrieved october .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	hoare, carol hren ( ). erikson on development in adulthood: new insights from the unpublished papers. new york: oxford university press. isbn  - - - - .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	osmer, richard; bridgers, lynn ( ) [ ]. "james fowler". christian educators of the th century. la mirada, california: biola university. retrieved august .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	paranjpe, anand c. ( ). "erikson, erik homburger". in shook, john r. (ed.). the dictionary of modern american philosophers. . bristol, england: thoemmes continuum. pp.  – . doi: . /acref/ . . . isbn  - - - - .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	stevens, richard ( ). erik erikson: an introduction. new york: st. martin's press. isbn  - - - - .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	 ———  ( ). erik h. erikson: explorer of identity and the life cycle. basingstoke, england: palgrave macmillan. isbn  - - - - .cs maint: ref=harv (link) further reading[edit] 	andersen, d. c. ( ). "beyond rumor and reductionism: a textual dialogue with erik h. erikson". the psychohistory review. ( ): – . issn  - x. pmid  . 	bondurant, joan v.; fisher, margaret w.; sutherland, j. d. ( ). "gandhi: a psychoanalytic view". review of gandhi's truth: on the origins of militant nonviolence by erikson, erik h. the american historical review. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . jstor  . 	brenman-gibson, margaret ( ). "the legacy of erik hamburger erikson". psychoanalytic review. ( ): – . issn  - . pmid  . 	capps, donald; capps, walter h.; bradford, m. gerald, eds. ( ). encounter with erikson: historical interpretation and religious biography. missoula, montanta: scholars press. 	carney, j. e. ( ). "'is it really so terrible her?': karl menninger's pursuit of erik erikson". the psychohistory review. ( ): – . issn  - x. pmid  . 	coles, robert ( ). erik h. erikson: the growth of his work. boston: little, brown and company. oclc  . 	coles, robert; fitzpatrick, j. j. ( ). "the writings of erik h. erikson". the psychohistory review. ( ): – . issn  - x. pmid  . 	crunden, robert m. ( ). "freud, erikson, and the historian: a bibliographical survey". canadian review of american studies. ( ): – . doi: . /cras- - - . issn  - . pmid  . s cid  . 	douvan, elizabeth ( ). "erik erikson: critical times, critical theory" (pdf). child psychiatry and human development. ( ): – . doi: . /a: . hdl: . / . issn  - . pmid  . s cid  . 	eagle, morris ( ). "contributions of erik erikson". psychoanalytic review. ( ): – . issn  - . pmid  . 	elms, alan c. ( ). "erikson, erik homburger". in koertge, noretta (ed.). new dictionary of scientific biography. . farmington hills, michigan: gale group. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	evans, richard i. ( ). dialogue with erik erikson. new york: e. p. dutton & co. 	fitzpatrick, j. j. ( ). "erik h. erikson and psychohistory". bulletin of the menninger clinic. ( ): – . issn  - . pmid  . 	goethals, george w. ( ). "the evolution of sexual and genital intimacy: a comparison of the views of erik h. erikson and harry stack sullivan". the journal of the american academy of psychoanalysis. ( ): – . doi: . /jaap. . . . . . issn  - . pmid  . 	hoffman, l. e. ( ). "erikson on hitler: the origins of 'hitler's imagery and german youth'". the psychohistory review. ( ): – . issn  - x. pmid  . 	masson, j. l. ( ). "india and the unconscious: erik erikson on gandhi". the international journal of psycho-analysis. ( ): – . issn  - . pmid  . 	roazen, paul ( ). erik h. erikson: the power and limits of a vision. new york: free press. 	 ———  ( ). "erik h. erikson as a teacher". the psychohistory review. ( ): – . issn  - x. pmid  . 	schnell, r. l. ( ). "contributions to psychohistory: iv. individual experience in historiography and psychoanalysis: significance of erik erikson and robert coles". psychological reports. ( ): – . doi: . /pr . . . . . issn  - . pmid  . s cid  . 	strozier, charles b. ( ). "disciplined subjectivity and the psychohistorian: a critical look at the work of erik h. erikson". the psychohistory review. ( ): – . issn  - x. pmid  . 	wallerstein, robert s.; goldberger, leo, eds. ( ). ideas and identities: the life and work of erik erikson. madison, connecticut: international universities press. isbn  - - - - . 	weiner, m. b. ( ). "caring for the elderly. psychological aging: aspects of normal personality and development in old age. part ii. erik erikson: resolutions of psychosocial tasks". the journal of nursing care. ( ): – . pmid  . 	welchman, kit ( ). erik erikson: his life, work, and significance. buckingham, england: open university press. isbn  - - - - . 	wurgaft, lewis d. ( ). "erik erikson: from luther to gandhi". psychoanalytic review. ( ): – . issn  - . pmid  . 	zock, hetty ( ). a psychology of ultimate concern: erik h. erikson's contribution to the psychology of religion ( nd ed.). amsterdam: rodopi. isbn  - - - - . external links[edit] 	works by or about erik erikson at internet archive 	links to related articles 	 		v 	t 	e human psychological development 	developmental psychology	 	antenatal 	cognitive development of infants 	positive youth development 	young adult 	adult development 	positive adult development 	maturity 	theorists and theories 	 	freud ( – ) (psychosexual development) 	piaget ( – ) (theory of cognitive development) 	vygotsky ( – ) (cultural-historical psychology) 	erikson ( – ) (psychosocial development) 	bowlby ( – ) (attachment theory) 	bronfenbrenner ( – ) (ecological systems theory) 	kohlberg ( – ) (stages of moral development) 	commons (b. ), fischer (b. ), kegan (b. ), demetriou (b. ), and others (neo-piagetian theories of cognitive development) 	evolutionary developmental psychology 	 	v 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figure from charles darwin's the expression of the emotions in man and animals ( ). caption reads "fig. .—terror, from a photograph by dr. duchenne." figure from charles darwin's the expression of the emotions in man and animals. caption reads "fig. .—horror and agony, copied from a photograph by dr. duchenne." 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e the distinction between horror and terror is a standard literary and psychological concept applied especially to gothic and horror fiction.[ ] terror is usually described as the feeling of dread and anticipation that precedes the horrifying experience. by contrast, horror is the feeling of revulsion that usually follows a frightening sight, sound, or otherwise experience. horror has also been defined by noel carroll as a combination of terror and revulsion.[ ] contents 	 literary gothic 	 horror fiction 	 psychoanalytic views 	 horror, helplessness and trauma 	 see also 	 references 	 bibliography literary gothic[edit] the distinction between terror and horror was first characterized by the gothic writer ann radcliffe ( – ), horror being more related to being shocked or scared (being horrified) at an awful realization or a deeply unpleasant occurrence, while terror is more related to being anxious or fearful.[ ] radcliffe considered that terror is characterized by "obscurity" or indeterminacy in its treatment of potentially horrible events, something which leads to the sublime. she says in the essay that it "expands the soul and awakens the faculties to a high degree of life". horror, in contrast, "freezes and nearly annihilates them" with its unambiguous displays of atrocity. she goes on: "i apprehend that neither shakespeare nor milton by their fictions, nor mr burke by his reasoning, anywhere looked to positive horror as a source of the sublime, though they all agree that terror is a very high one; and where lies the great difference between horror and terror, but in uncertainty and obscurity, that accompany the first, respecting the dreader evil."[ ] according to devendra varma in the gothic flame ( ): the difference between terror and horror is the difference between awful apprehension and sickening realization: between the smell of death and stumbling against a corpse. horror fiction[edit] horror is also a genre of film and fiction that relies on horrifying images or situations to tell stories and prompt reactions or jump scares to put their audiences on edge. in these films the moment of horrifying revelation is usually preceded by a terrifying build up, often using the medium of scary music.[ ] in his non-fiction book danse macabre, stephen king stressed how horror tales normally chart the outbreak of madness/the terrible within an everyday setting.[ ] he also elaborated on the twin themes of terror and horror, adding a third element which he referred to as "revulsion". he describes terror as "the finest element" of the three, and the one he strives hardest to maintain in his own writing. citing many examples, he defines "terror" as the suspenseful moment in horror before the actual monster is revealed. "horror," king writes, is that moment at which one sees the creature/aberration that causes the terror or suspense, a "shock value". king finally compares "revulsion" with the gag-reflex, a bottom-level, cheap gimmick which he admits he often resorts to in his own fiction if necessary, confessing: i recognize terror as the finest emotion and so i will try to terrorize the reader. but if i find that i cannot terrify, i will try to horrify, and if i find that i cannot horrify, i'll go for the gross-out. i'm not proud.[ ] psychoanalytic views[edit] freud likened the experience of horror to that of the uncanny.[ ] in his wake, georges bataille saw horror as akin to ecstasy in its transcendence of the everyday;[ ] as opening a way to go beyond rational social consciousness.[ ] julia kristeva in turn considered horror as evoking experience of the primitive, the infantile, and the demoniacal aspects of unmediated femininity.[ ] horror, helplessness and trauma[edit] the paradox of pleasure experienced through horror films/books can be explained partly as stemming from relief from real-life horror in the experience of horror in play, partly as a safe way to return in adult life to the paralysing feelings of infantile helplessness.[ ] helplessness is also a factor in the overwhelming experience of real horror in psychological trauma.[ ] playing at re-experiencing the trauma may be a helpful way of overcoming it.[ ] see also[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: horror 		wikiquote has quotations related to: terror 	fantastic art 	fear 	medusa's head 	monster literature 	nightmare 	surrealism references[edit] 	^ radcliffe ; varma ; crawford : - ; bruhm : ; wright : - . 	^ m hills, the pleasures of horror' ( ) p. 	^ varma . 	^ radcliffe: . 	^ wisker . 	^ s king, danse macabre (london ) p. and p. 	^ "a quote by stephen king". www.goodreads.com. 	^ s freud, the “uncanny” imago v p. 	^ e roudinesco, jacques lacan' (cambridge ) p. and p. 	^ w paulett, g s bataille ( ) p. and p. 	^ j kristeva, powers of horror (new york ) p. - 	^ r solomon, in defence of sentimentality ( ) p. - 	^ d goleman, emotional intelligence (london ) p. - 	^ o fenichel, the psychoanalytic theory of neurosis (london ) p. - bibliography[edit] 	steven bruhm ( ) gothic bodies: the politics of pain in romantic fiction. philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press. 	gary crawford ( ) "criticism" in j. sullivan (ed) the penguin encyclopedia of horror and the supernatural. 	ann radcliffe ( ) "on the supernatural in poetry" in the new monthly magazine , , pp – . 	devendra varma ( ) the gothic flame. new york: russell and russell. 	gina wisker ( ) horror fiction: an introduction. new york: continuum. 	angela wright ( ) gothic fiction. basingstoke: palgrave. 	julian hanich ( ) cinematic emotion in horror films and thrillers. the aesthetic paradox of pleasurable fear. new york: routledge. 	noël carroll ( ) the philosophy of horror: or, paradoxes of the heart. new york: routledge. 	 	v 	t 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religion 	ugly law 	voter suppression 	 countermeasures 	affirmative action 	anti-discrimination law 	cultural assimilation 	cultural pluralism 	diversity training 	empowerment 	feminism 	fighting discrimination 	hate speech laws by country 	human rights 	intersex rights 	lgbt rights 	masculism 	multiculturalism 	nonviolence 	racial integration 	reappropriation 	self-determination 	social integration 	toleration 	 related topics 	allophilia 	anti-cultural, anti-national, and anti-ethnic terms 	bias 	christian privilege 	civil liberties 	cultural assimilation 	dehumanization 	diversity 	ethnic penalty 	eugenics 	internalized oppression 	intersectionality 	male privilege 	masculism 	medical model of disability 	autism 	multiculturalism 	net bias 	neurodiversity 	oikophobia 	oppression 	police brutality 	political correctness 	polyculturalism 	power distance 	prejudice 	prisoner abuse 	racial bias in criminal news 	racism by country 	religious intolerance 	second-generation gender bias 	snobbery 	social exclusion 	social model of disability 	social stigma 	stereotype 	threat 	the talk 	white privilege 		v 	t 	e the term multiculturalism has a range of meanings within the contexts of sociology, of political philosophy, and of colloquial use. in sociology and in everyday usage, it is a synonym for "ethnic pluralism", with the two terms often used interchangeably, for example, a cultural pluralism[ ] in which various ethnic groups collaborate and enter into a dialogue with one another without having to sacrifice their particular identities. it can describe a mixed ethnic community area where multiple cultural traditions exist (such as new york city or trieste) or a single country within which they do (such as switzerland, belgium or russia). groups associated with an indigenous, aboriginal or autochthonous ethnic group and settler-descended ethnic groups are often the focus. in reference to sociology, multiculturalism is the end-state of either a natural or artificial process (for example: legally-controlled immigration) and occurs on either a large national scale or on a smaller scale within a nation's communities. on a smaller scale this can occur artificially when a jurisdiction is established or expanded by amalgamating areas with two or more different cultures (e.g. french canada and english canada). on a large scale, it can occur as a result of either legal or illegal migration to and from different jurisdictions around the world (for example, anglo-saxon settlement of britain by angles, saxons and jutes in the th century or the colonization of the americas by europeans, africans and asians since the th century). in reference to political science, multiculturalism can be defined as a state's capacity to effectively and efficiently deal with cultural plurality within its sovereign borders. multiculturalism as a political philosophy involves ideologies and policies which vary widely.[ ] it has been described as a "salad bowl" and as a "cultural mosaic",[ ] in contrast to a "melting pot".[ ] contents 	 prevalence 	 . support 	 . criticism 	 americas 	 . argentina 	 . bolivia 	 . brazil 	 . canada 	 . mexico 	 . peru 	 . united states 	 . . effect of diversity on civic engagement 	 . venezuela 	 europe 	 . bulgaria 	 . germany 	 . luxembourg 	 . netherlands 	 . romania 	 . scandinavia 	 . . denmark 	 . . sweden 	 . serbia 	 . united kingdom 	 asia 	 . india 	 . . cultural minorities in india 	 . . scheduled castes(sc) and scheduled tribes(st) 	 . indonesia 	 . japan 	 . kazakhstan 	 . malaysia 	 . singapore 	 . south korea 	 . turkey 	 africa 	 . mauritius 	 . south africa 	 . cameroon 	 . . demographics and official languages 	 . . indigenous languages 	 . . indigenous peoples' rights 	 oceania 	 . australia 	 . new zealand 	 . papua new guinea 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links prevalence[edit] the concept of multiculturalism was prevalent since ancient times. the achaemenid empire founded by cyrus the great followed a policy of incorporating and tolerating various cultures.[ ] ethnographic map of austria-hungary a historical example of multiculturalism was the habsburg monarchy, which had broken up in and under whose roof many different ethnic, linguistic and religious groups lived together. one of the foundations of this centuries-old state structure was the habsburg principle of "live and let live". today's topical issues such as social and cultural differentiation, multilingualism, competing identity offers or multiple cultural identities have already shaped the scientific theories of many thinkers of this multi-ethnic empire.[ ] after the first world war, ethnic minorities were disadvantaged, forced to emigrate or even murdered in most regions in the area of the former habsburg monarchy due to the prevailing nationalism at the time. in many areas, these ethnic mosaics no longer exist today. the ethnic mix of that time can only be experienced in a few areas, such as in the former habsburg port city of trieste.[ ] in the political philosophy of multiculturalism, ideas are focused on the ways in which societies are either believed to or should, respond to cultural and christian differences. it is often associated with "identity politics", "the politics of difference", and "the politics of recognition". it is also a matter of economic interests and political power.[ ] in more recent times political multiculturalist ideologies have been expanding in their use to include and define disadvantaged groups such as african americans, lgbt, with arguments often focusing on ethnic and religious minorities, minority nations, indigenous peoples and even the disabled. it is within this context in which the term is most commonly understood and the broadness and scope of the definition, as well as its practical use, has been the subject of serious debate. most debates over multiculturalism center around whether or not multiculturalism is the appropriate way to deal with diversity and immigrant integration. the arguments regarding the perceived rights to a multicultural education include the proposition that it acts as a way to demand recognition of aspects of a group's culture subordination and its entire experience in contrast to a melting pot or non-multicultural societies. the term multiculturalism is most often used in reference to western nation-states, which had seemingly achieved a de facto single national identity during the th and/or th centuries.[ ] multiculturalism has been official policy in several western nations since the s, for reasons that varied from country to country,[ ][ ][ ] including the fact that many of the great cities of the western world are increasingly made of a mosaic of cultures.[ ] the canadian government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration.[ ][ ] the canadian royal commission on bilingualism and biculturalism is often referred to as the origins of modern political awareness of multiculturalism.[ ] canada has provided provisions to the french speaking majority of quebec, whereby they function as an autonomous community with special rights to govern the members of their community, as well as establish french as one of the official languages. in the western english-speaking countries, multiculturalism as an official national policy started in canada in , followed by australia in where it is maintained today.[ ][ ][ ][ ] it was quickly adopted as official policy by most member-states of the european union. recently, right-of-center governments in several european states – notably the netherlands and denmark – have reversed the national policy and returned to an official monoculturalism.[ ][unreliable source?] a similar reversal is the subject of debate in the united kingdom, among others, due to evidence of incipient segregation and anxieties over "home-grown" terrorism.[ ] several heads-of-state or heads-of-government have expressed doubts about the success of multicultural policies: the united kingdom's ex-prime minister david cameron, german chancellor angela merkel, australia's ex-prime minister john howard, spanish ex-prime minister jose maria aznar and french ex-president nicolas sarkozy have voiced concerns about the effectiveness of their multicultural policies for integrating immigrants.[ ][ ] many nation-states in africa, asia, and the americas are culturally diverse and are 'multicultural' in a descriptive sense. in some, communalism is a major political issue. the policies adopted by these states often have parallels with multiculturalist policies in the western world, but the historical background is different, and the goal may be a mono-cultural or mono-ethnic nation-building – for instance in the malaysian government's attempt to create a 'malaysian race' by .[ ] support[edit] people of indian origin have been able to achieve a high demographic profile in india square, jersey city, new jersey, us, known as little bombay,[ ] home to the highest concentration of asian indians in the western hemisphere[ ] and one of at least enclaves characterized as a little india which have emerged within the new york city metropolitan area, with the largest metropolitan indian population outside asia, as large-scale immigration from india continues into new york,[ ][ ] through the support of the surrounding community. multiculturalism is seen by its supporters as a fairer system that allows people to truly express who they are within a society, that is more tolerant and that adapts better to social issues.[ ] they argue that culture is not one definable thing based on one race or religion, but rather the result of multiple factors that change as the world changes. historically, support for modern multiculturalism stems from the changes in western societies after world war ii, in what susanne wessendorf calls the "human rights revolution", in which the horrors of institutionalized racism and ethnic cleansing became almost impossible to ignore in the wake of the holocaust; with the collapse of the european colonial system, as colonized nations in africa and asia successfully fought for their independence and pointed out the discriminatory underpinnings of the colonial system; and, in the united states in particular, with the rise of the civil rights movement, which criticized ideals of assimilation that often led to prejudices against those who did not act according to anglo-american standards and which led to the development of academic ethnic studies programs as a way to counteract the neglect of contributions by racial minorities in classrooms.[ ][ ] as this history shows, multiculturalism in western countries was seen to combat racism, to protect minority communities of all types, and to undo policies that had prevented minorities from having full access to the opportunities for freedom and equality promised by the liberalism that has been the hallmark of western societies since the age of enlightenment. the contact hypothesis in sociology is a well documented phenomenon in which cooperative interactions with those from a different group than one's own reduce prejudice and inter-group hostility. will kymlicka argues for "group differentiated rights", that help both religious and cultural minorities operate within the larger state as a whole, without impinging on the rights of the larger society. he bases this on his opinion that human rights fall short in protecting the rights of minorities, as the state has no stake in protecting the minorities.[ ] c. james trotman argues that multiculturalism is valuable because it "uses several disciplines to highlight neglected aspects of our social history, particularly the histories of women and minorities [...and] promotes respect for the dignity of the lives and voices of the forgotten.[ ] by closing gaps, by raising consciousness about the past, multiculturalism tries to restore a sense of wholeness in a postmodern era that fragments human life and thought."[ ] tariq modood argues that in the early years of the st century, multiculturalism "is most timely and necessary, and [...] we need more not less", since it is "the form of integration" that ( ) best fits the ideal of egalitarianism, ( ) has "the best chance of succeeding" in the "post- / , post / " world, and ( ) has remained "moderate [and] pragmatic".[ ] bhikhu parekh counters what he sees as the tendencies to equate multiculturalism with racial minorities "demanding special rights" and to see these as promoting a "thinly veiled racis[m]". instead, he argues that multiculturalism is in fact "not about minorities" but "is about the proper terms of relationship between different cultural communities", which means that the standards by which the communities resolve their differences, e.g., "the principles of justice" must not come from only one of the cultures but must come "through an open and equal dialogue between them."[ ] balibar characterizes criticisms of multiculturalism as "differentialist racism", which he describes as a covert form of racism that does not purport ethnic superiority as much as it asserts stereotypes of perceived "incompatibility of life-styles and traditions".[ ] while there is research that suggests that ethnic diversity increases chances of war, lower public goods provision and decreases democratization, there is also research that shows that ethnic diversity in itself is not detrimental to peace,[ ][ ] public goods provision[ ][ ] or democracy.[ ] rather, it was found that promoting diversity actually helps in advancing disadvantaged students.[ ] a study in the american political science review cast doubts on findings that ethnoracial homogeneity led to greater public goods provision.[ ] a study in the american journal of sociology challenged past research showing that racial diversity adversely affected trust.[ ] criticism[edit] main article: criticism of multiculturalism critics of multiculturalism often debate whether the multicultural ideal of benignly co-existing cultures that interrelate and influence one another, and yet remain distinct, is sustainable, paradoxical, or even desirable.[ ][ ][ ] it is argued that nation states, who would previously have been synonymous with a distinctive cultural identity of their own, lose out to enforced multiculturalism and that this ultimately erodes the host nations' distinct culture.[ ] sarah song views cultures as historically shaped entities by its members, and that they lack boundaries due to globalization, thereby making them stronger than what others may assume.[ ] she goes on to argue against the notion of special rights as she feels cultures are mutually constructive, and are shaped by the dominant culture. brian barry advocates a difference-blind approach to culture in the political realm and he rejects group-based rights as antithetical to the universalist liberal project, which he views as based on the individual.[ ] harvard professor of political science robert d. putnam conducted a nearly decade-long study on how multiculturalism affects social trust.[ ] he surveyed , people in american communities, finding that when the data were adjusted for class, income and other factors, the more racially diverse a community is, the greater the loss of trust. people in diverse communities "don’t trust the local mayor, they don’t trust the local paper, they don’t trust other people and they don’t trust institutions," writes putnam.[ ] in the presence of such ethnic diversity, putnam maintains that, "[w]e hunker down. we act like turtles. the effect of diversity is worse than had been imagined. and it’s not just that we don’t trust people who are not like us. in diverse communities, we don’t trust people who do not look like us".[ ] putnam has also stated, however, that "this allergy to diversity tends to diminish and to go away... i think in the long run we'll all be better."[ ] putnam denied allegations he was arguing against diversity in society and contended that his paper had been "twisted" to make a case against race-conscious admissions to universities. he asserted that his "extensive research and experience confirm the substantial benefits of diversity, including racial and ethnic diversity, to our society."[ ] ethnologist frank salter writes: relatively homogeneous societies invest more in public goods, indicating a higher level of public altruism. for example, the degree of ethnic homogeneity correlates with the government's share of gross domestic product as well as the average wealth of citizens. case studies of the united states, africa and south-east asia find that multi-ethnic societies are less charitable and less able to cooperate to develop public infrastructure. moscow beggars receive more gifts from fellow ethnics than from other ethnies [sic]. a recent multi-city study of municipal spending on public goods in the united states found that ethnically or racially diverse cities spend a smaller portion of their budgets and less per capita on public services than do the more homogeneous cities.[ ] dick lamm, former three-term democratic governor of the us state of colorado, argued that "diverse peoples worldwide are mostly engaged in hating each other—that is, when they are not killing each other. a diverse, peaceful, or stable society is against most historical precedent."[ ] the american classicist victor davis hanson used the perceived differences in "rationality" between moctezuma and cortés to argue that western culture was superior to every culture in the entire world, which thus led him to reject multiculturalism as a false doctrine that placed all cultures on an equal footing.[ ] in new zealand (aotearoa), which is officially bi-cultural, multiculturalism has been seen as a threat to the māori,[why?] and possibly an attempt by the new zealand government to undermine māori demands for self-determination and encourage assimilation.[ ] far-right sympathisers have been shown to increasingly take part in a multitude of online discursive efforts directed against global brands’ multicultural advertisements.[ ] americas[edit] argentina[edit] main articles: demographics of argentina and immigration to argentina russian orthodox cathedral of the most holy trinity in buenos aires. though not called multiculturalism as such, the preamble of argentina's constitution explicitly promotes immigration, and recognizes the individual's multiple citizenship from other countries. though % of argentina's population self-identify as of european descent[ ] to this day a high level of multiculturalism remains a feature of argentina's culture,[ ][ ] allowing foreign festivals and holidays (e.g. saint patrick's day), supporting all kinds of art or cultural expression from ethnic groups, as well as their diffusion through an important multicultural presence in the media; for instance it is not uncommon to find newspapers[ ] or radio programs in english, german, italian, french or portuguese in argentina. bolivia[edit] bolivia is a diverse country made up of different types of indigenous groups.[ ] over % of bolivia's population falls into these different indigenous groups, making it the most indigenous country in latin america.[ ] out of the indigenous groups the aymara and the quechua are the largest.[ ] the latter % of the population is a part of the mestizo, which are a people mixed with european and indigenous ancestry.[ ] bolivia's political administrations have endorsed multicultural politics and in bolivia's constitution was inscribed with multicultural principles.[ ] the constitution of bolivia recognizes official languages besides spanish, each language has its own culture and indigenous group.[ ] bolivian culture is celebrated across the country and has heavy influences from the aymara, the quechua, the spanish, and other popular cultures from around latin america. brazil[edit] house with elements of people from different countries, including russians and germans, in carambeí, south of the country, a city of dutch majority the americas have been known to be some of the most multicultural geographical locations, as many of the times there is a diversity of language, religion, and ethnicities present. the south american country brazil can also acclaim multiculturalism, and has undergone many changes in the past few decades. brazil is a controversial country when is comes to defining a multicultural country.[ ] there are two views: the harvard institute of economic research states that brazil has an intersection of many cultures because of recent migration, while the pew research center state that brazil is culturally diverse but the majority of the country speaks portuguese.[ ] with cities such as são paulo, who are seen to be home to many migrants from japan, italy, lebanon and portugal.[ ] there is a multicultural presence within in this city, and this is prevalent throughout brazil. furthermore, brazil is a country who has made great strides to embrace migrant cultures, and with its increase of african descent people they have made changes to become more aware and welcoming. there has been an increase of awareness of anti-blackness and they are actively finding ways to combat racism in brazil.[ ] canada[edit] main article: multiculturalism in canada sikhs celebrating the sikh new year in toronto, canada canadian society is often depicted as being "very progressive, diverse, and multicultural".[ ] multiculturalism (a just society[ ]) was adopted as the official policy of the canadian government during the premiership of pierre elliott trudeau in the s and s.[ ] multiculturalism is reflected in the law through the canadian multiculturalism act[ ] and section of the canadian charter of rights and freedoms.[ ] the broadcasting act of asserts the canadian broadcasting system should reflect the diversity of cultures in the country.[ ][ ] canadian multiculturalism is looked upon with admiration outside the country, resulting in the canadian public dismissing most critics of the concept.[ ][ ] multiculturalism in canada is often looked at as one of canada's significant accomplishments,[ ] and a key distinguishing element of canadian identity.[ ][ ] in a interview with the globe and mail, karīm al-hussainī, the th aga khan of the ismaili muslims, described canada as "the most successful pluralist society on the face of our globe", citing it as "a model for the world".[ ] he explained that the experience of canadian governance—its commitment to pluralism and its support for the rich multicultural diversity of its people—is something that must be shared and would be of benefit to all societies in other parts of the world.[ ] the economist ran a cover story in praising canada as the most successful multicultural society in the west.[ ] the economist argued that canada's multiculturalism was a source of strength that united the diverse population and by attracting immigrants from around the world was also an engine of economic growth as well.[ ] many public and private groups in canada work to support both multiculturalism and recent immigrants to canada.[ ] in an effort to support recent filipino immigrants to alberta, for example, one school board partnered with a local university and an immigration agency to support these new families in their school and community.[ ] mexico[edit] mexico city mexico has historically always been a multicultural country. after the betrayal of hernán cortés to the aztecs, the spanish conquered the aztec empire and colonized indigenous people. they influenced the indigenous religion, politics, culture and ethnicity.[citation needed] the spanish opened schools in which they taught christianity, and the spanish language which it eventually surpassed the indigenous dialects and languages, making it the most spoken language in mexico. mestizo was also born from the conquest, which meant being half-indigenous and half-spanish.[ ] in today's world "mestizo" has become an umbrella term to those that are non-indigenous, which would include asian mexicans and afro-mexicans.[ ] mexico city has recently been integrating rapidly, doing much better than many cities in a sample conducted by the intercultural cities index (being the only non-european city, alongside montreal, on the index).[ ] mexico is an ethnically diverse country with a population composed of approximately million in .[ ] there is a wide variety of ethnic groups, the major group being mestizos followed by indigenous mexicans.[ ] there are many other ethnic groups such as arab mexicans, afro-mexicans, asian mexicans and white mexicans. from the year to , the number of people in mexico that were born in another country doubled, reaching an amount of , people. mostly coming from guatemala and the united states.[ ] mexico is quickly becoming a melting pot, with many immigrants coming into the country. it is considered to be a cradle of civilization, which influences their multiculturalism and diversity, by having different civilizations influence them. a distinguishable trait of mexico's culture is the mestizaje of its people, which caused the combination of spanish influence, their indigenous roots while also adapting the culture traditions from their immigrants. peru[edit] peru is an exemplary country of multiculturalism, in the inei reported a total population of million people. they share their borders with ecuador, colombia, brazil, chile and bolivia, and have welcomed many immigrants into their country creating a diverse community. tambomachay, cuzco, peru peru is the home to amerindians but after the spanish conquest, the spanish brought african, and asian peoples as slaves to peru creating a mix of ethnic groups. after slavery was no longer permitted in peru, african-peruvians and asian-peruvians have contributed to peruvian culture in many ways. today, amerindians make up % of the population, mestizos %, white % and % is composed by black, chinese, and others.[ ] in , peru's president josé de san martín gave foreigners the freedom to start industries in peru's ground, years after, foreigners that lived in peru for more than years were considered naturalized citizens, which then decreased to years. united states[edit] see also: multicultural education and race and ethnicity in the united states little italy (top, ca. ) in new york city abuts manhattan's chinatown. in the united states, multiculturalism is not clearly established in policy at the federal level, but ethnic diversity is common in rural, suburban and urban areas.[ ] continuous mass immigration was a feature of the united states economy and society since the first half of the th century.[ ] the absorption of the stream of immigrants became, in itself, a prominent feature of america's national myth. the idea of the melting pot is a metaphor that implies that all the immigrant cultures are mixed and amalgamated without state intervention.[ ] the melting pot theory implied that each individual immigrant, and each group of immigrants, assimilated into american society at their own pace. this is different than multiculturalism as it is defined above, which does not include complete assimilation and integration.[ ] the melting pot tradition co-exists with a belief in national unity, dating from the american founding fathers: providence has been pleased to give this one connected country to one united people – a people descended from the same ancestors, speaking the same language, professing the same religion, attached to the same principles of government, very similar in their manners and customs... this country and this people seem to have been made for each other, and it appears as if it was the design of providence, that an inheritance so proper and convenient for a band of brethren, united to each other by the strongest ties, should never be split into a number of unsocial, jealous, and alien sovereignties.[ ] staff of president clinton's one america initiative. the president's initiative on race was a critical element in president clinton's effort to prepare the country to embrace diversity. as a philosophy, multiculturalism began as part of the pragmatism movement at the end of the nineteenth century in europe and the united states, then as political and cultural pluralism at the turn of the twentieth.[ ] it was partly in response to a new wave of european imperialism in sub-saharan africa and the massive immigration of southern and eastern europeans to the united states and latin america. philosophers, psychologists and historians and early sociologists such as charles sanders peirce, william james, george santayana, horace kallen, john dewey, w. e. b. du bois and alain locke developed concepts of cultural pluralism, from which emerged what we understand today as multiculturalism. in pluralistic universe ( ), william james espoused the idea of a "plural society." james saw pluralism as "crucial to the formation of philosophical and social humanism to help build a better, more egalitarian society.[ ] the educational approach to multiculturalism has since spread to the grade school system, as school systems try to rework their curricula to introduce students to diversity earlier – often on the grounds that it is important for minority students to see themselves represented in the classroom.[ ][ ] studies estimated million americans ages to to be the most diverse generation in american society.[ ] in and , controversy erupted in texas as the state's curriculum committee made several changes to the state's requirements, often at the expense of minorities. they chose to juxtapose abraham lincoln's inaugural address with that of confederate president jefferson davis;[ ] they debated removing supreme court justice thurgood marshall and labor-leader cesar chavez[ ] and rejected calls to include more hispanic figures, in spite of the high hispanic population in the state.[ ] effect of diversity on civic engagement[edit] in a study by robert putnam encompassing , people across the us found that diversity had a negative effect on civic engagement. the greater the diversity, the fewer people voted, the less they volunteered for community projects and trust among neighbours was only half that of homogenous communities.[ ] putnam says, however, that "in the long run immigration and diversity are likely to have important cultural, economic, fiscal, and developmental benefits", as long as society successfully overcomes the short-term problems.[ ] putnam adds that his "extensive research and experience confirm the substantial benefits of diversity, including racial and ethnic diversity, to our society."[ ] bartizan in venezuela venezuela[edit] venezuela is the home to a variety of ethnic groups, with an estimated population of million.[ ] their population is composed of approximately % mestizo, which means of mixed race.[ ] venezuelan culture is mainly composed by the mixture of their indigenous people, spanish and african.[ ] there was a heavy influence of spaniard culture due to the spanish conquest, which influence their religion, language, traditions. african influence can be seen on their music, with the drum usage.[ ] while spanish is venezuela's main language, there is more than indigenous languages spoken til this day.[ ] europe[edit] ethno-linguistic map of austria–hungary, . ethno-linguistic map of the second polish republic, . the european union is facing unprecedented demographic changes (an aging population, low birth rates, changing family structures and migration). according to the european commission, it is important, both at eu and national level, to review and adapt existing policies. following a public debate, a eu policy paper identified five key policy responses to manage demographic change, among them receiving and integrating migrants into europe.[ ] historically, europe has always been a mixture of latin, slavic, germanic, uralic, celtic, hellenic, illyrian, thracian and other cultures influenced by the importation of jewish, christian, muslim and other belief systems; although the continent was supposedly unified by the super-position of imperial roman christianity, it is accepted that geographic and cultural differences continued from antiquity into the modern age.[ ] in the nineteenth century, the ideology of nationalism transformed the way europeans thought about the state.[ ] existing states were broken up and new ones created; the new nation-states were founded on the principle that each nation is entitled to its own sovereignty and to engender, protect, and preserve its own unique culture and history. unity, under this ideology, is seen as an essential feature of the nation and the nation-state; unity of descent, unity of culture, unity of language, and often unity of religion. the nation-state constitutes a culturally homogeneous society, although some national movements recognised regional differences.[ ] where cultural unity was insufficient, it was encouraged and enforced by the state.[ ] the nineteenth century nation-states developed an array of policies – the most important was compulsory primary education in the national language.[ ] the language itself was often standardised by a linguistic academy, and regional languages were ignored or suppressed. some nation-states pursued violent policies of cultural assimilation and even ethnic cleansing.[ ] some countries in the european union have introduced policies for "social cohesion", "integration", and (sometimes) "assimilation". the policies include: 	compulsory courses and/or tests on national history, on the constitution and the legal system (e.g., the computer-based test for individuals seeking naturalisation in the uk named life in the united kingdom test) 	introduction of an official national history, such as the national canon defined for the netherlands by the van oostrom commission,[ ] and promotion of that history (e.g., by exhibitions about national heroes) 	tests designed to elicit "unacceptable" values. in baden-württemberg, immigrants are asked what they would do if their son says he is a homosexual (the desired answer is that they would accept it[ ]). other countries have instituted policies which encourage cultural separation.[ ] the concept of "cultural exception" proposed by france in the general agreement on tariffs and trade (gatt) negotiations in was an example of a measure aimed at protecting local cultures.[ ] bulgaria[edit] sofia synagogue banya bashi mosque in sofia since its establishment in the seventh century, bulgaria has hosted many religions, ethnic groups and nations. the capital city sofia is the only european city that has peacefully functioning, within walking distance of metres,[ ][ ] four places of worship of the major religions: eastern orthodox (st nedelya church), islam (banya bashi mosque), roman catholicism (st. joseph cathedral), and orthodox judaism (sofia synagogue, the third-largest synagogue in europe). this unique arrangement has been called by historians a "multicultural cliche".[ ] it has also become known as "the square of religious tolerance"[ ][ ] and has initiated the construction of a -square-metre scale model of the site that is to become a symbol of the capital.[ ][ ][ ] furthermore, unlike some other nazi germany allies or german-occupied countries excluding denmark, bulgaria managed to save its entire , -strong jewish population during world war ii from deportation to nazi concentration camps.[ ][ ] according to dr marinova-christidi, the main reason for the efforts of bulgarian people to save their jewish population during wwii is that within the region, they "co-existed for centuries with other religions" – giving it a unique multicultural and multiethnic history.[ ] consequently, within the balkan region, bulgaria has become an example for multiculturalism in terms of variety of religions, artistic creativity[ ] and ethnicity.[ ][ ] its largest ethnic minority groups, turks and roma, enjoy wide political representation. in , following a campaign by the communist regime for a forcible change of the islamic names of the turkish minority,[ ][ ][ ][ ] an underground organisation called «national liberation movement of the turks in bulgaria» was formed which headed the turkish community's opposition movement. on january , the activists of the movement registered an organisation with the legal name movement for rights and freedoms (mrf) (in bulgarian: Движение за права и свободи: in turkish: hak ve Özgürlükler hareketi) in the bulgarian city of varna. at the moment of registration, it had members, at present, according to the organisation's website, , members plus , in the organisation's youth wing [ ]. in , bulgarian turks were represented at every level of government: local, with mrf having mayors in municipalities, at parliamentary level with mrf having deputies ( % of the votes in parliamentary elections for – )[ ] and at executive level, where there is one turkish minister, vezhdi rashidov. roma political organisations were founded between - in bulgaria.[ ] germany[edit] main article: immigration to germany in october , angela merkel told a meeting of younger members of her christian democratic union (cdu) party at potsdam, near berlin, that attempts to build a multicultural society in germany had "utterly failed",[ ] stating: "the concept that we are now living side by side and are happy about it does not work".[ ][ ] she continued to say that immigrants should integrate and adopt germany's culture and values. this has added to a growing debate within germany[ ] on the levels of immigration, its effect on germany and the degree to which muslim immigrants have integrated into german society.[ ] in , merkel again criticized multiculturalism on the grounds that it leads to parallel societies.[ ] the ahmadiyya muslim community of germany is the first muslim group to have been granted "corporation under public law status", putting the community on par with the major christian churches and jewish communities of germany.[ ] luxembourg[edit] luxembourg has one of the highest foreign-born populations in europe, foreigners account for nearly half of the country's total population.[ ] the majority of foreigners are from: belgium, france, italy, germany, and portugal.[ ] in total, different nationalities make up the population of luxembourg, out of this; % are of european descent.[ ] the official languages of luxembourg are german, french, and luxembourgish all of which are supported in the luxembourg government and education system.[ ][ ] in , luxembourg officially promoted and implemented the objectives of the unesco convention on the protection and promotion of the diversity of cultural expressions. this convention affirms multicultural policies in luxembourg and creates political awareness of cultural diversity.[ ] netherlands[edit] main article: multiculturalism in the netherlands süleymanìye mosque in tilburg built in multiculturalism in the netherlands began with major increases in immigration to the netherlands during the mid- s and s.[ ] as a consequence, an official national policy of multiculturalism was adopted in the early- s.[ ] different groups could themselves determine religious and cultural matters, while state authorities would handle matters of housing and work policy.[ ] in the s, the public debate were generally optimistic on immigration and the prevailing view was that a multicultural policy would reduce the social economic disparities over time.[ ] this policy subsequently gave way to more assimilationist policies in the s.[ ] following the september attacks in the united states and the murders of pim fortuyn (in ) and theo van gogh (in ) there was increased political debate on the role of multiculturalism in the netherlands.[ ][ ] lord sacks, chief rabbi of the united hebrew congregations of the commonwealth, made a distinction between tolerance and multiculturalism, citing the netherlands as a tolerant, rather than multicultural, society.[ ] in june , the first rutte cabinet said the netherlands would turn away from multiculturalism: "dutch culture, norms and values must be dominant" minister donner said.[ ] romania[edit] since antiquity, romania has hosted many religious and ethnic groups, including roma people, hungarians, germans, turks, greeks, tatars, slovaks, serbs, jews and others. unfortunately, during the ww and the communism, most of these ethnic groups choose to emigrate to other countries. however, since s, romania has expected a growing number of immigrants and refugees, most of them from the arab world, asia or africa. immigration is expected to increase in the future, as large numbers of romanian workers leave the country and are being replaced by foreigners.[ ][ ] scandinavia[edit] the population structure of the vuosaari district in helsinki, finland, is strongly based on multiculturalism.[ ][ ][ ] multiculturalism in scandinavia has centered on discussions about marriage, dress, religious schools, muslim funeral rites and gender equality. forced marriages have been widely debated in denmark, sweden and norway but the countries differ in policy and responses by authorities.[ ] despite differing approaches by the three countries with sweden being the most permissive and denmark the most restrictive. denmark[edit] main article: immigration to denmark 	 	this section has multiple issues. please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (learn how and when to remove these template messages) 	 	this article contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information. such statements should be clarified or removed. (january ) 	 	the neutrality of this article is disputed. relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (january ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) (learn how and when to remove this template message) in , denmark received a liberal-conservative government which was supported by the danish people's party which instituted a policy less pluralistic and more geared towards assimilation.[ ] a study found that increases in local ethnic diversity in denmark caused "rightward shifts in election outcomes by shifting electoral support away from traditional “big government” left‐wing parties and towards anti‐immigrant nationalist parties."[ ] for decades, danish immigration and integration policy was built upon the assumption that with the right kind of help, immigrants and their descendants will eventually tend to the same levels of education and employments as danes. this assumption was disproved by a report by the danish immigration service and the ministry of education. the report found that while the second generation non-western immigrants do better than the first generation, the third generation of immigrants with non-western background do no better education and employment wise than the second generation. one of the reasons was that second generation immigrants from non-western countries marry someone from their country of origin and so danish is not spoken at home which disadvantages children in school. thereby the process of integration has to start from the beginning for each generation.[ ][ ] sweden[edit] main article: immigration to sweden source: gävle university college[ ] sweden has from the early s experienced a greater share of non-western immigration than the other scandinavian countries, which consequently have placed multiculturalism on the political agenda for a longer period of time.[ ] sweden was the first country to adopt an official policy of multiculturalism in europe. in may , a unanimous swedish parliament passed an act on a new multiculturalist immigrant and ethnic minority policy put forward by the social democratic government, that explicitly rejected the ideal ethnic homogeneity and the policy of assimilation. the three main principles of the new policy were equality, partnership and freedom of choice. the explicit policy aim of the freedom of choice principle was to create the opportunity for minority groups in sweden to retain their own languages and cultures. from the mid- s, the goal of enabling the preservation of minorities and creating a positive attitude towards the new officially endorsed multicultural society among the majority population became incorporated into the swedish constitution as well as cultural, educational and media policies. despite the anti-multiculturalist protestations of the sweden democrats, multiculturalism remains official policy in sweden.[ ] a study which involved questionnaires sent to , people, showed that less than a quarter of the respondents ( %) wanted to live in areas characterised by cultural, ethnic and social diversity.[ ] a study published by gävle university college showed that % of the population never interacted with anyone from africa and % never interacted with any non-europeans.[ ] the study concluded that while physical distance to the country of origin, also religion and other cultural expressions are significant for the perception of cultural familiarity. in general, peoples with christianity as the dominant religion were perceived to be culturally closer than peoples from muslim countries.[ ] a study by lund university also found that social trust was lower among people in regions with high levels of past non-nordic immigration than among people in regions with low levels of past immigration.[ ] the erosive effect on trust was more pronounced for immigration from culturally distant countries.[ ] serbia[edit] csárdás traditional hungarian folk dance in doroslovo in serbia, there are officially recognised ethnic groups with a status of national minorities.[ ] vojvodina is an autonomous province of serbia, located in the northern part of the country. it has a multiethnic and multicultural identity;[ ] there are more than ethnic groups in the province,[ ][ ] which has six official languages.[ ] largest ethnic groups in vojvodina are serbs ( %), hungarians ( %), slovaks, croats, romani, romanians, montenegrins, bunjevci, bosniaks, rusyns. the chinese[ ][ ] and arabs, are the only two significant immigrant minorities in serbia. radio television of vojvodina broadcasts program in ten local languages. the project by the government of ap vojvodina titled "promotion of multiculturalism and tolerance in vojvodina", whose primary goal is to foster the cultural diversity and develop the atmosphere of interethnic tolerance among the citizens of vojvodina, has been successfully implemented since .[ ] serbia is continually working on improving its relationship and inclusion of minorities in its effort to gain full accession to the european union. serbia has initiated talks through stabilisation and association agreement on november . united kingdom[edit] main article: immigration to the united kingdom multicultural policies[ ] were adopted by local administrations from the s and s onwards. in , the newly elected labour government committed to a multiculturalist approach at a national level,[ ] but after , there was something of a backlash, led by centre-left commentators such as david goodhart and trevor phillips. the government then embraced a policy of community cohesion instead. in , conservative prime minister david cameron said in a speech that "state multiculturalism has failed".[ ] critics argue that analyses which view society as ‘too diverse’ for social democracy and cohesion have "performative" effects that legitimate racism towards those classed as immigrants.[ ][ ] asia[edit] india[edit] the durga puja celebrated in kolkata jama masjid, delhi, one of the largest mosques in india according to the census of india, there are indigenous languages in the country.[ ] the culture of india has been shaped by its long history, unique geography and diverse demography. india's languages, religions, dance, music, architecture and customs differ from place to place within the country, but nevertheless possess a commonality. the culture of india is an amalgamation of these diverse sub-cultures spread all over the indian subcontinent and traditions that are several millennia old.[ ] the previously prevalent indian caste system describes the social stratification and social restrictions in the indian subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed jātis or castes.[ ] religiously, hindus form the majority, followed by muslims. the statistics are: hindu ( . %), muslim ( . %), christian ( . %), sikh ( . %), buddhist ( . %), jain ( . %), unaffiliated ( . %), baháʼís, jews, zoroastrians, and others ( . %).[ ] linguistically, the two main language families in india are indo-aryan (a branch of indo-european) and dravidian. in india's northeast, people speaking sino-tibetan group of languages such as meitei (meitei-lon) recognized by the indian constitution and austroasiatic languages are commonly found. india (officially) follows a three-language policy. hindi (spoken in the form of hindustani) is the official federal language, english has the federal status of associate/subsidiary official language and each state has its own state official language (in the hindi sprachraum, this reduces to bilingualism). further, india does not have any national language.[ ][ ] the republic of india's state boundaries are largely drawn based on linguistic groups; this decision led to the preservation and continuation of local ethno-linguistic sub-cultures, except for the hindi sprachraum which is itself divided into many states. thus, most states differ from one another in language, culture, cuisine, clothing, literary style, architecture, music and festivities. india has encountered religiously motivated violence,[ ] such as the moplah riots, the bombay riots, the anti-sikh riots, the kashmiri pandit genocide, the gujarat riots, the mumbai attacks, the assam violence, the muzaffarnagar riots, and the delhi riots. this has resulted from traditionally disadvantaged communities in public employment such as the policing of the same locality, apprehension of owners in giving properties for sale or rent[ ] and of society in accepting inter-marriages.[ ] cultural minorities in india[edit] the indian constitution requires the various state-run institutions to provide quotas for minorities, which give these cultural minorities equal opportunities, as well as a forum through which they can actively participate in the institutions of the dominant culture.[ ] indian polity after the s has been marked by a shift from secular principles to a landscape that is dominated by pro-hindu propaganda; the bjp has used this rhetoric by reconstructing hinduism and bartering it under the guise of indian nationalism.[ ] however, the rise of pro-hindu ideology, commonly known as hindutva, has impinged on the rights of cultural minorities.[ ] this can be seen in the large scale violence against cultural minorities, the vote-bank politics used by the indian national congress, and the promotion of issues faced by the larger religious communities over those faced by the backward groups in religious minorities.[ ] scheduled castes(sc) and scheduled tribes(st)[edit] scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are constitutionally recognized terms in india and constitute approximately % of the indian population. these groups have been provided with reservations that constitutionally guarantee them representation in governmental institutions, a mandate suggested by the mandal commission.[ ] the indian constitution also provides sc's and st's with protective measures that ensure equality, which is the main issue faced by members of both communities. however, while scheduled castes have turned into important political communities that the state concerns itself about, scheduled tribes continue to be politically marginalized.[ ] indonesia[edit] further information: bhinneka tunggal ika, demographics of indonesia, ethnic groups in indonesia, and culture of indonesia pluralism, diversity and multiculturalism is a daily fact of life in indonesia. there are over ethnic groups in indonesia.[ ][ ] % of those are of native indonesian ancestry.[ ] the javanese are the largest ethnic group in indonesia who make up nearly % of the total population.[ ] the sundanese, malay, and madurese are the next largest groups in the country.[ ] there are also more than living languages spoken in indonesia[ ] and although predominantly muslim the country also has large christian and hindu populations. indonesia's national motto, bhinneka tunggal ika ("unity in diversity" lit. "many, yet one") enshrined in pancasila the national ideology, articulates the diversity that shapes the country.[ ] the government nurtures and promotes the diversity of indonesian local culture; adopting a pluralist approach. due to migration within indonesia (as part of government transmigration programs or otherwise), there are significant populations of ethnic groups who reside outside of their traditional regions. the javanese for example, moved from their traditional homeland in java to the other parts of the archipelago. the expansion of the javanese and their influence throughout indonesia has raised the issue of javanization, although minangkabau, malay, madurese, bugis and makassar people, as a result of their merantau (migrating) culture are also quite widely distributed throughout the indonesian archipelago, while chinese indonesians can be found in most urban areas. because of urbanization, major indonesian cities such as greater jakarta, surabaya, bandung, palembang, medan and makassar have attracted large numbers of indonesians from various ethnic, cultural and religious backgrounds. jakarta in particular has almost all indonesian ethnic groups represented. however, this transmigration program and close interactions between people of different cultural backgrounds caused socio-cultural problems, as the inter-ethnics interactions have not always been conducted harmoniously. after the fall of suharto in into the s, numbers of inter-ethnic and inter-religious clashes erupted in indonesia. like the clashes between native dayak tribes against madurese transmigrants in kalimantan during sambas riots in [ ] and the sampit conflict in .[ ] there were also clashes between muslims and christians, such as violence erupted in poso between and into ,[ ] and violences in maluku between and into .[ ] nevertheless, indonesia today still struggles and has managed to maintain unity and inter-cultural harmony, through a national adherence of pro-pluralism policy of pancasila; promoted and enforced by the government and its people. chinese indonesians are the largest foreign-origin minority that has resided in indonesia for generations. despite centuries of acculturation with native indonesians, because of their disproportionate influence on indonesian economy, and alleged question of national loyalty, chinese indonesians have suffered discrimination. the suharto orde baru or new order adopted a forced assimilation policy; which indicated that chinese cultural elements were unacceptable.[ ] chinese indonesians were forced to adopt indonesian-sounding names, and the use of chinese culture and language was banned. the violence targeting chinese indonesians erupted during riots in . as the looting and destruction took place, a number of chinese indonesians, as well as looters, were killed. the chinese indonesians were treated as the scapegoat of asian financial crisis, a result of ongoing discrimination and segregation policies enforced during suharto's new order regime. soon after the fourth indonesian president, abdurrahman wahid came into power in , he quickly abolished some of the discriminatory laws in efforts to promote acceptance and to improve inter-racial relationships, such as abolishing the ban on chinese culture; allowing chinese traditions to be practised freely. two years later president megawati sukarnoputri declared that the chinese new year (imlek) would be marked as a national holiday from .[ ] today, chinese indonesians enjoy the same rights as other indonesians. japan[edit] main article: ethnic issues in japan an ainu man, circa japanese society, with its ideology of homogeneity, has traditionally rejected any need to recognize ethnic differences in japan, even as such claims have been rejected by such ethnic minorities as the ainu and ryukyuan people.[ ] in , former japanese prime minister and current japanese deputy prime minister taro aso described japan as a "one civilization, one language, one culture and one race" nation.[ ] however, there are "international society" npos funded by local governments throughout japan.[ ] according to harvard university professor theodore bestor, japan does look very homogeneous from a distant perspective, but in fact there are a number of very significant minority groups – ethnically different minority groups – in japan today, such as the already mentioned ainu and ryukyuan people.[ ] kazakhstan[edit] kazakhstan is among the most multicultural countries in eurasia, with sizeable populations of ethnic kazakhs, russians, uzbeks, ukrainians, uighurs, tatars, germans and more.[ ] kazakhstan is one of a few countries in post-soviet territories that managed to avoid interethnic clashes and conflicts in the period of ussr’s final crisis and its eventual breakup.[ ] in , kazakhstan created the assembly of people of kazakhstan, an advisory body designed to represent the country's ethnic minorities.[ ] malaysia[edit] main articles: ketuanan melayu, bumiputera (malaysia), demographics of malaysia, and culture of malaysia malaysia is a multiethnic country, with malays making up the majority, close to % of the population. about % of the population are malaysians of chinese descent. malaysians of indian descent comprise about % of the population. the remaining % comprises: 	native east malaysians, namely bajau, bruneian, bidayuh, dusun, iban, kadazan, kedayan, melanau, orang ulu, sarawakian malays, etc. 	other native tribes of peninsular malaysia, such as the orang asli and siamese people, and 	non-native tribes of peninsular malaysia such as the chettiars, the peranakan and the portuguese. the malaysian new economic policy or nep serves as a form of racial equalization.[ ] it promotes structural changes in various aspects of life from education to economic to social integration. established after the may racial riots of , it sought to address the significant imbalance in the economic sphere where the minority chinese population had substantial control over commercial activity in the country. the malay peninsula has a long history of international trade contacts, influencing its ethnic and religious composition. predominantly malays before the th century, the ethnic composition changed dramatically when the british introduced new industries, and imported chinese and indian labor. several regions in the then british malaya such as penang, malacca and singapore became chinese dominated. until the riots , co-existence between the three ethnicities (and other minor groups) was largely peaceful, although the three main racial groups for the most part lived in separate communities – the malays in the villages, the chinese in the urban areas, and the indians in the towns and plantation. more malays however have moved into the cities since the s, and the proportion of the non-malays have been decreasing continually, especially the chinese, due in large part to lower birth-rate and emigration as a result of institutionalized discrimination.[ ] preceding independence of the federation of malaya, a social contract was negotiated as the basis of a new society. the contract as reflected in the malayan constitution and the malaysian constitution states that the immigrant groups are granted citizenship, and malays' special rights are guaranteed. this is often referred to the bumiputra policy. these pluralist policies have come under pressure from racialist malay parties, who oppose perceived subversion of malay rights. the issue is sometimes related to the controversial status of religious freedom in malaysia. singapore[edit] because of immigration, singapore has a chinese majority population with significant minority populations of malays and indians (predominantly tamils). other prominent smaller groups include peranakans, eurasians and europeans. besides english, singapore recognizes three other languages—malay, mandarin chinese and tamil. english was established as the medium of instruction in schools during the s and s and is the language of trade and government while the other three languages are taught as second languages ("mother tongues"). besides being a multilingual country, singapore also acknowledges festivals celebrated by the three main ethnic communities. during british colonial rule, ethnic enclaves such as geylang, chinatown, and little india were enforced. presently ( ), remnants of colonial ethnic concentration still exist but housing in singapore is governed by the ethnic integration policy, which ensures an even ethnic distribution throughout singapore.[ ] a similar policy exists in politics as all group representation constituencies are required to field at least one candidate from an ethnic minority. south korea[edit] south korea remains a relatively homogenous country ethnically, linguistically, and culturally.[ ] foreigners, expatriates, and immigrants are often rejected by the mainstream south korean society and face discrimination.[ ] however, the word "multiculturalism" is increasingly heard in south korea. in , han geon-soo, professor of cultural anthropology at kangwon national university, published an article entitled "multicultural korea: celebration or challenge of multiethnic shift in contemporary korea?", noting: "as the increase of foreign migrants in [south] korea transforms a single-ethnic homogeneous [south] korean society into multiethnic and multicultural one, [the south] korean government and the civil society pay close attention to multiculturalism as an alternative value to their policy and social movement." he argued, however, that "the current discourses and concerns on multiculturalism in [south] korea" lacked "the constructive and analytical concepts for transforming a society".[ ] the same year, stephen castles of the international migration institute argued: 	"korea no longer has to decide whether it wants to become a multicultural society. it made that decision years ago – perhaps unconsciously – when it decided to be a full participant in the emerging global economy. it confirmed that decision when it decided to actively recruit foreign migrants to meet the economic and demographic needs of a fast-growing society. korea is faced by a different decision today: what type of multicultural society does it want to be?"[ ] the korea times suggested in that south korea was likely to become a multicultural society.[ ] in , an opinion editorial written by peter underwood for the joongang ilbo stated: "media in [south] korea is abuzz with the new era of multiculturalism. with more than one million foreigners in [south] korea, percent of the population comes from other cultures." he further opined: 	"if you stay too long, koreans become uncomfortable with you. [...] having a two percent foreign population unquestionably causes ripples, but having one million temporary foreign residents does not make korea a multicultural society. [...] in many ways, this homogeneity is one of korea’s greatest strengths. shared values create harmony. sacrifice for the nation is a given. difficult and painful political and economic initiatives are endured without discussion or debate. it is easy to anticipate the needs and behavior of others. it is the cornerstone that has helped korea survive adversity. but there is a downside, too. [...] koreans are immersed in their culture and are thus blind to its characteristics and quirks. examples of group think are everywhere. because koreans share values and views, they support decisions even when they are obviously bad. multiculturalism will introduce contrasting views and challenge existing assumptions. while it will undermine the homogeneity, it will enrich koreans with a better understanding of themselves."[ ] in , results from the korean identity survey suggested that government programs promoting multicultralism had seen some success with over % of koreans supporting the idea a multicultural society.[ ] however, the same poll in showed that support of a multicultural society had dropped to . % suggesting a possible return to ethnic exclusivism.[ ] turkey[edit] turkey is a country that borders both europe and asia, therefore placing it as the multicultural intersection for eurasia – thus including people of armenian, jewish, kurds, arabs, turks, and persian descent. this cultural influence mainly stems from the iranian culture, which spread through multiple ways but mainly during the early modern period where iranian and ottoman contact flourished and the influence of the kurds, an iranian ethnic group, on turkish culture. however, it also entails influence from hindu, jewish, and muslim influence.[ ] in recent years there has been an increase of diversity acceptance in turkey, mainly because there was fear of losing values of the non-existent ottoman empire.[ ] however, just after the turn of the century, turkey has embraced its multicultural location and has even began to influence other countries. with turkey having roots of islam they have been provided a path for islam to be accepted into neighboring countries in europe.[ ] africa[edit] mauritius[edit] multiculturalism has been a characteristic feature of the island of mauritius.[ ] this is mainly because of colonization that has been present from, the english, the french, and the dutch.[ ] however, the mauritian society includes people from many different ethnic and religious groups: hindu, muslim and indo-mauritians, mauritian creoles (of african and malagasy descent), buddhist and roman catholic sino-mauritians and franco-mauritians (descendants of the original french colonists).[ ] mauritius has embraced intertwining of cultures from the origin of the country, and has coined the term fruit-salad, which is a much more appealing term in comparison to melting-pot showing that they were not forced to these cultures.[ ] south africa[edit] south africa is the fifth-most populous country and one of the most developed countries in africa.[ ] south africa also officially recognises languages including english, making it third behind bolivia and india in most official languages.[ ] the three most common languages are zulu, xhosa, and afrikaans. though south africa's cultural traditions may decline as it becomes more and more westernised, it is still known for its diverse culture. cameroon[edit] officially known as the republic of cameroon, cameroon is found in central africa consisting of a diverse geographical and cultural area that makes it one of the most diverse countries known today. ranging from mountains, deserts, and rainforests, to coast-lands and savanna grasslands, its diverse geography makes a large diverse population possible. this diverse geography resembles africa as a whole and due to this, most people commonly label cameroon as “africa in miniature”.[ ][ ] americas demographics and official languages[edit] before cameroon’s independence, it was under british and french colonial rule from - .[ ] upon gaining sovereignty, a major colonial influence was evident, having both english and french become the national language to roughly , , cameroonian residents.[ ][ ] apart from these two major languages, a new language consisting of a mixture of french, english, and pidgin known as frananglais gained popularity among cameroonian residents.[ ] indigenous languages[edit] although these three languages are the most common in cameroon, there are still approximately indigenous languages being spoken throughout the country, making it not only culturally diverse but linguistically as well.[ ] among those who speak these indigenous languages are people from bantu, sudanic, baka, wodaabe (or mbororo) and even primitive hunter-gatherer groups known as pygmies.[ ][ ] indigenous peoples' rights[edit] although native to cameroonian land, they faced constant discrimination much like other indigenous groups around the world. the united nations general assembly (unga) adopted the united nations' declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples (undrip) in . what this allowed was the protection of land and resource rights and prevented others from exploiting or violating them.[ ] in , a group of indigenous baka and bagyeli groups united to form gbabandi. gbabandi allowed these indigenous groups to have a form of representation and a declared list of requirements that people of cameroon had to abide by. among these requirements were guaranteed land rights, peoples' consent to the usage of their sacred land, traditional chiefs and the ability to participate in "local, regional, and national levels" of political and economic matters. as a result, this established a sense of justice and acknowledgment among indigenous groups in cameroon and posed for future battles for indigenous peoples' rights.[ ] oceania[edit] australia[edit] main article: multiculturalism in australia the next country to adopt an official policy of multiculturalism after canada was australia, a country with similar immigration situations and similar policies, for example the formation of the special broadcasting service.[ ] the australian government retains multiculturalism in policy and as a defining aspect of australia today.[ ][ ][ ][ ] sydney's chinatown the white australia policy was dismantled after world war ii by various changes to immigration policy, although the official policy of multiculturalism was not formally introduced until .[ ] the election of john howard's liberal-national coalition government in was a major watershed for australian multiculturalism. howard had long been a critic of multiculturalism, releasing his one australia policy in the late s.[ ] a practical reference to religious diversity for operational police and emergency services, first published in , was a publication of the australasian police multicultural advisory bureau designed to offer guidance to police and emergency services personnel on how religious affiliation can affect their contact with the public.[ ][ ][ ] the first edition covered buddhist, hindu, islamic, jewish and sikh faiths, with participation of representatives of the various religions.[ ] the second edition, published in , added christian, aboriginal and torres strait islander religions and the baháʼí faith to the list of religions.[ ] contact between people of different cultures in australia has been characterised by tolerance and engagement, but have also occasionally resulted in conflict and rifts.[ ][ ] australia's diverse migrant communities have brought with them food, lifestyle and cultural practices, many of which have been absorbed into mainstream australian culture.[ ][ ] members of a multicultural community who are not of anglo-australian background or not "assimilated" are often referred to in policy discourse as culturally and linguistically diverse (cald), introduced in to replace non-english speaking background (nesb).[ ][ ][ ] new zealand[edit] new zealand is a sovereign oceanic country that adopted its multicultural policies post world war ii. the country used to have immigration policies similar to australia's white australia policy, and the united states immigration act of ,[ ] but it would later follow suit with australia and canada in the s and adopt similar multicultural policies. the relaxation of migration led to an influx of new migration to new zealand in the s.[ ][ ] this led to an increase of asian and pacific islander peoples on the island, and ultimately a more diverse european population.[ ] in the law commission act was passed which required the new zealand law commission to review laws while taking into account both the indigenous māori of new zealand and new zealand's multicultural character.[ ] in the new zealand government opened an office of ethnic affairs to advise its local governments on the advancement of ethnic diversity and affairs of its multicultural communities.[ ] in new zealand officially recognized the indigenous māori language as a national language.[ ] the revitalization in the māori language led to its immersion in schools and television broadcast.[ ] many landmarks on the island have both their māori and english names officially recognized. māori makes up . % of the population's speaking language.[ ] a census of new zealand's population showed that % of the population identifies ethnically as european, while the latter % majority identify as māori. the remainder identify as asian, arab, african, pacific islander and latin american. papua new guinea[edit] papua new guinea is one of the most multicultural countries in the world.[ ] this oceanian country is home to over eight million people[ ] that are divided into hundreds of different indigenous ethnic groups and cultures with over different indigenous languages.[ ] a majority of the indigenous groups are papuans who have ancestors that lived in new guinea over ten thousand years ago. the latter majority are austronesians whose ancestors arrived less than four thousand years ago. the island's population is also made up of many expatriate citizens from china, australia, indonesia, europe and the philippines. in the island population was found to be made up of , of these diverse expatriate citizens.[ ] despite the large amount of culturally diverse locations on the island, the kuk early agricultural site is the only unesco world heritage location.[ ] see also[edit] 	 	cosmopolitanism 	cross-cultural 	cross-cultural communication 	cultural assimilation 	cultural competence 	cultural conflict 	cultural homogenization 	ethnic penalty 	ethnocentrism 	ethnocultural empathy 	ethnopluralism 	europeanism 	global centre for pluralism (canada) 	hybridity 	intercultural competence 	intercultural relations 	leitkultur 	list of countries ranked by ethnic and cultural diversity level 	miscegenation 	multiculturalism without culture (book) 	sociology of race and ethnic relations 	 	society portal 	multicultural art 	multicultural education 	multikulti 	multinational state 	national personal autonomy 	parallel society 	pluriculturalism 	plurinationalism 	polyculturalism 	polyethnicity 	rainbow nation 	racial integration 	syncretism 	the society for the study of the multi-ethnic literature of the united states 	transculturation 	unrooted childhoods (book) 	unity in diversity 	xenocentrism 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"racism in canada" in across cultures montreal: national film board of canada. 	international progress organization & unesco ( ). cultural self-comprehension of nations. international progress organization. isbn  - - - - . 	hesse, barnor ( ). un/settled multiculturalisms: diasporas, entanglements, "transruptions". zed books. isbn  - - - - . 	kymlicka, will ( june ). multicultural citizenship: a liberal theory of minority rights. oxford university press. isbn  - - - - . ) 	kymlicka, will ( december ). multiculturalism in asia. oxford university press. ( isbn  x) 	ley, david "multiculturalism" in gregory, derek (ed.) ( ) the dictionary of human geography ( th ed.) blackwell publishers. 	mendola, louis; alio, jacqueline ( ). the peoples of sicily: a multicultural legacy. trinacria. isbn  - - - - . 	modood, tariq & werbner, phina ( october ). the politics of multiculturalism in the new europe: racism, identity, and community. palgrave macmillan. isbn  - - - - . 	okin, susan moller ( august ). is multiculturalism bad for women?. princeton university press. isbn  - - - - . 	parekh, bhikhu c. ( ). rethinking multiculturalism: cultural diversity and political theory. harvard university press. isbn  - - - - . 	putnam, robert d. (june ). "e pluribus unum: diversity and community in the twenty-first century". scandinavian political studies. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. the johan skytte prize lecture. 	russon, john ( ). human experience philosophy, neurosis, and the elements of everyday life. albany: state university of new york press. isbn  . 	sailer, steve ( january ). "fragmented future". the american conservative. jon basil utley. archived from the original on june . retrieved november . 	taylor, charles ( december ). multiculturalism (expanded paperback ed.). princeton university press. isbn  - - - - . . 	tremblay, arjun ( ). diversity in decline: the rise of the political right and the fate of multiculturalism. palgrave macmillan. isbn  - - - - . 	Žižek, slavoj (september–october ). 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		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		"inpho" redirects here. for the physics olympiad, see indian national physics olympiad. the logo of the indiana philosophy ontology project indiana philosophy ontology project (inpho /ˈɪnfoʊ/) is a project of indiana university's cognitive science program funded by a grant from the national endowment for the humanities. it is an attempt to create a model of the discipline of philosophy as an online resource. the website makes it possible to search and navigate via relations among philosophical ideas, scholars and works.[ ] references[edit] 	^ buckner, cameron; niepert, mathias; allen, colin ( ). "from encyclopedia to ontology: toward dynamic representation of the discipline of philosophy". synthese. 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(previous page) (next page), 	ishida hakyō 	kawahigashi hekigotō 	saitō sanki 	yamaguchi seishi 	yusaku kamekura ! 	!!! – 	 	 	 . april 	 live 	 st arrondissement of paris 	 st cavalry division (united states) 	 st german antique police car museum 	 st mountain division (bundeswehr) 	 st mountain division (wehrmacht) 	 st panzer army 	 st panzer division (bundeswehr) 	 st panzer division (wehrmacht) 	 st ss panzer division leibstandarte ss adolf hitler 	 	 chainz 	 fabiola 	the i's coffee bar 	 june movement 	 live crew 	 . bundesliga 	 cellos 	 nd army (wehrmacht) 	 nd arrondissement of paris 	 nd high school in wrocław 	 nd infantry division (united states) 	 nd panzer army 	 nd panzer division (wehrmacht) 	 nd parachute division (germany) 	 nd ss panzer division das reich 	 raumwohnung 	 ( s band) 	 juno 	 	 doors down 	 feet smaller 	 hürel 	 inches of blood 	 d film 	 d printing 	 oh! 	the third and the mortal 	 rd army (wehrmacht) 	 rd arrondissement of paris 	 rd mountain 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ss-grenadier-division "nibelungen" 	the steps ( film) 	 nd street (film) 	 th infantry division (wehrmacht) 	 ers (group) 	 cent 	 th berlin international film festival 	 th berlin international film festival (previous page) (next page) retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=category:wikipedia_articles_with_gnd_identifiers&oldid= " 		categories: 	pages with gnd identifiers 	wikipedia articles with authority control information hidden categories: 	hidden categories 	tracking categories 	template large category toc via catautotoc on category with over , pages 	catautotoc generates large category toc 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			category 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 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attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 in-group favoritism - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	in-group favoritism 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		this article is about favoring of one's own group's behavior and cognition in a strategic sense. for other phenomena related to psychological group formation, see ingroups and outgroups. in-group favoritism, sometimes known as in-group–out-group bias, in-group bias, intergroup bias, or in-group preference, is a pattern of favoring members of one's in-group over out-group members. this can be expressed in evaluation of others, in allocation of resources, and in many other ways.[ ][ ] this effect has been researched by many psychologists and linked to many theories related to group conflict and prejudice. the phenomenon is primarily viewed from a social psychology standpoint. studies have shown that in-group favoritism arises as a result of the formation of cultural groups.[ ][ ] these cultural groups can be divided based on seemingly trivial observable traits, but with time, populations grow to associate certain traits with certain behavior, increasing covariation. this then incentivizes in-group bias. two prominent theoretical approaches to the phenomenon of in-group favoritism are realistic conflict theory and social identity theory. realistic conflict theory proposes that intergroup competition, and sometimes intergroup conflict, arises when two groups have opposing claims to scarce resources. in contrast, social identity theory posits a psychological drive for positively distinct social identities as the general root cause of in-group favoring behavior. contents 	 origins of the research tradition 	 explanations 	 . competition 	 . self-esteem 	 . biological basis as an effect of oxytocin 	 . self-identity and social identity 	 evolution of in-groups 	 . formation of cultural groups 	 gender differences 	 . automatic bias for own gender 	 . competition 	 . ethnicity-based favoritism 	 . developmental age 	 real-world examples 	 . us presidential elections 	 . wikipedia 	 versus out-group negativity 	 . biological relationship 	 in-group derogation 	 see also 	 references origins of the research tradition[edit] in , the sociologist william sumner posited that humans are a species that join together in groups by their very nature. however, he also maintained that humans had an innate tendency to favor their own group over others, proclaiming how "each group nourishes its own pride and vanity, boasts itself superior, exists in its own divinities, and looks with contempt on outsiders".[ ] this is seen on the group level with ingroup–outgroup bias. when experienced in larger groups such as tribes, ethnic groups, or nations, it is referred to as ethnocentrism. explanations[edit] competition[edit] realistic conflict theory (or realistic group conflict) posits that competition between groups for resources is the cause of in-group bias and the corresponding negative treatment of members of the out-group. muzafer sherif's robbers cave experiment is the most widely known demonstration of realistic conflict theory. in the experiment, eleven-year-old boys with similar backgrounds were studied in a mock summer camp situation, with researchers posing as camp personnel. the boys were divided into two equal groups and encouraged to bond, with the aim of fostering an in-group mentality. the researchers then introduced a series of competitive activities which pitted groups against each other for a valuable prize. hostility and out-group negativity ensued.[ ] lastly, researchers attempted to reverse the hostility by engaging the boys in situations of mutual interdependence, an effort which eventually resulted in relative harmony between the two groups. sherif concluded from this experiment that negative attitudes toward out-groups arise when groups compete for limited resources.[ ] however, he also theorized that inter-group frictions could be reduced and positive relations created,[ ] but only in the presence of an over-arching goal, which could only be achieved with the two groups' cooperation.[ ][ ] self-esteem[edit] according to social identity theory, one of the key determinants of group biases is the need to improve self-esteem. the desire to view one's self positively is transferred onto the group, creating a tendency to view one's own group in a positive light, and by comparison, outside groups in a negative light.[ ] that is, individuals will find a reason, no matter how insignificant, to prove to themselves why their own group is superior. this phenomenon was pioneered and studied most extensively by henri tajfel, a british social psychologist who looked at the psychological root of in-group/out-group bias. to study this in the lab, tajfel and colleagues created minimal groups (see minimal group paradigm), which occur when "complete strangers are formed into groups using the most trivial criteria imaginable". in tajfel's studies, participants were split into groups by flipping a coin, and each group then was told to appreciate a certain style of painting none of the participants were familiar with when the experiment began. what tajfel and his colleagues discovered was that—regardless of the facts that a) participants did not know each other, b) their groups were completely meaningless, and c) none of the participants had any inclination as to which "style" they like better—participants almost always "liked the members of their own group better and they rated the members of their in-group as more likely to have pleasant personalities". by having a more positive impression of individuals in the in-group, individuals are able to boost their own self-esteem as members of that group.[ ] robert cialdini and his research team looked at the number of university t-shirts being worn on college campuses following either a win or loss at the football game. they found that the monday after a win, there were more t-shirts being worn, on average, than following a loss.[ ][ ] in another set of studies, done in the s by jennifer crocker and colleagues using the minimal group paradigm, individuals with high self-esteem who suffered a threat to the self-concept exhibited greater ingroup biases than did people with low self-esteem who suffered a threat to the self-concept.[ ] while some studies have supported this notion of a negative correlation between self-esteem and in-group bias,[ ] other researchers have found that individuals with low self-esteem showed more bias toward both in-group and out-group members.[ ] some studies have even shown that high-self-esteem groups showed more bias than did lower self-esteem groups.[ ] this research may suggest that there is an alternative explanation and additional reasoning as to the relationship between self-esteem and in-group/out-group biases. alternatively, it is possible that researchers have used the wrong sort of self-esteem measures to test the link between self-esteem and in-group bias (global personal self-esteem rather than specific social self-esteem).[ ] biological basis as an effect of oxytocin[edit] main article: oxytocin in a meta-analysis and review of the effect of oxytocin on social behavior done by carsten de dreu, the research reviewed shows that oxytocin enables the development of trust, specifically towards individuals with similar characteristics—categorized as 'in-group' members—promoting cooperation with and favoritism towards such individuals.[ ] this bias of oxytocin-induced goodwill towards those with features and characteristics perceived to be similar may have evolved as a biological basis for sustaining in-group cooperation and protection, fitting with the darwinian insight that acts of self-sacrifice and cooperation contribute to the functioning of the group and hence improve the odds of survival for members of said group.[ ] race can be used as an example of in-group and out-group tendencies because society often categorizes individuals into groups based on race (caucasian, african american, latino, etc.). one study that examined race and empathy found that participants receiving nasally administered oxytocin had stronger reactions to pictures of in-group members making pained faces than to pictures of out-group members with the same expression.[ ] this shows that oxytocin may be implicated in our ability to empathize with individuals of different races, with individuals of one race potentially biased towards helping individuals of the same race than individuals of another race when they are experiencing pain. oxytocin has also been implicated in lying when lying would prove beneficial to other in-group members. in a study where such a relationship was examined, it was found that when individuals were administered oxytocin, rates of dishonesty in the participants' responses increased for their in-group members when a beneficial outcome for their group was expected.[ ] both of these examples show the tendency to act in ways that benefit in-group members. self-identity and social identity[edit] main article: social identity theory as noted in two recent theoretical reviews,[ ] the theoretical basis for the inclusion of self-identity in the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior has many similarities to social identity theory [ ] and its extension, self-categorization theory.[ ] according to social identity theory, an important component of the self-concept is derived from memberships in social groups and categories. when people define and evaluate themselves in terms of a self-inclusive social category (e.g., sex, class, team) two processes come into play: ( ) categorization, which perceptually accentuates differences between the in-group and out-group, and similarities among in-group members (including the self) on stereotypical dimensions; and ( ) self-enhancement which, because the self-concept is defined in terms of group membership, seeks behaviorally and perceptually to favor the in-group over the out-group. social identities are cognitively represented as group prototypes that describe and prescribe beliefs, attitudes, feelings and behaviors that optimize a balance between minimization of in-group differences and maximization of intergroup differences. more specifically, according to social identity theory, there is a continuum between personal and social identity shifts along this continuum that determine the extent to which group-related or personal characteristics influence a person's feelings and actions.[ ] if a particular social identity is a salient basis for self-conception, then the self is assimilated to the perceived in-group prototype which can be thought of as a set of perceived in-group norms such that self-perception, beliefs, attitudes, feelings and behaviors are defined in terms of the group prototype. thus, social identities should influence behavior through the mediating role of group norms. people will be more likely to engage in a particular behavior if it is in accord with the norms of a behaviorally relevant group membership, particularly if the identity is a salient basis for self-definition. if the group membership is not salient, then people's behavior and feelings should be in accord with their own personal and idiosyncratic characteristics rather than group norms. on the other hand, the self-identity theory poses that the self is often a reflection of expected norms and practices in a person's social role. at the center of it is the proposition that the self is made up of multi-faceted and differentiated components that exist in an organized manner for the sake of filling in roles in society.[ ] people are able to create an identity for themselves only through talking to others, and often what roles they are taking on differ from one group to another. these differing roles and positions people fill are a result of their interactions with others and are called role identities. role identities may be self-realized, or may be facts like being a mother, a social worker, or a blood donor. role identities lead people to act in certain ways due to assumed expectations for the roles. because there is satisfaction in complying with expectations of the role, there is often distress behind an inability to appear congruent to one's identity as defined by societal norms. there is also an existing hierarchy of importance for roles that individuals take on, and according to the hierarchical standing of roles, people become more representative of roles that stand higher hierarchically, according to them. identity salience, the likelihood of role identities being invoked in different situations, is the result of role identities being placed hierarchically in different orders from person to person. people who hold the same roles may act differently because some roles are valued over others.[ ] for example, a working mother may have less time to spend with her child as opposed to a mother that does not work. behaviors are reflective of the identities that are held higher hierarchically by people, so people act out in self-worth and self-meaning according to these hierarchies.[ ] someone who holds the identity of being a psychologist higher than the identity of being a linguist will find that while he/she may become competitive when meeting another person that is better at psychology than he/she, he/she won't care when in contact with someone who is much better at being a linguist than he/she. in a similar way, social relationships are influenced by this salience. self-identity often places individuals in social contexts and a commitment to the role within that context becomes a big part of perpetrating the idea of self. it also finds people relating more to others that hold similar role identities at the top of their hierarchies. because people have self-concepts that are derived from a role they define for themselves within the context of a group, when staying within their roles, intergroup similarities are accentuated while intergroup differences are diminished.[ ] in an attempt to assimilate oneself according to the tendencies of a group, often people reconfigure their intragroup representations or identities. certain prototypes form about these groups that reaffirm rules that members of the group are encouraged to follow. shared information and views are discussed more often than novel and unshared information within a group, therefore a norm is established where the majority views are perpetuated and others silenced.[ ] this norm is fluid and changing according to different contexts, but those within the group who want to keep up with the majority views in all matters have to keep an active role in affirming the views of the in-group in contest to out-groups. evolution of in-groups[edit] formation of cultural groups[edit] studies have shown that in-group favoritism arises endogenously, through the formation of cultural groups.[ ] symbolic markers in certain conditions can result in trivial groupings developing into cultural groups. the formation of such cultural groups then results in a higher degree of in-group favoritism. efferson, lalive and fehr published such a study in , utilizing a series of coordination games to mimic cooperation between individuals. the study found that cultural groups were able to form endogenously through creation of a linkage between a payoff-relevant behavior and a payoff-irrelevant marker. subsequently, in-group favoritism occurred in ensuing social interactions.[ ] participants were first divided into one of several populations of people, and then further divided into subpopulations of . each group had different payoff for coordinating on one of choices, behavior a or behavior b. in group , participants were awarded points for coordinating (choosing a themselves and choosing another participant who also chose a) on a and for coordinating on b. the payoffs were switched in the nd group. in both groups participants were awarded just point for mis-coordinating. during each turn participants were also allowed to choose a payoff-irrelevant marker (circle or triangle). players from both subpopulations were mixed to create a coordination problem, and every turn, an unidentified player from each subpopulation would be randomly switched. the experiment created a situation in which participants were strongly incentivized to develop a sense of expected behaviors in his or her subpopulation, but occasionally would find themselves in a totally new situation in which their behaviors were not in-line with social norms.[ ] the results showed that players generally developed an inclination to pair behavior with a marker, especially if it had resulted in a positive payoff. as linkages at an individual level increase, covariation (of marker and behavior) at an aggregate level also increases. in the experiment, there was a significant increase in participants requesting for partners with the same-shape choice as it progressed, although the initial choice of shape had no effect on payoffs. toward the end of the experiment, this number stood at a substantial %, indicating the presence of in-group favoritism. their study supported the hypothesis that the formation of cultural groups alters selective pressure facing individuals, and thus leads to certain behavioral traits being advantageous.[ ][ ] thus, if such selective pressures were present in past civilizations, where membership in a certain group is correlated with a certain behavioral norm, the emergence of in-group biases where it is beneficial to act in differing manners to members of the same group is certainly plausible.[ ] gender differences[edit] automatic bias for own gender[edit] rudman and goodwin conducted research on gender bias that measured gender preferences without directly asking the participants. subjects at purdue and rutgers university participated in computerized tasks that measured automatic attitudes based on how quickly a person categorizes pleasant and unpleasant attributes with each gender. such a task was done to discover whether people associate pleasant words (good, happy, and sunshine) with women, and unpleasant words (bad, trouble, and pain) with men.[ ] this research found that while both women and men have more favorable views of women, women's in-group biases were . times stronger[ ] than those of men and only women (not men) showed cognitive balance among in-group bias, identity, and self-esteem, revealing that men lack a mechanism that bolsters automatic preference for their own gender.[ ] competition[edit] using a publics-goods game, van vugt, de cremer, and janssen found that men contributed more to their group in the face of outside competition from another group; there was no distinct difference amongst women's contributions.[ ] ethnicity-based favoritism[edit] in fershtman and gneezy found that men showed in-group biases in a "trust" game based on ethnicity, whereas this tendency was not present in women.[ ] the study aims to identify ethnic discrimination in israeli jewish society, and was conducted on israeli undergraduates. groups were separated based on whether the participant's name was typically ethnically eastern or ashkenazic. similar to a dictator game, subjects were instructed to divide a sum of money ( nis) between themselves and another player. player a was told that any money sent over to player b would be tripled, and player b would receive details of the experiment, including the name of player a and the transferred sum. subsequently, player b would have a choice of whether to send any money back. the experiment found that despite sharing similar average transfer values ( . for women and . for men), women did not display significant in-group biases when it came to recipients with either ashkenazic or eastern sounding names. however, a bias against eastern sounding names was present amongst men.[ ] furthermore, men showed more bias for ashkenazic men compared to women, but the opposite was true for eastern names.[ ] this result may seem counter-intuitive, as participants appear to share more in common if they were both male. thus, we would expect eastern females to be more marginalized, but is actually consistent with other studies which studied discrimination against afro-american women.[ ] developmental age[edit] in fehr, bernhard, and rockenbach, in a study conducted on children, found that boys displayed in-group favoritism from ages – , whereas girls did not display such tendencies.[ ] the experiment involved usage of an "envy game", a modified version of the dictator game. a possible explanation posited by researchers relied on an evolutionary basis.[ ] they theorized that parochialism and favoring members of the same group may have been particularly advantageous as it strengthened the individuals group position in intergroup conflicts.[ ] as males were the ones who were frequently at the forefront of such conflicts in the past, and thus bore the majority of the costs of conflicts in terms of injury or death, evolution may have favored a greater sensitivity in males in situations which resulted in an advantageous payoff for their in-group. thus males tended to show in-group biases from a younger age than females, as was evident in the experiment.[ ] real-world examples[edit] us presidential elections[edit] a study conducted during the presidential elections showcased how group identities were dynamic.[ ] the study was carried out among democrats from cambridge, ma, using an economics dictator game. subjects were given $ to divide between themselves and another person. the recipients remained anonymous, apart from which candidate they supported in the democratic primaries. data were collected in three separate periods. june to (after hillary clinton's concession speech on june ); august to , before the democratic national convention on the ; and september to , in the buildup to the presidential elections. the results showed that men displayed significant in-group favoritism from june all the way to the dnc in august. this in-group bias, however, was not present in september. women displayed no significant in-group favoritism throughout. the experiment suggested that group identities are flexible and can change over time.[ ] researchers theorized that in-group bias was strong in june, as the competition to be the democratic nominee in the elections was still recent and thus salient. a lack of actual electoral conflict (against the republicans) caused perception of salient groupings to remain throughout august.[ ] only in september did the in-group favoritism subside as a superordinate goal shared between groups was now present. wikipedia[edit] research analyzing articles about inter-group conflicts (e.g., falklands war) by comparing the corresponding language versions of wikipedia (e.g., english, spanish) found evidence for in-group favoritism: while the "in-group" was systematically preferred and presented in a more favorable light, the "out-group" was presented as more immoral and more responsible for the conflict.[ ] there were substantial variations between conflicts, however, and additional analyses revealed in-group favoritism to be more pronounced in more recent conflicts and in articles written predominantly by "in-group" members.[ ] versus out-group negativity[edit] main article: group conflict social psychologists have long made the distinction between ingroup favoritism and outgroup negativity, where outgroup negativity is the act of punishing or placing burdens upon the outgroup.[ ] indeed, a significant body of research exists that attempts to identify the relationship between ingroup favoritism and outgroup negativity, as well as conditions that will lead to outgroup negativity.[ ][ ][ ] for example, struch and schwartz found support for the predictions of belief congruence theory.[ ] the belief congruence theory concerns itself with the degree of similarity in beliefs, attitudes, and values perceived to exist between individuals. this theory also states that dissimilarity increases negative orientations towards others. when applied to racial discrimination, the belief congruence theory argues that the perceived dissimilarity of beliefs has more of an impact on racial discrimination than does race itself. research finds evidence of in-group bias in police investigations[ ] and judicial decisions.[ ] biological relationship[edit] oxytocin is not only correlated with the preferences of individuals to associate with members of their own group, but it is also evident during conflicts between members of different groups. during conflict, individuals receiving nasally administered oxytocin demonstrate more frequent defense-motivated responses toward in-group members than out-group members. further, oxytocin was correlated with participant desire to protect vulnerable in-group members, despite that individual's attachment to the conflict.[ ] similarly, it has been demonstrated that when oxytocin is administered, individuals alter their subjective preferences in order to align with in-group ideals over out-group ideals.[ ] these studies demonstrate that oxytocin is associated with intergroup dynamics. further, oxytocin influences the responses of individuals in a particular group to those of another group. the in-group bias is evident in smaller groups; however, it can also be extended to groups as large as one's entire country leading toward a tendency of strong national zeal. a study done in the netherlands showed that oxytocin increased the in-group favoritism of their nation while decreasing acceptance of members of other ethnicities and foreigners.[ ] people also show more affection for their country's flag while remaining indifferent to other cultural objects when exposed to oxytocin.[ ] it has thus been hypothesized that this hormone may be a factor in xenophobic tendencies secondary to this effect. thus, oxytocin appears to affect individuals at an international level where the in-group becomes a specific "home" country and the out-group grows to include all other countries. in-group derogation[edit] cross-cultural studies have found that in-group derogation, the tendency to criticize members of one's own group or culture more harshly than members of outside groups, is more common among members of disadvantaged and minority groups than among members of the majority or dominant group. according to ma-kellams, spencer-rodgers and peng, system justification theory seeks to explain why "minorities sometimes endorse system-justifying views of their group". they said their research into in-group favoritism and derogation partially supported this theory, but that the theory failed to address all of the nuances.[ ] ma-kellams et al. also found that, compared to individualist cultures, people from collectivist cultures, such as east asian cultures, tended to judge their own group members less favorably than they judged outsiders, whereas people from individualist cultures were inclined to judge members of their own group more favorably than they judged outsiders.[ ] social identity theory[citation needed] and freudian theorists explain in-group derogation as the result of a negative self-image, which they believe is then extended to the group.[ ] ma-kellams et al. theorized that "ingroup derogation may be more culturally normative and less troubling for east asians" as evidenced by the fact that east asians were also likely to report high levels of positive affect (emotion) towards members of their in-group, demonstrating ambivalence towards the unfavorable characteristics they had acknowledged about their in-group. according to ma-kellam et al., culturally-ingrained attitudes and beliefs, rather than low self-esteem, may play a role in collectivist cultures' in-group derogation, due to their ability to tolerate holding seemingly contradictory views.[ ] see also[edit] 	psychology portal 	collective narcissism 	common ingroup identity 	cronyism 	groupthink 	linguistic intergroup bias 	marginalization 	marking your own homework 	nepotism 	old boy network 	out-group homogeneity 	priming 	psychological projection 	protectionism 	scapegoating 	social projection 	terror management theory 	xenophobia references[edit] 	^ a b c d aronson, e., wilson, t. d., & akert, r. 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"racial bias in police investigations" (pdf). working paper. 	^ depew, briggs; eren, ozkan; mocan, naci ( ). "judges, juveniles, and in-group bias" (pdf). journal of law and economics. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ de dreu ck, shalvi s, greer ll, van kleef ga, handgraaf mj ( ). "oxytocin motivates non-cooperation in intergroup conflict to protect vulnerable in-group members". plos one. ( ): e . bibcode: ploso... d. doi: . /journal.pone. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ stallen m, de dreu ck, shalvi s, smidts a, sanfey ag ( ). "the herding hormone: oxytocin stimulates in-group conformity". psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ de dreu ck, greer ll, van kleef ga, shalvi s, handgraaf mj (january ). "oxytocin promotes human ethnocentrism". proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america. ( ): – . bibcode: pnas.. . d. doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ ma x, luo l, geng y, zhao w, zhang q, kendrick km ( ). "oxytocin increases liking for a country's people and national flag but not for other cultural symbols or consumer products". frontiers in behavioral neuroscience. : . doi: . /fnbeh. . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b c d ma-kellams, christine; spencer-rodgers, julie; peng, kaiping ( ). "i am against us? unpacking cultural differences in ingroup favoritism via dialecticism". personality and social psychology bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=in-group_favoritism&oldid= " 		categories: 	cognitive biases 	group processes 	barriers to critical thinking 	sociological terminology 	error 	prejudice and discrimination 	appeals to emotion 	narcissism hidden categories: 	cs maint: multiple names: authors list 	use american english from may 	all wikipedia articles written in american english 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from august 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			afrikaans 	العربية 	español 	فارسی 	português 	Русский 	Українська 	tiếng việt 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 enthusiasm - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	enthusiasm 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		intense enjoyment, interest or approval towards something for the soviet film, see enthusiasm (film). 	 	this article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (october ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) methodist preachers are known for their enthusiasm in promulgating the doctrines of the new birth and entire sanctification to the public at events such as tent revivals and camp meetings, which they believe is the reason that god raised them up into existence.[ ] 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e enthusiasm is intense enjoyment, interest, or approval. the word was originally used to refer to a person possessed by god, or someone who exhibited intense piety. contents 	 historical usage 	 gallery 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links historical usage[edit] the word originates from the greek ἐνθουσιασμός from ἐν and θεός and οὐσία, meaning "possessed by [a] god's essence", applied by the greeks to manifestations of divine possession, by apollo (as in the case of the pythia), or by dionysus (as in the case of the bacchantes and maenads), the term enthusiasm was also used in a transferred or figurative sense. socrates taught that the inspiration of poets is a form of enthusiasm. the term was confined to a belief in religious inspiration, or to intense religious fervor or emotion. from this, a syrian sect of the th century was known as the enthusiasts. they believed that "by perpetual prayer, ascetic practices and contemplation, man could become inspired by the holy spirit, in spite of the ruling evil spirit, which the fall had given to him". from their belief in the efficacy of prayer, they were also known as euchites. several protestant denominations that emerged in the th and th centuries, especially those who hold revivals, are called enthusiastic. during the years that immediately followed the glorious revolution, "enthusiasm" was a british pejorative term for advocacy of any political or religious cause in public, i.e. fanaticism. such "enthusiasm" was seen in the time around as the cause of the previous century's english civil war and its attendant atrocities, and thus it was an absolute social sin to remind others of the war by engaging in enthusiasm. the royal society bylaws stipulated that any person discussing religion or politics at a society meeting was to be summarily ejected for being an "enthusiast."[citation needed] during the th century, popular methodists such as john wesley or george whitefield were accused of blind enthusiasm, a charge against which they defended themselves by distinguishing fanaticism from "religion of the heart." methodists who enthusiastically preach about and experience the new birth (first work of grace) and entire sanctification (second work of grace) often have emotional experiences.[ ] gallery[edit] 	 			 			 enthusiastic supporters choreography during a football match of the . fc union berlin. 			 		 	 			 			 francis of assisi in ecstasy by caravaggio, 			 		 see also[edit] 	artistic inspiration 	connoisseur 	emotional contagion 	entheogen 	euphoria 	fan (person) 	flow (psychology) 	motivation 	zest (positive psychology) references[edit] 	^ a b gibson, james. "wesleyan heritage series: entire sanctification". south georgia confessing association. archived from the original on may . retrieved may . 	daniels, m.d., d.; price, phd, v. ( ), the essential enneagram, new york: harpercollins, isbn  - - - further reading[edit] 	ronald knox. enthusiasm: a chapter in the history of religion, with special reference to the xvii and xviii centuries. oxford, eng.: oxford university press, . viii. oclc  	john locke. an essay concerning human understanding. vol. . new york: dover publications 	susie tucker. enthusiasm: a study in semantic change. london: cambridge university press. isbn  - 	joshua grooms. enthusiasm: a study in project management. london: cambridge university press. isbn  - external links[edit] 		look up enthusiasm in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikimedia commons has media related to enthusiasm. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: enthusiasm 	david hume, of superstition and enthusiasm 	the ronald knox society of north america 	the american heritage dictionary of the english language: enthusiasm 	john wesley's sermon, "the nature of enthusiasm" 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=enthusiasm&oldid= " 		categories: 	positive mental attitude 	emotions 	spirit possession hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	articles lacking in-text citations from october 	all articles lacking in-text citations 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from september 	commons category link from wikidata 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 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	Русский 	slovenčina 	Српски / srpski 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	türkçe 	Українська 	ייִדיש 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 information technology - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	information technology 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		"it" redirects here. for other uses, see it (disambiguation). "infotech" redirects here. for the indian company, see cyient. computer-based technology 	information science 	 general aspects 	 	information access 	information architecture 	information behavior 	information management 	information retrieval 	information seeking 	information society 	knowledge organization 	ontology 	philosophy of information 	science and technology studies 	taxonomy 	 related fields and sub-fields 	 	bibliometrics 	categorization 	censorship 	classification 	computer data storage 	cultural studies 	data modeling 	informatics 	information technology 	intellectual freedom 	intellectual property 	library and information science 	memory 	preservation 	privacy 	quantum information science 		v 	t 	e information technology (it) is the use of computers to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data[ ] or information. it is typically used within the context of business operations as opposed to personal or entertainment technologies.[ ] it is considered to be a subset of information and communications technology (ict). an information technology system (it system) is generally an information system, a communications system, or, more specifically speaking, a computer system – including all hardware, software, and peripheral equipment – operated by a limited group of users. humans have been storing, retrieving, manipulating, and communicating information since the sumerians in mesopotamia developed writing in about  bc.[ ] however, the term information technology in its modern sense first appeared in a article published in the harvard business review; authors harold j. leavitt and thomas l. whisler commented that "the new technology does not yet have a single established name. we shall call it information technology (it)." their definition consists of three categories: techniques for processing, the application of statistical and mathematical methods to decision-making, and the simulation of higher-order thinking through computer programs.[ ] the term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. several products or services within an economy are associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment, and e-commerce.[ ][a] based on the storage and processing technologies employed, it is possible to distinguish four distinct phases of it development: pre-mechanical (  bc –  ad), mechanical ( – ), electromechanical ( – ), and electronic ( –present).[ ] this article focuses on the most recent period (electronic). contents 	 history of computer technology 	 electronic data processing 	 . data storage 	 . . databases 	 . data retrieval 	 . data transmission 	 . data manipulation 	 perspectives 	 . academic perspective 	 . commercial and employment perspective 	 . ethical perspectives 	 see also 	 references 	 . notes 	 . citations 	 . bibliography 	 further reading 	 external links history of computer technology[edit] zuse z replica on display at deutsches museum in munich. the zuse z is the first programmable computer. main article: history of computing hardware devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, probably initially in the form of a tally stick.[ ] the antikythera mechanism, dating from about the beginning of the first century bc, is generally considered to be the earliest known mechanical analog computer, and the earliest known geared mechanism.[ ] comparable geared devices did not emerge in europe until the th century, and it was not until that the first mechanical calculator capable of performing the four basic arithmetical operations was developed.[ ] electronic computers, using either relays or valves, began to appear in the early s. the electromechanical zuse z , completed in , was the world's first programmable computer, and by modern standards one of the first machines that could be considered a complete computing machine. colossus, developed during the second world war to decrypt german messages, was the first electronic digital computer. although it was programmable, it was not general-purpose, being designed to perform only a single task. it also lacked the ability to store its program in memory; programming was carried out using plugs and switches to alter the internal wiring.[ ] the first recognisably modern electronic digital stored-program computer was the manchester baby, which ran its first program on june .[ ] the development of transistors in the late s at bell laboratories allowed a new generation of computers to be designed with greatly reduced power consumption. the first commercially available stored-program computer, the ferranti mark i, contained valves and had a power consumption of kilowatts. by comparison, the first transistorized computer developed at the university of manchester and operational by november , consumed only watts in its final version.[ ] several later breakthroughs in semiconductor technology include the integrated circuit (ic) invented by jack kilby at texas instruments and robert noyce at fairchild semiconductor in , the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (mosfet) invented by mohamed atalla and dawon kahng at bell laboratories in , and the microprocessor invented by ted hoff, federico faggin, masatoshi shima and stanley mazor at intel in . these important inventions led to the development of the personal computer (pc) in the s, and the emergence of information and communications technology (ict).[ ] electronic data processing[edit] main article: electronic data processing data storage[edit] punched tapes were used in early computers to represent data. main article: data storage device early electronic computers such as colossus made use of punched tape, a long strip of paper on which data was represented by a series of holes, a technology now obsolete.[ ] electronic data storage, which is used in modern computers, dates from world war ii, when a form of delay line memory was developed to remove the clutter from radar signals, the first practical application of which was the mercury delay line.[ ] the first random-access digital storage device was the williams tube, based on a standard cathode ray tube,[ ] but the information stored in it and delay line memory was volatile in that it had to be continuously refreshed, and thus was lost once power was removed. the earliest form of non-volatile computer storage was the magnetic drum, invented in [ ] and used in the ferranti mark , the world's first commercially available general-purpose electronic computer.[ ] ibm introduced the first hard disk drive in , as a component of their ramac computer system.[ ]: most digital data today is still stored magnetically on hard disks, or optically on media such as cd-roms.[ ]: – until most information was stored on analog devices, but that year digital storage capacity exceeded analog for the first time. as of almost % of the data stored worldwide was held digitally:[ ] % on hard disks, % on optical devices and % on digital magnetic tape. it has been estimated that the worldwide capacity to store information on electronic devices grew from less than exabytes in to exabytes in ,[ ] doubling roughly every years.[ ] databases[edit] main article: database database management systems (dms) emerged in the s to address the problem of storing and retrieving large amounts of data accurately and quickly. an early such systems was ibm's information management system (ims),[ ] which is still widely deployed more than years later.[ ] ims stores data hierarchically,[ ] but in the s ted codd proposed an alternative relational storage model based on set theory and predicate logic and the familiar concepts of tables, rows and columns. in , the first commercially available relational database management system (rdbms) was released by oracle.[ ] all dms consist of components, they allow the data they store to be accessed simultaneously by many users while maintaining its integrity.[ ] all databases are common in one point that the structure of the data they contain is defined and stored separately from the data itself, in a database schema.[ ] in recent years, the extensible markup language (xml) has become a popular format for data representation. although xml data can be stored in normal file systems, it is commonly held in relational databases to take advantage of their "robust implementation verified by years of both theoretical and practical effort".[ ] as an evolution of the standard generalized markup language (sgml), xml's text-based structure offers the advantage of being both machine and human-readable.[ ] data retrieval[edit] the relational database model introduced a programming-language independent structured query language (sql), based on relational algebra. the terms "data" and "information" are not synonymous. anything stored is data, but it only becomes information when it is organized and presented meaningfully.[ ]: – most of the world's digital data is unstructured, and stored in a variety of different physical formats[ ][b] even within a single organization. data warehouses began to be developed in the s to integrate these disparate stores. they typically contain data extracted from various sources, including external sources such as the internet, organized in such a way as to facilitate decision support systems (dss).[ ]: – data transmission[edit] data transmission has three aspects: transmission, propagation, and reception.[ ] it can be broadly categorized as broadcasting, in which information is transmitted unidirectionally downstream, or telecommunications, with bidirectional upstream and downstream channels.[ ] xml has been increasingly employed as a means of data interchange since the early s,[ ] particularly for machine-oriented interactions such as those involved in web-oriented protocols such as soap,[ ] describing "data-in-transit rather than ... data-at-rest".[ ] data manipulation[edit] hilbert and lopez identify the exponential pace of technological change (a kind of moore's law): machines' application-specific capacity to compute information per capita roughly doubled every months between and ; the per capita capacity of the world's general-purpose computers doubled every months during the same two decades; the global telecommunication capacity per capita doubled every months; the world's storage capacity per capita required roughly months to double (every years); and per capita broadcast information has doubled every . years.[ ] massive amounts of data are stored worldwide every day, but unless it can be analysed and presented effectively it essentially resides in what have been called data tombs: "data archives that are seldom visited".[ ] to address that issue, the field of data mining – "the process of discovering interesting patterns and knowledge from large amounts of data"[ ] – emerged in the late s.[ ] perspectives[edit] academic perspective[edit] in an academic context, the association for computing machinery defines it as "undergraduate degree programs that prepare students to meet the computer technology needs of business, government, healthcare, schools, and other kinds of organizations .... it specialists assume responsibility for selecting hardware and software products appropriate for an organization, integrating those products with organizational needs and infrastructure, and installing, customizing, and maintaining those applications for the organization’s computer users."[ ] commercial and employment perspective[edit] companies in the information technology field are often discussed as a group as the "tech sector" or the "tech industry".[ ][ ][ ] many companies now have it departments for managing the computers, networks, and other technical areas of their businesses. in a business context, the information technology association of america has defined information technology as "the study, design, development, application, implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems".[ ][page needed] the responsibilities of those working in the field include network administration, software development and installation, and the planning and management of an organization's technology life cycle, by which hardware and software are maintained, upgraded and replaced. 	 			 			 u.s. employment distribution of computer systems design and related services, [ ] 			 		 	 			 			 u.s. employment in the computer systems and design related services industry, in thousands, - [ ] 			 		 	 			 			 u.s. occupational growth and wages in computer systems design and related services, - [ ] 			 		 	 			 			 u.s. projected percent change in employment in selected occupations in computer systems design and related services, - [ ] 			 		 	 			 			 u.s. projected average annual percent change in output and employment in selected industries, - [ ] 			 		 ethical perspectives[edit] main article: information ethics the field of information ethics was established by mathematician norbert wiener in the s.[ ]: some of the ethical issues associated with the use of information technology include:[ ]: – 	breaches of copyright by those downloading files stored without the permission of the copyright holders 	employers monitoring their employees' emails and other internet usage 	unsolicited emails 	hackers accessing online databases 	web sites installing cookies or spyware to monitor a user's online activities see also[edit] 	center for minorities and people with disabilities in information technology 	computing 	computer science 	data processing 	health information technology 	information and communications technology (ict) 	information management 	journal of cases on information technology 	knowledge society 	list of the largest information technology companies 	outline of information technology 	world information technology and services alliance references[edit] notes[edit] 	^ on the later more broad application of the term it, keary comments: "in its original application 'information technology' was appropriate to describe the convergence of technologies with application in the vast field of data storage, retrieval, processing, and dissemination. this useful conceptual term has since been converted to what purports to be of great use, but without the reinforcement of definition ... the term it lacks substance when applied to the name of any function, discipline, or position."[ ] 	^ "format" refers to the physical characteristics of the stored data such as its encoding scheme; "structure" describes the organisation of that data. citations[edit] 	^ daintith, john, ed. ( ), "it", a dictionary of physics, oxford university press, isbn  , retrieved august (subscription required) 	^ "free on-line dictionary of computing (foldoc)". archived from the original on april . retrieved february . 	^ a b butler, jeremy g., a history of information technology and systems, university of arizona, retrieved august 	^ leavitt, harold j.; whisler, thomas l. ( ), "management in the s", harvard business review, 	^ chandler, daniel; munday, rod ( february ), "information technology", a dictionary of media and communication (first ed.), oxford university press, isbn  - , retrieved august , commonly a synonym for computers and computer networks but more broadly designating any technology that is used to generate, store, process, and/or distribute information electronically, including television and telephone. 	^ ralston, hemmendinger & reilly ( ), p.  	^ schmandt-besserat, denise ( ), "decipherment of the earliest tablets", science, ( ): – , bibcode: sci... .. s, doi: . /science. . . , pmid  	^ wright ( ), p.  	^ chaudhuri ( ), p.  	^ lavington ( ), p.  	^ enticknap, nicholas (summer ), "computing's golden jubilee", resurrection ( ), issn  - , archived from the original on january , retrieved april 	^ cooke-yarborough, e. h. (june ), "some early transistor applications in the uk", engineering science & education journal, ( ): – , doi: . /esej: , issn  - 	^ "advanced information on the nobel prize in physics " (pdf). nobel prize. june . retrieved december . 	^ alavudeen & venkateshwaran ( ), p.  	^ lavington ( ), p.  	^ "early computers at manchester university", resurrection, ( ), summer , issn  - , archived from the original on august , retrieved april 	^ universität klagenfurt (ed.), "magnetic drum", virtual exhibitions in informatics, retrieved august 	^ the manchester mark , university of manchester, archived from the original on november , retrieved january 	^ khurshudov, andrei ( ), the essential guide to computer data storage: from floppy to dvd, prentice hall, isbn  - - - - 	^ wang, shan x.; taratorin, aleksandr markovich ( ), magnetic information storage technology, academic press, isbn  - - - - 	^ wu, suzanne, "how much information is there in the world?", usc news, university of southern california, retrieved september 	^ a b c hilbert, martin; lópez, priscila ( april ), "the world's technological capacity to store, communicate, and compute information", science, ( ): – , bibcode: sci... ... h, doi: . /science. , pmid  , s cid  , retrieved september 	^ "americas events- video animation on the world's technological capacity to store, communicate, and compute information from to ". the economist. archived from the original on january . 	^ a b c ward & dafoulas ( ), p.  	^ olofson, carl w. (october ), a platform for enterprise data services (pdf), idc, retrieved august 	^ ward & dafoulas ( ), p.  	^ silberschatz, abraham ( ). database system concepts. mcgraw-hill higher education. isbn  - - - - . 	^ pardede ( ), p.  	^ a b pardede ( ), p.  	^ kedar, seema ( ). database management system. technical publications. isbn  . 	^ van der aalst ( ), p.  	^ dyché, jill ( ), turning data into information with data warehousing, addison wesley, isbn  - - - - 	^ weik ( ), p.  	^ a b pardede ( ), p. xiii 	^ han, kamber & pei ( ), p.  	^ han, kamber & pei ( ), p.  	^ han, kamber & pei ( ), p. xxiii 	^ the joint task force for computing curricula .computing curricula : the overview report (pdf) archived october at the wayback machine 	^ "technology sector snapshot". the new york times. archived from the original on january . retrieved january . 	^ "our programmes, campaigns and partnerships". techuk. retrieved january . 	^ "cyberstates ". comptia. retrieved january . 	^ proctor, k. scott ( ), optimizing and assessing information technology: improving business project execution, john wiley & sons, isbn  - - - - 	^ a b c d e lauren csorny ( april ). "u.s. careers in the growing field of information technology services : beyond the numbers: u.s. bureau of labor statistics". bls.gov. 	^ bynum, terrell ward ( ), "norbert wiener and the rise of information ethics", in van den hoven, jeroen; weckert, john (eds.), information technology and moral philosophy, cambridge university press, isbn  - - - - 	^ reynolds, george ( ), ethics in information technology, cengage learning, isbn  - - - - bibliography[edit] 	alavudeen, a.; venkateshwaran, n. ( ), computer integrated manufacturing, phi learning, isbn  - - - - 	chaudhuri, p. pal ( ), computer organization and design, phi learning, isbn  - - - - 	han, jiawei; kamber, micheline; pei, jian ( ), data mining: concepts and techniques ( rd ed.), morgan kaufmann, isbn  - - - - 	lavington, simon ( ), early british computers, manchester university press, isbn  - - - - 	lavington, simon ( ), a history of manchester computers ( nd ed.), the british computer society, isbn  - - - - 	pardede, eric ( ), open and novel issues in xml database applications, information science reference, isbn  - - - - 	ralston, anthony; hemmendinger, david; reilly, edwin d., eds. ( ), encyclopedia of computer science ( th ed.), nature publishing group, isbn  - - - - 	van der aalst, wil m. p. ( ), process mining: discovery, conformance and enhancement of business processes, springer, isbn  - - - - 	ward, patricia; dafoulas, george s. ( ), database management systems, cengage learning emea, isbn  - - - - 	weik, martin ( ), computer science and communications dictionary, , springer, isbn  - - - - 	wright, michael t. ( ), "the front dial of the antikythera mechanism", in koetsier, teun; ceccarelli, marco (eds.), explorations in the history of machines and mechanisms: proceedings of hmm , springer, pp.  – , isbn  - - - - further reading[edit] 	allen, t.; morton, m. s. morton, eds. ( ), information technology and the corporation of the s, oxford university press 	gitta, cosmas and south, david ( ). southern innovator magazine issue : mobile phones and information technology: united nations office for south-south cooperation. issn - 	gleick, james ( ).the information: a history, a theory, a flood. new york: pantheon books. 	price, wilson t. ( ), introduction to computer data processing, holt-saunders international editions, isbn  - - - - 	shelly, gary, cashman, thomas, vermaat, misty, and walker, tim. ( ). discovering computers : concepts for a connected world. cambridge, massachusetts: course technology. 	webster, frank, and robins, kevin. 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wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	edward n. zalta 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 			edward n. zalta 	zalta speaking at wikimania 	born	edward nouri zalta ( - - ) march , (age  ) 	alma mater	rice university university of massachusetts amherst 	 	era	contemporary philosophy 	region	western philosophy 	school		analytic philosophy 	neoplatonism 	neo-logicism[ ] (stanford–edmonton school)[ ] 	mathematical structuralism (abstract variety)[ ] 	institutions	university of auckland rice university university of salzburg csli, stanford university 	thesis	an introduction to a theory of abstract objects ( ) 	doctoral advisor	terence parsons 	main interests 	epistemology, metaphysics, philosophy of language, intensional logic, philosophy of logic, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of mind, intentionality, situation theory 	notable ideas 	abstract object theory, exemplifying and encoding a property as two modes of predication, platonized naturalism,[ ] computational metaphysics 	 influences 	gottlob frege,[ ] alexius meinong, ernst mally 	 edward nouri zalta[ ] (/ˈzɔːltə/; born march , ) is an american philosopher who is a senior research scholar at the center for the study of language and information at stanford university. he received his ba at rice university in and his phd from the university of massachusetts amherst in , both in philosophy.[ ] zalta has taught courses at stanford university, rice university, the university of salzburg, and the university of auckland. zalta is also the principal editor of the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy.[ ] contents 	 research 	 references 	 . citations 	 . sources 	 external links research[edit] play media edward n. zalta. "the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy: issues faced by academic reference works that may be of interest to wikipedians", wikimania , mexico city zalta's most notable philosophical position is descended from the position of alexius meinong and ernst mally,[ ] who suggested that there are many non-existent objects. on zalta's account, some objects (the ordinary concrete ones around us, like tables and chairs) exemplify properties, while others (abstract objects like numbers, and what others would call "non-existent objects", like the round square, and the mountain made entirely of gold) merely encode them.[ ] while the objects that exemplify properties are discovered through traditional empirical means, a simple set of axioms allows us to know about objects that encode properties.[ ] for every set of properties, there is exactly one object that encodes exactly that set of properties and no others.[ ] this allows for a formalized ontology. references[edit] citations[edit] 	^ tennant, neil ( november ) [first published august ]. "logicism and neologicism". in zalta, edward n. (ed.). stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (winter ed.). stanford university: the metaphysics research lab. issn  - . retrieved may . 	^ st-andrews.ac.uk archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ edward n. zalta and uri nodelman, "a logically coherent ante rem structuralism ", "ontological dependence workshop, university of bristol, february . 	^ linsky, b., and zalta, e., , "naturalized platonism vs. platonized naturalism", the journal of philosophy, ( ): – . 	^ anderson & zalta . 	^ a b "an introduction to a theory of abstract objects ( )". scholarworks@umass amherst. . retrieved july , . 	^ "editorial information". stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (spring ed.). stanford university: the metaphysics research lab. march . issn  - . retrieved may . principal editor: edward n. zalta, senior research scholar, center for the study of language and information, stanford university 	^ zalta , p. xi. 	^ zalta , p.  . 	^ zalta , p.  . 	^ zalta , p.  . sources[edit] 	works cited 	anderson, david j.; zalta, edward n. ( ). "frege, boolos, and logical objects". journal of philosophical logic. ( ): – .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	zalta, edward n. 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policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 fear - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	fear 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		"scared" redirects here. for other uses, see scared (disambiguation) and fear (disambiguation). basic emotion induced by a perceived threat 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e a girl showing signs of fear and anxiety in an uncertain environment fear is an emotion induced by perceived danger or threat, which causes physiological changes and ultimately behavioral changes, such as fleeing, hiding, or freezing from perceived traumatic events. fear in human beings may occur in response to a certain stimulus occurring in the present, or in anticipation or expectation of a future threat perceived as a risk to oneself. the fear response arises from the perception of danger leading to confrontation with or escape from/avoiding the threat (also known as the fight-or-flight response), which in extreme cases of fear (horror and terror) can be a freeze response or paralysis. in humans and other animals, fear is modulated by the process of cognition and learning. thus fear is judged as rational or appropriate and irrational or inappropriate. an irrational fear is called a phobia. fear is closely related to the emotion anxiety, which occurs as the result of threats that are perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable.[ ] the fear response serves survival by engendering appropriate behavioral responses, so it has been preserved throughout evolution.[ ] sociological and organizational research also suggests that individuals' fears are not solely dependent on their nature but are also shaped by their social relations and culture, which guide their understanding of when and how much fear to feel.[ ][better source needed] contents 	 physiological signs 	 causes 	 . innate fear 	 . learned fear 	 common triggers 	 . phobias 	 . fear of the unknown 	 . in u.s. 	 fear behavior 	 mechanism 	 . neurocircuit in mammals 	 . . pheromones and why fear can be contagious 	 . . fear pheromones in humans 	 . cognitive-consistency theory 	 management 	 . pharmaceutical 	 . psychology 	 . other treatments 	 inability to experience fear 	 society and culture 	 . death 	 . . fear of death 	 . religion 	 . manipulation 	 . fiction and mythology 	 . athletics 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links physiological signs[edit] "the man made mad with fear", a painting by gustave courbet. many physiological changes in the body are associated with fear, summarized as the fight-or-flight response. an innate response for coping with danger, it works by accelerating the breathing rate (hyperventilation), heart rate, vasoconstriction of the peripheral blood vessels leading to blushing and sanskadania of the central vessels (pooling), increasing muscle tension including the muscles attached to each hair follicle to contract and causing "goosebumps", or more clinically, piloerection (making a cold person warmer or a frightened animal look more impressive), sweating, increased blood glucose (hyperglycemia), increased serum calcium, increase in white blood cells called neutrophilic leukocytes, alertness leading to sleep disturbance and "butterflies in the stomach" (dyspepsia). this primitive mechanism may help an organism survive by either running away or fighting the danger.[ ] with the series of physiological changes, the consciousness realizes an emotion of fear. causes[edit] an influential categorization of stimuli causing fear was proposed by gray;[ ] namely, intensity, novelty, special evolutionary dangers, stimuli arising during social interaction, and conditioned stimuli.[ ] another categorization was proposed by archer,[ ] who, besides conditioned fear stimuli, categorized fear-evoking (as well as aggression-evoking) stimuli into three groups; namely, pain, novelty, and frustration, although he also described “looming,” which refers to an object rapidly moving towards the visual sensors of a subject, and can be categorized as “intensity.” russell[ ] described a more functional categorization of fear-evoking stimuli, in which for instance novelty is a variable affecting more than one category: ) predator stimuli (including movement, suddenness, proximity, but also learned and innate predator stimuli); ) physical environmental dangers (including intensity and heights); ) stimuli associated with increased risk of predation and other dangers (including novelty, openness, illumination, and being alone); ) stimuli stemming from conspecifics (including novelty, movement, and spacing behavior); ) species-predictable fear stimuli and experience (special evolutionary dangers); and ) fear stimuli that are not species predictable (conditioned fear stimuli). innate fear[edit] a prisoner at abu graib shows fear of a us army dog during prisoner abuse. although many fears are learned, the capacity to fear is part of human nature. many studies[ ] have found that certain fears (e.g. animals, heights) are much more common than others (e.g. flowers, clouds). these fears are also easier to induce in the laboratory. this phenomenon is known as preparedness. because early humans that were quick to fear dangerous situations were more likely to survive and reproduce, preparedness is theorized to be a genetic effect that is the result of natural selection.[ ] from an evolutionary psychology perspective, different fears may be different adaptations that have been useful in our evolutionary past. they may have developed during different time periods. some fears, such as fear of heights, may be common to all mammals and developed during the mesozoic period. other fears, such as fear of snakes, may be common to all simians and developed during the cenozoic time period. still others, such as fear of mice and insects, may be unique to humans and developed during the paleolithic and neolithic time periods (when mice and insects become important carriers of infectious diseases and harmful for crops and stored foods).[ ] learned fear[edit] main article: fear conditioning animals and humans innovate specific fears as a result of learning. this has been studied in psychology as fear conditioning, beginning with john b. watson's little albert experiment in , which was inspired after observing a child with an irrational fear of dogs. in this study, an -month-old boy was conditioned to fear a white rat in the laboratory. the fear became generalized to include other white, furry objects, such as a rabbit, dog, and even a ball of cotton. fear can be learned by experiencing or watching a frightening traumatic accident. for example, if a child falls into a well and struggles to get out, he or she may develop a fear of wells, heights (acrophobia), enclosed spaces (claustrophobia), or water (aquaphobia). there are studies looking at areas of the brain that are affected in relation to fear. when looking at these areas (such as the amygdala), it was proposed that a person learns to fear regardless of whether they themselves have experienced trauma, or if they have observed the fear in others. in a study completed by andreas olsson, katherine i. nearing and elizabeth a. phelps, the amygdala were affected both when subjects observed someone else being submitted to an aversive event, knowing that the same treatment awaited themselves, and when subjects were subsequently placed in a fear-provoking situation.[ ] this suggests that fear can develop in both conditions, not just simply from personal history. fear is affected by cultural and historical context. for example, in the early th century, many americans feared polio, a disease that can lead to paralysis.[ ] there are consistent cross-cultural differences in how people respond to fear.[ ] display rules affect how likely people are to express the facial expression of fear and other emotions. fear of victimization is a function of perceived risk and seriousness.[ ] common triggers[edit] phobias[edit] see also: phobia according to surveys, some of the most common fears are of demons and ghosts, the existence of evil powers, cockroaches, spiders, snakes, heights, trypophobia, water, enclosed spaces, tunnels, bridges, needles, social rejection, failure, examinations, and public speaking.[ ][ ][ ] fear of the unknown[edit] see also: xenophobia and neophobia fear of the unknown or irrational fear is caused by negative thinking (worry) which arises from anxiety accompanied by a subjective sense of apprehension or dread.[ ] irrational fear shares a common neural pathway with other fears, a pathway that engages the nervous system to mobilize bodily resources in the face of danger or threat. many people are scared of the "unknown". the irrational fear can branch out to many areas such as the hereafter, the next ten years or even tomorrow. chronic irrational fear has deleterious effects since the elicitor stimulus is commonly absent or perceived from delusions. such fear can create comorbidity with the anxiety disorder umbrella.[ ] being scared may cause people to experience anticipatory fear of what may lie ahead rather than planning and evaluating for the same. for example, "continuation of scholarly education" is perceived by many educators as a risk that may cause them fear and stress,[ ] and they would rather teach things they've been taught than go and do research. that can lead to habits such as laziness and procrastination.[citation needed] the ambiguity of situations that tend to be uncertain and unpredictable can cause anxiety in addition to other psychological and physical problems in some populations; especially those who engage it constantly, for example, in war-ridden places or in places of conflict, terrorism, abuse, etc. poor parenting that instills fear can also debilitate a child's psyche development or personality. for example, parents tell their children not to talk to strangers in order to protect them. in school, they would be motivated to not show fear in talking with strangers, but to be assertive and also aware of the risks and the environment in which it takes place. ambiguous and mixed messages like this can affect their self-esteem and self-confidence. researchers say talking to strangers isn't something to be thwarted but allowed in a parent's presence if required.[ ] developing a sense of equanimity to handle various situations is often advocated as an antidote to irrational fear and as an essential skill by a number of ancient philosophies. fear of the unknown (fotu) "may be a, or possibly the, fundamental fear".[ ] in u.s.[edit] in a gallup poll (u.s.), a national sample of about adolescents (aged to ) were asked what they feared the most as an open-ended question. the american adolescents reported perceiving their top fears as follows: terrorist attacks, spiders, death, failure, war, criminal or gang violence, being alone, the future, and nuclear war.[ ] in an estimate of what americans fear the most, book author bill tancer analyzed the most frequent online queries that involved the phrase, "fear of..." following the assumption that people tend to seek information on the issues that concern them the most. his top ten list of fears published consisted of flying, heights, clowns, intimacy, death, rejection, people, snakes, failure, and driving.[ ] fear behavior[edit] although fear behavior varies from species to species, it is often divided into two main categories; namely, avoidance/flight and immobility.[ ] to these, different researchers have added different categories, such as threat display and attack,[ ] protective responses (including startle and looming responses),[ ] defensive burying,[ ] and social responses (including alarm vocalizations and submission).[ ][ ] finally, immobility is often divided into freezing and tonic immobility.[ ][ ] the decision as to which particular fear behavior to perform is determined by the level of fear as well as the specific context, such as environmental characteristics (escape route present, distance to refuge), the presence of a discrete and localized threat, the distance between threat and subject, threat characteristics (speed, size, directness of approach), the characteristics of the subject under threat (size, physical condition, speed, degree of crypsis, protective morphological structures), social conditions (group size), and the amount of experience with the type of the threat.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] mechanism[edit] often laboratory studies with rats are conducted to examine the acquisition and extinction of conditioned fear responses.[ ] in , researchers conditioned rats (rattus norvegicus) to fear a certain stimulus, through electric shock.[ ] the researchers were able to then cause an extinction of this conditioned fear, to a point that no medications or drugs were able to further aid in the extinction process. however, the rats did show signs of avoidance learning, not fear, but simply avoiding the area that brought pain to the test rats. the avoidance learning of rats is seen as a conditioned response, and therefore the behavior can be unconditioned, as supported by the earlier research. species-specific defense reactions (ssdrs) or avoidance learning in nature is the specific tendency to avoid certain threats or stimuli, it is how animals survive in the wild. humans and animals both share these species-specific defense reactions, such as the flight-or-fight, which also include pseudo-aggression, fake or intimidating aggression and freeze response to threats, which is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. these ssdrs are learned very quickly through social interactions between others of the same species, other species, and interaction with the environment.[ ] these acquired sets of reactions or responses are not easily forgotten. the animal that survives is the animal that already knows what to fear and how to avoid this threat. an example in humans is the reaction to the sight of a snake, many jump backwards before cognitively realizing what they are jumping away from, and in some cases, it is a stick rather than a snake. as with many functions of the brain, there are various regions of the brain involved in deciphering fear in humans and other nonhuman species.[ ] the amygdala communicates both directions between the prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus, the sensory cortex, the hippocampus, thalamus, septum, and the brainstem. the amygdala plays an important role in ssdr, such as the ventral amygdalofugal, which is essential for associative learning, and ssdrs are learned through interaction with the environment and others of the same species. an emotional response is created only after the signals have been relayed between the different regions of the brain, and activating the sympathetic nervous systems; which controls the flight, fight, freeze, fright, and faint response.[ ][ ] often a damaged amygdala can cause impairment in the recognition of fear (like the human case of patient s.m.).[ ] this impairment can cause different species to lack the sensation of fear, and often can become overly confident, confronting larger peers, or walking up to predatory creatures. robert c. bolles ( ), a researcher at university of washington, wanted to understand species-specific defense reactions and avoidance learning among animals, but found that the theories of avoidance learning and the tools that were used to measure this tendency were out of touch with the natural world.[ ] he theorized the species-specific defense reaction (ssdr).[ ] there are three forms of ssdrs: flight, fight (pseudo-aggression), or freeze. even domesticated animals have ssdrs, and in those moments it is seen that animals revert to atavistic standards and become "wild" again. dr. bolles states that responses are often dependent on the reinforcement of a safety signal, and not the aversive conditioned stimuli. this safety signal can be a source of feedback or even stimulus change. intrinsic feedback or information coming from within, muscle twitches, increased heart rate, are seen to be more important in ssdrs than extrinsic feedback, stimuli that comes from the external environment. dr. bolles found that most creatures have some intrinsic set of fears, to help assure survival of the species. rats will run away from any shocking event, and pigeons will flap their wings harder when threatened. the wing flapping in pigeons and the scattered running of rats are considered species-specific defense reactions or behaviors. bolles believed that ssdrs are conditioned through pavlovian conditioning, and not operant conditioning; ssdrs arise from the association between the environmental stimuli and adverse events.[ ] michael s. fanselow conducted an experiment, to test some specific defense reactions, he observed that rats in two different shock situations responded differently, based on instinct or defensive topography, rather than contextual information.[ ] species-specific defense responses are created out of fear, and are essential for survival.[ ] rats that lack the gene stathmin show no avoidance learning, or a lack of fear, and will often walk directly up to cats and be eaten.[ ] animals use these ssdrs to continue living, to help increase their chance of fitness, by surviving long enough to procreate. humans and animals alike have created fear to know what should be avoided, and this fear can be learned through association with others in the community, or learned through personal experience with a creature, species, or situations that should be avoided. ssdrs are an evolutionary adaptation that has been seen in many species throughout the world including rats, chimpanzees, prairie dogs, and even humans, an adaptation created to help individual creatures survive in a hostile world. fear learning changes across the lifetime due to natural developmental changes in the brain.[ ][ ] this includes changes in the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala.[ ] neurocircuit in mammals[edit] see also: fear processing in the brain 	the thalamus collects sensory data from the senses 	sensory cortex receives data from the thalamus and interprets it 	sensory cortex organizes information for dissemination to the hypothalamus (fight or flight), amygdalae (fear), hippocampus (memory) the brain structures that are the center of most neurobiological events associated with fear are the two amygdalae, located behind the pituitary gland. each amygdala is part of a circuitry of fear learning.[ ] they are essential for proper adaptation to stress and specific modulation of emotional learning memory. in the presence of a threatening stimulus, the amygdalae generate the secretion of hormones that influence fear and aggression.[ ] once a response to the stimulus in the form of fear or aggression commences, the amygdalae may elicit the release of hormones into the body to put the person into a state of alertness, in which they are ready to move, run, fight, etc. this defensive response is generally referred to in physiology as the fight-or-flight response regulated by the hypothalamus, part of the limbic system.[ ] once the person is in safe mode, meaning that there are no longer any potential threats surrounding them, the amygdalae will send this information to the medial prefrontal cortex (mpfc) where it is stored for similar future situations, which is known as memory consolidation.[ ] some of the hormones involved during the state of fight-or-flight include epinephrine, which regulates heart rate and metabolism as well as dilating blood vessels and air passages, norepinephrine increasing heart rate, blood flow to skeletal muscles and the release of glucose from energy stores,[ ] and cortisol which increases blood sugar, increases circulating neutrophilic leukocytes, calcium amongst other things.[ ] after a situation which incites fear occurs, the amygdalae and hippocampus record the event through synaptic plasticity.[ ] the stimulation to the hippocampus will cause the individual to remember many details surrounding the situation.[ ] plasticity and memory formation in the amygdala are generated by activation of the neurons in the region. experimental data supports the notion that synaptic plasticity of the neurons leading to the lateral amygdalae occurs with fear conditioning.[ ] in some cases, this forms permanent fear responses such as posttraumatic stress disorder (ptsd) or a phobia.[ ] mri and fmri scans have shown that the amygdalae in individuals diagnosed with such disorders including bipolar or panic disorder are larger and wired for a higher level of fear.[ ] pathogens can suppress amygdala activity. rats infected with the toxoplasmosis parasite become less fearful of cats, sometimes even seeking out their urine-marked areas. this behavior often leads to them being eaten by cats. the parasite then reproduces within the body of the cat. there is evidence that the parasite concentrates itself in the amygdala of infected rats.[ ] in a separate experiment, rats with lesions in the amygdala did not express fear or anxiety towards unwanted stimuli. these rats pulled on levers supplying food that sometimes sent out electrical shocks. while they learned to avoid pressing on them, they did not distance themselves from these shock-inducing levers.[ ] several brain structures other than the amygdalae have also been observed to be activated when individuals are presented with fearful vs. neutral faces, namely the occipitocerebellar regions including the fusiform gyrus and the inferior parietal / superior temporal gyri.[ ] fearful eyes, brows and mouth seem to separately reproduce these brain responses.[ ] scientists from zurich studies show that the hormone oxytocin related to stress and sex reduces activity in your brain fear center.[ ] pheromones and why fear can be contagious[edit] in threatening situations, insects, aquatic organisms, birds, reptiles, and mammals emit odorant substances, initially called alarm substances, which are chemical signals now called alarm pheromones. this is to defend themselves and at the same time to inform members of the same species of danger and leads to observable behavior change like freezing, defensive behavior, or dispersion depending on circumstances and species. for example, stressed rats release odorant cues that cause other rats to move away from the source of the signal. after the discovery of pheromones in , alarm pheromones were first described in in ants[ ] and earthworms,[ ] and four years later also found in mammals, both mice and rats.[ ] over the next two decades, identification and characterization of these pheromones proceeded in all manner of insects and sea animals, including fish, but it was not until that more insight into mammalian alarm pheromones was gleaned. earlier, in , a link between odors released by stressed rats and pain perception was discovered: unstressed rats exposed to these odors developed opioid-mediated analgesia.[ ] in , researchers found that bees became less responsive to pain after they had been stimulated with isoamyl acetate, a chemical smelling of banana, and a component of bee alarm pheromone.[ ] the experiment also showed that the bees' fear-induced pain tolerance was mediated by an endorphine. by using the forced swimming test in rats as a model of fear-induction, the first mammalian "alarm substance" was found.[ ] in , this "alarm substance" was shown to fulfill criteria for pheromones: well-defined behavioral effect, species specificity, minimal influence of experience and control for nonspecific arousal. rat activity testing with the alarm pheromone, and their preference/avoidance for odors from cylinders containing the pheromone, showed that the pheromone had very low volatility.[ ] in a connection between alarm chemosignals in mice and their immune response was found.[ ] pheromone production in mice was found to be associated with or mediated by the pituitary gland in .[ ] in , it was demonstrated that rats' alarm pheromones had different effects on the "recipient" rat (the rat perceiving the pheromone) depending which body region they were released from: pheromone production from the face modified behavior in the recipient rat, e.g. caused sniffing or movement, whereas pheromone secreted from the rat's anal area induced autonomic nervous system stress responses, like an increase in core body temperature.[ ] further experiments showed that when a rat perceived alarm pheromones, it increased its defensive and risk assessment behavior,[ ] and its acoustic startle reflex was enhanced. it was not until that a link between severe pain, neuroinflammation and alarm pheromones release in rats was found: real time rt-pcr analysis of rat brain tissues indicated that shocking the footpad of a rat increased its production of proinflammatory cytokines in deep brain structures, namely of il- β, heteronuclear corticotropin-releasing hormone and c-fos mrna expressions in both the paraventricular nucleus and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and it increased stress hormone levels in plasma (corticosterone).[ ] the neurocircuit for how rats perceive alarm pheromones was shown to be related to the hypothalamus, brainstem, and amygdalae, all of which are evolutionary ancient structures deep inside or in the case of the brainstem underneath the brain away from the cortex, and involved in the fight-or-flight response, as is the case in humans.[ ] alarm pheromone-induced anxiety in rats has been used to evaluate the degree to which anxiolytics can alleviate anxiety in humans. for this, the change in the acoustic startle reflex of rats with alarm pheromone-induced anxiety (i.e. reduction of defensiveness) has been measured. pretreatment of rats with one of five anxiolytics used in clinical medicine was able to reduce their anxiety: namely midazolam, phenelzine (a nonselective monoamine oxidase (mao) inhibitor), propranolol, a nonselective beta blocker, clonidine, an alpha adrenergic agonist or cp- , , a corticotropin-releasing hormone antagonist.[ ] faulty development of odor discrimination impairs the perception of pheromones and pheromone-related behavior, like aggressive behavior and mating in male rats: the enzyme mitogen-activated protein kinase (mapk ) has been implicated in regulating the development of the olfactory bulb and odor discrimination and it is highly expressed in developing rat brains, but absent in most regions of adult rat brains. conditional deletion of the mapk gene in mouse neural stem cells impairs several pheromone-mediated behaviors, including aggression and mating in male mice. these behavior impairments were not caused by a reduction in the level of testosterone, by physical immobility, by heightened fear or anxiety or by depression. using mouse urine as a natural pheromone-containing solution, it has been shown that the impairment was associated with defective detection of related pheromones, and with changes in their inborn preference for pheromones related to sexual and reproductive activities.[ ] lastly, alleviation of an acute fear response because a friendly peer (or in biological language: an affiliative conspecific) tends and befriends is called "social buffering". the term is in analogy to the "buffering" hypothesis in psychology, where social support has been proven to mitigate the negative health effects of alarm pheromone mediated distress.[ ] the role of a "social pheromone" is suggested by the recent discovery that olfactory signals are responsible in mediating the "social buffering" in male rats.[ ] "social buffering" was also observed to mitigate the conditioned fear responses of honeybees. a bee colony exposed to an environment of high threat of predation did not show increased aggression and aggressive-like gene expression patterns in individual bees, but decreased aggression. that the bees did not simply habituate to threats is suggested by the fact that the disturbed colonies also decreased their foraging.[ ] biologists have proposed in that fear pheromones evolved as molecules of "keystone significance", a term coined in analogy to keystone species. pheromones may determine species compositions and affect rates of energy and material exchange in an ecological community. thus pheromones generate structure in a food web and play critical roles in maintaining natural systems.[ ] fear pheromones in humans[edit] evidence of chemosensory alarm signals in humans has emerged slowly: although alarm pheromones have not been physically isolated and their chemical structures have not been identified in humans so far, there is evidence for their presence. androstadienone, for example, a steroidal, endogenous odorant, is a pheromone candidate found in human sweat, axillary hair and plasma. the closely related compound androstenone is involved in communicating dominance, aggression or competition; sex hormone influences on androstenone perception in humans showed a high testosterone level related to heightened androstenone sensitivity in men, a high testosterone level related to unhappiness in response to androstenone in men, and a high estradiol level related to disliking of androstenone in women.[ ] a german study from showed when anxiety-induced versus exercise-induced human sweat from a dozen people was pooled and offered to seven study participants, of five able to olfactorily distinguish exercise-induced sweat from room air, three could also distinguish exercise-induced sweat from anxiety induced sweat. the acoustic startle reflex response to a sound when sensing anxiety sweat was larger than when sensing exercise-induced sweat, as measured by electromyography analysis of the orbital muscle, which is responsible for the eyeblink component. this showed for the first time that fear chemosignals can modulate the startle reflex in humans without emotional mediation; fear chemosignals primed the recipient's "defensive behavior" prior to the subjects' conscious attention on the acoustic startle reflex level.[ ] in analogy to the social buffering of rats and honeybees in response to chemosignals, induction of empathy by "smelling anxiety" of another person has been found in humans.[ ] a study from provided brain imaging evidence that human responses to fear chemosignals may be gender-specific. researchers collected alarm-induced sweat and exercise-induced sweat from donors extracted it, pooled it and presented it to unrelated people undergoing functional brain mri. while stress-induced sweat from males produced a comparably strong emotional response in both females and males, stress-induced sweat from females produced markedly stronger arousal in women than in men. statistical tests pinpointed this gender-specificity to the right amygdala and strongest in the superficial nuclei. since no significant differences were found in the olfactory bulb, the response to female fear-induced signals is likely based on processing the meaning, i.e. on the emotional level, rather than the strength of chemosensory cues from each gender, i.e. the perceptual level.[ ] an approach-avoidance task was set up where volunteers seeing either an angry or a happy cartoon face on a computer screen pushed away or pulled toward them a joystick as fast as possible. volunteers smelling androstadienone, masked with clove oil scent responded faster, especially to angry faces than those smelling clove oil only, which was interpreted as androstadienone-related activation of the fear system.[ ] a potential mechanism of action is, that androstadienone alters the "emotional face processing". androstadienone is known to influence the activity of the fusiform gyrus which is relevant for face recognition. cognitive-consistency theory[edit] cognitive-consistency theories assume that "when two or more simultaneously active cognitive structures are logically inconsistent, arousal is increased, which activates processes with the expected consequence of increasing consistency and decreasing arousal."[ ] in this context, it has been proposed that fear behavior is caused by an inconsistency between a preferred, or expected, situation and the actually perceived situation, and functions to remove the inconsistent stimulus from the perceptual field, for instance by fleeing or hiding, thereby resolving the inconsistency.[ ][ ][ ] this approach puts fear in a broader perspective, also involving aggression and curiosity. when the inconsistency between perception and expectancy is small, learning as a result of curiosity reduces inconsistency by updating expectancy to match perception. if the inconsistency is larger, fear or aggressive behavior may be employed to alter the perception in order to make it match expectancy, depending on the size of the inconsistency as well as the specific context. aggressive behavior is assumed to alter perception by forcefully manipulating it into matching the expected situation, while in some cases thwarted escape may also trigger aggressive behavior in an attempt to remove the thwarting stimulus.[ ] management[edit] pharmaceutical[edit] a drug treatment for fear conditioning and phobias via the amygdalae is the use of glucocorticoids.[ ] in one study, glucocorticoid receptors in the central nuclei of the amygdalae were disrupted in order to better understand the mechanisms of fear and fear conditioning. the glucocorticoid receptors were inhibited using lentiviral vectors containing cre-recombinase injected into mice. results showed that disruption of the glucocorticoid receptors prevented conditioned fear behavior. the mice were subjected to auditory cues which caused them to freeze normally. however, a reduction of freezing was observed in the mice that had inhibited glucocorticoid receptors.[ ] psychology[edit] cognitive behavioral therapy has been successful in helping people overcome their fear. because fear is more complex than just forgetting or deleting memories, an active and successful approach involves people repeatedly confronting their fears. by confronting their fears in a safe manner a person can suppress the "fear-triggering memories" or stimuli.[ ] exposure therapy has known to have helped up to % of people with specific phobias to significantly decrease their fear over time.[ ][ ] another psychological treatment is systematic desensitization, which is a type of behavior therapy used to completely remove the fear or produce a disgusted response to this fear and replace it. the replacement that occurs will be relaxation and will occur through conditioning. through conditioning treatments, muscle tensioning will lessen and deep breathing techniques will aid in de-tensioning. other treatments[edit] there are other methods for treating or coping with one's fear, such as writing down rational thoughts regarding fears. journal entries are a healthy method of expressing one's fears without compromising safety or causing uncertainty. another suggestion is a fear ladder. to create a fear ladder, one must write down all of their fears and score them on a scale of one to ten. next, the person addresses their phobia, starting with the lowest number. finding solace in religion is another method to cope with one's fear. having something to answer your questions regarding your fears, such as, what happens after death or if there is an afterlife, can help mitigate one's fear of death because there is no room for uncertainty as their questions are answered. religion offers a method of being able to understand and make sense of one's fears rather than ignore them.[ ] inability to experience fear[edit] people who have damage to their amygdalae, which can be caused by a rare genetic disease known as urbach–wiethe disease, are unable to experience fear. the disease destroys both amygdalae in late childhood. since the discovery of the disease, there have only been recorded cases. this is not debilitating; however, a lack of fear can allow someone to get into a dangerous situation they otherwise would have avoided. for example, those without fear would approach a known venomous snake while those with fear intact, would typically try to avoid it.[ ] society and culture[edit] painting by guido reni c. death[edit] the fear of the end of life and its existence is, in other words, the fear of death. the fear of death ritualized the lives of our ancestors. these rituals were designed to reduce that fear; they helped collect the cultural ideas that we now have in the present.[citation needed] these rituals also helped preserve the cultural ideas. the results and methods of human existence had been changing at the same time that social formation was changing. when people are faced with their own thoughts of death, they either accept that they are dying or will die because they have lived a full life or they will experience fear. a theory was developed in response to this, which is called the terror management theory. the theory states that a person's cultural worldviews (religion, values, etc.) will mitigate the terror associated with the fear of death through avoidance. to help manage their terror, they find solace in their death-denying beliefs, such as their religion. another way people cope with their death related fears is pushing any thoughts of death into the future or by avoiding these thoughts all together through distractions.[ ] although there are methods for one coping with the terror associated with their fear of death, not everyone suffers from these same uncertainties. people who have lived a full life, typically do not fear death because they believe that they have lived their life to the fullest. fear of death[edit] main article: fear of death death anxiety is multidimensional; it covers "fears related to one's own death, the death of others, fear of the unknown after death, fear of obliteration, and fear of the dying process, which includes fear of a slow death and a painful death".[ ] death anxiety is one's uncertainty to dying. however, there is a more severe form of having a fear of death, which is known as thanatophobia, which is anxiety over death that becomes debilitating or keeps a person from living their life.[medical citation needed] the yale philosopher shelly kagan examined fear of death in a yale open course[ ] by examining the following questions: is fear of death a reasonable appropriate response? what conditions are required and what are appropriate conditions for feeling fear of death? what is meant by fear, and how much fear is appropriate? according to kagan for fear in general to make sense, three conditions should be met: 	the object of fear needs to be "something bad" 	there needs to be a non-negligible chance that the bad state of affairs will happen 	there needs to be some uncertainty about the bad state of affairs the amount of fear should be appropriate to the size of "the bad". if the three conditions are not met, fear is an inappropriate emotion. he argues, that death does not meet the first two criteria, even if death is a "deprivation of good things" and even if one believes in a painful afterlife. because death is certain, it also does not meet the third criterion, but he grants that the unpredictability of when one dies may be cause to a sense of fear.[ ] in a study of women and men, aged – , low self-efficacy predicted fear of the unknown after death and fear of dying for women and men better than demographics, social support, and physical health. fear of death was measured by a "multidimensional fear of death scale" which included the subscales fear of dying, fear of the dead, fear of being destroyed, fear for significant others, fear of the unknown, fear of conscious death, fear for the body after death, and fear of premature death. in hierarchical multiple regression analysis, the most potent predictors of death fears were low "spiritual health efficacy", defined as beliefs relating to one's perceived ability to generate spiritually based faith and inner strength, and low "instrumental efficacy", defined as beliefs relating to one's perceived ability to manage activities of daily living.[ ] psychologists have tested the hypotheses that fear of death motivates religious commitment, and that assurances about an afterlife alleviate the fear; however, empirical research on this topic has been equivocal.[ ] religiosity can be related to fear of death when the afterlife is portrayed as time of punishment. "intrinsic religiosity", as opposed to mere "formal religious involvement", has been found to be negatively correlated with death anxiety.[ ] in a study of people of various christian denominations, those who were most firm in their faith, who attended religious services weekly, were the least afraid of dying. the survey found a negative correlation between fear of death and "religious concern".[ ][better source needed] in a study of white, christian men and women the hypothesis was tested that traditional, church-centered religiousness and de-institutionalized spiritual seeking are ways of approaching fear of death in old age. both religiousness and spirituality were related to positive psychosocial functioning, but only church-centered religiousness protected subjects against the fear of death.[ ][ ][better source needed] religion[edit] see also: fear of god and category:religion and death from a theological perspective, the word "fear" encompasses more than simple fear. robert b. strimple says that fear includes the "... convergence of awe, reverence, adoration...".[ ] some translations of the bible, such as the new international version, sometimes replace the word "fear" with "reverence". fear in religion can be seen throughout the years, however, the most prominent example would be the crusades. pope urban ii allowed for christian mercenary troops to be sent on a mission in order to recover the holy lands from the muslims. however, the message was misinterpreted and as a result, innocent people were slaughtered. although the crusades were meant to stay between the muslims and the christians, the hate spread onto the jewish culture. jewish people who feared for their lives, gave into the forced conversion of christianity because they believed this would secure their safety. other jewish people feared betraying their god by conceding to a conversion, and instead, secured their own fate, which was death.[ ] manipulation[edit] further information: culture of fear, fear mongering, fear appeal, psychological warfare, tactics of terrorism § fear, and list of causes of death by rate fear may be politically and culturally manipulated to persuade citizenry of ideas which would otherwise be widely rejected or dissuade citizenry from ideas which would otherwise be widely supported. in contexts of disasters, nation-states manage the fear not only to provide their citizens with an explanation about the event or blaming some minorities, but also to adjust their previous beliefs. fear can alter how a person thinks or reacts to situations because fear has the power to inhibit one's rational way of thinking. as a result, people who do not experience fear, are able to use fear as a tool to manipulate others. people who are experiencing fear, seek preservation through safety and can be manipulated by a person who is there to provide that safety that is being sought after. "when we're afraid, a manipulator can talk us out of the truth we see right in front of us. words become more real than reality"[ ] by this, a manipulator is able to use our fear to manipulate us out the truth and instead make us believe and trust in their truth. politicians are notorious for using fear to manipulate the people into supporting their will through keywords and key phrases such as "it is for your safety," or "it is for the safety of this country."[citation needed] fiction and mythology[edit] see also: dystopia § in society, and apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction § in society a still from the film carnival of souls. fear is found and reflected in mythology and folklore as well as in works of fiction such as novels and films. works of dystopian and (post)apocalyptic fiction convey the fears and anxieties of societies.[ ][ ] the fear of the world's end is about as old as civilization itself.[ ] in a study, frank kermode suggests that the failure of religious prophecies led to a shift in how society apprehends this ancient mode.[ ] scientific and critical thought supplanting religious and mythical thought as well as a public emancipation may be the cause of eschatology becoming replaced by more realistic scenarios. such might constructively provoke discussion and steps to be taken to prevent depicted catastrophes. the story of the youth who went forth to learn what fear was is a german fairy tale dealing with the topic of not knowing fear. many stories also include characters who fear the antagonist of the plot. one important characteristic of historical and mythical heroes across cultures is to be fearless in the face of big and often lethal enemies.[citation needed] athletics[edit] in the world of athletics, fear is often used as a means of motivation to not fail.[ ] this situation involves using fear in a way that increases the chances of a positive outcome. in this case, the fear that is being created is initially a cognitive state to the receiver.[ ] this initial state is what generates the first response of the athlete, this response generates a possibility of fight or flight reaction by the athlete (receiver), which in turn will increase or decrease the possibility of success or failure in the certain situation for the athlete.[ ] the amount of time that the athlete has to determine this decision is small but it is still enough time for the receiver to make a determination through cognition.[ ] even though the decision is made quickly, the decision is determined through past events that have been experienced by the athlete.[ ] the results of these past events will determine how the athlete will make his cognitive decision in the split second that he or she has.[ ] fear of failure as described above has been studied frequently in the field of sport psychology. many scholars have tried to determine how often fear of failure is triggered within athletes, as well as what personalities of athletes most often choose to use this type of motivation. studies have also been conducted to determine the success rate of this method of motivation. murray's exploration in personal ( ) was one of the first studies that actually identified fear of failure as an actual motive to avoid failure or to achieve success. his studies suggested that inavoidance, the need to avoid failure, was found in many college-aged men during the time of his research in .[ ] this was a monumental finding in the field of psychology because it allowed other researchers to better clarify how fear of failure can actually be a determinant of creating achievement goals as well as how it could be used in the actual act of achievement.[ ] in the context of sport, a model was created by r.s. lazarus in that uses the cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion.[ ] it holds that fear of failure results when beliefs or cognitive schemas about aversive consequences of failing are activated by situations in which failure is possible. these belief systems predispose the individual to make appraisals of threat and experience the state anxiety that is associated with fear of failure in evaluative situations.[ ][ ] another study was done in by conroy, poczwardowski, and henschen that created five aversive consequences of failing that have been repeated over time. the five categories include (a) experiencing shame and embarrassment, (b) devaluing one's self-estimate, (c) having an uncertain future, (d) important others losing interest, (e) upsetting important others.[ ] these five categories can help one infer the possibility of an individual to associate failure with one of these threat categories, which will lead them to experiencing fear of failure. in summary, the two studies that were done above created a more precise definition of fear of failure, which is "a dispositional tendency to experience apprehension and anxiety in evaluative situations because individuals have learned that failure is associated with aversive consequences".[ ] see also[edit] 	anxiety disorder 	appeal to fear 	culture of fear 	ecology of fear 	horror and terror 	hysteria 	nightmare 	night terror 	ontogenetic parade 	panic attack 	paranoia 	phobophobia 	psychological trauma 	shock 	social anxiety disorder 	social anxiety 	terror management theory 	voodoo death references[edit] 	^ Öhman, a. 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( ). 	gardner, dan ( ). risk: the science and politics of fear. random house, inc. isbn  - - - - . 	jiddu, krishnamurti ( ). on fear. harper collins. isbn  - - - - . 	plamper, jan ( ). fear: across the disciplines. university of pittsburgh press. isbn  - - - - . 	dixon, rasheeal ( ). how to overcome fear, and start living fearless. createspace. isbn  - - - - . 	wedgwood, hensleigh ( ). "english etymologies (affraid, affray, fray)". transactions of the philological society ( ). external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: fear 		wikimedia commons has media related to fear. 		look up fear in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	the scent of fear, a research study 	adjustment to threatening events – a theory of cognitive adaptation 	catholic encyclopedia "fear (from a moral standpoint)" 	scary stories to read 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion 	authority control 	 	gnd: - 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wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	information theory 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		theory dealing with information not to be confused with information science. 	 	this article may contain indiscriminate, excessive, or irrelevant examples. please improve the article by adding more descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples. see wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for further suggestions. (may ) 	information theory 	 	 	entropy 	differential entropy 	conditional entropy 	joint entropy 	mutual information 	conditional mutual information 	relative entropy 	entropy rate 	limiting density of discrete points 	 	asymptotic equipartition property 	rate–distortion theory 	 	shannon's source coding theorem 	channel capacity 	noisy-channel coding theorem 	shannon–hartley theorem 		v 	t 	e information theory studies the quantification, storage, and communication of information. it was originally proposed by claude shannon in to find fundamental limits on signal processing and communication operations such as data compression, in a landmark paper titled "a mathematical theory of communication". the field is at the intersection of probability theory, statistics, computer science, statistical mechanics, information engineering, and electrical engineering. a key measure in information theory is entropy. entropy quantifies the amount of uncertainty involved in the value of a random variable or the outcome of a random process. for example, identifying the outcome of a fair coin flip (with two equally likely outcomes) provides less information (lower entropy) than specifying the outcome from a roll of a die (with six equally likely outcomes). some other important measures in information theory are mutual information, channel capacity, error exponents, and relative entropy. important sub-fields of information theory include source coding, algorithmic complexity theory, algorithmic information theory, and information-theoretic security. applications of fundamental topics of information theory include lossless data compression (e.g. zip files), lossy data compression (e.g. mp s and jpegs), and channel coding (e.g. for dsl). its impact has been crucial to the success of the voyager missions to deep space, the invention of the compact disc, the feasibility of mobile phones and the development of the internet. the theory has also found applications in other areas, including statistical inference,[ ] cryptography, neurobiology,[ ] perception,[ ] linguistics, the evolution[ ] and function[ ] of molecular codes (bioinformatics), thermal physics,[ ] quantum computing, black holes, information retrieval, intelligence gathering, plagiarism detection,[ ] pattern recognition, anomaly detection[ ] and even art creation. contents 	 overview 	 historical background 	 quantities of information 	 . entropy of an information source 	 . joint entropy 	 . conditional entropy (equivocation) 	 . mutual information (transinformation) 	 . kullback–leibler divergence (information gain) 	 . other quantities 	 coding theory 	 . source theory 	 . . rate 	 . channel capacity 	 . . capacity of particular channel models 	 applications to other fields 	 . intelligence uses and secrecy applications 	 . pseudorandom number generation 	 . seismic exploration 	 . semiotics 	 . miscellaneous applications 	 see also 	 . applications 	 . history 	 . theory 	 . concepts 	 references 	 . the classic work 	 . other journal articles 	 . textbooks on information theory 	 . other books 	 . mooc on information theory 	 external links overview[edit] information theory studies the transmission, processing, extraction, and utilization of information. abstractly, information can be thought of as the resolution of uncertainty. in the case of communication of information over a noisy channel, this abstract concept was made concrete in by claude shannon in his paper "a mathematical theory of communication", in which "information" is thought of as a set of possible messages, where the goal is to send these messages over a noisy channel, and then to have the receiver reconstruct the message with low probability of error, in spite of the channel noise. shannon's main result, the noisy-channel coding theorem showed that, in the limit of many channel uses, the rate of information that is asymptotically achievable is equal to the channel capacity, a quantity dependent merely on the statistics of the channel over which the messages are sent.[ ] information theory is closely associated with a collection of pure and applied disciplines that have been investigated and reduced to engineering practice under a variety of rubrics throughout the world over the past half-century or more: adaptive systems, anticipatory systems, artificial intelligence, complex systems, complexity science, cybernetics, informatics, machine learning, along with systems sciences of many descriptions. information theory is a broad and deep mathematical theory, with equally broad and deep applications, amongst which is the vital field of coding theory. coding theory is concerned with finding explicit methods, called codes, for increasing the efficiency and reducing the error rate of data communication over noisy channels to near the channel capacity. these codes can be roughly subdivided into data compression (source coding) and error-correction (channel coding) techniques. in the latter case, it took many years to find the methods shannon's work proved were possible. a third class of information theory codes are cryptographic algorithms (both codes and ciphers). concepts, methods and results from coding theory and information theory are widely used in cryptography and cryptanalysis. see the article ban (unit) for a historical application. historical background[edit] main article: history of information theory the landmark event that established the discipline of information theory and brought it to immediate worldwide attention was the publication of claude e. shannon's classic paper "a mathematical theory of communication" in the bell system technical journal in july and october . prior to this paper, limited information-theoretic ideas had been developed at bell labs, all implicitly assuming events of equal probability. harry nyquist's paper, certain factors affecting telegraph speed, contains a theoretical section quantifying "intelligence" and the "line speed" at which it can be transmitted by a communication system, giving the relation w = k log m (recalling boltzmann's constant), where w is the speed of transmission of intelligence, m is the number of different voltage levels to choose from at each time step, and k is a constant. ralph hartley's paper, transmission of information, uses the word information as a measurable quantity, reflecting the receiver's ability to distinguish one sequence of symbols from any other, thus quantifying information as h = log sn = n log s, where s was the number of possible symbols, and n the number of symbols in a transmission. the unit of information was therefore the decimal digit, which has since sometimes been called the hartley in his honor as a unit or scale or measure of information. alan turing in used similar ideas as part of the statistical analysis of the breaking of the german second world war enigma ciphers. much of the mathematics behind information theory with events of different probabilities were developed for the field of thermodynamics by ludwig boltzmann and j. willard gibbs. connections between information-theoretic entropy and thermodynamic entropy, including the important contributions by rolf landauer in the s, are explored in entropy in thermodynamics and information theory. in shannon's revolutionary and groundbreaking paper, the work for which had been substantially completed at bell labs by the end of , shannon for the first time introduced the qualitative and quantitative model of communication as a statistical process underlying information theory, opening with the assertion that 	"the fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point, either exactly or approximately, a message selected at another point." with it came the ideas of 	the information entropy and redundancy of a source, and its relevance through the source coding theorem; 	the mutual information, and the channel capacity of a noisy channel, including the promise of perfect loss-free communication given by the noisy-channel coding theorem; 	the practical result of the shannon–hartley law for the channel capacity of a gaussian channel; as well as 	the bit—a new way of seeing the most fundamental unit of information. quantities of information[edit] main article: quantities of information information theory is based on probability theory and statistics. information theory often concerns itself with measures of information of the distributions associated with random variables. important quantities of information are entropy, a measure of information in a single random variable, and mutual information, a measure of information in common between two random variables. the former quantity is a property of the probability distribution of a random variable and gives a limit on the rate at which data generated by independent samples with the given distribution can be reliably compressed. the latter is a property of the joint distribution of two random variables, and is the maximum rate of reliable communication across a noisy channel in the limit of long block lengths, when the channel statistics are determined by the joint distribution. the choice of logarithmic base in the following formulae determines the unit of information entropy that is used. a common unit of information is the bit, based on the binary logarithm. other units include the nat, which is based on the natural logarithm, and the decimal digit, which is based on the common logarithm. in what follows, an expression of the form p log p is considered by convention to be equal to zero whenever p = . this is justified because lim p → + p log ⁡ p = {\displaystyle \lim _{p\rightarrow +}p\log p= } for any logarithmic base. entropy of an information source[edit] based on the probability mass function of each source symbol to be communicated, the shannon entropy h, in units of bits (per symbol), is given by 	 h = − ∑ i p i log ⁡ ( p i ) {\displaystyle h=-\sum _{i}p_{i}\log _{ }(p_{i})} where pi is the probability of occurrence of the i-th possible value of the source symbol. this equation gives the entropy in the units of "bits" (per symbol) because it uses a logarithm of base , and this base- measure of entropy has sometimes been called the shannon in his honor. entropy is also commonly computed using the natural logarithm (base e, where e is euler's number), which produces a measurement of entropy in nats per symbol and sometimes simplifies the analysis by avoiding the need to include extra constants in the formulas. other bases are also possible, but less commonly used. for example, a logarithm of base = will produce a measurement in bytes per symbol, and a logarithm of base will produce a measurement in decimal digits (or hartleys) per symbol. intuitively, the entropy hx of a discrete random variable x is a measure of the amount of uncertainty associated with the value of x when only its distribution is known. the entropy of a source that emits a sequence of n symbols that are independent and identically distributed (iid) is n ⋅ h bits (per message of n symbols). if the source data symbols are identically distributed but not independent, the entropy of a message of length n will be less than n ⋅ h. the entropy of a bernoulli trial as a function of success probability, often called the binary entropy function, hb(p). the entropy is maximized at bit per trial when the two possible outcomes are equally probable, as in an unbiased coin toss. if one transmits bits ( s and s), and the value of each of these bits is known to the receiver (has a specific value with certainty) ahead of transmission, it is clear that no information is transmitted. if, however, each bit is independently equally likely to be or , shannons of information (more often called bits) have been transmitted. between these two extremes, information can be quantified as follows. if 𝕏 is the set of all messages {x , ..., xn} that x could be, and p(x) is the probability of some x ∈ x {\displaystyle x\in \mathbb {x} } , then the entropy, h, of x is defined:[ ] 	 h ( x ) = e x [ i ( x ) ] = − ∑ x ∈ x p ( x ) log ⁡ p ( x ) . {\displaystyle h(x)=\mathbb {e} _{x}[i(x)]=-\sum _{x\in \mathbb {x} }p(x)\log p(x).} (here, i(x) is the self-information, which is the entropy contribution of an individual message, and 𝔼x is the expected value.) a property of entropy is that it is maximized when all the messages in the message space are equiprobable p(x) = /n; i.e., most unpredictable, in which case h(x) = log n. the special case of information entropy for a random variable with two outcomes is the binary entropy function, usually taken to the logarithmic base , thus having the shannon (sh) as unit: 	 h b ( p ) = − p log ⁡ p − ( − p ) log ⁡ ( − p ) . {\displaystyle h_{\mathrm {b} }(p)=-p\log _{ }p-( -p)\log _{ }( -p).} joint entropy[edit] the joint entropy of two discrete random variables x and y is merely the entropy of their pairing: (x, y). this implies that if x and y are independent, then their joint entropy is the sum of their individual entropies. for example, if (x, y) represents the position of a chess piece—x the row and y the column, then the joint entropy of the row of the piece and the column of the piece will be the entropy of the position of the piece. 	 h ( x , y ) = e x , y [ − log ⁡ p ( x , y ) ] = − ∑ x , y p ( x , y ) log ⁡ p ( x , y ) {\displaystyle h(x,y)=\mathbb {e} _{x,y}[-\log p(x,y)]=-\sum _{x,y}p(x,y)\log p(x,y)\,} despite similar notation, joint entropy should not be confused with cross entropy. conditional entropy (equivocation)[edit] the conditional entropy or conditional uncertainty of x given random variable y (also called the equivocation of x about y) is the average conditional entropy over y:[ ] 	 h ( x | y ) = e y [ h ( x | y ) ] = − ∑ y ∈ y p ( y ) ∑ x ∈ x p ( x | y ) log ⁡ p ( x | y ) = − ∑ x , y p ( x , y ) log ⁡ p ( x | y ) . {\displaystyle h(x|y)=\mathbb {e} _{y}[h(x|y)]=-\sum _{y\in y}p(y)\sum _{x\in x}p(x|y)\log p(x|y)=-\sum _{x,y}p(x,y)\log p(x|y).} because entropy can be conditioned on a random variable or on that random variable being a certain value, care should be taken not to confuse these two definitions of conditional entropy, the former of which is in more common use. a basic property of this form of conditional entropy is that: 	 h ( x | y ) = h ( x , y ) − h ( y ) . {\displaystyle h(x|y)=h(x,y)-h(y).\,} mutual information (transinformation)[edit] mutual information measures the amount of information that can be obtained about one random variable by observing another. it is important in communication where it can be used to maximize the amount of information shared between sent and received signals. the mutual information of x relative to y is given by: 	 i ( x ; y ) = e x , y [ s i ( x , y ) ] = ∑ x , y p ( x , y ) log ⁡ p ( x , y ) p ( x ) p ( y ) {\displaystyle i(x;y)=\mathbb {e} _{x,y}[si(x,y)]=\sum _{x,y}p(x,y)\log {\frac {p(x,y)}{p(x)\,p(y)}}} where si (specific mutual information) is the pointwise mutual information. a basic property of the mutual information is that 	 i ( x ; y ) = h ( x ) − h ( x | y ) . {\displaystyle i(x;y)=h(x)-h(x|y).\,} that is, knowing y, we can save an average of i(x; y) bits in encoding x compared to not knowing y. mutual information is symmetric: 	 i ( x ; y ) = i ( y ; x ) = h ( x ) + h ( y ) − h ( x , y ) . {\displaystyle i(x;y)=i(y;x)=h(x)+h(y)-h(x,y).\,} mutual information can be expressed as the average kullback–leibler divergence (information gain) between the posterior probability distribution of x given the value of y and the prior distribution on x: 	 i ( x ; y ) = e p ( y ) [ d k l ( p ( x | y = y ) ‖ p ( x ) ) ] . {\displaystyle i(x;y)=\mathbb {e} _{p(y)}[d_{\mathrm {kl} }(p(x|y=y)\|p(x))].} in other words, this is a measure of how much, on the average, the probability distribution on x will change if we are given the value of y. this is often recalculated as the divergence from the product of the marginal distributions to the actual joint distribution: 	 i ( x ; y ) = d k l ( p ( x , y ) ‖ p ( x ) p ( y ) ) . {\displaystyle i(x;y)=d_{\mathrm {kl} }(p(x,y)\|p(x)p(y)).} mutual information is closely related to the log-likelihood ratio test in the context of contingency tables and the multinomial distribution and to pearson's χ test: mutual information can be considered a statistic for assessing independence between a pair of variables, and has a well-specified asymptotic distribution. kullback–leibler divergence (information gain)[edit] the kullback–leibler divergence (or information divergence, information gain, or relative entropy) is a way of comparing two distributions: a "true" probability distribution p(x), and an arbitrary probability distribution q(x). if we compress data in a manner that assumes q(x) is the distribution underlying some data, when, in reality, p(x) is the correct distribution, the kullback–leibler divergence is the number of average additional bits per datum necessary for compression. it is thus defined 	 d k l ( p ( x ) ‖ q ( x ) ) = ∑ x ∈ x − p ( x ) log ⁡ q ( x ) − ∑ x ∈ x − p ( x ) log ⁡ p ( x ) = ∑ x ∈ x p ( x ) log ⁡ p ( x ) q ( x ) . {\displaystyle d_{\mathrm {kl} }(p(x)\|q(x))=\sum _{x\in x}-p(x)\log {q(x)}\,-\,\sum _{x\in x}-p(x)\log {p(x)}=\sum _{x\in x}p(x)\log {\frac {p(x)}{q(x)}}.} although it is sometimes used as a 'distance metric', kl divergence is not a true metric since it is not symmetric and does not satisfy the triangle inequality (making it a semi-quasimetric). another interpretation of the kl divergence is the "unnecessary surprise" introduced by a prior from the truth: suppose a number x is about to be drawn randomly from a discrete set with probability distribution p(x). if alice knows the true distribution p(x), while bob believes (has a prior) that the distribution is q(x), then bob will be more surprised than alice, on average, upon seeing the value of x. the kl divergence is the (objective) expected value of bob's (subjective) surprisal minus alice's surprisal, measured in bits if the log is in base . in this way, the extent to which bob's prior is "wrong" can be quantified in terms of how "unnecessarily surprised" it is expected to make him. other quantities[edit] other important information theoretic quantities include rényi entropy (a generalization of entropy), differential entropy (a generalization of quantities of information to continuous distributions), and the conditional mutual information. coding theory[edit] main article: coding theory a picture showing scratches on the readable surface of a cd-r. music and data cds are coded using error correcting codes and thus can still be read even if they have minor scratches using error detection and correction. coding theory is one of the most important and direct applications of information theory. it can be subdivided into source coding theory and channel coding theory. using a statistical description for data, information theory quantifies the number of bits needed to describe the data, which is the information entropy of the source. 	data compression (source coding): there are two formulations for the compression problem: 	lossless data compression: the data must be reconstructed exactly; 	lossy data compression: allocates bits needed to reconstruct the data, within a specified fidelity level measured by a distortion function. this subset of information theory is called rate–distortion theory. 	error-correcting codes (channel coding): while data compression removes as much redundancy as possible, an error-correcting code adds just the right kind of redundancy (i.e., error correction) needed to transmit the data efficiently and faithfully across a noisy channel. this division of coding theory into compression and transmission is justified by the information transmission theorems, or source–channel separation theorems that justify the use of bits as the universal currency for information in many contexts. however, these theorems only hold in the situation where one transmitting user wishes to communicate to one receiving user. in scenarios with more than one transmitter (the multiple-access channel), more than one receiver (the broadcast channel) or intermediary "helpers" (the relay channel), or more general networks, compression followed by transmission may no longer be optimal. network information theory refers to these multi-agent communication models. source theory[edit] any process that generates successive messages can be considered a source of information. a memoryless source is one in which each message is an independent identically distributed random variable, whereas the properties of ergodicity and stationarity impose less restrictive constraints. all such sources are stochastic. these terms are well studied in their own right outside information theory. rate[edit] information rate is the average entropy per symbol. for memoryless sources, this is merely the entropy of each symbol, while, in the case of a stationary stochastic process, it is 	 r = lim n → ∞ h ( x n | x n − , x n − , x n − , … ) ; {\displaystyle r=\lim _{n\to \infty }h(x_{n}|x_{n- },x_{n- },x_{n- },\ldots );} that is, the conditional entropy of a symbol given all the previous symbols generated. for the more general case of a process that is not necessarily stationary, the average rate is 	 r = lim n → ∞ n h ( x , x , … x n ) ; {\displaystyle r=\lim _{n\to \infty }{\frac { }{n}}h(x_{ },x_{ },\dots x_{n});} that is, the limit of the joint entropy per symbol. for stationary sources, these two expressions give the same result.[ ] it is common in information theory to speak of the "rate" or "entropy" of a language. this is appropriate, for example, when the source of information is english prose. the rate of a source of information is related to its redundancy and how well it can be compressed, the subject of source coding. channel capacity[edit] main article: channel capacity communications over a channel—such as an ethernet cable—is the primary motivation of information theory. however, such channels often fail to produce exact reconstruction of a signal; noise, periods of silence, and other forms of signal corruption often degrade quality. consider the communications process over a discrete channel. a simple model of the process is shown below: here x represents the space of messages transmitted, and y the space of messages received during a unit time over our channel. let p(y|x) be the conditional probability distribution function of y given x. we will consider p(y|x) to be an inherent fixed property of our communications channel (representing the nature of the noise of our channel). then the joint distribution of x and y is completely determined by our channel and by our choice of f(x), the marginal distribution of messages we choose to send over the channel. under these constraints, we would like to maximize the rate of information, or the signal, we can communicate over the channel. the appropriate measure for this is the mutual information, and this maximum mutual information is called the channel capacity and is given by: 	 c = max f i ( x ; y ) . {\displaystyle c=\max _{f}i(x;y).\!} this capacity has the following property related to communicating at information rate r (where r is usually bits per symbol). for any information rate r < c and coding error ε > , for large enough n, there exists a code of length n and rate ≥ r and a decoding algorithm, such that the maximal probability of block error is ≤ ε; that is, it is always possible to transmit with arbitrarily small block error. in addition, for any rate r > c, it is impossible to transmit with arbitrarily small block error. channel coding is concerned with finding such nearly optimal codes that can be used to transmit data over a noisy channel with a small coding error at a rate near the channel capacity. capacity of particular channel models[edit] 	a continuous-time analog communications channel subject to gaussian noise—see shannon–hartley theorem. 	a binary symmetric channel (bsc) with crossover probability p is a binary input, binary output channel that flips the input bit with probability p. the bsc has a capacity of − hb(p) bits per channel use, where hb is the binary entropy function to the base- logarithm: 		 	a binary erasure channel (bec) with erasure probability p is a binary input, ternary output channel. the possible channel outputs are , , and a third symbol 'e' called an erasure. the erasure represents complete loss of information about an input bit. the capacity of the bec is − p bits per channel use. 		 applications to other fields[edit] intelligence uses and secrecy applications[edit] information theoretic concepts apply to cryptography and cryptanalysis. turing's information unit, the ban, was used in the ultra project, breaking the german enigma machine code and hastening the end of world war ii in europe. shannon himself defined an important concept now called the unicity distance. based on the redundancy of the plaintext, it attempts to give a minimum amount of ciphertext necessary to ensure unique decipherability. information theory leads us to believe it is much more difficult to keep secrets than it might first appear. a brute force attack can break systems based on asymmetric key algorithms or on most commonly used methods of symmetric key algorithms (sometimes called secret key algorithms), such as block ciphers. the security of all such methods currently comes from the assumption that no known attack can break them in a practical amount of time. information theoretic security refers to methods such as the one-time pad that are not vulnerable to such brute force attacks. in such cases, the positive conditional mutual information between the plaintext and ciphertext (conditioned on the key) can ensure proper transmission, while the unconditional mutual information between the plaintext and ciphertext remains zero, resulting in absolutely secure communications. in other words, an eavesdropper would not be able to improve his or her guess of the plaintext by gaining knowledge of the ciphertext but not of the key. however, as in any other cryptographic system, care must be used to correctly apply even information-theoretically secure methods; the venona project was able to crack the one-time pads of the soviet union due to their improper reuse of key material. pseudorandom number generation[edit] pseudorandom number generators are widely available in computer language libraries and application programs. they are, almost universally, unsuited to cryptographic use as they do not evade the deterministic nature of modern computer equipment and software. a class of improved random number generators is termed cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generators, but even they require random seeds external to the software to work as intended. these can be obtained via extractors, if done carefully. the measure of sufficient randomness in extractors is min-entropy, a value related to shannon entropy through rényi entropy; rényi entropy is also used in evaluating randomness in cryptographic systems. although related, the distinctions among these measures mean that a random variable with high shannon entropy is not necessarily satisfactory for use in an extractor and so for cryptography uses. seismic exploration[edit] one early commercial application of information theory was in the field of seismic oil exploration. work in this field made it possible to strip off and separate the unwanted noise from the desired seismic signal. information theory and digital signal processing offer a major improvement of resolution and image clarity over previous analog methods.[ ] semiotics[edit] semioticians doede nauta and winfried nöth both considered charles sanders peirce as having created a theory of information in his works on semiotics.[ ]: [ ]: nauta defined semiotic information theory as the study of "the internal processes of coding, filtering, and information processing."[ ]: concepts from information theory such as redundancy and code control have been used by semioticians such as umberto eco and ferruccio rossi-landi to explain ideology as a form of message transmission whereby a dominant social class emits its message by using signs that exhibit a high degree of redundancy such that only one message is decoded among a selection of competing ones.[ ] miscellaneous applications[edit] information theory also has applications in gambling and information theory, black holes, and bioinformatics. see also[edit] 	mathematics portal 	algorithmic probability 	bayesian inference 	communication theory 	constructor theory - a generalization of information theory that includes quantum information 	inductive probability 	info-metrics 	minimum message length 	minimum description length 	list of important publications 	philosophy of information applications[edit] 	active networking 	cryptanalysis 	cryptography 	cybernetics 	entropy in thermodynamics and information theory 	gambling 	intelligence (information gathering) 	seismic exploration history[edit] 	hartley, r.v.l. 	history of information theory 	shannon, c.e. 	timeline of information theory 	yockey, h.p. theory[edit] 	coding theory 	detection theory 	estimation theory 	fisher information 	information algebra 	information asymmetry 	information field theory 	information geometry 	information theory and measure theory 	kolmogorov complexity 	list of unsolved problems in information theory 	logic of information 	network coding 	philosophy of information 	quantum information science 	source coding concepts[edit] 	ban (unit) 	channel capacity 	communication channel 	communication source 	conditional entropy 	covert channel 	data compression 	decoder 	differential entropy 	fungible information 	information fluctuation complexity 	information entropy 	joint entropy 	kullback–leibler divergence 	mutual information 	pointwise mutual information (pmi) 	receiver (information theory) 	redundancy 	rényi entropy 	self-information 	unicity distance 	variety 	hamming distance references[edit] 	^ burnham, k. p. and anderson d. r. ( ) model selection and multimodel inference: a practical information-theoretic approach, second edition (springer science, new york) isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b f. rieke; d. warland; r ruyter van steveninck; w bialek ( ). spikes: exploring the neural code. the mit press. isbn  - . 	^ delgado-bonal, alfonso; martín-torres, javier ( - - ). "human vision is determined based on information theory". scientific reports. ( ): . bibcode: natsr... d. doi: . /srep . issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ cf; huelsenbeck, j. p.; ronquist, f.; nielsen, r.; bollback, j. p. ( ). "bayesian inference of phylogeny and its impact on evolutionary biology". science. ( ): – . bibcode: sci... . h. doi: . /science. . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ allikmets, rando; wasserman, wyeth w.; hutchinson, amy; smallwood, philip; nathans, jeremy; rogan, peter k. ( ). "thomas d. schneider], michael dean ( ) organization of the abcr gene: analysis of promoter and splice junction sequences". gene. ( ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . pmid  . 	^ jaynes, e. t. ( ). "information theory and statistical mechanics". phys. rev. ( ): . bibcode: phrv.. .. j. doi: . /physrev. . . 	^ bennett, charles h.; li, ming; ma, bin ( ). "chain letters and evolutionary histories". scientific american. ( ): – . bibcode: sciam. f.. b. doi: . /scientificamerican - . pmid  . archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ david r. anderson (november , ). "some background on why people in the empirical sciences may want to better understand the information-theoretic methods" (pdf). archived from the original (pdf) on july , . retrieved - - . 	^ fazlollah m. reza ( ) [ ]. an introduction to information theory. dover publications, inc., new york. isbn  - - - . 	^ robert b. ash ( ) [ ]. information theory. dover publications, inc. isbn  - - - . 	^ jerry d. gibson ( ). digital compression for multimedia: principles and standards. morgan kaufmann. isbn  - - - . 	^ haggerty, patrick e. ( ). "the corporation and innovation". strategic management journal. ( ): – . doi: . /smj. . 	^ a b nauta, doede ( ). the meaning of information. the hague: mouton. isbn  . 	^ nöth, winfried (january ). "charles s. peirce's theory of information: a theory of the growth of symbols and of knowledge". cybernetics and human knowing. ( – ): – . 	^ nöth, winfried ( ). "semiotics of ideology". semiotica, issue . the classic work[edit] 	shannon, c.e. ( ), "a mathematical theory of communication", bell system technical journal, , pp.  – & – , july & october, . pdf. notes and other formats. 	r.v.l. hartley, "transmission of information", bell system technical journal, july 	andrey kolmogorov ( ), "three approaches to the quantitative definition of information" in international journal of computer mathematics. other journal articles[edit] 	j. l. kelly, jr., princeton, "a new interpretation of information rate" bell system technical journal, vol. , july , pp.  – . 	r. landauer, ieee.org, "information is physical" proc. workshop on physics and computation physcomp' (ieee comp. sci.press, los alamitos, ) pp.  – . 	landauer, r. ( ). "irreversibility and heat generation in the computing process" (pdf). ibm j. res. dev. ( ): – . doi: . /rd. . . 	timme, nicholas; alford, wesley; flecker, benjamin; beggs, john m. ( ). "multivariate information measures: an experimentalist's perspective". arxiv: . [cs.it]. textbooks on information theory[edit] 	arndt, c. information measures, information and its description in science and engineering (springer series: signals and communication technology), , isbn  - - - - 	ash, rb. information theory. new york: interscience, . isbn  - - - . new york: dover . isbn  - - - 	gallager, r. information theory and reliable communication. new york: john wiley and sons, . isbn  - - - 	goldman, s. information theory. new york: prentice hall, . new york: dover isbn  - - - , isbn  - - - 	cover, thomas; thomas, joy a. ( ). elements of information theory ( nd ed.). new york: wiley-interscience. isbn  - - - . 	csiszar, i, korner, j. information theory: coding theorems for discrete memoryless systems akademiai kiado: nd edition, . isbn  - - - 	mackay, david j. c.. information theory, inference, and learning algorithms cambridge: cambridge university press, . isbn  - - - 	mansuripur, m. introduction to information theory. new york: prentice hall, . isbn  - - - 	mceliece, r. the theory of information and coding". cambridge, . isbn  - 	pierce, jr. "an introduction to information theory: symbols, signals and noise". dover ( nd edition). (reprinted by dover ). 	reza, f. an introduction to information theory. new york: mcgraw-hill . new york: dover . isbn  - - - 	shannon, claude; weaver, warren ( ). the mathematical theory of communication (pdf). urbana, illinois: university of illinois press. isbn  - - - . lccn  - . 	stone, jv. chapter of book "information theory: a tutorial introduction", university of sheffield, england, . isbn  - . 	yeung, rw. a first course in information theory kluwer academic/plenum publishers, . isbn  - - - . 	yeung, rw. information theory and network coding springer , . isbn  - - - - other books[edit] 	leon brillouin, science and information theory, mineola, n.y.: dover, [ , ] . isbn  - - - 	james gleick, the information: a history, a theory, a flood, new york: pantheon, . isbn  - - - - 	a. i. khinchin, mathematical foundations of information theory, new york: dover, . isbn  - - - 	h. s. leff and a. f. rex, editors, maxwell's demon: entropy, information, computing, princeton university press, princeton, new jersey ( ). isbn  - - -x 	robert k. logan. what is information? - propagating organization in the biosphere, the symbolosphere, the technosphere and the econosphere, toronto: demo publishing. 	tom siegfried, the bit and the pendulum, wiley, . isbn  - - - 	charles seife, decoding the universe, viking, . isbn  - - -x 	jeremy campbell, grammatical man, touchstone/simon & schuster, , isbn  - - - 	henri theil, economics and information theory, rand mcnally & company - chicago, . 	escolano, suau, bonev, information theory in computer vision and pattern recognition, springer, . isbn  - - - - 	vlatko vedral, decoding reality: the universe as quantum information, oxford university press . isbn  - - - mooc on information theory[edit] 	raymond w. yeung, "information theory" (the chinese university of hong kong) external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: information theory 	library resources about information theory 	 	resources in your library 	resources in other libraries 	"information", encyclopedia of mathematics, ems press, [ ] 	lambert f. l. 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(cur) = difference from current version, (prev) = difference from preceding version,  m = minor edit, → = section edit, ← = automatic edit summary (newest | oldest) view (newer | older ) ( | | | | ) 	curprev : , december ‎ torstenmandal talk contribs‎ m , bytes + ‎ modification in line with part of already cited authors conclusion i abreviated: "the rather modest size of the difference implies that apocalyptic claims regarding the severe threat of ethnic diversity for social trust in contemporary societies are exaggerated." undo 	curprev : , december ‎ monkbot talk contribs‎ m , bytes − ‎ task (cosmetic): eval templates: del empty params ( ×); hyphenate params ( ×); undo tag: awb 	curprev : , november ‎ victor-vsr talk contribs‎ m , bytes − ‎ →‎management and organization science: correction on one word. undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , november ‎ victor-vsr talk contribs‎ , bytes + ‎ →‎management and organization science: some additions to the text. undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , november ‎ flagrant hysterical curious talk contribs‎ , bytes − ‎ move text in lead undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , november ‎ wikicleanerbot talk contribs‎ m , bytes ‎ v . b - bot t cw# - wp:wcw project (heading start with three "=" and later with level two - reference before punctuation) undo tag: wpcleaner 	curprev : , november ‎ citation bot talk contribs‎ , bytes + ‎ alter: url, pages, edition, journal, title. urls might have been internationalized/anonymized. add: jstor, hdl, isbn, pmid, s cid, pages, issue, volume, doi, author pars. - . removed parameters. formatted dashes. some additions/deletions were actually parameter name changes. correct isbn to isbn . | you can use this bot yourself. report bugs here. | suggested by grimes | category:cs maint: extra text | via #ucb_category / undo 	curprev : , november ‎ kirstyshort talk contribs‎ m , bytes − ‎ undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , november ‎ kirstyshort talk contribs‎ m , bytes + ‎ undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , november ‎ kirstyshort talk contribs‎ m , bytes + ‎ undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , november ‎ kirstyshort talk contribs‎ , bytes − ‎ further restructuring of paragraphs, deletion of certain subheadings as per the wikipedia manual of style. undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , november ‎ kirstyshort talk contribs‎ , bytes + , ‎ editing the economics subsection; citing further sources in support of ideas, adding in the popularised "market for lemons" example. undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , november ‎ kirstyshort talk contribs‎ m , bytes − ‎ moving of diagram to a better position undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , november ‎ kirstyshort talk contribs‎ m , bytes + ‎ adding in additional citation undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , november ‎ kirstyshort talk contribs‎ , bytes + , ‎ provided further detail as to main philosophical streams of thought regarding trust, namely those ideas proposed by baier, lagerspetz, hawley, faulkner. undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , november ‎ kirstyshort talk contribs‎ m , bytes + ‎ insertion of sentence to philosophy section, backed by philosopher lagerspetz. undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , october ‎ rodw talk contribs‎ , bytes + ‎ disambiguated: uncertain → uncertainty, causation → causation (sociology); help needed: expectation undo 	curprev : , october ‎ kirstyshort talk contribs‎ , bytes + ‎ linking particular notions to other wikipedia articles in support. undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , october ‎ kirstyshort talk contribs‎ , bytes + , ‎ further edits to the sociology paragraphs, more specifically breaking down the end of this section into 'means of promoting trust' and 'failure to promote trust', having identified these ideas as key to the text already included in this section, then expanding upon it. undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , october ‎ kirstyshort talk contribs‎ , bytes + ‎ further paraphrasing, adding in citations to the other subsections of the sociology paragraph. undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , october ‎ kirstyshort talk contribs‎ , bytes − ‎ editing paragraphs regarding sociology and trust; in particular the subsection regarding technologies as previously sounded far too specific. edited this section with citations to be more high level, as this is not a core tenet of the discussion around trust - needed to keep this paragraph more focused on sociology. undo tags: visual edit references removed 	curprev : , october ‎ . . . talk‎ , bytes + ‎ inserting relevant citations to phrases which are supported by articles i've read. further general editing and restructuring of some sentences to ensure the first portion of the articles flows well for the reader. undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , october ‎ . . . talk‎ , bytes + ‎ minor edits and grammatical review undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , october ‎ . . . talk‎ , bytes − ‎ editing spelling and grammar, paraphrasing particularly lenghty sentences undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , september ‎ citation bot talk contribs‎ , bytes + ‎ alter: url. add: s cid. | you can use this bot yourself. report bugs here. | suggested by semperiocundus | via #ucb_webform undo 	curprev : , august ‎ . . . talk‎ , bytes + ‎ added explanation undo 	curprev : , august ‎ . . . talk‎ , bytes − ‎ correction undo 	curprev : , august ‎ . . . talk‎ , bytes − ‎ redundant reference undo 	curprev : , august ‎ . . . talk‎ , bytes + , ‎ % of trust research that occurs within organizations refers to one or both of these paradigms. it's quite shocking that they would not be represented here. undo 	curprev : , august ‎ oabot talk contribs‎ m , bytes + ‎ open access bot: doi added to citation with #oabot. undo 	curprev : , august ‎ pj geest talk contribs‎ , bytes + ‎ +graphs undo 	curprev : , august ‎ pj geest talk contribs‎ , bytes + ‎ +map undo 	curprev : , august ‎ elysia (ar) talk contribs‎ , bytes + ‎ adding influence of ethnic diversity of social trust, which has been the subject of at least publications undo 	curprev : , august ‎ elysia (ar) talk contribs‎ , bytes + , ‎ adding in types of social trust | add: pages, volume, journal, year, title, s cid, author pars. - . removed parameters. formatted dashes. some additions/deletions were actually parameter name changes. | you can use this tool yourself. report bugs here. | via #ucb_gadget undo 	curprev : , august ‎ elysia (ar) talk contribs‎ , bytes ‎ →‎management and organization science: sectioncaps undo 	curprev : , july ‎ mirko talk contribs‎ m , bytes − ‎ fix broken link, there was just a typo undo 	curprev : , july ‎ cluebot ng talk contribs‎ m , bytes − ‎ reverting possible vandalism by farmerfrances to version by citation bot. report false positive? thanks, cluebot ng. ( ) (bot) undo tag: rollback 	curprev : , july ‎ farmerfrances talk contribs‎ m , bytes + ‎ →‎sociology undo 	curprev : , may ‎ citation bot talk contribs‎ , bytes − ‎ alter: url. removed url that duplicated unique identifier. removed parameters. | you can use this bot yourself. report bugs here. | activated by neko-chan | category:social constructionism | via #ucb_category undo 	curprev : , april ‎ hyacinth talk contribs‎ m , bytes + ‎ →‎top: link to what it is undo 	curprev : , april ‎ scholar talk contribs‎ , bytes + , ‎ overview of academic research on trust in the field of management and organization science, with citations of reliable sources (two well-cited review articles and one award-winning article published in top journals in the field). undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , april ‎ kleuske talk contribs‎ , bytes − ‎ unsourced undo 	curprev : , april ‎ scholar talk contribs‎ , bytes + ‎ overview of academic research on trust in the field of management and organization science undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , april ‎ scholar talk contribs‎ , bytes + ‎ →‎further reading undo tag: visual edit 	curprev : , march ‎ the eloquent peasant talk contribs‎ , bytes + ‎ importing wikidata short description: "assumption of and reliance on the honesty of another party" (shortdesc helper) undo 	curprev : , march ‎ iridescent talk contribs‎ m , bytes ‎ →‎psychology: cleanup and typo fixing, typo(s) fixed: short term → short-term ( ) undo tag: awb 	curprev : , march ‎ citation bot talk contribs‎ m , bytes + ‎ alter: doi. add: pages, issue, volume. formatted dashes. | you can use this bot yourself. report bugs here. | activated by user:amanwithnoplan | all pages linked from user:amanwithnoplan/sandbox | via #ucb_webform_linked undo 	curprev : , march ‎ mrollie talk contribs‎ , bytes − ‎ reverted to revision by internetarchivebot (talk): rm unexplained list of people (tw) undo tag: undo 	curprev : , march ‎ swaapnika posa talk contribs‎ , bytes + ‎ undo 	curprev : , february ‎ internetarchivebot talk contribs‎ , bytes + ‎ bluelink book for verifiability. 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file:country-level estimates of trust, owid.svg - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	file:country-level estimates of trust, owid.svg 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 			file 	file history 	file usage 	metadata size of this png preview of this svg file: × pixels. other resolutions: × pixels | × pixels | , × pixels | , × pixels | × pixels. original file ‎(svg file, nominally × pixels, file size: kb) 		this is a file from the wikimedia commons. information from its description page there is shown below. commons is a freely licensed media file repository. you can help. summary 	descriptioncountry-level estimates of trust, owid.svg	 english: 	country-level estimates of trust 	values correspond to country-level averages. darker colors correspond to greater trust. estimates are measured in standard deviations from the global distribution, where is the average. this means positive values reflect more trust than the world average; and negative values reflect less trust than the world average. 	date	 (chart creation) 	source	 https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/cross-country-variation-in-trust 	author	 our world in data 	permission (reusing this file)	 "license: all of our world in data is completely open access and all work is licensed under the creative commons by license. you have the permission to use, distribute, and reproduce in any medium, provided the source and authors are credited." licensing 	 	this file is licensed under the creative commons attribution . unported license. 	 	 	 	you are free: 	to share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work 	to remix – to adapt the work 	under the following conditions: 	attribution – you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. you may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . cc by . creative commons attribution . truetrue 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		namespaces 	 	 			file 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	view on commons 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	upload file 	special pages 	printable version 	page information 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 category:reputation management - wikipedia 	 	 	 	help 	 	category:reputation management 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		the main articles for this category are reputation management and reputation system. this category encompasses the sociological and technological aspects of trusting people and their credentials online, a subject which might develop even further in the future with the growing importance of online communities. subcategories this category has the following subcategories, out of total. c 	► reputation management companies‎ ( p) 	► computational trust‎ ( c) r 	► recommender systems‎ ( c, p) 	► review websites‎ ( c, p, f) s 	► social reputation in fiction‎ ( p) 	► star ranking systems‎ ( p) pages in category "reputation management" the following pages are in this category, out of total. this list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).   	reputation management * 	reputation system a 	acknowledgment index 	advogato c 	citation index 	conversocial d 	distrust 	dontdatehimgirl.com e 	the economy of esteem 	eigentrust h 	hilltop algorithm i 	impression management 	infamy l 	raph levien m 	mcafee siteadvisor 	meta-moderation system 	moderation system n 	name and shame 	naymz 	norton safe web 	notability in the english wikipedia p 	pagerank 	personal branding 	profile defenders r 	reputation 	reputation capital 	reputation marketing 	reputational risk s 	slashdot 	smear campaign 	social credit system 	star (classification) 	sybil attack t 	trust (social science) 	trust metric 	trustedsource 	trustrank w 	wot services y 	yasni retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=category:reputation_management&oldid= " 		categories: 	collaboration 	e-commerce 	social networking services 	management by type 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			category 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 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sharing an environment; a social unit of humans a community of interest gathers at stonehenge, england, for the summer solstice. 	part of a series on 	community 	 	 academic studies 	 	social sciences 	community studies 	community practice 	community psychology 	social work 	computational sociology 	cultural anthropology 	internet studies 	philosophy of social science 	rural sociology 	social geography 	social philosophy 	sociocultural evolution 	urban planning 	 key concepts 	 	affinity (sociology) 	collectivism 	community of interest 	community practice 	community of practice 	community of place 	community service 	communitarianism 	community politics 	group (sociology) 	group dynamics 	imagined community 	organization 	sense of community 	small-group communication 	social capital 	socialization 	solidarity (sociology) 	 community development 	 	community-based management 	community building 	community economic development 	community development planning 	community organizing 	 see also 	 	outline 	wikiproject community 	category:community building 	category:community development 	category:localism (politics) 	join the community community 		v 	t 	e a community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as norms, religion, values, customs, or identity. communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a country, village, town, or neighbourhood) or in virtual space through communication platforms. durable relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties also define a sense of community, important to their identity, practice, and roles in social institutions such as family, home, work, government, society, or humanity at large.[ ][need quotation to verify][ ] although communities are usually small relative to personal social ties, "community" may also refer to large group affiliations such as national communities, international communities, and virtual communities.[ ] the english-language word "community" derives from the old french comuneté (currently "communauté"), which comes from the latin communitas "community", "public spirit" (from latin communis, "common").[ ] human communities may have intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, and risks in common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness.[ ] contents 	 perspectives of various disciplines 	 . archaeology 	 . ecology 	 key concepts 	 . gemeinschaft and gesellschaft 	 . sense of community 	 . . socialization 	 community development 	 . community building and organizing 	 types of community 	 internet communities 	 see also 	 notes 	 references perspectives of various disciplines[edit] archaeology[edit] archaeological studies of social communities use the term "community" in two ways, paralleling usage in other areas. the first is an informal definition of community as a place where people used to live. in this sense it is synonymous with the concept of an ancient settlement - whether a hamlet, village, town, or city. the second meaning resembles the usage of the term in other social sciences: a community is a group of people living near one another who interact socially. social interaction on a small scale can be difficult to identify with archaeological data. most reconstructions of social communities by archaeologists rely on the principle that social interaction in the past was conditioned by physical distance. therefore, a small village settlement likely constituted a social community and spatial subdivisions of cities and other large settlements may have formed communities. archaeologists typically use similarities in material culture—from house types to styles of pottery—to reconstruct communities in the past. this classification method relies on the assumption that people or households will share more similarities in the types and styles of their material goods with other members of a social community than they will with outsiders.[ ] ecology[edit] main article: community (ecology) in ecology, a community is an assemblage of populations of different species, interacting with one another. community ecology is the branch of ecology that studies interactions between and among species. it considers how such interactions, along with interactions between species and the abiotic environment, affect community structure and species richness, diversity and patterns of abundance. species interact in three ways: competition, predation and mutualism. competition typically results in a double negative—that is both species lose in the interaction. predation is a win/lose situation with one species winning. mutualism, on the other hand, involves both species cooperating in some way, with both winning. the two main types of communities are major which are self-sustaining and self-regulating (such as a forest or a lake) and minor communities which rely on other communities (like fungi decomposing a log) and are the building blocks of major communities. this is a simplified example of a community. a community includes many populations and how they interact with each other. in this example there's an interaction between the zebra and the bush, and the lion and the zebra, as well as the bird and the organisms by the water, like the worms. key concepts[edit] gemeinschaft and gesellschaft[edit] main article: gemeinschaft and gesellschaft in gemeinschaft und gesellschaft ( ), german sociologist ferdinand tönnies described two types of human association: gemeinschaft (usually translated as "community") and gesellschaft ("society" or "association"). tönnies proposed the gemeinschaft–gesellschaft dichotomy as a way to think about social ties. no group is exclusively one or the other. gemeinschaft stress personal social interactions, and the roles, values, and beliefs based on such interactions. gesellschaft stress indirect interactions, impersonal roles, formal values, and beliefs based on such interactions.[ ] sense of community[edit] main article: sense of community in a seminal study, mcmillan and chavis[ ] identify four elements of "sense of community": 	membership: feeling of belonging or of sharing a sense of personal relatedness, 	influence: mattering, making a difference to a group and of the group mattering to its members 	reinforcement: integration and fulfillment of needs, 	shared emotional connection. to what extent do participants in joint activities experience a sense of community? a "sense of community index (sci) was developed by chavis and colleagues, and revised and adapted by others. although originally designed to assess sense of community in neighborhoods, the index has been adapted for use in schools, the workplace, and a variety of types of communities.[ ] studies conducted by the appa[who?] indicate that young adults who feel a sense of belonging in a community, particularly small communities, develop fewer psychiatric and depressive disorders than those who do not have the feeling of love and belonging.[citation needed] socialization[edit] main article: socialization lewes bonfire night procession commemorating protestant martyrs burnt at the stake from to the process of learning to adopt the behavior patterns of the community is called socialization. the most fertile time of socialization is usually the early stages of life, during which individuals develop the skills and knowledge and learn the roles necessary to function within their culture and social environment.[ ] for some psychologists, especially those in the psychodynamic tradition, the most important period of socialization is between the ages of one and ten. but socialization also includes adults moving into a significantly different environment where they must learn a new set of behaviors.[ ] socialization is influenced primarily by the family, through which children first learn community norms. other important influences include schools, peer groups, people, mass media, the workplace, and government. the degree to which the norms of a particular society or community are adopted determines one's willingness to engage with others. the norms of tolerance, reciprocity, and trust are important "habits of the heart," as de tocqueville put it, in an individual's involvement in community.[ ] community development[edit] main article: community development community development is often linked with community work or community planning, and may involve stakeholders, foundations, governments, or contracted entities including non-government organisations (ngos), universities or government agencies to progress the social well-being of local, regional and, sometimes, national communities. more grassroots efforts, called community building or community organizing, seek to empower individuals and groups of people by providing them with the skills they need to effect change in their own communities.[ ] these skills often assist in building political power through the formation of large social groups working for a common agenda. community development practitioners must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within the context of larger social institutions. public administrators, in contrast, need to understand community development in the context of rural and urban development, housing and economic development, and community, organizational and business development. formal accredited programs conducted by universities, as part of degree granting institutions, are often used to build a knowledge base to drive curricula in public administration, sociology and community studies. the general social survey from the national opinion research center at the university of chicago and the saguaro seminar at the john f. kennedy school of government at harvard university are examples of national community development in the united states. the maxwell school of citizenship and public affairs at syracuse university in new york state offers core courses in community and economic development, and in areas ranging from non-profit development to us budgeting (federal to local, community funds). in the united kingdom, the university of oxford has led in providing extensive research in the field through its community development journal,[ ] used worldwide by sociologists and community development practitioners. at the intersection between community development and community building are a number of programs and organizations with community development tools. one example of this is the program of the asset based community development institute of northwestern university. the institute makes available downloadable tools[ ] to assess community assets and make connections between non-profit groups and other organizations that can help in community building. the institute focuses on helping communities develop by "mobilizing neighborhood assets" – building from the inside out rather than the outside in.[ ] in the disability field, community building was prevalent in the s and s with roots in john mcknight's approaches.[ ][ ] community building and organizing[edit] the anti-war affinity group "collateral damage" protesting the iraq war in the different drum: community-making and peace ( ) scott peck argues that the almost accidental sense of community that exists at times of crisis can be consciously built. peck believes that conscious community building is a process of deliberate design based on the knowledge and application of certain rules.[ ] he states that this process goes through four stages:[ ] 	pseudocommunity: when people first come together, they try to be "nice" and present what they feel are their most personable and friendly characteristics. 	chaos: people move beyond the inauthenticity of pseudo-community and feel safe enough to present their "shadow" selves. 	emptiness: moves beyond the attempts to fix, heal and convert of the chaos stage, when all people become capable of acknowledging their own woundedness and brokenness, common to human beings. 	true community: deep respect and true listening for the needs of the other people in this community. in , peck remarked that building a sense of community is easy but maintaining this sense of community is difficult in the modern world.[ ][further explanation needed] the three basic types of community organizing are grassroots organizing, coalition building, and "institution-based community organizing," (also called "broad-based community organizing," an example of which is faith-based community organizing, or congregation-based community organizing).[ ] community building can use a wide variety of practices, ranging from simple events (e.g., potlucks, small book clubs) to larger-scale efforts (e.g., mass festivals, construction projects that involve local participants rather than outside contractors). community building that is geared toward citizen action is usually termed "community organizing."[ ] in these cases, organized community groups seek accountability from elected officials and increased direct representation within decision-making bodies. where good-faith negotiations fail, these constituency-led organizations seek to pressure the decision-makers through a variety of means, including picketing, boycotting, sit-ins, petitioning, and electoral politics. community organizing can focus on more than just resolving specific issues. organizing often means building a widely accessible power structure, often with the end goal of distributing power equally throughout the community. community organizers generally seek to build groups that are open and democratic in governance. such groups facilitate and encourage consensus decision-making with a focus on the general health of the community rather than a specific interest group. if communities are developed based on something they share in common, whether location or values, then one challenge for developing communities is how to incorporate individuality and differences. rebekah nathan suggests[according to whom?] in her book, my freshman year, we are drawn to developing communities totally based on sameness, despite stated commitments to diversity, such as those found on university websites. types of community[edit] participants in diana leafe christian's "heart of a healthy community" seminar circle during an afternoon session at o.u.r. ecovillage a number of ways to categorize types of community have been proposed. one such breakdown is as follows: 	location-based communities: range from the local neighbourhood, suburb, village, town or city, region, nation or even the planet as a whole. these are also called communities of place. 	identity-based communities: range from the local clique, sub-culture, ethnic group, religious, multicultural or pluralistic civilisation, or the global community cultures of today. they may be included as communities of need or identity, such as disabled persons, or frail aged people. 	organizationally-based communities: range from communities organized informally around family or network-based guilds and associations to more formal incorporated associations, political decision making structures, economic enterprises, or professional associations at a small, national or international scale. the usual categorizations of community relations have a number of problems:[ ] ( ) they tend to give the impression that a particular community can be defined as just this kind or another; ( ) they tend to conflate modern and customary community relations; ( ) they tend to take sociological categories such as ethnicity or race as given, forgetting that different ethnically defined persons live in different kinds of communities —grounded, interest-based, diasporic, etc.[ ] in response to these problems, paul james and his colleagues have developed a taxonomy that maps community relations, and recognizes that actual communities can be characterized by different kinds of relations at the same time:[ ] 	grounded community relations. this involves enduring attachment to particular places and particular people. it is the dominant form taken by customary and tribal communities. in these kinds of communities, the land is fundamental to identity. 	life-style community relations. this involves giving primacy to communities coming together around particular chosen ways of life, such as morally charged or interest-based relations or just living or working in the same location. hence the following sub-forms: 	community-life as morally bounded, a form taken by many traditional faith-based communities. 	community-life as interest-based, including sporting, leisure-based and business communities which come together for regular moments of engagement. 	community-life as proximately-related, where neighbourhood or commonality of association forms a community of convenience, or a community of place (see below). 	projected community relations. this is where a community is self-consciously treated as an entity to be projected and re-created. it can be projected as through thin advertising slogan, for example gated community, or can take the form of ongoing associations of people who seek political integration, communities of practice[ ] based on professional projects, associative communities which seek to enhance and support individual creativity, autonomy and mutuality. a nation is one of the largest forms of projected or imagined community. in these terms, communities can be nested and/or intersecting; one community can contain another—for example a location-based community may contain a number of ethnic communities.[ ] both lists above can used in a cross-cutting matrix in relation to each other. internet communities[edit] in general, virtual communities value knowledge and information as currency or social resource.[ ][ ][ ][ ] what differentiates virtual communities from their physical counterparts is the extent and impact of "weak ties," which are the relationships acquaintances or strangers form to acquire information through online networks.[ ] relationships among members in a virtual community tend to focus on information exchange about specific topics.[ ][ ] a survey conducted by pew internet and the american life project in found those involved in entertainment, professional, and sports virtual groups focused their activities on obtaining information.[ ] an epidemic of bullying and harassment has arisen from the exchange of information between strangers, especially among teenagers,[ ] in virtual communities. despite attempts to implement anti-bullying policies, sheri bauman, professor of counselling at the university of arizona, claims the "most effective strategies to prevent bullying" may cost companies revenue.[ ] see also[edit] 	 	circles of sustainability 	communitarianism 	community theatre 	engaged theory 	outline of community 	wikipedia community notes[edit] 	^ "community : the blackwell encyclopedia of sociology : blackwell encyclopedia of sociolonline". www.sociologyencyclopedia.com. retrieved - - . 	^ james, paul; nadarajah, yaso; haive, karen; stead, victoria ( ). sustainable communities, sustainable development: other paths for papua new guinea. honolulu: university of hawaii press. p.  . [...] we define community very broadly as a group or network of persons who are connected (objectively) to each other by relatively durable social relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties and who mutually define that relationship (subjectively) as important to their social identity and social practice. 	^ see also: james, paul ( ). globalism, nationalism, tribalism: bringing theory back in – volume of towards a theory of abstract community. london: sage publications. 	^ "community" oxford dictionaries. . oxford dictionaries 	^ melih, bulu ( - - ). city competitiveness and improving urban subsystems: technologies and applications: technologies and applications. igi global. isbn  - - - - . 	^ canuto, marcello a. and jason yaeger (editors) ( ) the archaeology of communities. routledge, new york. hegmon, michelle ( ) concepts of community in archaeological research. in seeking the center: archaeology and ancient communities in the mesa verde region, edited by mark d. varien and richard h. wilshusen, pp. – . university of utah press, salt lake city. 	^ tönnies, ferdinand ( ). gemeinschaft und gesellschaft, leipzig: fues's verlag. an english translation of the th edition by charles p. loomis appeared in as fundamental concepts of sociology (gemeinschaft und gesellschaft), new york: american book co.; in as community and association (gemeinschaft und gesellschaft[sic]), london: routledge & kegan paul; and in as community and society, east lansing: michigan state u.p. loomis includes as an introduction, representing tönnies' "most recent thinking", his article "gemeinschaft und gesellschaft" in handwörterbuch der soziologie (stuttgart, enke v.). 	^ mcmillan, d.w., & chavis, d.m. . "sense of community: a definition and theory," p. . 	^ perkins, d.d., florin, p., rich, r.c., wandersman, a. & chavis, d.m. ( ). participation and the social and physical environment of residential blocks: crime and community context. american journal of community psychology, , – . chipuer, h.m., & pretty, g.m.h. ( ). a review of the sense of community index: current uses, factor structure, reliability, and further development. journal of community psychology, ( ), – . long, d.a., & perkins, d.d. ( ). confirmatory factor analysis of the sense of community index and development of a brief sci. journal of community psychology, , – . 	^ newman, d. . chapter . "building identity: socialization" pp. – . 	^ newman, d. , p. . 	^ smith, m. . community. 	^ kelly, anthony, "with head, heart and hand: dimensions of community building" (boolarong press) isbn  - - - - 	^ community development journal, oxford university press 	^ abcd institute, in cooperation with the w.k. kellogg foundation. . discovering community power: a guide to mobilizing local assets and your organization's capacity. 	^ abcd institute. . welcome to abcd. 	^ lutfiyya, z.m ( , march). going for it": life at the gig harbor group home. syracuse, ny: syracuse university center on human policy, research and training center on community integration. 	^ mcknight, j. ( ). beyond community services. evanston, il: northwestern university, center of urban affairs and policy research. 	^ m. scott peck, ( ). the different drum: community-making and peace, pp. – . 	^ peck ( ), pp. – . 	^ m. scott peck ( ). "the joy of community" archived - - at the wayback machine. an interview with m. scott peck by alan atkisson. in context # , p. . 	^ jacoby brown, michael, ( ), building powerful community organizations: a personal guide to creating groups that can solve problems and change the world (long haul press) 	^ walls, david ( ) "power to the people: thirty-five years of community organizing". from the workbook, summer , pp. – . retrieved on: june , . 	^ gerhard delanty, community, routledge, london, . 	^ james, paul ( ). globalism, nationalism, tribalism: bringing theory back in – volume of towards a theory of abstract community. london: sage publications. 	^ james, paul; nadarajah, yaso; haive, karen; stead, victoria ( ). sustainable communities, sustainable development: other paths for papua new guinea (pdf download). honolulu: university of hawaii press. 	^ etienne wenger, communities of practice: learning, meaning and identity, cambridge university press, cambridge, . 	^ tropman john e., erlich, john l. and rothman, jack ( ), "tactics and techniques of community intervention" (wadsworth publishing) 	^ ridings, catherine m., gefen, david ( ). from the couch to the keyboard: psychotherapy in cyberspace. in s. kiesler (ed.), culture of the internet (pp. – ). mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates, cited in binik, y. m., cantor, j., ochs, e., & meana, m. ( ). 	^ ridings, catherine m., gefen, david ( ). asynchronous learning networks as a virtual classroom. communications of the acm, ( ), – , cited in hiltz, s. r., & wellman, b. ( ). 	^ ridings, catherine m., gefen, david ( ). a slice of life in my virtual community. in l. m. harasim (ed.), global networks: computers and international communication (pp. – ). cambridge, ma: the mit press, cited in rheingold, h. ( a). 	^ ridings, catherine m., gefen, david ( ). atheism, sex and databases: the net as a social technology. in s. kiesler (ed.), culture of the internet (pp. – ). mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates, cited in sproull, l., & faraj, s. ( ). 	^ ridings, catherine m., gefen, david ( ). the kindness of strangers: the usefulness of electronic weak ties for technical advice. organization science, ( ), – , cited in constant, d., sproull, l., & kiesler, s. ( ). 	^ baym, n. k. ( ). tune in, log on: soaps, fandom and online community. thousand oaks: sage publications, inc. 	^ wellman, b., & gulia, m. ( a). the network basis of social support: a network is more than the sum of its ties. in b. wellman (ed.), networks in the global village: life in contemporary communities (pp. – ). boulder, co: westview press. 	^ horrigan, j. b., rainie, l., & fox, s. ( ). online communities: networks that nurture long-distance relationships and local ties. retrieved october , from http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/report .pdf. 	^ smith, peter k.; mahdavi, jess; carvalho, manuel; fisher, sonja; russell, shanette; tippett, neil ( ). "cyberbullying: its nature and impact in secondary school pupils". the journal of child psychology and psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . 	^ wellemeyer, james (july , ). "instagram, facebook and twitter struggle to contain the epidemic in online bullying". marketwatch. retrieved september , . references[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to community. 		look up community in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	barzilai, gad. . communities and law: politics and cultures of legal identities. ann arbor: university of michigan press. 	beck, u. . risk society: towards a new modernity. london: sage: . what is globalization? cambridge: polity press. 	chavis, d.m., hogge, j.h., mcmillan, d.w., & wandersman, a. . "sense of community through brunswick's lens: a first look." journal of community psychology, ( ), – . 	chipuer, h.m., & pretty, g.m.h. ( ). a review of the sense of community index: current uses, factor structure, reliability, and further development. journal of community psychology, ( ), – . 	christensen, k., et al. ( ). encyclopedia of community. volumes. thousand oaks, ca: sage. 	cohen, a. p. . the symbolic construction of community. routledge: new york. 	durkheim, Émile. [ ] the rules of sociological method. translated by s.a. solovay and j.h. mueller. new york: the free press. 	cox, f., j. erlich, j. rothman, and j. tropman. . strategies of community organization: a book of readings. itasca, il: f.e. peacock publishers. 	effland, r. . the cultural evolution of civilizations mesa community college. 	giddens, a. . "risk and responsibility" modern law review ( ): – . 	james, paul ( ). nation formation: towards a theory of abstract community. london: sage publications. 	lenski, g. . human societies: an introduction to macrosociology. new york: mcgraw-hill, inc. 	long, d.a., & perkins, d.d. ( ). confirmatory factor analysis of the sense of community index and development of a brief sci. journal of community psychology, , – . 	lyall, scott, ed. ( ). community in modern scottish literature. brill | rodopi: leiden | boston. 	nancy, jean-luc. la communauté désœuvrée – philosophical questioning of the concept of community and the possibility of encountering a non-subjective concept of it 	muegge, steven ( ). "platforms, communities and business ecosystems: lessons learned about entrepreneurship in an interconnected world". technology innovation management review (february): – . doi: . /timreview/ . 	newman, d. . sociology: exploring the architecture of everyday life, chapter . "building identity: socialization" pine forge press. retrieved: - - . 	putnam, r.d. . bowling alone: the collapse and revival of american community. new york: simon & schuster 	sarason, s.b. . the psychological sense of community: prospects for a community psychology. san francisco: jossey-bass. . "commentary: the emergence of a conceptual center." journal of community psychology, , – . 	smith, m.k. . community. encyclopedia of informal education. last updated: january , . retrieved: - - . 	authority control 	 	gnd: - 	lccn: sh 	nara: retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=community&oldid= " 		categories: 	community 	types of organization hidden categories: 	webarchive template wayback links 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	wikipedia articles needing factual verification from june 	all articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases 	articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from october 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from june 	wikipedia articles needing clarification from october 	commons category link is on wikidata 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	wikipedia articles with lccn identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nara identifiers 	 	 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	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e confidence is a state of being clear-headed either that a hypothesis or prediction is correct or that a chosen course of action is the best or most effective. confidence comes from a latin word fidere' which means "to trust"; therefore, having self-confidence is having trust in one's self. arrogance or hubris, in comparison, is the state of having unmerited confidence – believing something or someone is capable or correct when they are not. overconfidence or presumptuousness is excessive belief in someone (or something) succeeding, without any regard for failure. confidence can be a self-fulfilling prophecy as those without it may fail or not try because they lack it and those with it may succeed because they have it rather than because of an innate ability. the concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. one's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities.[ ] it is a positive[ ] belief that in the future one can generally accomplish what one wishes to do. self-confidence is not the same as self-esteem, which is an evaluation of one's own worth, whereas self-confidence is more specifically trust in one's ability to achieve some goal, which one meta-analysis suggested is similar to generalization of self-efficacy.[ ] abraham maslow and many others after him have emphasized the need to distinguish between self-confidence as a generalized personality characteristic, and self-confidence with respect to a specific task, ability or challenge (i.e. self-efficacy). self-confidence typically refers to general self-confidence. this is different from self-efficacy, which psychologist albert bandura has defined as a “belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task”[ ] and therefore is the term that more accurately refers to specific self-confidence. psychologists have long noted that a person can possess self-confidence that he or she can complete a specific task (self-efficacy) (e.g. cook a good meal or write a good novel) even though they may lack general self-confidence, or conversely be self-confident though they lack the self-efficacy to achieve a particular task (e.g. write a novel). these two types of self-confidence are, however, correlated with each other, and for this reason can be easily conflated.[ ] contents 	 history 	 theories and correlations with other variables and factors 	 . self-confidence as an intra-psychological variable 	 . relationship to social influences 	 . variation between different categorical groups 	 . . children 	 . . students 	 . . men versus women 	 . stereotype threat 	 . . self-confidence in different cultures 	 . . athletes 	 measures 	 wheel of wellness 	 implicit vs. explicit 	 extent 	 lack of self-confidence 	 confidence bias 	 see also 	 references history[edit] ideas about the causes and effects of self-confidence have appeared in english language publications describing characteristics of a sacrilegious attitude toward god,[ ] the character of the british empire,[ ] and the culture of colonial-era american society[ ] (where it seemed to connote arrogance and be a negative attribute.) in , the philosopher william james in his principles of psychology wrote, "believe what is in the line of your needs, for only by such belief is the need fulled ... have faith that you can successfully make it, and your feet are nerved to its accomplishment," expressing how self-confidence could be a virtue. that same year, dr. frederick needham, in his presidential address to the opening of the british medical journal's section of psychology praised a progressive new architecture of an asylum accommodation for insane patients as increasing their self-confidence by offering them greater “liberty of action, extended exercise, and occupation, thus generating self-confidence and becoming, not only excellent tests of the sanity of the patient, but operating powerfully in promoting recovery.”[ ] in doing so, he seemed to early on suggest that self-confidence may bear a scientific relation to mental health. with the arrival of world war i, psychologists praised self-confidence as greatly decreasing nervous tension, allaying fear, and ridding the battlefield of terror; they argued that soldiers who cultivated a strong and healthy body would also acquire greater self-confidence while fighting.[ ] at the height of the temperance social reform movement of the s, psychologists associated self-confidence in men with remaining at home and taking care of the family when they were not working.[ ] during the great depression, philip eisenberg and paul lazerfeld noted how a sudden negative change in one's circumstances, especially a loss of a job, could lead to decreased self-confidence, but more commonly if the jobless person believes the fault of his unemployment is his. they also noted how if individuals do not have a job long enough, they became apathetic and lost all self-confidence.[ ] in , abraham maslow in his paper “a theory of human motivation” argued that an individual was only motivated to acquire self-confidence (one component of “esteem”) after he or she had achieved what they needed for physiological survival, safety, and love and belonging. he claimed that satisfaction of self-esteem led to feelings of self-confidence that, once attained, led to a desire for “self-actualization."[ ] as material standards of most people rapidly rose in developed countries after world war ii and fulfilled their material needs, a plethora of widely cited academic research about-confidence and many related concepts like self-esteem and self-efficacy emerged.[ ][ ][ ][ ] theories and correlations with other variables and factors[edit] self-confidence as an intra-psychological variable[edit] social psychologists have found self-confidence to be correlated with other psychological variables within individuals, including saving money,[ ] how individuals exercise influence over others,[ ] and being a responsible student.[ ] marketing researchers have found that general self-confidence of a person is negatively correlated with their level of anxiety.[ ] some studies suggest various factors within and beyond an individual's control that affect their self-confidence. hippel and trivers propose that people will deceive themselves about their own positive qualities and negative qualities of others so that they can display greater self-confidence than they might otherwise feel, thereby enabling them to advance socially and materially.[ ] others have found that new information about an individual's performance interacts with an individual's prior self-confidence about their ability to perform. if that particular information is negative feedback, this may interact with a negative affective state (low self-confidence) causing the individual to become demoralized, which in turn induces a self-defeating attitude that increases the likelihood of failure in the future more than if they did not lack self-confidence.[ ][ ] on the other hand, some also find that self-confidence increases a person's general well-being[ ][ ] and one's motivation[ ] and therefore often performance.[ ] it also increases one's ability to deal with stress and mental health.[ ][ ] a meta-analysis of articles found that generally when individuals attribute their success to a stable cause (a matter under their control) they are less likely to be confident about being successful in the future. if an individual attributes their failure to an unstable cause (a factor beyond their control, like a sudden and unexpected storm) they are more likely to be confident about succeeding in the future.[ ] therefore, if an individual believes he/she and/or others failed to achieve a goal (e.g. give up smoking) because of a factor that was beyond their control, he or she is more likely to be more self-confident that he or she can achieve the goal in the future.[ ] whether a person in making a decision seeks out additional sources of information depends on their level of self-confidence specific to that area. as the complexity of a decision increases, a person is more likely to be influenced by another person and seek out additional information.[ ] however, people can also be relatively self-confident about what they believe if they consult sources of information that agree with their world views (e.g. new york times for liberals, fox news for conservatives), even if they do not know what will happen tomorrow.[ ] several psychologists suggest that people who are self-confident are more willing to examine evidence that both supports and contradicts their attitudes. meanwhile, people who are less self-confident about their perspective and are more defensive about them may prefer proattitudinal information over materials that challenge their perspectives.[ ][ ][ ] (see also byrne, ; olson & zanna, b; for related views in other domains, see tesser, ). relationship to social influences[edit] an individual's self-confidence can vary in different environments, such as at home or in school, and with respect to different types of relationships and situations.[ ] in relation to general society, some have found that the more self-confident an individual is, the less likely they are to conform to the judgments of others.[ ] leon festinger found that self-confidence in an individual's ability may only rise or fall where that individual is able to compare themselves to others who are roughly similar in a competitive environment.[ ] furthermore, when individuals with low self-confidence receive feedback from others, they are averse to receiving information about their relative ability and negative informative feedback, and not averse to receiving positive feedback.[ ] people with high self-confidence can easily impress others, as others perceive them as more knowledgeable and more likely to make correct judgments,[ ] despite the fact that often a negative correlation is sometimes found between the level of their self-confidence and accuracy of their claims.[ ] when people are uncertain and unknowledgeable about a topic, they are more likely to believe the testimony,[ ] and follow the advice of those that seem self-confident.[ ] however, expert psychological testimony on the factors that influence eyewitness memory appears to reduce juror reliance on self-confidence.[ ] people are more likely to choose leaders with greater self-confidence than those with less self-confidence.[ ][ ] heterosexual men who exhibit greater self-confidence than other men are more likely to attract single and partnered women.[ ][ ] salespeople who are high in self-confidence are more likely to set higher goals for themselves and therefore more likely to stay employed.[ ] yield higher revenues and customer service satisfaction[ ][ ] in relation to leadership, leaders with high self-confidence are more likely to influence others through persuasion rather than coercive means. individuals low in power and thus in self-confidence are more likely to use coercive methods of influence[ ] and to become personally involved while those high in self-confidence are more likely to refer problem to someone else or resort to bureaucratic procedures to influence others (e.g. appeal to organizational policies or regulations).[ ][ ][ ] others suggest that self-confidence does not affect style of leadership but is only correlated with years of supervisory experience and self-perceptions of power.[ ] variation between different categorical groups[edit] social scientists have found ways in which self-confidence seems to operate differently within various groups in society. children[edit] in children, self-confidence emerges differently than adults. for example, fenton suggested that only children as a group are more self-confident than other children.[ ] zimmerman claimed that if children are self-confident they can learn they are more likely to sacrifice immediate recreational time for possible rewards in the future. enhancing their self-regulative capability.[ ] by adolescence, youth that have little contact with friends tend to have low self-confidence.[ ] successful performance of children in music also increases feelings of self-confidence, increasing motivation for study.[ ][ ] students[edit] captioned "bashful" in a – yearbook, sturgeon bay, wisconsin many students focus on studies in school. in general, students who perform well have increased confidence which likely in turn encourages students to take greater responsibility to successfully complete tasks.[ ] students who perform better receive more positive evaluations report and greater self-confidence.[ ] low achieving students report less confidence and high performing students report higher self-confidence.[ ] teachers can greatly affect the self-confidence of their students depending on how they treat them.[ ] in particular, steele and aronson established that black students perform more poorly on exams (relative to white students) if they must reveal their racial identities before the exam, a phenomenon known as “stereotype threat.”[ ] keller and dauenheimer find a similar phenomena in relation to female student's performance (relative to male student's) on math tests [ ] sociologists of education zhou and lee have observed the reverse phenomena occurring amongst asian-americans, whose confidence becomes tied up in expectations that they will succeed by both parents and teachers and who claim others perceive them as excelling academically more than they in fact are.[ ] in one study of ucla students, males (compared to females) and adolescents with more siblings (compared to those with less) were more self-confident. individuals who were self-confident specifically in the academic domain were more likely to be happy but higher general self-confidence was not correlated with happiness. with greater anxiety, shyness and depression, emotionally vulnerable students feel more lonely due to a lack of general self-confidence.[ ] another study of first year college students found men to be much more self-confident than women in athletic and academic activities.[ ] in regards to inter-ethnic interaction and language learning, studies show that those who engage more with people of a different ethnicity and language become more self-confident in interacting with them.[ ] men versus women[edit] barber and odean find that male common stock investors trade % more than their female counterparts, which they attribute greater recklessness (though also self-confidence) of men, reducing men's net returns by . percentage points per year versus women's . percentage points.[ ] some have found that women who are either high or low in general self-confidence are more likely to be persuaded to change their opinion than women with medium self-confidence. however, when specific high confidence (self-efficacy) is high, generalized confidence plays less of a role in affecting their ability to carry out the task.[ ] research finds that females report self-confidence levels in supervising subordinates proportionate to their experience level, while males report being able to supervise subordinates well regardless of experience.[ ] evidence also has suggested that women who are more self-confident may received high performance evaluations but not be as well liked as men that engage in the same behavior.[ ] however confident women were considered a better job candidates than both men and women who behaved modestly[ ] in the aftermath of the first wave of feminism and women's role in the labor force during the world war, maslow argued that some women who possessed a more “dominant” personality were more self-confident and therefore would aspire to and achieve more intellectually than those that had a less “dominant” personality—even if they had the same level of intelligence as the “less dominant” women. however, phillip eisenberg later found the same dynamic among men.[ ] another common finding is that males who have low generalized self-confidence are more easily persuaded than males of high generalized self-confidence.[ ][ ][ ] women tend to respond less to negative feedback and be more averse to negative feedback than men.[ ] niederle and westerlund found that men are much more competitive and obtain higher compensation than women and that this difference is due to differences in self-confidence, while risk and feedback-aversion play a negligible role.[ ] some scholars partly attribute the fact to women being less likely to persist in engineering college than men to women's diminished sense of self-confidence.[ ] this may be related to gender roles, as a study found that after women who viewed commercials with women in traditional gender roles, they appeared less self-confident in giving a speech than after viewing commercials with women taking on more masculine roles.[ ] such self-confidence may also be related to body image, as one study found a sample of overweight people in australia and the us are less self-confident about their body's performance than people of average weight, and the difference is even greater for women than for men.[ ] others have found that if a baby child is separated from their mother at birth the mother is less self-confident in their ability to raise that child than those mothers who are not separated from their children, even if the two mothers did not differ much in their care-taking skills. furthermore, women who initially had low self-confidence are likely to experience a larger drop of self-confidence after separation from their children than women with relatively higher self-confidence.[ ] stereotype threat[edit] stereotype threat examines of how a social identity that is negatively stereotyped causes vulnerabilities in a stereotype-relevant situation. this concept examines factors such as difficulty of the task while experiencing stereotype threat, beliefs about abilities, as well as the interplay of the relevance of the stereotype to the task. self-confidence in different cultures[edit] some have suggested that self-confidence is more adaptive in cultures where people are not very concerned about maintaining harmonious relationships. but in cultures that value positive feelings and self-confidence less, maintenance of smooth interpersonal relationships are more important, and therefore self-criticism and a concern to save face is more adaptive. for example, suh et al. ( ) argue that east asians are not as concerned as maintaining self-confidence as americans[ ] and many even find asians perform better when they lack confidence.[ ][ ][ ] athletes[edit] many sports psychologists have noted the importance of self-confidence in winning athletic competitions. amongst athletes, gymnasts who tend to talk to themselves in an instructional format tended to be more self-confident than gymnasts that did not.[ ] researchers have found that self-confidence is also one of the most influential factors in how well an athlete performs in a competition.[ ][ ] in particular, "robust self-confidence beliefs" are correlated with aspects of "mental toughness," or the ability to cope better than your opponents with many demands and remain determined, focused and in control under pressure.[ ][ ] in particular, bull et al. ( ) make the distinction between "robust confidence" which leads to tough thinking, and "resilient confidence" which involves over-coming self doubts and maintaining self-focus and generates "tough thinking."[ ] these traits enable athletes to "bounce back from adversity."[ ] when athletes confront stress while playing sports, their self-confidence decreases. however feedback from their team members in the form of emotional and informational support reduces the extent to which stresses in sports reduces their self-confidence. at high levels of support, performance related stress does not affect self-confidence.[ ] measures[edit] one of the earliest measures of self-confidence used a -point scale centered on zero, ranging from a minimum score characterizing someone who is “timid and self-distrustful, shy, never makes decisions, self effacing” to an upper extreme score representing someone who is “able to make decisions, absolutely confident and sure of his own decisions and opinions.”[ ] some have measured self-confidence as a simple construct divided into affective and cognitive components: anxiety as an affective aspect and self-evaluations of proficiency as a cognitive component.[ ] the more context-based personal evaluation inventory (pei), developed by shrauger ( ), measures specific self-esteem and self-confidence in different aspects (speaking in public spaces, academic performance, physical appearance, romantic relationships, social interactions, athletic ability, and general self-confidence score.[ ] other surveys have also measured self-confidence in a similar way by evoking examples of more concrete activities (e.g. making new friends, keeping up with course demands, managing time wisely, etc.).[ ] the competitive state anxiety inventory- (csai- ) measures on a scale of to how confident athletes feel about winning an upcoming match.[ ] likewise, the trait robustness of sports-confidence inventory (trosci) requires respondents to provide numerical answers on a nine-point scale answering such questions about how much one's self-confidence goes up and down, and how sensitive one's self-confidence is to performance and negative feedback.[ ] others, skeptical about the reliability of such self-report indices, have measured self-confidence by having examiners assess non-verbal cues of subjects, measuring on a scale of to whether the individual 	maintains frequent eye contact or almost completely avoids eye contact, 	engages in little or no fidgeting, or, a lot of fidgeting, 	seldom or frequently uses self-comforting gestures (e.g. stroking hair or chin, arms around self), 	sits up straight facing the experimenter, or, sits hunched over or rigidly without facing the experimenter, 	has a natural facial expression, or, grimaces, 	does not twiddle hands, or, frequently twiddles something in their hand, or, 	uses body and hand gestures to emphasize a point, or, never uses hand or body gestures to emphasize a point or makes inappropriate gestures.[ ] wheel of wellness[edit] the wheel of wellness was the first theoretical model of wellness based in counseling theory. it is a model based on adler's individual psychology and cross-disciplinary research on characteristics of healthy people who live longer and with a higher quality of life. the wheel of wellness includes five life tasks that relate to each other: spirituality, self-direction, work and leisure, friendship, and love. there are subtasks of self-direction areas: sense of worth, sense of control, realistic beliefs, emotional awareness and coping, problem solving and creativity, sense of humor, nutrition, exercise, self-care, stress management, gender identity, and cultural identity. there are also five second-order factors, the creative self, coping self, social self, essential self, and physical self, which allow exploration of the meaning of wellness within the total self. in order to achieve a high self-esteem, it is essential to focus on identifying strengths, positive assets, and resources related to each component of the wellness model and using these strengths to cope with life challenges.[ ] implicit vs. explicit[edit] implicitly measured self-esteem has been found to be weakly correlated with explicitly measured self-esteem.[ ][clarification needed] this leads some critics[who?] to assume that explicit and implicit self-confidence are two completely different types of self-esteem. therefore, this has drawn the conclusion that one will either have a distinct, unconscious self-esteem or they will consciously misrepresent how they feel about themselves. recent studies have shown that implicit self-esteem doesn't particularly tap into the unconscious, rather that people consciously overreport their levels of self-esteem. another possibility is that implicit measurement may be assessing a different aspect of conscious self-esteem altogether.[ ] inaccurate self-evaluation is commonly observed in healthy populations. in the extreme, large differences between oneʼs self-perception and oneʼs actual behavior is a hallmark of a number of disorders that have important implications for understanding treatment seeking and compliance.[ ] extent[edit] taken to an extreme, over-confidence can cause problems as evidenced by the famous author matthew syed and mentioned here in this reference in regard to sport.[ ] motivation theories have suggested that successful performance hinges on both skill and will.[ ] yet, even a motivated and skilled individual can fail to perform if he or she does not have a personal certainty belief that s/he can handle what it takes or what needs to be done. lack of self-confidence[edit] low confidence makes it less likely that a person will initiate action and more likely that a person will disengage because they doubt they can handle what needs to be done. even with skill and motivation, without confidence, goals are not likely to be met. in certain fields of medical practice patients experience lack of self-confidence during the recovery period. this is commonly referred to as dsf or "defectum sui fiducia" from the latin etymology of lack of self-confidence. for example, this can be the case after stroke whereby the patient refrains from using the weaker lower limb due to fear of it not being strong enough to hold their weight whilst standing or walking.[citation needed] confidence bias[edit] 	 	this section possibly contains original research. please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (october ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) there are several debates concerning the overconfidence phenomenon and what its source is.[ ] it is suggested that the confidence bias can be explained by a noisy conversion of objective evidence (observation) into subjective estimates (judgment), whereas noise is defined as the mixing of memories during the storing (observing/learning) and retrieval process (remembering/judgment).[ ] the information-theoretic logic behind this explanation is very similar to the mechanism that can also lead to the conservatism bias, and holds that we mix true and false evidence during storage and retrieval of evidence to and from our memories. the confidence bias results because as judges we "look inside our own memory" (evaluate our confidence) and find evidence that is more extreme than when we retrieve evidence for our judgements (which are conservative due to mixing of extreme values during retrieval). this explanation is very simple and straightforward, but nevertheless sufficient mechanism to generate both, overconfidence (in situations where judges are very sure) and underconfidence (in cases when judges openly state to lack the required knowledge). see also[edit] 		look up confidence or confidence in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: confidence 	assertiveness 	confidence trick, also known as confidence game – attempt to defraud a person or group after first gaining their confidence 	dunning–kruger effect – cognitive bias in which people with low ability at a task overestimate their ability 	emotional bias 	inner critic 	law of attraction 	low self-esteem 	overconfidence effect – bias in which a person's subjective confidence in their judgment is greater than the objective accuracy of those judgments 	security – degree of resistance to, or protection from, harm 	shyness – feeling of apprehension, discomfort or awkwardness in the presence of other people references[edit] 	^ snyder, c. r.; lopez, shane j. 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"development and validation of a trait measure of robustness of self-confidence". psychology of sport and exercise. ( ): – . doi: . /j.psychsport. . . . 	^ myers, jane; willise, john; villalba, jose ( january ). "promoting self-esteem in adolescents: the influence of wellness factors" (pdf). journal of counseling and development. : – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	^ karpinski, andrew ( ). "measuring self-esteem using the implicit association test: the valence of the other". doi: . /e - . cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ timko, alix; england, erica; herbert, james; foreman, evan (fall ). "the implicit relational assessment procedure as a measure of self-esteem". the psychological record. ( ): . doi: . /bf . s cid  . 	^ beer, j.; lombardo m; bhanji j. (september ). "roles of medial prefrontal cortex and orbitofrontal cortex in self-evaluation". journal of cognitive neuroscience. ( ): – . doi: . /jocn. . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ syed, matthew ( december ). "mourinho damned by his god complex". the times. london. retrieved december . 	^ porter, l. w., & lawler, e. ( ). managerial attitudes and performance. homework, il: dorsey.cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ harvey, nigel ( - - ). "confidence in judgment". trends in cognitive sciences. ( ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . issn  - . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ martin hilbert ( ) "toward a synthesis of cognitive biases: how noisy information processing can bias human decision making". psychological bulletin, ( ), – ; free access to the study here: martinhilbert.net/hilbertpsychbull.pdf 	 	v 	t 	e narcissism 	types	 	collective 	egomania 	flying monkeys 	healthy 	malignant 	narcissistic personality disorder 	spiritual 	workplace 	characteristics	 	betrayal 	boasting 	egocentrism 	egotism 	empathy (lack of) 	envy 	entitlement (exaggerated sense of) 	fantasy 	grandiosity 	hubris 	magical thinking 	manipulative 	narcissistic abuse 	narcissistic elation 	narcissistic rage and narcissistic injury 	narcissistic mortification 	narcissistic supply 	narcissistic withdrawal 	perfectionism 	self-esteem 	self-righteousness 	shamelessness 	superficial charm 	superiority complex 	true self and false self 	vanity 	defences	 	denial 	idealization and devaluation 	distortion 	projection 	splitting 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	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	esperanto 	kiswahili 	मराठी 	日本語 	simple english 	سنڌي 	suomi 	türkçe 	اردو 	tiếng việt 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 contact hypothesis - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	contact hypothesis 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		in psychology and other social sciences, the contact hypothesis suggests that intergroup contact under appropriate conditions can effectively reduce prejudice between majority and minority group members. following wwii and the desegregation of the military and other public institutions, policymakers and social scientists had turned an eye towards the policy implications of interracial contact. of them, social psychologist gordon allport united early research in this vein under intergroup contact theory. in , allport published the nature of prejudice, in which he outlined the most widely cited form of the hypothesis.[ ] the premise of allport's hypothesis states that under appropriate conditions interpersonal contact could be one of the most effective ways to reduce prejudice between majority and minority group members.[ ] according to allport, properly managed contact should reduce issues of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination that commonly occur between rival groups and lead to better intergroup interactions. in the decades following allport's book, social scientists expanded and applied the contact hypothesis towards the reduction of prejudice beyond racism, including prejudice towards physically and mentally disabled people, women, and lgbtq+ people, in hundreds of different studies.[ ] in some subfields of criminology, psychology, and sociology, intergroup contact has been described as one of the best ways to improve relations among groups in conflict.[ ][ ] nonetheless, the effects of intergroup contact vary widely from context to context, and empirical inquiry continues to this day.[ ] contents 	 history 	 conditions of intergroup contact 	 psychological processes involved in intergroup contact 	 the effects of intergroup contact 	 . examples 	 . . intergroup contact and prejudice towards african americans 	 . . intergroup contact and prejudice towards homosexuality 	 . . intergroup contact and prejudice towards muslims in europe 	 . . intergroup contact with immigrant groups within the united states 	 indirect intergroup contact 	 . extended contact 	 . imagined contact 	 . electronic- or e-contact 	 criticisms 	 . null findings and gaps in research 	 . negative contact 	 see also 	 references 	 external links history[edit] while gordon w. allport is often credited with the development of the contact hypothesis, the idea that interpersonal contact could improve intergroup relations was not a novel one. in the s and s, writers had already begun speculating about the outcomes of interracial contact.[ ][ ][ ] in , sociologist r. m. williams described interpersonal collaboration with goal interdependence as a worthwhile strategy to reduce intergroup hostility.[ ] following wwii, social scientists examined the effects of desegregation on racial attitudes in the u.s. merchant marine, and in desegregated new york city housing projects.[ ][ ] in , as national attention turned to issues of desegregation in schools, ultimately leading up to brown v. board of education, robert carter and thurgood marshall, from the naacp legal defense and educational fund, solicited expert opinions from social science.[ ][ ] a range of social scientists, from kenneth clark to floyd and gordon allport, weighed in on the psychological effects of desegregation, and conditions under which interracial contact might attenuate racial prejudice, including an amicus curiae brief filed in the brown v. board case.[ ] other studies have claimed that contact hypothesis is a very simple and optimistic and that contact would most likely gravitate toward hostility rather than friendship if two competitive parties were involved. if groups with a negative outlook were brought together, it would lead to increases of negative attitudes rather than positive.[ ] allport situated his formulation of the contact hypothesis in broader discussion of racial diversity—a precursor to interracial proximity and contact. while diversity more generally might foment conflict and prejudice, allport suggested that contact, under four particular conditions, would facilitate intergroup understanding and consequently reduce prejudice. conditions of intergroup contact[edit] in the years prior to allport’s framing of intergroup contact theory, social scientists had already begun discussing the conditions of intergroup contact that would produce intergroup anxiety, prejudice, or other “detrimental psychological effects”.[ ] wilner, walkley, & cook, two years prior to the nature of prejudice, studied segregation and integration in housing projects, and also suggested four conditions under which intergroup attitudes would change for the better. under the assumption that prejudice arises from racial segregation, they suggested that it would diminish when members occupy “the same or equivalent roles in the situation,” share background characteristics like education, age, gender or socioeconomic status, perceive common interests or goals, and when the “social climate […] is not unfavorable to interracial association.”[ ] concurrently, carolyn sherif and muzafer sherif developed their robbers cave experiment, an illustration of realistic conflict theory.[ ] the sherifs highlighted the importance of superordinate goals and equal status between groups, but notably, did not weigh in alongside other social scientists in their amicus brief for brown v. board of education. in allport's own words, "[prejudice] may be reduced by equal status contact between majority and minority groups in the pursuit of common goals. the effect is greatly enhanced if this contact is sanctioned by institutional supports (i.e., by law, custom, or local atmosphere), and provided it is of a sort that leads to the perception of common interests and common humanity between members of the two groups." — gordon w. allport, the nature of prejudice ( ) in other words, four conditions under which intergroup contact will reduce prejudice are: 	equal status. both groups must engage equally in the relationship. members of the group should have similar backgrounds, qualities, and characteristics. differences in academic backgrounds, wealth, skill, or experiences should be minimized if these qualities will influence perceptions of prestige and rank in the group. 	common goals. both groups must work on a problem/task and share this as a common goal, sometimes called a superordinate goal, a goal that can only be attained if the members of two or more groups work together by pooling their efforts and resources. 	intergroup cooperation. both groups must work together for their common goals without competition. groups need to work together in the pursuit of common goals. 	support of authorities, law or customs. both groups must acknowledge some authority that supports the contact and interactions between the groups. the contact should encourage friendly, helpful, egalitarian attitudes and condemn ingroup-outgroup comparisons. additionally, allport specified that within intergroup cooperation, personal interaction, involving informal, personal interaction between group members would scaffold learning about each other and the formation of cross-group friendships. yet, without these conditions, casual, or superficial, contact would cause people to resort to stereotypes.[ ] the largest meta-analysis of the contact literature suggested that the conditions are facilitating but not essential.[ ] however, more recent meta-analysis highlights that many configurations of the conditions have not yet been experimentally tested.[ ] psychological processes involved in intergroup contact[edit] a number of psychological processes have been hypothesised to explain how and why intergroup contact is able to reduce prejudice and improve intergroup relations. firstly, allport ( ) argued that intergroup contact facilitates learning about the outgroup, and this new outgroup knowledge leads to prejudice reduction.[ ] secondly, intergroup contact is believed to reduce the fear and anxiety people have when interacting with the outgroup, which in turn reduces their negative evaluations of the outgroup.[ ] thirdly, intergroup contact is hypothesised to increase people's ability to take the perspective of the outgroup and empathize with their concerns.[ ] empirical research has only found weak support for role of outgroup knowledge in prejudice reduction; however, the affective mechanisms of intergroup anxiety and outgroup empathy have accumulated extensive empirical support.[ ] the reduction of prejudice through intergroup contact can be described as the reconceptualization of group categories. allport ( ) claimed that prejudice is a direct result of generalizations and oversimplifications made about an entire group of people based on incomplete or mistaken information. the basic rationale is that prejudice may be reduced as one learns more about a category of people.[ ] rothbart and john ( ) describe belief change through contact as "an example of the general cognitive process by which attributes of category members modify category attributes" (p.  ).[ ] an individual's beliefs can be modified by that person coming into contact with a culturally distinct category member and subsequently modifying or elaborating the beliefs about the category as a whole. however, contact fails to cure conflict when contact situations create anxiety for those who take part. contact situations need to be long enough to allow this anxiety to decrease and for the members of the conflicting groups to feel comfortable with one another.[citation needed] additionally if the members of the two groups use this contact situation to trade insults, argue with each other, resort to physical violence, and discriminate against each other, then contact should not be expected to reduce conflict between groups. to obtain beneficial effects, the situation must include positive contact. the effects of intergroup contact[edit] social scientists have documented positive effects of intergroup contact across field, experimental, and correlational studies, across a variety of contact situations, and between various social groups. pettigrew and tropp's canonical meta-analysis of separate studies found general support for the contact hypothesis.[ ] furthermore, their analysis found that face-to-face contact between group members significantly reduced prejudice; the more contact groups had, the less prejudice group members reported.[ ] moreover, the beneficial effects of intergroup contact were significantly greater when the contact situation was structured to include allport's facilitating conditions for optimal contact.[ ] examples[edit] intergroup contact and prejudice towards african americans[edit] the majority of intergroup contact research has focused on reducing prejudice towards african americans. for example, in one study, brown, brown, jackson, sellers, and manuel ( ) investigated the amount of contact white athletes had with black teammates and whether the athletes played an individual or team sport. team sports (e.g., football or basketball), as opposed to individual sports (e.g., track or swimming), require teamwork and cooperative interactions to win. results showed that white athletes who played team sports reported less prejudice than athletes who played individual sports.[ ] intergroup contact and prejudice towards homosexuality[edit] the contact hypothesis has proven to be highly effective in alleviating prejudice directed toward homosexuals.[ ] applying the contact hypothesis to heterosexuals and homosexuals, herek ( ) found that college students who had pleasant interactions with a homosexual tend to generalize from that experience and accept homosexuals as a group.[ ] herek and glunt's ( ) national study of interpersonal contact and heterosexuals' attitudes toward gay men found that increased contact "predicted attitudes toward gay men better than did any other demographic or social psychological variable" (p.  ); such variables included gender, race, age, education, geographic residence, marital status, number of children, religion and political ideology.[ ] herek and capitanio ( ) found that contact experiences with two or three homosexuals are associated with more favorable attitudes than are contact experiences with only one individual.[ ] intergroup contact and prejudice towards muslims in europe[edit] savelkoul et al. ( ) in their study from the netherlands found people living in regions with high numbers of muslims (i.e. those more exposed to unavoidable intergroup contacts) get used to and are more experienced with their integration and express lesser perceived threats. in addition, they also found that higher contacts with muslim colleagues directly reduce anti-muslim attitudes.[ ] similarly, novotny and polonsky ( ) in their survey among czech and slovak university students documented that personal contacts with muslims and experience with visiting an islamic country associate with more positive attitudes towards muslims.[ ] however agirdag et al. ( ) report that belgian teachers working in schools that enroll a larger share of muslim students have more negative attitudes toward muslim students than other teachers.[ ] intergroup contact with immigrant groups within the united states[edit] daniel j. hopkins presented the idea that local conditions within a community or in other words changes in local immigrant demographics can affect the attitudes of people on immigrants. this can include the stereotyping of immigrants and/or a development of pro or anti-immigrant ideas. these attitudes may be shaped by experiences the non-immigrant population has with the immigrant population. he believes that this idea is not necessarily universal but that certain conditions play a role on the development of attitudes.[ ] indirect intergroup contact[edit] one of the most important advances in research on intergroup contact is the growing evidence for a number of indirect, non-face-to-face intergroup contact strategies as a means to improve relations between social groups.[ ] while the benefits of direct intergroup contact have been empirically established, its implementation is often not practical. for example, in many countries, racial and religious groups are often residentially, educationally or occupationally segregated, which limits the opportunity for direct contact. however, even when the opportunity for direct intergroup contact is high, anxiety and fear can produce a negative or hostile contact experience or lead to the avoidance of the contact situation altogether. indirect forms of intergroup contact include: extended contact[edit] the extended contact hypothesis, established by wright and colleagues in , posits that knowing that a member of one's own group has a close relationship with a member of an outgroup can lead to more positive attitudes towards that outgroup. correlational research has demonstrated that individuals who report knowledge that an ingroup member has an outgroup friend typically report more positive outgroup attitudes, while experimental research has shown that providing ingroup members with this information creates the same positive effect.[ ] in the years since its proposal, the extended contact hypothesis has guided over studies, that generally find support for the positive effect of extended contact on prejudice reduction, independent of direct friendship with outgroup members.[ ][ ] in a similar vein, vicarious contact involves simply observing an ingroup member interact with an outgroup member.[ ] for example, positive media portrayals of intergroup interactions on television and radio (also known as parasocial contact) have the potential to reduce the prejudice of millions of viewers and listeners.[ ] imagined contact[edit] main article: imagined contact hypothesis the 'imagined contact hypothesis' was put forward by richard j. crisp and rhiannon turner ( )[ ] and proposes that simply imagining a positive encounter with a member or members of an outgroup category can promote more positive intergroup attitudes. electronic- or e-contact[edit] fiona white and her colleagues ( ; ) recently developed electronic- or e-contact. e-contact involves an ingroup member interacting with an outgroup member over the internet[ ][ ] and includes text-based, video-based or a mixture of both text- and video-based online interactions. electronic contact has been empirically shown to reduce inter-religious prejudice between christian and muslim students in australia in both the short[ ] and long term,[ ] as well between catholic and protestant students in northern ireland.[ ] in the context of sexual prejudice, research also has shown that interacting online with a member of the outgroup is a particularly useful particularly useful as a prejudice-reduction strategy among individuals who typically report ideologically intolerant beliefs.[ ] additionally, in the context of mental health stigma, participants who experienced a brief interaction with a person diagnosed with schizophrenia reported reduced fear, anger, and stereotyping toward people with schizophrenia in general compared to a control condition.[ ] criticisms[edit] while large bodies of research have been devoted to examining intergroup contact, social scientific reviews of the literature frequently voice skepticism about the likelihood of contact's optimal conditions occurring in concert, and by extension, about the generalizability of correlational research and lab studies on contact.[ ] null findings and gaps in research[edit] though the general findings of intergroup contact research have inspired promise, bertrand and duflo ( ) find that observational correlations between intergroup contact and non-prejudiced behavior can be explained by self-selection: less prejudiced people seek out contact.[ ] comparatively, fewer controlled experimental studies of intergroup contact exist; of those that do, few measure prejudice outcomes longer than one day after treatment, leaving a gap in the literature that investigates the long-term effects of contact. furthermore, of these experiments, none measure the reduction of racial prejudice in people over the age of .[ ] similarly, in a report to the united kingdom equality and human rights commission, dominic abrams highlights "a dearth of good-quality longitudinal research on prejudice or prejudice reduction”.[ ] gordon allport himself suggested that in light of increasing racial contact in the united states, "the more contact the more trouble", unless scaffolded by the four facilitating conditions he proposed, distinguishing casual contact and "true acquaintance" or "knowledge-giving contact".[ ] in political science, allport's work is often juxtaposed with v.o. key's examination of southern politics, which found that racism grew in areas where the local concentrations of black americans were higher.[ ] in that context, absent the specific conditions of allport, contact comes to produce more negative effects, namely increasing prejudice. some social psychologists have converged with political scientists on this position.[ ] negative contact[edit] stefania paolini, jake harwood, and mark rubin ( ) proposed that intergroup contact may have more negative than positive effects on prejudice, because it makes outgroup members' social group more salient during encounters,[ ] the negative contact hypothesis. recent evidence suggests that although negative intergroup contact is more influential than positive intergroup contact, it is also less common than positive contact in real world intergroup encounters, in five central european countries.[ ][ ] recent research also suggests that people's past experiences with out-group members moderates contact: people who have had positive experiences with out-group members in the past show a smaller discrepancy between the effects of positive and negative contact.[ ] see also[edit] 	betsy levy paluck 	brown v. board of education 	desegregation 	gordon allport 	intergroup anxiety 	intergroup dialogue 	intergroup relations 	kenneth and mamie clark 	parasocial interaction 	prejudice 	realistic conflict theory 	stereotype 	cross-race effect references[edit] 	^ a b c d e f allport, g. w. ( ). the nature of prejudice. cambridge, ma: perseus books 	^ a b pettigrew, t. f.; tropp, l. r. ( ). "a meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ brown, r., & hewstone, m. ( ). an integrative theory of intergroup contact. in m. p. zanna (ed.), advances in experimental social psychology (vol. ,pp. – ). san diego, ca: elsevier academic press. 	^ wright, s. c. ( ). cross-group contact effects. in s. otten, t. kessler & k. sassenberg (eds.), intergroup relations: the role of emotion and motivation (pp. – ). new york, ny: psychology press. 	^ a b c paluck, elizabeth levy; green, seth ariel; green, donald ( ). "the contact hypothesis re-evaluated". behavioural public policy. ( ): – . doi: . /bpp. . . 	^ baker, paul earnest ( ). negro–white adjustment. new york: association press. p.  . 	^ lett, h ( ). "techniques for achieving interracial cooperation". proceedings of the institute on race relations and community organization. chicago: university of chicago and the american council on race relations. 	^ brameld, t ( ). minority problems in the public schools. new york: harper. 	^ williams, r. m. ( ). the reduction of intergroup tensions. new york: social science research council. 	^ brophy, i. n. ( ). "the luxury of anti-negro prejudice". public opinion quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ deutsch, m; collins, m ( ). interracial housing: a psychological evaluation of a social experiment. minneapolis: university of minnesota press. 	^ kluger, richard ( ). simple justice: the history of brown v. board of education and black america's struggle for equality. vintage books. isbn  . 	^ wrightsman, lawrence ( ). oral arguments before the supreme court: an empirical approach. oxford university press. isbn  - . 	^ allport, floyd ( ). "the effects of segregation and the consequences of desegregation: a social science statement". journal of negro education. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ amir, y. ( ). the role of intergroup contact in the change of prejudice and ethnic relations. in p.a. katz (ed.), towards the elimination of racism (pp. - ).new york: pergamon. 	^ chein, isidor ( ). "what are the psychological effects of segregation under conditions of equal facilities?". international journal of opinion & attitude research. : – . 	^ wilner, daniel m.; walkley, rosabelle price; cook, stuart w. ( ). "residential proximity and intergroup relations in public housing projects". journal of social issues. : – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	^ sherif, m.; harvey, o.j.; white, b.j.; hood, w. & sherif, c.w. ( ). intergroup conflict and cooperation: the robbers cave experiment. norman, ok: the university book exchange. pp.  – . 	^ pettigrew, t. f.; tropp, l. r. ( ). "a meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ stephan, w. g.; stephan, c. w. ( ). "intergroup anxiety". journal of social issues. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	^ stephan, w. g.; finlay, k. ( ). "the role of empathy in improving intergroup relations". journal of social issues. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . 	^ pettigrew, t. f.; tropp, l. r. ( ). "how does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? meta‐analytic tests of three mediators". european journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /ejsp. . 	^ rothbart, m.; john, o. p. ( ). "social categorization and behavioral episodes: a cognitive analysis of the effects of intergroup contact". journal of social issues. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	^ pettigrew, t. f.; tropp, l. r. ( ). "a meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ pettigrew, t. f.; tropp, l. r. ( ). "a meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ brown, k.t; brown, t.n.; jackson, j.s.; sellers, r.m.; manuel, w.j. ( ). "teammates on and off the field? contact with black teammates and the racial attitudes of white student athletes". journal of applied social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	^ smith, s. j.; axelton, a. m.; saucier, d. a. ( ). "the effects of contact on sexual prejudice: a meta-analysis". sex roles. ( – ): – . doi: . /s - - - . s cid  . 	^ herek, g. m. ( ). "the instrumentality of attitudes: toward a neofunctional theory". journal of social issues. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	^ herek, g. m.; glunt, e. k. ( ). "interpersonal contact and heterosexuals' attitudes toward gay men: results from a national survey". journal of sex research. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ herek, g. m.; capitanio, j. p. ( ). "some of my best friends": intergroup contact, concealable stigma, and heterosexuals' attitudes toward gay men and lesbians personality". social psychology bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ savelkoul, scheepers; tolsma, j.; hagendoorn, l. ( ). "anti-muslim attitudes in the netherlands: tests of contradictory hypotheses derived from ethnic competition theory and intergroup contact theory" (pdf). european sociological review. ( ): – . doi: . /esr/jcq . hdl: / . 	^ novotny, j.; polonsky, f. ( ). "the level of knowledge about islam and perception of islam among czech and slovak university students: does ignorance determine subjective attitudes?" (pdf). sociológia. ( ): – . 	^ agirdag, orhan; loobuyck, patrick; van houtte, mieke ( ). "determinants of attitudes toward muslim students among flemish teachers: a research note". journal for the scientific study of religion. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. 	^ hopkins, daniel j. ( ). "politicized places: explaining where and when immigrants provoke local opposition". american political science review. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /s . issn  - . 	^ dovidio, j. f.; eller, a.; hewstone, m. ( ). "improving intergroup relations through direct, extended and other forms of indirect contact". group processes & intergroup relations. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ wright, s. c.; aron, a.; mclaughlin-volpe, t.; ropp, s. a. ( ). "the extended contact effect: knowledge of cross-group friendships and prejudice". journal of personality and social psychology. : – . doi: . / - . . . . 	^ vezzali, loris; hewstone, miles; capozza, dora; giovanni, dino; wolfer, ralf ( ). "improving intergroup relations with extended and vicarious forms of indirect contact". european review of social psychology. : – . doi: . / . . . s cid  . 	^ zhou, shelly; page-gould, elizabeth; aron, arthur; moyer, anne; hewstone, miles ( ). "the extended contact hypothesis: a meta-analysis on years of research". personality and social psychology review. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ mazziotta, a.; mummendey, a.; wright, c. s. ( ). "vicarious intergroup contact effects: applying social-cognitive theory to intergroup contact research" (pdf). group processes & intergroup relations. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ schiappa, e.; gregg, p.; hewes, d. ( ). "the parasocial contact hypothesis". communication monographs. : – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ crisp, r. j.; turner, r. n. ( ). "can imagined interactions produce positive perceptions? reducing prejudice through simulated social contact". american psychologist. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ white, f. a.; abu-rayya, h.; harvey, l. j. ( ). "improving intergroup relations in the internet age: a critical review". review of general psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /gpr . s cid  . 	^ amichai-hamburger, y.; mckenna, k. y. ( ). "the contact hypothesis reconsidered: interacting via the internet". journal of computer-mediated communication. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. 	^ white, f. a.; abu-rayya, h. ( ). "a dual identity-electronic contact (diec) experiment promoting short- and long-term intergroup harmony". journal of experimental social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /j.jesp. . . . 	^ white, f. a.; abu-rayya, h.; weitzel, c. ( ). "achieving twelve-months of intergroup bias reduction: the dual identity-electronic contact (diec) experiment". international journal of intercultural relations. : – . doi: . /j.ijintrel. . . . 	^ white, f. a.; turner, r. n.; verrelli, s.; harvey, l. j.; hanna, j. r. ( ). "improving intergroup relations between catholics and protestants in northern ireland via e‐contact" (pdf). european journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /ejsp. . 	^ white, f. a.; verrelli, s.; maunder, r. d.; kervinen, a. ( ). "using electronic contact to reduce homonegative attitudes, emotions, and behavioral intentions among heterosexual women and men: a contemporary extension of the contact hypothesis". the journal of sex research. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ maunder, r. d.; white, f. a.; verrelli, s. ( ). "modern avenues for intergroup contact: using e-contact and intergroup emotions to reduce stereotyping and social distancing against people with schizophrenia". group processes & intergroup relations. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ dixon, john; durrheim, kevin; tredoux, colin ( ). "beyond the optimal contact strategy: a reality check for the contact hypothesis". american psychologist. ( ): – . doi: . / - x. . . . pmid  . 	^ bertrand, marianne; duflo, esther ( ). field experiments on discrimination. handbook of economic field experiments. . pp.  – . doi: . /bs.hefe. . . . isbn  . s cid  . 	^ abrams, dominic ( ). "processes of prejudice: theory, evidence and intervention". human rights: . 	^ key, v. o. ( ). southern politics in state and nation. university of tennessee press. isbn  . 	^ enos, ryan ( ). the space between us: social geography and politics. cambridge university press. isbn  - . 	^ paolini, s.; harwood, j.; rubin, m. ( ). "negative intergroup contact makes group memberships salient: explaining why intergroup conflict endures". personality and social psychology bulletin. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ barlow, f. k.; paolini, s.; pedersen, a.; hornsey, m. j.; radke, h. r. m.; harwood, j.; rubin, m.; sibley, c. g. ( ). "the contact caveat: negative contact predicts increased prejudice more than positive contact predicts reduced prejudice". personality and social psychology bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ graf, s.; paolini, s.; rubin, m. ( ). "negative intergroup contact is more influential, but positive intergroup contact is more common: assessing contact prominence and contact prevalence in five central european countries". european journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /ejsp. . 	^ paolini, s.; harwood, j.; rubin, m.; husnu, s.; joyce, n.; hewstone, m. ( ). "positive and extensive intergroup contact in the past buffers against the disproportionate impact of negative contact in the present". european journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /ejsp. . external links[edit] 	 learning materials related to contact hypothesis at wikiversity retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=contact_hypothesis&oldid= " 		categories: 	group processes hidden categories: 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from november 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			français 	kiswahili 	magyar 	türkçe 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 citeseerx - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	citeseerx 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from citeseerx (identifier)) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		search engine and digital library for scientific and academic papers 	 	this article needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "citeseerx" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (january ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) citeseerx	type of site 	bibliographic database 	owner	pennsylvania state university college of information sciences and technology 	url	citeseerx.ist.psu.edu 	registration	optional 	launched	 ;  years ago ( ) / ;  years ago ( ) 	current status	active 	content license 	creative commons by-nc-sa license[ ] citeseerx (originally called citeseer) is a public search engine and digital library for scientific and academic papers, primarily in the fields of computer and information science. citeseer is considered as a predecessor of academic search tools such as google scholar and microsoft academic search.[citation needed] citeseer-like engines and archives usually only harvest documents from publicly available websites and do not crawl publisher websites. for this reason, authors whose documents are freely available are more likely to be represented in the index. citeseer's goal is to improve the dissemination and access of academic and scientific literature. as a non-profit service that can be freely used by anyone, it has been considered as part of the open access movement that is attempting to change academic and scientific publishing to allow greater access to scientific literature. citeseer freely provided open archives initiative metadata of all indexed documents and links indexed documents when possible to other sources of metadata such as dblp and the acm portal. to promote open data, citeseerx shares its data for non-commercial purposes under a creative commons license.[ ] citeseer changed its name to researchindex at one point and then changed it back.[citation needed] contents 	 history 	 . citeseer and citeseer.ist 	 . citeseerx 	 current features 	 . automated information extraction 	 . focused crawling 	 . usage 	 . data 	 other seersuite-based search engines 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links history[edit] citeseer and citeseer.ist[edit] citeseer was created by researchers lee giles, kurt bollacker and steve lawrence in while they were at the nec research institute (now nec labs), princeton, new jersey, usa. citeseer's goal was to actively crawl and harvest academic and scientific documents on the web and use autonomous citation indexing to permit querying by citation or by document, ranking them by citation impact. at one point, it was called researchindex. citeseer became public in and had many new features unavailable in academic search engines at that time. these included: 	autonomous citation indexing automatically created a citation index that can be used for literature search and evaluation. 	citation statistics and related documents were computed for all articles cited in the database, not just the indexed articles. 	reference linking allowing browsing of the database using citation links. 	citation context showed the context of citations to a given paper, allowing a researcher to quickly and easily see what other researchers have to say about an article of interest. 	related documents were shown using citation and word based measures and an active and continuously updated bibliography is shown for each document. citeseer was granted a united states patent #  , titled "autonomous citation indexing and literature browsing using citation context", on september , . the patent was filed on may , , and has priority to january , . a continuation patent (us patent #  ) was filed on may , and granted on may , . after nec, in it was hosted as citeseer.ist on the world wide web at the college of information sciences and technology, the pennsylvania state university, and had over , documents. for enhanced access, performance and research, similar versions of citeseer were supported at universities such as the massachusetts institute of technology, university of zürich and the national university of singapore. however, these versions of citeseer proved difficult to maintain and are no longer available. because citeseer only indexes freely available papers on the web and does not have access to publisher metadata, it returns fewer citation counts than sites, such as google scholar, that have publisher metadata. citeseer had not been comprehensively updated since due to limitations in its architecture design. it had a representative sampling of research documents in computer and information science but was limited in coverage because it was limited to papers that are publicly available, usually at an author's homepage, or those submitted by an author. to overcome some of these limitations, a modular and open source architecture for citeseer was designed – citeseerx. citeseerx[edit] citeseerx replaced citeseer and all queries to citeseer were redirected. citeseerx[ ] is a public search engine and digital library and repository for scientific and academic papers primarily with a focus on computer and information science.[ ] however, recently citeseerx has been expanding into other scholarly domains such as economics, physics and others. released in , it was loosely based on the previous citeseer search engine and digital library and is built with a new open source infrastructure, seersuite, and new algorithms and their implementations. it was developed by researchers dr. isaac councill and dr. c. lee giles at the college of information sciences and technology, pennsylvania state university. it continues to support the goals outlined by citeseer to actively crawl and harvest academic and scientific documents on the public web and to use a citation inquiry by citations and ranking of documents by the impact of citations. currently, lee giles, prasenjit mitra, susan gauch, min-yen kan, pradeep teregowda, juan pablo fernández ramírez, pucktada treeratpituk, jian wu, douglas jordan, steve carman, jack carroll, jim jansen, and shuyi zheng are or have been actively involved in its development. recently, a table search feature was introduced.[ ] it has been funded by the national science foundation, nasa, and microsoft research. citeseerx continues to be rated as one of the world's top repositories and was rated number in july .[ ] it currently has over million documents with nearly million unique authors and million citations. citeseerx also shares its software, data, databases and metadata with other researchers, currently by amazon s and by rsync.[ ] its new modular open source architecture and software (available previously on sourceforge but now on github) is built on apache solr and other apache and open source tools which allows it to be a testbed for new algorithms in document harvesting, ranking, indexing, and information extraction. citeseerx caches some pdf files that it has scanned. as such, each page include a dmca link which can be used to report copyright violations.[ ] current features[edit] automated information extraction[edit] citeseerx uses automated information extraction tools, usually built on machine learning methods such parscit, to extract scholarly document metadata such as title, authors, abstract, citations, etc. as such, there are sometime errors in authors and titles. other academic search engines have similar errors. focused crawling[edit] citeseerx crawls publicly available scholarly documents primarily from author webpages and other open resources, and does not have access to publisher metadata. as such citation counts in citeseerx are usually less than those in google scholar and microsoft academic search who have access to publisher metadata. usage[edit] citeseerx has nearly million users worldwide based on unique ip addresses and has millions of hits daily. annual downloads of document pdfs was nearly million for . data[edit] citeseerx data is regularly shared under a creative commons by-nc-sa license with researchers worldwide and has been and is used in many experiments and competitions. thanks to its oai-pmh endpoint,[ ] citeseerx is an open archive and its content is indexed like an institutional repository in academic search engines, for instance base and unpaywall consumers. other seersuite-based search engines[edit] the citeseer model had been extended to cover academic documents in business with smealsearch and in e-business with ebizsearch. however, these were not maintained by their sponsors. an older version of both of these could be once found at bizseer.ist but is no longer in service. other seer-like search and repository systems have been built for chemistry, chemxseer and for archaeology, archseer. another had been built for robots.txt file search, botseer. all of these are built on the open source tool seersuite, which uses the open source indexer lucene. see also[edit] 	arnetminer 	arxiv 	collection of computer science bibliographies 	dblp (digital bibliography & library project) 	disciplinary repository 	google scholar 	list of academic databases and search engines 	microsoft academic 	research papers in economics (repec) 	semantic scholar references[edit] 	^ a b "citeseerx data policy". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ a b "about citeseerx". retrieved - - . 	^ "the citeseerx team". pennsylvania state university. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "ranking web of world repositories: top repositories". cybermetrics lab. july . archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "about citeseerx data". pennsylvania state university. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ for example, "citeseerx – dmca notice". citeseerx  . . . . . the document with the identifier " . . . . " has been removed due to a dmca takedown notice. if you believe the removal has been in error, please contact us through the feedback page, along with the identifier mentioned in this page. cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ hirst, author tony ( - - ). "using oai-pmh as a single record level query interface to citeseer". retrieved - - . further reading[edit] 	giles, c. lee; bollacker, kurt d.; lawrence, steve ( ). "citeseer: an automatic citation indexing system". proceedings of the third acm conference on digital libraries. pp.  – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . . isbn  - - - - . s cid  . external links[edit] 		wikidata has the property: 	 citeseerx article id (p ) (see uses) 	official website of citeseerx 	citeseerx on github 	seersuite on sourceforge.net (historic) retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=citeseerx&oldid= " 		categories: 	bibliographic databases in computer science 	eprint archives 	internet search engines 	library . 	online databases 	open-access archives 	pennsylvania state university 	scholarly search services 	american digital libraries hidden categories: 	cs errors: missing periodical 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	articles needing additional references from january 	all articles needing additional references 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from january 	articles with unsourced statements from january 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			deutsch 	español 	فارسی 	français 	bahasa indonesia 	italiano 	bahasa melayu 	português 	Русский 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on october , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 apa psycnet loading... am i trustworthy? : coronet instructional films : free download, borrow, and streaming : internet archive skip to main content see what's new with book lending at the internet archive can you chip in? in the internet archive has seen unprecedented use—and we need your help. when the covid- pandemic hit, our bandwidth demand skyrocketed. right now we’re getting over . million daily unique visitors and storing more than petabytes of data. we build and maintain all our own systems, but we don’t charge for access, sell user information, or run ads. instead, we rely on individual generosity to fund our infrastructure; we're powered by donations averaging $ . right now, we have a -to- matching gift campaign, tripling the impact of every donation. if each of our users gave just $ , we could end this fundraiser today—so if you find all these bits and bytes useful, please pitch in. —brewster kahle, founder, internet archive continue maybe later send me an email reminder email address (required) please enter a valid email address. first name last name submit by submitting, you agree to receive donor-related emails from the internet archive. your privacy is important to us. we do not sell or trade your information with anyone. a line drawing of the internet archive headquarters building façade. an illustration of a magnifying glass. an illustration of a magnifying glass. an illustration of a horizontal line over an up pointing arrow. upload an illustration of a person's head and chest. sign up | log in an illustration of a computer application window wayback machine an illustration of an open book. books an illustration of two cells of a film strip. video an illustration of an audio speaker. audio an illustration of a . " floppy disk. software an illustration of two photographs. images an illustration of a heart shape donate an illustration of text ellipses. more an icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. 	 about 	 blog 	 projects 	 help 	 donate an illustration of a heart shape 	 contact 	 jobs 	 volunteer 	 people search metadata search text contents search tv news captions search archived websites advanced search 	sign up for free 	log in am i trustworthy? movies preview remove-circle internet archive's in-browser video player requires javascript to be enabled. it appears your browser does not have it turned on. please see your browser settings for this feature. remove-circle share or embed this item embed embed (for wordpress.com hosted blogs and archive.org item <description> tags) [archiveorg amitrust width= height= frameborder= webkitallowfullscreen=true mozallowfullscreen=true] want more? advanced embedding details, examples, and help! no_favorite share flag flag this item for 	 graphic violence 	 graphic sexual content movies am i trustworthy? 	by 	coronet instructional films 	publication date 	 	usage 	public domain 	topics 	social guidance 	digitizing sponsor 	n/a how a child learns to return borrowed items, keep promises and fulfill assignments. shotlist provides examples of trustworthiness--returning borrowed articles, keeping promises and doing a good job with assigned tasks. ken smith notes: this film follows young "eddie" as he learns to become trustworthy. actually, "trustworthiness" in this film is pretty loosely defined -- it seems to be synonymous with "obedience" and "conformity." eddie, at the prodding of his dad and the narrator, quickly and eagerly sees the value of trust (he even makes his own trustworthiness chart), and we leave the film knowing that eddie is well on his way to normalcy. "people have to show they can be trusted with little things if they want to be trusted with big things." morality promises children social guidance trustworthiness boys daily life behavior families parents <br> 	addeddate 	 - - : : 	closed captioning 	no 	collectionid 	 	color 	c 	country 	united states 	identifier 	amitrust 	numeric_id 	 	proddate 	 	run time 	 : 	sound 	sd 	type 	movingimage plus-circle add review comment reviews reviewer: erd. - favoritefavoritefavoritefavorite - april , subject: "am i trustworthy" is a cute little instructional film a well made instuctional film made for youngsters of that era. the information given is still good for today's children. reviewer: kittenfish - favoritefavoritefavoritefavorite - march , subject: good eddie i remember these films from when i was a child. watching them again i am always struck buy how good their advice and guidance is for young people. it's a shame these types of films aren't still made and shown to children. many of these lessons seem to be in short supply these days reviewer: steve nordby - favoritefavoritefavoritefavorite - november , subject: "i wouldn't have stolen their money!" eddie wants to be treasurer of his school club but isn't even nominated! instead he gets put on cleanup while bob gets the job he wants. upset boy + perfect dad + narrator to explain = classic social guidance film. keep your word, play fair, do a good job, and be on time. that's all there is to it! the underlying message is implied subtly early in the film: to be trustworthy is not just about being honest but about being obediant. eddie was supposed to fix the lamp and didn't, so he isn't trustworthy. eddie, with his bad hair and less than perfect acting is charming. reviewer: christine hennig - favoritefavoritefavorite - may , subject: am i trustworthy? eddie is upset because he wasn't elected treasurer of his hobby clubÂÂinstead he was put on the clean-up committee. his kindly dad helps him to see that he needs to work on being more trustworthy. this is a typically earnest and innocent coronet film. it's not all that campy per se, but it could be good fodder for msting. eddie is somewhat less polished than the typical coronet child actor and his club is one of those generic young peoples' clubs that exists only in films like this. other than that, it's pretty ordinary coronet fare. ratings: camp/humor value: ***. weirdness: **. historical interest: ***. overall rating: ***. reviewer: spuzz - favoritefavoritefavoritefavorite - december , subject: eddie is a gulliable little soul eddie johnson loses the election for treasurer for the club he is in. he blames it on the other boy who gets it, because the other boy is so trustworthy. i think the reason is eddie's haircut. this rather bizarre looking moptop. i love coronet guidance films. this is the rd such film i've seen that lays it thick on how a boy can be more acceptable in the world. in this case you can be more trustworthy by doing your homework on time and doing housework(!). suuuure. also, the film uses the well used coronet trademark of making a chart for yourself and that will solve everything. reccomended! , views favorites reviews download options download file kb real media download download file kb mpeg download download file kb real media download download file cinepack download download file h. download download file hires mpeg download download file item tile download download file mp download download file mpeg download download file ogg video download download file subrip download download file torrent download download files download original show all in collections prelinger archives uploaded by unknown on july , similar items (based on metadata) terms of service (last updated / / ) resentment - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	resentment 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		complex, multilayered emotion aka bitterness not to be confused with ressentiment. for the songs, see resentment (kesha song) and resentment (victoria beckham song). facial expressions of bitterness 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e resentment (also called ranklement or bitterness) is a complex, multilayered emotion[ ] that has been described as a mixture of disappointment, disgust, anger, and fear.[ ] other psychologists consider it a mood[ ] or as a secondary emotion (including cognitive elements) that can be elicited in the face of insult and/or injury.[ ] inherent in resentment is a perception of unfairness (i.e. from trivial to very serious), and is a generalized defense against unfair situations (e.g. relationships or unfavourable circumstances).[ ] the word originates from french "ressentir", re-, intensive prefix, and sentir "to feel"; from the latin "sentire". the english word has become synonymous with anger, spite, and holding a grudge. contents 	 research 	 . causes 	 . function 	 . form 	 . . physical expression 	 . . internal experience 	 coping 	 . post-traumatic embitterment disorder 	 comparison with other emotions 	 . resentment vs. anger 	 comparison with other motivations 	 . resentment vs. conviction 	 philosophical perspectives 	 . ressentiment 	 religious perspectives 	 modern culture 	 literary examples 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading research[edit] causes[edit] resentment can result from a variety of situations involving a perceived wrongdoing from an individual, which are often sparked by expressions of injustice or humiliation. common sources of resentment include publicly humiliating incidents such as accepting negative treatment without voicing any protest; feeling like an object of regular discrimination or prejudice; envy/jealousy; feeling used or taken advantage of by others; and having achievements go unrecognized, while others succeed without working as hard. resentment can also be generated by dyadic interactions, such as emotional rejection or denial by another person, deliberate embarrassment or belittling by another person, or ignorance, putting down, or scorn by another person.[ ] it's worth noting that resentment can also develop, and be maintained by: focusing on past grievances (i.e. disturbing memories of hurtful experiences) continuously.[ ] or by trying to justify the emotion (i.e. with additional thoughts/feelings).[ ][ ] thus, resentment can occur as a result of the grief process[ ] and can be sustained by ruminating.[ ] function[edit] resentment has healthy and unhealthy aspects. alice maclachlan writes "what we resent reveals what it is we value, and what we have come to expect (or hope) from others; it may also reveal to what we see ourselves as entitled {to}: that is, how our expectations of our surroundings are organized and measured.[ ]" indeed, she goes on to further write that only an amoral person (a person who didn't have values or concern for the well-being of self or others) could not experience resentment.[ ] resentment can also function to warn against further, future, harmful and unfair situations from occurring again (its focus is on the future).[ ] resentment, used as a form of distrust, has a strong component of self-punishment:[ ] "the false appeal of self-punishment is that it seems to keep us safe from future hurt and disappointment", when in reality it is hurting the resenter more (i.e. how we mistreat or distrust others unrelated to the offense, ourselves, etc.). resentment has also been conceptualized as a form of protest: "more specifically, resentment protests a past action, that persists as a present threat".[ ] the 'present threat' being that the past harmful action(s), makes a claim: that you can be treated this way, or that such treatment is acceptable; it poses a threat, and in resenting it, you challenge that claim (i.e. protest). "resentment affirms what the {offenders'} act denies"- its harmfulness and the victim's worth.[ ] it's worth noting that pamela hieronym claims the object of protest is the past event, rather than the offender of the event: claiming that resentment need not develop into malice or a desire for retribution (if resentment is focused on the past harmful situation or event, rather than the person who caused it).[ ] resentment, when it is unhealthy, can come in the form of: hostile anger with a retaliation motive (i.e. fantasizing about putting someone down, devaluing, or paying someone back for a perceived injury),[ ] time duration (which can go on for days, weeks, or even years),[ ] or when too many resentments are held;[ ] thus, draining resources, creating stress, and draining positive emotions.[ ] form[edit] physical expression[edit] a pinched and bitter facial expression unlike many emotions, resentment does not have physical tags exclusively related to it that telegraph when a person is feeling this emotion. however, physical expressions associated with related emotions such as anger and envy may be exhibited, such as furrowed brows or bared teeth.[ ] resentment can be self-diagnosed by looking for signs such as the need for emotion regulation, faking happiness while with a person to cover true feelings toward him, or speaking in a sarcastic or demeaning way to or about the person. it can also be diagnosed through the appearance of agitation- or dejection-related emotions, such as feeling inexplicably depressed or despondent, becoming angry for no apparent reason, or having nightmares or disturbing daydreams about a person.[ ] internal experience[edit] resentment is most powerful when it is felt toward someone whom the individual is close to or intimate with. to have an injury resulting in resentful feelings inflicted by a friend or loved one leaves the individual feeling betrayed as well as resentful, and these feelings can have deep effects.[ ] resentment can have a variety of negative results on the person experiencing it, including touchiness or edginess when thinking of the person resented, denial of anger or hatred against this person, and provocation or anger arousal when this person is recognized positively. it can also have more long-term effects, such as the development of a hostile, cynical, sarcastic attitude that may become a barrier against other healthy relationships; lack of personal and emotional growth; difficulty in self-disclosure; trouble trusting others; loss of self-confidence; and overcompensation.[ ] chronic resentment (i.e. too many) can also lead to unhealthy symptoms such as: constriction of nerve endings in your muscles (causing chronic, low-grade muscle and back-pain).[ ] long-lasting (i.e. too long) resentment can cause: destruction of t cell (lowering the immune system), hypertension (which increases the threat of stroke and heart attack), cancer, (drug) addictions, depression, and shortened life span.[ ] coping[edit] main article: coping to further compound these negative effects, resentment often functions in a downward spiral. resentful feelings cut off communication between the resentful person and the person he or she feels committed the wrong, and can result in future miscommunications and the development of further resentful feelings.[ ] because of the consequences they carry, resentful feelings are dangerous to live with and need to be dealt with. resentment is an obstacle to the restoration of equal moral relations among persons.[ ] resentment and spite also share a connection of self-harm, yet differ primarily in the way they are expressed. resentment is unique in that it is almost exclusively internalized, where it can do further emotional and psychological damage but does not strongly impact the person resented. by contrast, spite is exclusively externalized, involving vindictive actions against a (perceived or actual) source of wrong. spiteful actions can stem from resentful feelings, however. psychologist james j. messina recommends five steps to facing and resolving resentful feelings: ( ) identify the source of the resentful feelings and what it is the person did to evoke these feelings; ( ) develop a new way of looking at past, present and future life, including how resentment has affected life and how letting go of resentment can improve the future; ( ) write a letter to the source of the resentment, listing offenses and explaining the circumstances, then forgive and let go of the offenses (but do not send the letter); ( ) visualize a future without the negative impact of resentment; and ( ) if resentful feelings still linger, return to step and begin again.[ ] post-traumatic embitterment disorder[edit] main article: post-traumatic embitterment disorder comparison with other emotions[edit] resentment vs. anger[edit] robert c. solomon, a professor of philosophy at the university of texas at austin, places resentment on the same continuum as anger and contempt, and he argues that the differences between the three are that resentment is anger directed toward a higher-status individual; anger is directed toward an equal-status individual; and contempt is anger directed toward a lower-status individual.[ ] steven stosny makes an analogy, distinguishing the functions of anger and resentment, as: anger being a fire-extinguisher meant to 'put-out' and prevent immediately harmful situations, from becoming more harmful, while resentment is more like a smoke-alarm: something that is always 'on' (and requires energy and emotions to sustain this alarm-system), and is meant to protect us if, just in case, someone or something harmful from past experience shows up.[ ] resentment and anger differ primarily in the way they are externally expressed. anger results in aggressive behavior, used to avert or deal with a threat,[ ] while resentment occurs once the injury has been dealt and is not expressed as aggressively or as openly. another differentiation between anger and resentment, is as follows: anger is about the immediate situation (to back off or submit), whereas resentment is a defensive way to mentally punish (or in the more extreme case, to devalue) yourself, or the remembered offender.[ ] another differentiation is that resentment is rarely (if ever) about a single specific stimulus:[ ] even after behavioural changes have been made (i.e. accountability has been addressed) or the stimulus is no longer present (i.e. situation is no longer encountered) resentment can still be present. whereas anger is triggered by a specific stimulus, and usually reduces in intensity as the stimulus attenuates (or is no longer present). comparison with other motivations[edit] resentment vs. conviction[edit] an important feature of acting on resentment is that it is against something (i.e. unfairness, injustice, abuse, situations that threaten values or well-being). whereas, acting on conviction is for something (i.e. justice, well-being of self or others, or any other values held by an individual as important). the distinction is important, when acted upon, because while acting for your deeper values creates actions consistent with your values, acting against things (or people) you do not value does not necessarily lead to actions that are consistent with your deeper values (i.e. retribution, murder).[ ] self-reflection can help determine which of the two you are acting on, by stating why the behavior is consistent with your deeper values: if your answer represents conviction, it will reflect your deeper values; if it is resentful it will devalue someone or something.[ ] philosophical perspectives[edit] 	scheler considered resentment as the product of weakness and passivity.[ ] 	nietzsche saw resentment as an ignoble emotion underlying rousseau-esque romanticism - "for under all romanticism lie the grunting and greed of rousseau's instinct for revenge".[ ] 	philosopher robert c. solomon wrote extensively on the emotion of resentment and its negative effects on those who experience it. solomon describes resentment as the means by which man clings to his self-respect. he wrote that it is in this moment when humanity is at its lowest ebb.[citation needed] ressentiment[edit] main articles: ressentiment and ressentiment (scheler) religious perspectives[edit] see also: righteous indignation modern culture[edit] the alcoholics anonymous organization cites resentment as the number one offender, and one of the greatest threats to an alcoholic.[ ] several of the twelve steps (step inventory, step inventory review, step asking the fear to be removed, step asking the shortcoming to be removed, step creation of a list detailing any wrongdoing done, and step actively seeking to make amends) of aa involve identifying and dealing with resentment as part of the path toward recovery, including acknowledging one's own role in resentment and praying for the resentment to be taken away.[ ] the inventory that aa suggests for dealing with recovering from resentments is to first inventory the resentment by identifying what person, organization, idea or thing is the source of the resentment, then to identify why it is that thing is causing the resentment and what fear is underlying the conflict. finally, removing the other person entirely, one must ask himself/herself what is my own part in this play?[ ] the book alcoholics anonymous then recommends following through with more action. resentment can also play a role in racial and ethnic conflicts. resentment is cited as having infected the structure of social value, and is thus a regular catalyst in conflicts sparked by inequality.[ ] it can also be one of the emotions experienced during class conflict, particularly by the oppressed social class. literary examples[edit] 	the writer norman douglas confessed to a habit of borrowing money, like d. h. lawrence; but unlike lawrence, douglas was able to hide "the primary reaction: resentfulness…. we object to being patronized; it makes us resentful".[ ] 	sociologist zygmunt bauman discusses resentment: "both nietzsche and scheler point to ressentiment as a major obstacle to loving the other as thyself. (while they wrote in german, they used the french term ressentiment, the complex meaning of which is less than perfectly conveyed by the more straightforward english term "resentment"."[ ] see also[edit] 	anger 	acceptance 	cynicism 	forgiveness 	grief 	mimpathy 	moral emotions 	moral injury 	remorse 	revenge 	social emotions 	suffering references[edit] 	^ d m marino ed., on resentment ( ) p. - 	^ tenhouten, w. d. ( ). general theory of emotions and social life. routledge. 	^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n stosny, steven ( september ). living & loving after betrayal. new harbinger publications. isbn  - . 	^ w tenhouten, emotion and reason ( ) p. 	^ a b c "handling resentment". livestrong.com. archived from the original on january , . retrieved august , . 	^ "should you feel or flee your emotions?". psychology today. retrieved - - . 	^ "don't justify what you want to change". psychology today. retrieved - - . 	^ rosenberg, joan. "grief: a pathway to forgiveness". youtube. tedx talks. retrieved december . 	^ a b "chains of resentment". psychology today. retrieved - - . 	^ a b maclachlan, alice ( ). "unreasonable resentments". journal of social philosophy. : – . 	^ a b c hieronymi, pamela (may ). "articulating an uncomprimising forgiveness" (pdf). retrieved - - . 	^ luskin, fred ( ). forgive for good. harperone. isbn  - . 	^ oatley, keith; keltner, dacher; jenkins, jennifer m. ( ). "studies of the universality of facial expressions". understanding emotions. oxford: wiley-blackwell. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ "how to get rid of resentment". retrieved august , . 	^ a b murphy, jeffrie g. ( ). "forgiveness and resentment". midwest studies in philosophy. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	^ stosny, steven (june ). "emotional abuse: is your relationship headed there? you might be a lot closer than you think!". psychology today. retrieved august , . 	^ solomon r. c. ( ). the passions: emotions and the meaning of life. hackett publishing. 	^ moore, zella e.; gardner, frank l. (july , ). "understanding clinical anger and violence: the anger avoidance model". behavior modification. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ albert camus the rebel (vintage nd) p. 	^ w kaufmann ed., the portable nietzsche (penguin ) p. 	^ a b aa services. alcoholics anonymous: the big book. alcoholics anonymous world services, inc., th edition; .[page needed] 	^ "twelve steps to live without resentment". www.hazeldenbettyford.org. 	^ mccarthy, cameron; rodriguez, alicia p.; buendia, ed; meacham, shuaib; david, stephen; godina, heriberto; supriya, k. e.; wilson-brown, carrie ( ). "danger in the safety zone: notes on race, resentment, and the discourse of crime, violence and suburban security". cultural studies. ( ): – . doi: . / . oclc  . 	^ n douglas, looking back (london ) p. 	^ bauman, zygmunt. does ethics have a chance in a world of consumers?. institute for human sciences vienna lecture series in cooperation with harvard university press, suhrkamp verlag (frankfurt), and znak (kraków). first harvard university press paperback edition, . further reading[edit] 		look up resent, resentment, or rankle in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: resentment 	kinder, donald r.; sanders, lynn m. ( ). "subtle prejudice for modern times". divided by color: racial politics and democratic ideals. american politics and political economy. chicago: university of chicago press. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=resentment&oldid= " 		categories: 	hatred 	emotions hidden categories: 	wikipedia articles needing page number citations from november 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from january 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	deutsch 	español 	français 	galego 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	עברית 	Македонски 	日本語 	polski 	Русский 	sicilianu 	slovenčina 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 on the origins of human emotions : a sociological inquiry into the evolution of human affect : turner, jonathan h : free download, borrow, and streaming : internet archive skip to main content see what's new with book lending at the internet archive can you chip in? 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" floppy disk. software an illustration of two photographs. images an illustration of a heart shape donate an illustration of text ellipses. more an icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. 	 about 	 blog 	 projects 	 help 	 donate an illustration of a heart shape 	 contact 	 jobs 	 volunteer 	 people search metadata search text contents search tv news captions search archived websites advanced search 	sign up for free 	log in on the origins of human emotions : a sociological inquiry into the evolution of human affect item preview remove-circle share or embed this item embed embed (for wordpress.com hosted blogs and archive.org item <description> tags) [archiveorg onoriginsofhuman turn width= height= frameborder= webkitallowfullscreen=true mozallowfullscreen=true] want more? advanced embedding details, examples, and help! no_favorite share flag flag this item for 	 graphic violence 	 graphic sexual content texts on the origins of human emotions : a sociological inquiry into the evolution of human affect 	by 	turner, jonathan h 	publication date 	 	topics 	emoties, sociologische aspecten, oorsprong, emotions -- social aspects, emotions, biological evolution, nervous system physiological phenomena, hominidae -- psychology, émotions, social behavior, émotions -- aspect social 	publisher 	stanford, calif. : stanford university press 	collection 	inlibrary; printdisabled; internetarchivebooks 	digitizing sponsor 	kahle/austin foundation 	contributor 	internet archive 	language 	english xiii, pages : cm "language and culture are often seen as unique characteristics of human beings. in this book the author argues that our ability to use a wide array of emotions evolved long before spoken language and, in fact, constituted a preadaptation for the speech and culture that developed among later hominids. long before humans could speak with words, they communicated their emotional dispositions through body language; and it is the neurological wiring of the brain for these emotional languages that represented the key evolutionary breakthrough for our species."--jacket includes bibliographical references (pages - ) and indexes 	access-restricted-item 	true 	addeddate 	 - - : : 	boxid 	ia 	camera 	sony alpha-a (control) 	collection_set 	printdisabled 	external-identifier 	 urn:oclc:record: 	foldoutcount 	 	identifier 	onoriginsofhuman turn 	identifier-ark 	ark:/ /t s b t 	invoice 	 	isbn 	 	lccn 	 	noindex 	true 	ocr 	abbyy finereader . 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"disdain" redirects here. for the ep by alien huang, see disdain (ep). this picture of thomas ward, arrested for stealing a coin, can be seen as showing contempt. 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e a painting by louis-léopold boilly (ca. ). the woman has been interpreted as a prostitute (who is disdaining the inadequate coin proffered by the fashionable gentleman getting his shoes shined at left). contempt is a pattern of attitudes and behaviour, often towards an individual or group, but sometimes towards an ideology, which has the characteristics of disgust and anger.[ ][page needed] the word originated in , from the latin word contemptus meaning "scorn". it is the past participle of contemnere and from com- intensive prefix + temnere "to slight, scorn". contemptuous appeared in .[ ] it is classified among paul ekman's seven basic emotions of contempt, anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. robert c. solomon places contempt on the same continuum as resentment and anger, and he argues that the differences between the three are that resentment is anger directed towards a higher-status individual; anger is directed towards an equal-status individual; and contempt is anger directed towards a lower-status individual.[ ][page needed] contents 	 cultural context 	 characteristics 	 defining features 	 virtues 	 response 	 contempt in relationships 	 . gender differences 	 . legal responses 	 . marriage 	 . parental relationships 	 . stature 	 see also 	 references 	 external links cultural context[edit] facial expression of contempt ekman and friesen ( ) identified a specific facial expression that observers in ten different cultures, both western and non-western, agreed signaled contempt. in this study, citizens of west sumatra, indonesia, were given photos of american, japanese, and indonesian peoples. their ability to classify some facial expressions as contempt versus the primary emotions of anger, disgust, happiness, sadness, fear, or surprise showed that across cultures, general contempt is universally understood (with level of agreement equating to %).[ ] “an expression in which the corner of the lip is tightened and raised slightly on one side of the face (or much more strongly on one side than the other) signaled contempt.” this study showed that contempt, as well as the outward expression of contempt, can be pointed out across western and non-western peoples when contrasted with other primary emotions. characteristics[edit] paul ekman, a widely recognized psychologist, found six emotions that were universally recognized: anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, and surprise. findings on contempt are less clear, though there is at least some preliminary evidence that this emotion and its expression are universally recognized.[ ] in the s ekman proposed an expanded list of emotions, this time including contempt.[ ] defining features[edit] contempt has five features.[ ] contempt requires a judgment concerning the appearance or standing of the object of contempt. in particular, contempt involves the judgment that, because of some moral or personal failing or defect, the contemned person has compromised his or her standing vis-à-vis an interpersonal standard that the contemptor treats as important. this may have not been done deliberately but by a lack of status. this lack of status may cause the contemptuous to classify the object of contempt as utterly worthless, or as not fully meeting a particular interpersonal standard. therefore, contempt is a response to a perceived failure to meet an interpersonal standard. contempt is also a particular way of regarding or attending to the object of contempt, and this form of regard has an unpleasant affective element. however, contempt may be experienced as a highly visceral emotion similar to disgust, or as cool disregard. facial expression showing subtle contempt contempt has a certain comparative element. in david hume's studies of contempt, he suggests that contempt essentially requires apprehending the “bad qualities” of someone “as they really are” while simultaneously making a comparison between this person and ourselves. because of this reflexive element, contempt also involves what we might term a “positive self-feeling” of the contemptuous. a characteristic of contempt is the psychological withdrawal or distance one typically feels regarding the object of one's contempt. this psychological distancing is an essential way of expressing one's nonidentification with the object of one's contempt and it precludes sympathetic identification with the object of contempt. (hume, , ) contempt for a person involves a way of negatively and comparatively regarding or attending to someone who has not fully lived up to an interpersonal standard that the person extending contempt thinks is important. this form of regard constitutes a psychological withdrawal from the object of contempt.[ ] virtues[edit] contempt can serve a useful purpose in a moral community. an ethics of contempt provides a much larger breadth of answers than other competing systems of ethics, whether they be based on ethics of actions (judging actions by their rightness or wrongness) or ethics of feelings (e.g., ethics of resentment). by feeling contempt for those things which are found to be unethical, immoral, or morally unsavory, one can both show that they are bad and remove them from the moral community.[ ][page needed] response[edit] the main response of contempt lies within “publicized expression of low regard for the objects held in contempt” (miller, c.h., ). by this reasoning, a person holding contempt would not have the urge to openly confront the person with whom they are at odds, nor would they themselves try to remove the object of contempt; rather, one who holds contempt would have the tendency to hold the view that others should remove the object of contempt, or hold the view that the object of contempt should remove itself. so while one would make their feelings known to others, the person with contempt would not necessarily want to directly deal with the situation at hand. one who is experiencing contempt would exhibit negative affective behaviors that may be labeled as “cold” – this simply meaning that one who is experiencing the emotion of contempt would tend to alienate those responsible.[ ][page needed] contempt in relationships[edit] gender differences[edit] men and women act differently when displaying contempt in same-sex relationships. not only do girls engage in more non-verbal forms of social aggression than boys do, girls dissembled more than boys do, speaking nicely but making mean faces. in the research provided by underwood ( ) in their laboratory observation studies where they watch girls and boys in an identical social context in which best friends respond to a provoking newcomer, gender differences emerge not for the verbal behaviours, but for the nonverbal expressions of disdain and contempt (which are so glaring that they were observed with high degrees of inter-coder reliability by both women and men, kappa's exceeding . ; underwood et al., ).[ ] there are several reasons why girls can be especially prone to conveying anger and contempt by nonverbal forms of social exclusion. one reason may be that girls are socialized from infancy onward to be overtly nice and conciliatory and do so to avoid conflict whenever possible, for fear of being excluded from relationships, disliked, or punished (for reviews, see brown and gilligan, ; underwood, ; zahn-waxler, ). non-verbal forms of social exclusion may be a highly effective way to harm someone with relatively few social consequences; the hurtful act is fleeting, can often be executed behind the victim's back and outside of the watchful eyes of adults, and, even if caught, mean faces are typically not punished. second, girls may hurt one another via non-verbal expressions of exclusion or disdain because girls and women may gaze at others more for reasons related to their lower social status, so as to learn as much as possible about others’ needs and desires (see lafrance, , for a discussion of ‘smile boycotts and other body politics’, p.  ). because girls and women gaze at others often, perhaps mean glares are more effective as a means of wielding power. third, non-verbal forms of social exclusion may be powerful for girls because their relationships involve high levels of intimacy and self-disclosure (see buhrmester and prager, , for a review), thus even subtle indicators of exclusion are threatening. fourth, non-verbal forms of social exclusion may be powerful for girls because although they fiercely desire and defend popularity with other girls, they dread being labelled as ‘stuck up’ (merten, ).[ ] legal responses[edit] in , the palo alto city council defeated a resolution that would have discouraged elected officials from facial expressions conveying contempt at public meetings; this was proposed because council members were so weary of colleagues intimidating one another by these subtle but rude facial expressions.[ ] marriage[edit] research demonstrates how childhood abuse ties into maladaptive communication dynamics consisting of contempt-laden conflict and emotional withdrawal. these findings are important because maladaptive marital communication may be one mechanism by which traumatic childhood experiences translate into poor adult relationship quality. forms of verbal aggression, such as contempt, belligerence, and defensiveness, are associated with destructive, hostile patterns of conflict resolution ( [gottman et al., ] and [straus, ]). couples who use such communication styles are more likely to have higher levels of marital distress (roberts, ), lower levels of marital satisfaction (holman and jarvis, ), and lower levels of marital stability ([gottman et al., ], [holman and jarvis, ] and [demaris, ]).[ ] gottman ( ) identified several behaviors that are particularly indicative of distress in relationships. one series of behaviors, which he termed the "four horsemen," includes a cascading of responses such as expressing criticism, defensiveness, contempt, sarcasm, hostility, and withdrawal, the combination of which indicates a critical state of marriage dissolution.[ ] carstensen, gottman, and levenson ( ) found that “negative emotional behavior, such as expressed anger, sadness, contempt, and other negative emotions, appears to be the best discriminator between satisfied and dissatisfied marriages”. carstensen, gottman, and levenson ( ) also discovered that “in terms of speaker behaviors, wives were coded as showing more total emotion, negative emotion, anger, joy, contempt, whining, and sadness.” this supports the stereotype that women express more emotion than men both in general and in relationships. it also supports the idea that men are less expressive than women and tend to be more defensive minded in conversations.[ ] six short self-report measures were used to assess several component communication skills (gottman ). specifically, the questionnaires assessed repair attempts, accepting influence, harsh start-up, flooding, gridlock, and the four horsemen. these six measures were chosen because they were of theoretical and clinical interest to the authors, incorporated both adaptive and maladaptive communication behaviors, and included those aspects of couple communication considered by many to be most toxic, including withdrawal and contempt (gottman ; gottman et al. ; johnson ).[ ] finally, the four horsemen create a cascading sequence of responses in which one partner expresses criticism and the other partner responds with defensiveness, causing the first partner to react to the defensiveness with contempt, sarcasm, and/or hostility with their partner, eventually withdrawing from, or stonewalling, the conversation. this cascading negative sequence which occurs as a repetitive, interlocking pattern is believed to signify a critical end-stage process of relationship dissolution, representing a final common causal pathway to relationship dissolution (see gottman ).[ ] in the book blink: the power of thinking without thinking, author malcolm gladwell discusses john gottman's theories of how to predict which couples will stay married. gottman's theory states that there are four major emotional reactions that are destructive to a marriage: defensiveness, stonewalling, criticism, and contempt. among these four, gottman considers contempt the most destructive of them all.[ ] for all other forms of aggression the four horsemen emerged as significant predictors of classification, which is expected given that this construct includes very negative, contemptuous behaviors. this is consistent with marital research, which contends that these communication behaviors are highly toxic, and erode relationship satisfaction (cornelius et al. ; gottman ).[ ][ ] parental relationships[edit] in abusive relationships between parents and children, the abusive parent may hold contemptuous views towards their child, or vice versa.[citation needed] stature[edit] people feel contempt towards a low status individual at a distant proximity, with other emotions resulting from different combinations.[ ] 	 	distant 	close 	powerful	fear	envy 	powerless	contempt	compassion see also[edit] 	contempt of court 	moral emotions 	pejorative references[edit] 	^ tenhouten, w.d. ( ). general theory of emotions and social life. routledge. 	^ "contempt. (n.d.)". online etymology dictionary. retrieved april , . 	^ solomon r.c. ( ). the passions: emotions and the meaning of life. hackett publishing. 	^ ekman, p; heider, k.g. ( ). "the universality of contempt expression: a replication". motivation and emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /bf . 	^ ekman, p. & friesen, w. v ( ). the repertoire of nonverbal behavior: categories, origins, usage, and encoding. semiotica, , – . 	^ ekman; heider ( ). "the universality of a contempt expression: a replication" (pdf). motivation and emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /bf . 	^ a b bell, m. ( ). "a woman's scorn: toward a feminist defense of contempt as a moral emotion". hypatia. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	^ bell, m. ( ). hard feelings: the moral psychology of contempt. oxford university press. isbn  	^ miller, c. h. ( ). how dare you! a measure of indignation. manuscript in preparation, university of oklahoma. 	^ a b underwood, m. k. ( ). "iii. glares of contempt, eye rolls of disgust and turning away to exclude: non-verbal forms of social aggression among girls". feminism & psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ "city council allows frowning", daily southtown, 	^ krivickas, k. m.; sanchez, l. a.; kenney, c. t.; wright, j. d. ( ). "fiery wives and icy husbands: pre-marital counseling and covenant marriage as buffers against effects of childhood abuse on gendered marital communication?". social science research. ( ): . doi: . /j.ssresearch. . . . 	^ a b c d cornelius, t. l.; shorey, r. c.; beebe, s. m. ( ). "self-reported communication variables and dating violence: using gottman's marital communication conceptualization". journal of family violence. ( ): . doi: . /s - - - . 	^ carstensen, l. l.; gottman, j. m.; levenson, r. w. ( ). "emotional behavior in long-term marriage". psychology and aging. : – . doi: . / - . . . . 	^ a b gladwell, malcolm ( ). blink. back bay books imprint (little, brown and company). pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ beaumont, leland r. 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(february ) integrated authority file	gnd: screenshot of the german national library (browser: opera . ). 	acronym	gnd 	organisation	dnb 	introduced	  april   ( - - ) 	example	 - 	website	www.dnb.de/en/professionell/standardisierung/gnd/gnd_node.html the integrated authority file (german: gemeinsame normdatei; also known as the universal authority file) or gnd is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. it is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives and museums. the gnd is managed by the german national library (german: deutsche nationalbibliothek; dnb) in cooperation with various regional library networks in german-speaking europe and other partners. the gnd falls under the creative commons zero (cc ) licence.[ ] the gnd specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. it also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the rdf format.[ ] the integrated authority file became operational in april and integrates the content of the following authority files, which have since been discontinued: 	name authority file (german: personennamendatei; pnd) 	corporate bodies authority file (german: gemeinsame körperschaftsdatei; gkd) 	subject headings authority file (german: schlagwortnormdatei; swd) 	uniform title file of the deutsches musikarchiv (german: einheitssachtitel-datei des deutschen musikarchivs; dma-est) at the time of its introduction on april , the gnd held , , files, including , , personalised names. contents 	 types of gnd high-level entities 	 see also 	 references 	 external links types of gnd high-level entities[edit] there are seven main types of gnd entities:[ ] 	typ	german (official)	english (translation) 	p	person (individualisiert)	person (individualised) 	n	name (nicht individualisiert)	name (not individualised) 	k	körperschaft	corporate body 	v	veranstaltung	event 	w	werk	work 	s	sachbegriff	topical term 	g	geografikum	geographical place name see also[edit] 	libris 	virtual international authority file references[edit] 	^ www.dnb.de/en/professionell/standardisierung/gnd/gnd_node.html integrated authority file (gnd) 	^ gnd ontology – namespace document archived - - at the wayback machine, version - - . 	^ entitätencodierung: vergaberichtlinien (short lists – old and new versions) external links[edit] 		wikidata has the property: 	 gnd id (p ) (see uses) 	information pages about the gnd from the german national library 	search via ognd (bibliotheksservice-zentrum baden-württemberg) 	bereitstellung des ersten gnd-grundbestandes dnb, april 	from authority control to linked authority data presentation given by reinhold heuvelmann (german national library) to the ala marc formats interest group, june 		v 	t 	e authority control files 	aag • acm dl • adb • agsa • autores.uy • awr • balat • bibsys • bildindex • bnc • bne • bnf • botanist • bpn • cantic • cinii • cwgc • daao • dblp • dsi • fnza • gnd • hds • iaaf • iccu • icia • isni • joconde • kulturnav • lccn • lir • lnb • léonore • mba • mgp • nara • nbl • ndl • ngv • nkc • nla • nlg • nli • nlk • nlp • nlr • nsk • nta • orcid • pic • researcherid • rero • rkd • rkdimages id • rsl • selibr • sikart • snac • sudoc • s authorid • ta • tdvİa • te • tepapa • th • tls • trove • ukparl • ulan • us congress • vcba • viaf • worldcat identities 	authority control 	 	gnd: - 	viaf: 	 worldcat identities (via viaf): retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=integrated_authority_file&oldid= #gnd" 		categories: 	computer-related introductions in 	library cataloging and classification 	unique identifiers 	creative commons-licensed databases hidden categories: 	webarchive template wayback links 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	wikipedia articles in need of updating from february 	all wikipedia articles in need of updating 	articles containing german-language text 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	wikipedia articles with viaf identifiers 	wikipedia articles with worldcat-viaf identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			afrikaans 	alemannisch 	العربية 	asturianu 	azərbaycanca 	Беларуская 	Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ 	भोजपुरी 	Български 	boarisch 	català 	Čeština 	cymraeg 	dansk 	deutsch 	Ελληνικά 	español 	esperanto 	euskara 	فارسی 	français 	gàidhlig 	galego 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	हिन्दी 	hrvatski 	ilokano 	bahasa indonesia 	italiano 	עברית 	magyar 	Македонски 	malagasy 	मराठी 	مصرى 	bahasa melayu 	nederlands 	日本語 	nordfriisk 	norsk bokmål 	norsk nynorsk 	ਪੰਜਾਬੀ 	plattdüütsch 	polski 	português 	română 	Русский 	scots 	සිංහල 	simple english 	slovenčina 	slovenščina 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	suomi 	svenska 	türkçe 	Українська 	اردو 	tiếng việt 	吴语 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 forgiveness - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	forgiveness 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from forgive) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for other uses, see forgiveness (disambiguation). renunciation or cessation of resentment, indignation or anger emperor marcus aurelius shows clemency to the vanquished after his success against tribes. (capitoline museum in rome) forgiveness is the intentional and voluntary process by which a victim undergoes a change in feelings and attitude regarding an offense, and overcomes [ ][ ][ ] negative emotions such as resentment and vengeance (however justified it might be). theorists differ, however, in the extent to which they believe forgiveness also implies replacing the negative emotions with positive attitudes (i.e. an increased ability to wish the offender well).[ ][ ][ ] forgiveness is different from condoning (failing to see the action as wrong and in need of forgiveness), excusing (not holding the offender as responsible for the action), forgetting (removing awareness of the offense from consciousness), pardoning (granted for an acknowledged offense by a representative of society, such as a judge), and reconciliation (restoration of a relationship).[ ] in certain contexts, forgiveness is a legal term for absolving or giving up all claims on account of debt, loan, obligation, or other claims.[ ][ ] as a psychological concept and virtue, the benefits of forgiveness have been explored in religious thought, social sciences and medicine. forgiveness may be considered simply in terms of the person who forgives[ ] including forgiving themself, in terms of the person forgiven or in terms of the relationship between the forgiver and the person forgiven. in most contexts, forgiveness is granted without any expectation of restorative justice, and without any response on the part of the offender (for example, one may forgive a person who is incommunicado or dead). in practical terms, it may be necessary for the offender to offer some form of acknowledgment, an apology, or even just ask for forgiveness, in order for the wronged person to believe themselves able to forgive as well.[ ] social and political dimensions of forgiveness involves the strictly private and religious sphere of "forgiveness". the notion of "forgiveness" is generally considered unusual in the political field. however, hannah arendt considers that the "faculty of forgiveness" has its place in public affairs. the philosopher believes that forgiveness can liberate resources both individually and collectively in the face of the irreparable. during an investigation in rwanda on the discourses and practices of forgiveness after the genocide, sociologist benoit guillou illustrated the extreme polysemy (multiple meanings) of the word "forgiveness" but also the eminently political character of the notion. by way of conclusion of his work, the author proposes four main figures of forgiveness to better understanding, on the one hand, ambiguous uses and, on the other hand, the conditions under which forgiveness can mediate a resumption of social link.[ ] most world religions include teachings on the nature of forgiveness, and many of these teachings provide an underlying basis for many varying modern day traditions and practices of forgiveness. some religious doctrines or philosophies place greater emphasis on the need for humans to find some sort of divine forgiveness for their own shortcomings, others place greater emphasis on the need for humans to practice forgiveness of one another, yet others make little or no distinction between human and divine forgiveness. the term forgiveness can be used interchangeably and is interpreted many different ways by people and cultures. this is specifically important in relational communication because forgiveness is a key component in communication and the overall progression as an individual and couple or group. when all parties have a mutual viewing for forgiveness then a relationship can be maintained. "understanding antecedents of forgiveness, exploring the physiology of forgiveness, and training people to become more forgiving all imply that we have a shared meaning for the term".[ ] contents 	 research 	 . ideas about what forgiveness is not 	 . the timeliness of forgiveness 	 religious views 	 . abrahamic 	 . . judaism 	 . . christianity 	 . . . god's forgiveness 	 . . . forgiving others 	 . . islam 	 . . bahá'í faith 	 . asian 	 . . buddhism 	 . . hindu dharma 	 . . jainism 	 . other 	 . . hoʻoponopono 	 popular recognition 	 forgiveness in relationships 	 forgiveness interventions 	 . different types 	 . contrary evidence 	 . forgiveness interventions: children 	 forgiveness and mental health 	 forgiveness and physical health 	 . evidence supporting a correlation 	 . criticisms 	 self-forgiveness 	 . therapeutic model 	 unapologetic forgiveness 	 . character retributivism 	 . jean hampton 	 see also 	 notes 	 references 	 external links research[edit] factors determining the likelihood of forgiveness in an intimate relationship although there is presently no consensus for a psychological definition of forgiveness in research literature, agreement has emerged that forgiveness is a process, and a number of models describing the process of forgiveness have been published, including one from a radical behavioral perspective.[ ] dr. robert enright from the university of wisconsin–madison founded the international forgiveness institute and is considered the initiator of forgiveness studies. he developed a -step process model of forgiveness.[ ] recent work has focused on what kind of person is more likely to be forgiving. a longitudinal study showed that people who were generally more neurotic, angry, and hostile in life were less likely to forgive another person even after a long time had passed. specifically, these people were more likely to still avoid their transgressor and want to enact revenge upon them two and a half years after the transgression.[ ] studies show that people who forgive are happier and healthier than those who hold resentments.[ ] the first study to look at how forgiveness improves physical health discovered that when people think about forgiving an offender it leads to improved functioning in their cardiovascular and nervous systems.[ ] another study at the university of wisconsin found the more forgiving people were, the less they suffered from a wide range of illnesses. the less forgiving people reported a greater number of health problems.[ ] the research of dr. fred luskin of stanford university, and author of the book forgive for good[ ] presented evidence that forgiveness can be learned (i.e. can be a teachable skill, with practice) based on research projects into the effects of teaching forgiveness: giving empirical validity to the concept that forgiveness is powerful as well as excellent for your health. in three separate studies, including one with catholics and protestants from northern ireland whose family members were murdered in the political violence, he found that people who are taught how to forgive become less angry, feel less hurt, are more optimistic, become more forgiving in a variety of situations, and become more compassionate and self-confident. his studies show a reduction in experience of stress, physical manifestations of stress, and an increase in vitality.[ ] ideas about what forgiveness is not[edit] 	forgiveness is not condoning.[ ][ ] 	forgiveness is not forgetting.[ ][ ] 	forgiveness is not excusing (i.e. making reasons to explain away offender's responsibility or free-will).[ ][ ] 	forgiveness doesn't have to be religious or 'otherworldly'.[ ] 	forgiveness is not minimizing your hurt.[ ] 	forgiveness is not reconciliation (i.e. reestablishing trust in the relationship).[ ][ ][ ] 	forgiveness is not denying or suppressing anger (rather its focus is on resentment).[ ][ ][ ][ ]—in particular, in order to forgive it is healthy to acknowledge and express negative emotions, before you can even forgive.[ ] 	forgiveness is not ignoring accountability or justice.[ ][ ]—in particular, punishment and recompensation are independent of the choice to forgive (you can forgive, or not forgive, and still pursue punishment and/or recompensation, regardless).[ ][ ][ ] 	forgiveness is not pardoning: it cannot be granted, or chosen, by someone else.[ ][ ] 	emotional forgiveness is not the same as decisional forgiveness (or the expression of forgiveness): expressing emotions (i.e., 'i am angry at you' or 'i forgive you') is not the same as genuinely having or experiencing the emotions (i.e., people can deny, mistake, or lie about their emotional experience to another person while genuinely feeling something else instead).[ ][ ][ ] 	although, heavily debated,[ ] emotional forgiveness is for you, not the offender[ ] (i.e., unless you choose to make it so: by expressing it, or by trying to reconcile). the timeliness of forgiveness[edit] the psychologist wanda malcolm writes a chapter in women's reflections on the complexities of forgiveness titled "the timeliness of forgiveness interventions" where she outlines reasons why forgiveness takes time: when work on self (care/healing) takes priority (i.e. therapy, medical injuries, etc.), when issues of relational safety need to be addressed, and where facilitating forgiveness may be premature immediately after an interpersonal offense.[ ] malcolm explains that "premature efforts to facilitate forgiveness may be a sign of our reluctance to witness our client’s pain and suffering and may unwittingly reinforce the client’s belief that the pain and suffering is too much to bear and must be suppressed or avoided."[ ] worthington (et al.) observed that “anything done to promote forgiveness has little impact unless substantial time is spent at helping participants think through and emotionally experience their forgiveness”.[ ] efforts to facilitate forgiveness may be premature immediately after an interpersonal injury,[ ] if not harmful.[ ] indeed, if you make forgiveness a goal, it remains elusive, like a carrot on a stick; just when you think you’ve got it, it’s out of reach again. but when you focus on self-compassion and develop your core-values, forgiveness sneaks up on you. if you realize that you’ve forgiven your betrayer, it will be after the fact (of detachment or full emotional reinvestment), not before.[ ] religious views[edit] further information: salvation and sin world religions religion can have an impact on how someone chooses to forgive and the process they go through. most have conceptualized religion's effect in three ways—through religious activity, religious affiliation and teachings, and imitation.[ ] there are several thousand religions in the world and each one can look at forgiveness a different way. abrahamic[edit] judaism[edit] see also: repentance in judaism in judaism, if a person causes harm, but then sincerely and honestly apologizes to the wronged individual and tries to rectify the wrong, the wronged individual is encouraged, but not required, to grant forgiveness: 	"it is forbidden to be obdurate and not allow yourself to be appeased. on the contrary, one should be easily pacified and find it difficult to become angry. when asked by an offender for forgiveness, one should forgive with a sincere mind and a willing spirit ... forgiveness is natural to the seed of israel." (mishneh torah, teshuvah : ) in judaism, one must go "to those he has harmed" in order to be entitled to forgiveness.[ ] [one who sincerely apologizes three times for a wrong committed against another has fulfilled their obligation to seek forgiveness. (shulchan aruch) oc : ] this means that in judaism a person cannot obtain forgiveness from god for wrongs the person has done to other people. this also means that, unless the victim forgave the perpetrator before he died, murder is unforgivable in judaism, and they will answer to god for it, though the victims' family and friends can forgive the murderer for the grief they caused them. the tefila zaka meditation, which is recited just before yom kippur, closes with the following: 	"i know that there is no one so righteous that they have not wronged another, financially or physically, through deed or speech. this pains my heart within me, because wrongs between humans and their fellow are not atoned by yom kippur, until the wronged one is appeased. because of this, my heart breaks within me, and my bones tremble; for even the day of death does not atone for such sins. therefore i prostrate and beg before you, to have mercy on me, and grant me grace, compassion, and mercy in your eyes and in the eyes of all people. for behold, i forgive with a final and resolved forgiveness anyone who has wronged me, whether in person or property, even if they slandered me, or spread falsehoods against me. so i release anyone who has injured me either in person or in property, or has committed any manner of sin that one may commit against another [except for legally enforceable business obligations, and except for someone who has deliberately harmed me with the thought ‘i can harm him because he will forgive me']. except for these two, i fully and finally forgive everyone; may no one be punished because of me. and just as i forgive everyone, so may you grant me grace in the eyes of others, that they too forgive me absolutely." thus the "reward" for forgiving others is not god's forgiveness for wrongs done to others, but rather help in obtaining forgiveness from the other person. sir jonathan sacks, chief rabbi of the united hebrew congregations of the commonwealth, summarized: "it is not that god forgives, while human beings do not. to the contrary, we believe that just as only god can forgive sins against god, so only human beings can forgive sins against human beings."[ ] jews observe a day of atonement yom kippur on the day before god makes decisions regarding what will happen during the coming year.[ ] just prior to yom kippur, jews will ask forgiveness of those they have wronged during the prior year (if they have not already done so).[ ] during yom kippur itself, jews fast and pray for god's forgiveness for the transgressions they have made against god in the prior year.[ ] sincere repentance is required, and once again, god can only forgive one for the sins one has committed against god; this is why it is necessary for jews also to seek the forgiveness of those people who they have wronged.[ ] christianity[edit] rembrandt – "the return of the prodigal son forgiveness is central to christian ethics and is a frequent topic in sermons and theological works, because christianity is about christ, christ is about redemption, and redemption is about forgiveness of sin.[citation needed] god's forgiveness[edit] unlike in judaism, god can forgive sins committed by people against people, since he can forgive every sin except for the eternal sin, and forgiveness from one's victim is not necessary for salvation.[ ] the parable of the prodigal son[ ] is perhaps the best known parable about forgiveness and refers to god's forgiveness for those who repent. jesus asked for god's forgiveness of those who crucified him. "and jesus said, 'father, forgive them, for they know not what they do.'" – luke : [ ] forgiving others[edit] forgiving offenses is among the spiritual works of mercy,[ ] and forgiving others begets being forgiven by god.[ ] considering mark : , and matthew : – , that follows the lord's prayer, "for if you forgive men when they sin against you, your heavenly father will also forgive you. but if you do not forgive men their sins, your father will not forgive your sins,"[ ] forgiveness is not an option to a christian, rather one must forgive to be a christian. forgiveness in christianity is a manifestation of submission to christ and fellow believers.[ ] in the new testament, jesus speaks of the importance of forgiving or showing mercy toward others. this is based on the belief that god forgives sins through faith in the atoning sacrifice of jesus christ in his death ( john : [ ]) and that, therefore, christians should forgive others (ephesians : [ ]). jesus used the parable of the unmerciful servant (matthew : – [ ]) to show that his followers (represented in the parable by the servant) should forgive because god (represented by the king) forgives much more. in the sermon on the mount, jesus repeatedly spoke of forgiveness: "blessed are the merciful, for they will be shown mercy." matthew : (niv)[ ] "therefore, if you are offering your gift at the altar and there remember that your brother has something against you, leave your gift there in front of the altar. first go and be reconciled to your brother; then come and offer your gift." matthew : – (niv)[ ] "and when you stand praying, if you hold anything against anyone, forgive him, so that your father in heaven may forgive you your sins." mark : (niv)[ ] "but i tell you who hear me: love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for those who mistreat you. if someone strikes you on one cheek, turn to him the other also." luke : – (niv)[ ] "be merciful, just as your father is merciful." luke : (niv)[ ] "do not judge, and you will not be judged. do not condemn, and you will not be condemned. forgive, and you will be forgiven." luke : (niv)[ ] elsewhere, it is said "then peter came to him and said, "lord, how often shall my brother sin against me, and i forgive him? up to seven times?" jesus said to him, "i do not say to you, up to seven times, but up to seventy times seven." matthew : – (nkjv)[ ] benedict xvi, on a visit to lebanon in , insisted that peace must be based on mutual forgiveness: "only forgiveness, given and received, can lay lasting foundations for reconciliation and universal peace".[ ] pope francis during a general audience explained forgiving others as god forgives oneself.[ ] islam[edit] 	 	part of a series on 	god in islam 	allah jalla jalālah in arabic calligraphy 	 list 	allah 	names 	phrases and expressions 	theology 	oneness 	islamic creed 	negation 	transcendence 	nearness 	 islam portal  · category 		v 	t 	e islam teaches that allah is al-ghaffur "the oft-forgiving", and is the original source of all forgiveness (ghufran غفران). seeking forgiveness from allah with repentance is a virtue.[ ][ ][ ] (...) allah forgives what is past: for repetition allah will exact from him the penalty. for allah is exalted, and lord of retribution. — quran : islam recommends forgiveness, because allah values forgiveness. there are numerous verses in quran and the hadiths recommending forgiveness. however, islam also allows revenge to the extent harm done, but forgiveness is encouraged, with a promise of reward from allah.[ ][ ] the recompense for an injury is an injury equal thereto (in degree): but if a person forgives and makes reconciliation, his reward is due from allah: for (allah) loveth not those who do wrong. — quran : afw (عفو is another term for forgiveness in islam; it occurs times in quran, and in some islamic theological studies, it is used interchangeably with ghufran.[ ][ ][ ] afw means to pardon, to excuse for a fault or an offense. according to muhammad amanullah,[ ] forgiveness ('afw) in islam is derived from three wisdoms. first and the most important wisdom of forgiveness is that it is merciful when the victim or guardian of the victim accepts money instead of revenge.[ ][ ] the second wisdom of forgiveness is that it increases honor and prestige of the one who forgives.[ ] forgiveness is not a sign of weakness, humiliation or dishonor.[ ] forgiveness is honor, raises the merit of the forgiver in the eyes of allah, and enables a forgiver to enter paradise.[ ] the third wisdom of forgiveness is that according to some scholars, such as al-tabari and al-qurtubi, forgiveness expiates (kaffarah) the forgiver from the sins they may have committed at other occasions in life.[ ][ ] forgiveness is a form of charity (sadaqat). forgiveness comes from taqwa (piety), a quality of god-fearing people.[ ] bahá'í faith[edit] in the bahá'í writings, this explanation is given of how to be forgiving individuals toward others: "love the creatures for the sake of god and not for themselves. you will never become angry or impatient if you love them for the sake of god. humanity is not perfect. there are imperfections in every human being, and you will always become unhappy if you look toward the people themselves. but if you look toward god, you will love them and be kind to them, for the world of god is the world of perfection and complete mercy. therefore, do not look at the shortcomings of anybody; see with the sight of forgiveness." — `abdu'l-bahá, the promulgation of universal peace, p. asian[edit] buddhism[edit] in buddhism, forgiveness is seen as a practice to prevent harmful thoughts from causing havoc on one's mental well-being.[ ] buddhism recognizes that feelings of hatred and ill-will leave a lasting effect on our mind karma. instead, buddhism encourages the cultivation of thoughts that leave a wholesome effect. "in contemplating the law of karma, we realize that it is not a matter of seeking revenge but of practicing mettā and forgiveness, for the victimizer is, truly, the most unfortunate of all."[ ] when resentments have already arisen, the buddhist view is to calmly proceed to release them by going back to their roots. buddhism centers on release from delusion and suffering through meditation and receiving insight into the nature of reality. buddhism questions the reality of the passions that make forgiveness necessary as well as the reality of the objects of those passions.[ ] "if we haven’t forgiven, we keep creating an identity around our pain, and that is what is reborn. that is what suffers."[ ] buddhism places much emphasis on the concepts of mettā (loving kindness), karuna (compassion), mudita (sympathetic joy), and upekkhā (equanimity), as a means to avoiding resentments in the first place. these reflections are used to understand the context of suffering in the world, both our own and the suffering of others. 	"he abused me, he struck me, he overcame me, he robbed me’ — in those who harbor such thoughts hatred will never cease." 	"he abused me, he struck me, he overcame me, he robbed me’ — in those who do not harbor such thoughts hatred will cease." 	(dhammapada . – ; trans. radhakrishnan – see article)[ ] hindu dharma[edit] main article: kshama holi is the hindu festival of colors, celebrated in spring. the young and the old celebrate by dancing, laughing and smearing each other with abir – coloured powder, or spraying gulal – colored water.[ ] traditionally, this is also a day to mark forgiveness, meet others and make up one's ruptured relationships (if).[ ][ ] in indonesia, among balinese hindus, ngembak geni - the day after nyepi – is the ritual festive day in spring to meet, and both seek forgiveness and forgive each other.[ ] in vedic literature and epics of hinduism, ksama or kshyama (sanskrit: क्षमा)[ ] and fusion words based on it, describe the concept of forgiveness. the word ksama is often combined with kripa (tenderness), daya (kindness) and karuna (करुणा, compassion) in sanskrit texts.[ ] in rg veda, forgiveness is discussed in verses dedicated to deity varuna, both the context of the one who has done wrong and one who is wronged.[ ][ ] forgiveness is considered one of the six cardinal virtues in hindu dharma. the theological basis for forgiveness in hindu dharma is that a person who does not forgive carries a baggage of memories of the wrong, of negative feelings, of anger and unresolved emotions that affect their present as well as future. in hindu dharma, not only should one forgive others, but one must also seek forgiveness if one has wronged someone else.[ ] forgiveness is to be sought from the individual wronged, as well as society at large, by acts of charity, purification, fasting, rituals and meditative introspection. the concept of forgiveness is further refined in hindu dharma by rhetorically contrasting it in feminine and masculine form. in feminine form, one form of forgiveness is explained through lakshmi (called goddess sri in some parts of india); the other form is explained in the masculine form through her husband vishnu.[ ] feminine lakshmi forgives even when the one who does wrong does not repent. masculine vishnu, on the other hand, forgives only when the wrongdoer repents. in hindu dharma, the feminine forgiveness granted without repentance by lakshmi is higher and more noble than the masculine forgiveness granted only after there is repentance. in the hindu epic ramayana, sita – the wife of king rama – is symbolically eulogized for forgiving a crow even as it harms her. later in the epic ramayana, she is eulogized again for forgiving those who harass her while she has been kidnapped in lanka.[ ] many other hindu stories discuss forgiveness with or without repentance.[ ] the concept of forgiveness is treated in extensive debates of hindu literature. in some hindu texts,[ ] certain sins and intentional acts are debated as naturally unforgivable; for example, murder and rape; these ancient scholars argue whether blanket forgiveness is morally justifiable in every circumstance, and whether forgiveness encourages crime, disrespect, social disorder and people not taking you seriously.[ ] other ancient hindu texts highlight that forgiveness is not same as reconciliation. forgiveness in hindu dharma does not necessarily require that one reconcile with the offender, nor does it rule out reconciliation in some situations. instead forgiveness in hindu philosophy is being compassionate, tender, kind and letting go of the harm or hurt caused by someone or something else.[ ] forgiveness is essential for one to free oneself from negative thoughts, and being able to focus on blissfully living a moral and ethical life (dharmic life).[ ] in the highest self-realized state, forgiveness becomes the essence of one's personality, where the persecuted person remains unaffected, without agitation, without feeling like a victim, free from anger (akrodhi).[ ][ ] other epics and ancient literature of hindu dharma discuss forgiveness. for example: forgiveness is virtue; forgiveness is sacrifice; forgiveness is the vedas; forgiveness is the shruti. forgiveness protecteth the ascetic merit of the future; forgiveness is asceticism; forgiveness is holiness; and by forgiveness is it that the universe is held together. — mahabharata, book , vana parva, section xxix, [ ] righteousness is the one highest good, forgiveness is the one supreme peace, knowledge is one supreme contentment, and benevolence, one sole happiness. — mahabharata, book , udyoga parva, section xxxiii, [ ] janak asked: "oh lord, how does one attain wisdom? how does liberation happen?" ashtavakra replied: "oh beloved, if you want liberation, then renounce imagined passions as poison, take forgiveness, innocence, compassion, contentment and truth as nectar; (...)" — ashtavakra gita[ ][ ] jainism[edit] see also: micchami dukkadam and kshamavani in jainism, forgiveness is one of the main virtues that needs to be cultivated by the jains. kṣamāpanā or supreme forgiveness forms part of one of the ten characteristics of dharma.[ ] in the jain prayer, (pratikramana) jains repeatedly seek forgiveness from various creatures—even from ekindriyas or single sensed beings like plants and microorganisms that they may have harmed while eating and doing routine activities.[ ] forgiveness is asked by uttering the phrase, micchāmi dukkaḍaṃ. micchāmi dukkaḍaṃ is a prakrit language phrase literally meaning "may all the evil that has been done be fruitless."[ ] during samvatsari—the last day of jain festival paryusana—jains utter the phrase micchami dukkadam after pratikraman. as a matter of ritual, they personally greet their friends and relatives micchāmi dukkaḍaṃ seeking their forgiveness. no private quarrel or dispute may be carried beyond samvatsari, and letters and telephone calls are made to the outstation friends and relatives asking their forgiveness.[ ] pratikraman also contains the following prayer:[ ] khāmemi savva-jīve savvë jive khamantu me / metti me savva-bhūesu, veraṃ mejjha na keṇavi // (i ask pardon of all creatures, may all creatures pardon me. may i have friendship with all beings and enmity with none.) in their daily prayers and samayika, jains recite iryavahi sutra seeking forgiveness from all creatures while involved in routine activities:[ ] may you, o revered one! voluntarily permit me. i would like to confess my sinful acts committed while walking. i honour your permission. i desire to absolve myself of the sinful acts by confessing them. i seek forgiveness from all those living beings which i may have tortured while walking, coming and going, treading on living organism, seeds, green grass, dew drops, ant hills, moss, live water, live earth, spider web and others. i seek forgiveness from all these living beings, be they — one sensed, two sensed, three sensed, four sensed or five sensed. which i may have kicked, covered with dust, rubbed with ground, collided with other, turned upside down, tormented, frightened, shifted from one place to another or killed and deprived them of their lives. (by confessing) may i be absolved of all these sins. jain texts quote māhavīra on forgiveness:[ ] by practicing prāyaṣcitta (repentance), a soul gets rid of sins, and commits no transgressions; he who correctly practises prāyaṣcitta gains the road and the reward of the road, he wins the reward of good conduct. by begging forgiveness he obtains happiness of mind; thereby he acquires a kind disposition towards all kinds of living beings; by this kind disposition he obtains purity of character and freedom from fear. — māhavīra in uttarādhyayana sūtra : – even the code of conduct amongst the monks requires the monks to ask forgiveness for all transgressions:[ ] if among monks or nuns occurs a quarrel or dispute or dissension, the young monk should ask forgiveness of the superior, and the superior of the young monk. they should forgive and ask forgiveness, appease and be appeased, and converse without restraint. for him who is appeased, there will be success (in control); for him who is not appeased, there will be no success; therefore one should appease one's self. 'why has this been said, sir? peace is the essence of monasticism'. — kalpa sūtra : other[edit] hoʻoponopono[edit] hoʻoponopono is an ancient hawaiian practice of reconciliation and forgiveness, combined with prayer. similar forgiveness practices were performed on islands throughout the south pacific, including samoa, tahiti and new zealand. traditionally hoʻoponopono is practiced by healing priests or kahuna lapaʻau among family members of a person who is physically ill. modern versions are performed within the family by a family elder, or by the individual alone. popular recognition[edit] the need to forgive is widely recognized by the public, but they are often at a loss for ways to accomplish it. for example, in a large representative sampling of american people on various religious topics in , the gallup organization found that % said it was important to forgive, but % said they needed some outside help to be able to forgive. however, not even regular prayer was found to be effective. akin to forgiveness is mercy, so even if a person is not able to complete the forgiveness process they can still show mercy, especially when so many wrongs are done out of weakness rather than malice. the gallup poll revealed that the only thing that was effective was "meditative prayer".[ ] forgiveness as a tool has been extensively used in restorative justice programs,[ ] after the abolition of apartheid truth and reconciliation commission (south africa), run for victims and perpetrators of rwandan genocide, the violence in israeli–palestinian conflict, and northern ireland conflict, which has also been documented in film, beyond right and wrong: stories of justice and forgiveness ( ).[ ][ ] forgiveness theory can be found and applied to religion, relationships, health, individual, interventions, and much more. forgiveness is an important trait to understand and possess because it is something that everyone has to experience in their both personal and professional life. forgiveness is associated with the theory of emotion because it is largely drawn from a person's emotional connection and level with the situation. forgiveness is something that most people are taught to understand and practice at a young age. because forgiveness is an emotion there is not an exact originator of it but there are several theorists, psychologists, and sociologists who link it to other theories or apply theories to help understand the concept.[citation needed] the philosopher joseph butler (fifteen sermons) defined forgiveness as "overcoming of resentment, the overcoming of moral hatred, as a speech act, and as forbearance".[ ] forgiveness in relationships[edit] forgiveness in marriage forgiveness in marriage is an important aspect in a marriage. when two individuals are able to forgive each other it results in a long happy marriage. forgiveness can help prevent problems from accruing in the married couple's future.[ ] in a study, researchers were interested in figuring out whether forgiveness is important in a marriage. when does forgiveness usually accrue? does it accrue before an argument or after an argument? does forgiveness take a role when a person breaks a promise? etc.[ ] researcher found six components that were related to forgiveness in marriage and explains how each one relates to forgiveness. the six components are: satisfaction, ambivalence, conflict, attributions, empathy and commitment.[ ] researchers provided an overview of forgiveness in marriage and how individuals in a relationship believe that if forgiveness accrues then you must forget what had happened.[ ] moreover, based on the interventions and recommendations the researchers started to see how important forgiveness is in a relationship and how it can lead to a happy and healthy relationship.[ ] in a study, researchers mentioned that when couples forgive their spouses they sometimes need help from professionals to overcome their pain that might be left behind.[ ] researchers also described the difference between how each individual perceives the situation based on who is in pain and who caused the pain. also how the couple react to the situation based on their feelings and how they personally respond to the situation.[ ] the model of forgiveness: "enright's model of forgiveness has received empirical support and sees forgiveness as a journey through four phases" which are:[ ] 	uncovering phase: emphases on exploring the pain that the individual has experienced. 	decision phase: the nature of forgiveness is discussed. also the individual commits that they will try to forgive the spouse 	work phase: the focus shifts to the transgressor in an effort to gain insight and understanding. 	deepening phase': the victim moves toward resolution, becoming aware that he/she is not alone, having been the recipient of others' forgiveness, and finds meaning and purpose in the forgiveness process.[ ] furthermore, when married couples argue they tend to focus on who is right and who is wrong. also couples tend to focus on who proves the other wrong which can cause more problems and can make the problem worse because it will make it harder to forgive one another.[ ] recommendation and interventions: the researchers also came up with recommendation for practitioners and intervention to help individuals that are married on how to communicate with each other, how to resolve problems and how to make it easier to forgive each other.[ ] some of the interventions of forgiveness in marriage has been a great success. it encouraged forgiveness and made couples happier together.[ ] some of the recommendations that was given to practitioners was that the individuals had to explore and understand what forgiveness means before starting any intervention because the preconceived idea of forgiveness can cause problems with couples being open to forgive.[ ] for example, an individual not forgiving their spouse out of fear that the spouse might think that they are weak which can cause a conflict.[ ] it was stated that the couple must know the following: 	forgiveness takes 	the different forms of forgiveness 	the danger in communicating in forgiveness 	that perpetrators and victims have different perceptive context is important[ ] furthermore, the researchers thought of ways to further help married couples in the future and suggested that they should explore the following: 	the importance of seeking forgiveness 	self-forgiveness 	the role of the sacred in marital forgiveness[ ] relationships are at the sentiment aspect of our lives; with our families at home and friends outside. relationships interact in schools and universities, with work mates and, with colleagues at the workplace and in our diverse communities. in the article it states, the quality of these relationships determines our individual well-being, how well we learn, develop and function, our sense of connectedness with others and the health so society.[ ] in , two innovators of positive psychology, ed diener and martin seligman, conducted a study at the university of illinois on the % of students with the highest scores recorded on a survey of personal happiness. what they came up with was most salient characteristics shared by students who were very content and showed positive life styles were the ones who "their strong ties to friends and family and commitment to spending time with them."[ ] a study done in , identified as a key study that taken part and examined two natures of relationships (friends and family) and at what age does the support switch importance from one to the other. the study showed that people whom had good family relationship were able to have more positive outside relationships with friends. through the family relationship and friendships, the character of the individual was built to forgive and learn from the experience in the family.[ ] in , charlotte vanoyen witvliet asked people to think about someone who had hurt, wronged, or offended them. as they thought to answer, she observed their reaction. she observed their blood pressure, heart rate, facial muscle tension, and sweat gland activity. to deliberate on an old misdemeanor is to practice unforgiveness. the outcome to the recall of the grudge the candidates’ blood pressure and heart rate increased, and they sweated more. pondering about their resents was stressful, and subjects found the rumination unpleasant. when they adept forgiveness, their physical stimulation glided downward. they showed no more of an anxiety reaction than normal wakefulness produces.[ ] in , study on self-forgiveness with spouse forgiveness has a better outcome to a healthier life by pelucchi, paleari, regalia and fincham. this study investigates self-forgiveness for real hurts committed against the partner in a romantic relationship ( couples). for both males and females, the mistaken partners were more content with their romantic relationship to the extent that they had more positive and less negative sentiment and thoughts toward themselves. in the study when looking at the victimized partners were more gratified with the relationship when the offending partner had less negative sentiment and thoughts towards themselves. it concludes that self-forgiveness when in a relationship has positive impact on both the offending and victimized partner.[ ] forgiveness interventions[edit] both negative and positive affect play a role in forgiveness interventions. it is the general consensus across researchers in the field of psychology, that the overarching purpose of forgiveness interventions is to decrease overall negative affect associated with the stimulus and increase the individual's positive affect.[ ][ ] the disease model has been mainly used in regards to therapy, however the incorporation of forgiveness into therapy has been lacking,[ ] and has been slowly gaining popularity in the last couple of decades.[ ] more recent research has shown how the growth of forgiveness in psychology has given rise to the study of forgiveness interventions.[ ] different types[edit] there are various forms of forgiveness interventions.[ ] one common adaptation used by researchers is where patients are forced to confront the entity preventing them from forgiving by using introspective techniques and expressing this to the therapist.[ ][ ] another popular forgiveness intervention is getting individual to try to see things from the offender's point of view. the end goal for this adaptation is getting the individual to perhaps understand the reasoning behind the offender's actions.[ ][ ] if they are able to do this then they might be able to forgive the offender more easily.[ ][ ] there is, however, conflicting evidence on the effectiveness of forgiveness interventions.[ ] contrary evidence[edit] although research has taken into account the positive aspects of forgiveness interventions, there are also negative aspects that have been explored as well. some researchers have taken a critical approach and have been less accepting of the forgiveness intervention approach to therapy.[ ] critics have argued that forgiveness interventions may actually cause an increase in negative affect because it is trying to inhibit the individual's own personal feelings towards the offender. this can result in the individual feeling negatively towards themself.[ ] this approach is categorizing the individual's feelings by implying that the negative emotions the individual is feeling are unacceptable and feelings of forgiveness is the correct and acceptable way to feel. it might inadvertently promote feelings of shame and contrition within the individual.[ ] wanda malcolm, a registered psychologist, states: "that it is not a good idea to make forgiveness an a-priori goal of therapy".[ ] steven stosny, also adds, that you heal first then forgive (not forgive then heal);[ ] that fully acknowledging the grievance (both what actions were harmful, and naming the emotions the victim felt as a response to the offenders actions) is an essential first step, before forgiveness can occur.[ ] some researchers also worry that forgiveness interventions will promote unhealthy relationships.[ ][ ] they worry that individuals with toxic relationships will continue to forgive those who continuously commit wrong acts towards them when in fact they should be distancing themselves from these sorts of people.[ ][ ] a number of studies showcase high effectiveness rates of forgiveness interventions when done continuously over a long period of time.[ ] some researchers have found that these interventions have been proven ineffective when done over short spans of time.[ ] forgiveness interventions: children[edit] there has been some research within the last decade outlining some studies that have looked at the effectiveness of forgiveness interventions on young children. there have also been several studies done studying this cross culturally.[ ] one study that explored this relationship, was a study conducted in by eadaoin hui and tat sing chau. in this study, hui and chau looked at the relationship between forgiveness interventions and chinese children who were less likely to forgive those who had wronged them.[ ] the findings of this study showed that there was an effect of forgiveness interventions on the young chinese children.[ ] forgiveness and mental health[edit] survey data from showed that % of participants that were part of a small religious group reported that the group helped them be more forgiving.[ ] individuals reported that their religion groups which promote forgiveness was related to self-reports of success in overcoming addictions, guilt, and perceiving encouragement when feeling discouraged.[ ] it is suggested that mindfulness plays a role in forgiveness and health.[ ] the forgiveness of others has a positive effect on physical health when it is combined with mindfulness but evidence shows that forgiveness only effects health as a function of mindfulness.[ ] a study from states that self-forgiveness is an important part of self-acceptance and mental health in later life.[ ] the inability to self-forgive can compromise mental health.[ ] for some elderly people, self-forgiveness requires reflecting on a transgression to avoid repeating wrongdoings, individuals seek to learn from these transgressions in order to improve their real self-schemas.[ ] when individuals are successful at learning from these transgressions, they may experience improved mental health.[ ] a study in looks at how self-forgiveness can reduce feelings of guilt and shame associated with hypersexual behavior.[ ] hypersexual behaviour can have negative effects on individuals by causing distress and life problems.[ ] self-forgiveness may be a component that can help individuals reduce hypersexual negative behaviours that cause problems.[ ] evidence shows that self-forgiveness and procrastination may be associated; self-forgiveness allows the individual to overcome the negatives associated with an earlier behaviour and engage in approach-oriented behaviours on a similar task.[ ] learning to forgive oneself for procrastination can be positive because it can promote self-worth and may cause positive mental health.[ ] self-forgiveness for procrastination may also reduce procrastination.[ ] everett worthington, loren toussaint and david r. williams, phd, proclaimed to have enough research on the effects of forgiveness towards mental health and wrote the self-help book forgiveness and health: scientific evidence and theories relating forgiveness to better health detailing the multiple benefits and psychological results of forgiveness to humans mentally and physically. toussaint and worthington claim that stress relief can be the chief factor that connects forgiveness and well-being. toussaint also found that levels of stress went down when levels of forgiveness rose up, resulting in a decrease in mental health symptoms.[ ] forgiveness and physical health[edit] physical fitness the correlation between forgiveness and physical health is a concept that has recently gained traction in research. some studies claim that there is no correlation, either positive or negative between forgiveness and physical health, and others show a positive correlation.[ ] evidence supporting a correlation[edit] individuals with forgiveness as a personality trait have been shown to have overall better physical health. in a study on relationships, regardless if someone was in a negative or positive relationship, their physical health seemed to be influenced at least partially by their level of forgiveness.[ ] individuals who make a decision to genuinely forgive someone are also shown to have better physical health. this is due to the relationship between forgiveness and stress reduction. forgiveness is seen as preventing poor physical health and managing good physical health.[ ] specifically individuals who choose to forgive another after a transgression have lower blood pressure and lower cortisol levels than those who do not. this is theorized to be due to various direct and indirect influences of forgiveness, which point to forgiveness as an evolutionary trait. see broaden and build theory.[ ] direct influences include: reducing hostility (which is inversely correlated with physical health), and the concept that unforgiveness may reduce the immune system because it puts stress on the individual. indirect influences are more related to forgiveness as a personality trait and include: forgiving people may have more social support and less stressful marriages, and forgiveness may be related to personality traits that are correlated with physical health.[ ] forgiveness may also be correlated with physical health because hostility is associated with poor coronary performance. unforgiveness is as an act of hostility, and forgiveness as an act of letting go of hostility. heart patients who are treated with therapy that includes forgiveness to reduce hostility have improved cardiac health compared to those who are treated with medicine alone.[ ] forgiveness may also lead to better perceived physical health. this correlation applies to both self-forgiveness and other-forgiveness but is especially true of self-forgiveness. individuals who are more capable of forgiving themselves have better perceived physical health.[ ] criticisms[edit] 		this section needs expansion. you can help by adding to it. (january ) forgiveness studies have been refuted by critics who claim that there is no direct correlation between forgiveness and physical health. forgiveness, due to the reduction of directed anger, contributes to mental health and mental health contributes to physical health, but there is no evidence that forgiveness directly improves physical health. most of the studies on forgiveness cannot isolate it as an independent variable in an individual's well-being, so it is difficult to prove causation.[ ] further studies imply that while there is not enough research to directly relate forgiveness to physical health there are factors that can be implied. this relates more to physiological measures and what happens to a body during the stages of forgiveness in their daily life.[ ] additionally, research into the correlation between physical health and forgiveness has been criticized for being too focused on unforgiveness. research shows more about what hostility and unforgiveness contribute to poor health than it shows what forgiveness contributes to physical health.[ ] additionally, research notes that unforgiving or holding grudges can contribute to adverse health outcomes by perpetuating anger and heightening sns arousal and cardiovascular reactivity. expression of anger has been strongly associated with chronically elevated blood pressure and with the aggregation of platelets, which may increase vulnerability for heart disease.[ ] self-forgiveness[edit] self-forgiveness self-forgiveness happens in situations where an individual has done something that they perceive to be morally wrong and they consider themselves to be responsible for the wrongdoing.[ ] self-forgiveness is the overcoming of negative emotions that the wrongdoer associates with the wrongful action.[ ] negative emotions associated with wrongful action can include guilt, regret, remorse, blame, shame, self-hatred and/or self-contempt.[ ] major life events that include trauma can cause individuals to experience feelings of guilt or self-hatred.[ ] humans have the ability to reflect on their behaviours to determine if their actions are moral.[ ] in situations of trauma, humans can choose to self-forgive by allowing themselves to change and live a moral life.[ ] self-forgiveness may be required in situations where the individual hurt themselves or in situations where they hurt others.[ ] indeed, self-forgiveness has been shown to have a moderating effect between depression and suicidality: suggesting self-forgiveness (up-to a point) as not only a protective factor of suicide, but also hinting at possible prevention strategies.[ ] therapeutic model[edit] individuals can unintentionally cause harm or offence to one another in everyday life. it is important for individuals to be able to recognize when this happens, and in the process of making amends, have the ability to self-forgive.[ ] specific research suggests that the ability to genuinely forgive one's self can be significantly beneficial to an individual's emotional as well as mental well-being.[ ] the research indicates that the ability to forgive one's self for past offences can lead to decreased feelings of negative emotions such as shame and guilt, and can increase the use of more positive practices such as self-kindness and self-compassion.[ ] however, it has been indicated that it is possible for the process of self-forgiveness to be misinterpreted and therefore not accurately completed.[ ] this could potentially lead to increased feelings of regret or self-blame.[ ] in an attempt to avoid this, and increase the positive benefits associated with genuine self-forgiveness, a specific therapeutic model of self-forgiveness has been recommended, which can be used to encourage genuine self-forgiveness in offenders. the model that has been proposed has four key elements. these elements include responsibility, remorse, restoration and renewal.[ ] 	the therapeutic model suggests responsibility as the first necessary step towards genuine self-forgiveness.[ ] research advises that in order to avoid the negative affect associated with emotions such as overwhelming guilt or regret, offenders must first recognize that they have hurt another individual, and accept the responsibility necessary for their actions.[ ][ ] 	once the individual has accepted responsibility for their offences, it is natural for them to experience feelings of remorse or guilt. however, these feelings can be genuinely processed and expressed preceding the need for restoration.[ ] 	the act of restoration allows the offending individual to make the necessary amends to the individual(s) they have hurt. 	the final component in the model of self-forgiveness is renewal'. the offending individual is able to genuinely forgive himself/herself for their past transgressions and can engage in more positive and meaningful behaviors such as self-compassion and self-kindness.[ ] despite the suggested model, research advises that the process of self-forgiveness is not always applicable for every individual.[ ] for example, individuals who have not actually caused others any harm or wrongdoing, but instead are suffering from negative emotions such as self-hatred or self-pity, such as victims of assault, might attempt self-forgiveness for their perceived offences. however, this would not be the process necessary for them to make their amends.[ ] additionally, offenders who continue to offend others while attempting to forgive themselves for past offences demonstrate a reluctance to genuinely complete the four stages necessary for self-forgiveness.[ ] research suggests that it is important to first gather exterior information about the individual's perceived offences as well as their needs and motivation for self-forgiveness.[ ] unapologetic forgiveness[edit] being unapologetic is often something that humans come across at some point in their lives, and there has been much research on if a person refuses to apologize or even recognized the wrongdoings. this can then often lead into how one would go into forgiving the unapologetic party and "the relationship between apologies and the adjectives 'apologetic' and 'unapologetic' is not quite so straightforward."[ ] people struggle with forgiving people that have done wrongful actions. causing a person to not forgive themselves or another. it relates to how people feel about the person who is asking for forgiveness. choosing to forgive someone or not correlates to whether that person is truly sorry for their actions or not. [ ] going through a negative experience in your life can cause long term trauma. it can stay in your memory just like a good one. a bad experience will be there too. holding on to negative emotion is the driving fuel of why you're not healing from your problems in your mind. having thoughts of revenge is not going to heal from that past experience that led you to harbor those negative emotions. you have to let go and accept what’s happened.[ ] character retributivism[edit] 	forgiveness could be offered only at significant temporal remove from the wrongdoing. 	the enforcement of justice, at least with regard to punishing or rewarding, falls outside the purview of personal forgiveness. 	forgiveness operates at a different level than justice.[ ] jean hampton[edit] jean hampton sees the decision to forgive the unrepentant wrongdoer as expressing a commitment "to see a wrongdoer in a new, more favorable light" as one who is not completely rotten or morally dead.[ ] see also[edit] 	a course in miracles 	anantarika-karma 	clementia, roman goddess of forgiveness (and eleos, her greek counterpart) 	compassion 	contrition 	ethics in religion 	ho'oponopono 	letter of reconciliation of the polish bishops to the german bishops 	pardon 	regret 	relational transgressions 	remorse 	repentance 	resentment 	truth and reconciliation commission 	unconditional love notes[edit] 	^ doka, kenneth ( ). grief is a journey. atria books. pp.  – . isbn  - . 	^ hieronymi, pamela (may ). 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"why is forgiveness important?". positivepsychology.com. retrieved - - . references[edit] 	randall j. cecrle, balancing the scales of justices with forgiveness and repentance, , isbn  - - - 	susan forward, toxic parents: overcoming their hurtful legacy and reclaiming your life, 	charles griswold, forgiveness: a philosophical exploration, cambridge university press, , isbn  - - - - . 	david konstan, before forgiveness: the origins of a moral idea (cambridge/new york: cambridge university press, ). 	j. kramer, and d. alstad, the guru papers: masks of authoritarian power, , isbn  - - - 	k. lampert, traditions of compassion: from religious duty to social activism. palgrave-macmillan , isbn  - - - 	eric lomax, the railway man: a pow's searing account of war, brutality, and forgiveness 	fred luskin, forgive for good: a proven prescription for health and happiness (harper, ) 	g. marcus, the power of forgiveness, , sapients.net 	j. murphy, and j. hampton, forgiveness and mercy (cambridge university press, ). 	k. norlock, forgiveness from a feminist perspective (lexington books, . 	g. pettigrove, forgiveness and love (oxford university press, ). 	jeanne safer, forgiving and not forgiving: why sometimes it's better not to forgive, , isbn  - - - 	d. schmidt d. the prayer of revenge: forgiveness in the face of injustice, isbn  - - - 	colin tipping, radical forgiveness: making room for the miracle, , isbn  - - - external links[edit] 		wikiversity has learning resources about forgiving 		wikimedia commons has media related to forgiveness. 		look up forgiveness in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: forgiveness 	hughes, paul; warmke, brandon. "forgiveness". in zalta, edward n. 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		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		"bravery" redirects here. for other uses, see bravery (disambiguation). for other uses of "courage", see courage (disambiguation). choice to confront risk, pain, agony, intimidation or uncertainty god speed by edmund leighton 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e courage (also called bravery or valour) is the choice and willingness to confront agony, pain, danger, uncertainty, or intimidation. physical courage is bravery in the face of physical pain, hardship, even death or threat of death, while moral courage is the ability to act rightly in the face of popular opposition,[ ] shame, scandal, discouragement, or personal loss. the classical virtue of fortitude (andreia, fortitudo) is also translated "courage", but includes the aspects of perseverance and patience.[ ] in the western tradition, notable thoughts on courage have come from philosophers, socrates, plato, aristotle, aquinas, and kierkegaard; as well as christian beliefs and texts. in the hindu tradition, mythology has given many examples of bravery, valour and courage with examples of both physical and moral courage exemplified. according to the hindu religion, bravery and courage are in the blood of all indians. in the eastern tradition, some thoughts on courage were offered by the tao te ching. contents 	 characteristics of courage 	 . fear & confidence in relation to courage 	 . possible distortions of courage 	 historical theories 	 . ancient greece 	 . ancient rome 	 . medieval philosophy 	 . western traditions 	 . eastern traditions 	 . modern 	 . . pre- th century 	 . . th century onward 	 . implicit theories of courage 	 . clinical courage 	 society and symbolism 	 awards 	 see also 	 notes 	 references 	 external links characteristics of courage[edit] daniel putman, a professor at the university of wisconsin - fox valley, wrote an article titled "the emotions of courage". using a text from aristotle's nicomachean ethics as the basis for his article, he discusses the relationship between fear and confidence in the emotion of courage.[ ] he states that "courage involves deliberate choice in the face of painful or fearful circumstances for the sake of a worthy goal".[ ] with this realization, putman concludes that "there is a close connection between fear and confidence".[ ] fear & confidence in relation to courage[edit] fear and confidence in relation to courage can determine the success of a courageous act or goal.[ ] they can be seen as the independent variables in courage, and their relationship can affect how we respond to fear.[ ] in addition, the confidence that is being discussed here is self-confidence; confidence in knowing one's skills and abilities and being able to determine when to fight fear or when to flight it.[ ] putman states that: the ideal in courage is not just a rigid control of fear, nor is it a denial of the emotion. the ideal is to judge a situation, accept the emotion as part of human nature and, we hope, use well-developed habits to confront the fear and allow reason to guide our behavior toward a worthwhile goal.[ ] when trying to understand how fear and confidence play into courage, we need to look back at aristotle's quote. according to putman, aristotle is referring to an appropriate level of fear and confidence in courage.[ ] "fear, although it might vary from person to person, is not completely relative and is only appropriate if it "matches the danger of the situation".[ ] the same goes for confidence in that there are two aspects to self-confidence in a dangerous situation. 	"a realistic confidence in the worth of a cause that motivates positive action."[ ] 	"knowing our own skills and abilities. a second meaning of appropriate confidence then is a form of self-knowledge."[ ] without an appropriate balance between fear and confidence when facing a threat, one cannot have the courage to overcome it. putman states "if the two emotions are distinct, then excesses or deficiencies in either fear or confidence can distort courage."[ ] possible distortions of courage[edit] as noted above, an "excess or deficiency of either fear or confidence, can distort courage".[ ] according to putman, there are four possibilities:[ ] 	"higher level of fear than a situation calls for, low level of confidence". someone like this would be perceived as a coward; 	"excessively low level of fear when real fear is an appropriate, excessively high level of confidence." someone like this would be perceived as foolhardy; 	"excessively high level of fear, yet the confidence is also excessively high." the third possibility can occur if someone experienced a traumatic experience that brought about great anxiety for much of their life. then the fear that they experience would often be inappropriate and excessive. yet as a defensive mechanism, the person would show excessive levels of confidence as a way to confront their irrational fear and "prove" something to oneself or other". so this distortions could be seen as a coping method for their fear. 	"excessively low level of fear and low level of confidence." for the last possibility, it can be seen as hopelessness. putman says this is similar to "a person on a sinking ship". "this example is of a person who has low confidence and possibly low self-regard who suddenly loses all fear". the distortion of low fear and low confidence can occur in a situation where an individual accepts what is going to happen to them. in regards to this example, they lose all fear because they know death is unavoidable and the reason it is unavoidable is that they do not have the ability to handle or overcome the situation. thus, daniel putman identifies fear and courage as being deeply intertwined and that they rely on distinct perceptions:[ ] 	"the danger of the situation" 	"the worthiness of the cause" 	"and the perception of one's ability." historical theories[edit] ancient greece[edit] the early greek philosopher plato (c. – bce)[ ] laid the groundwork for how courage would be viewed to future philosophers. plato's early writings found in laches show a discussion on courage, but they fail to come to a satisfactory conclusion on what courage is.[ ] during the debate between three leaders, including socrates, many definitions of courage are mentioned.[ ] "…a man willing to remain at his post and to defend himself against the enemy without running away…"[ ] "…a sort of endurance of the soul…"[ ] "…knowledge of the grounds of fear and hope..."[ ] while many definitions are given in plato's laches, all are refuted, giving the reader a sense of plato's argument style. laches is an early writing of plato's, which may be a reason he does not come to a clear conclusion. in this early writing, plato is still developing his ideas and shows influence from his teachers like socrates.[ ] in one of his later writings, the republic, plato gives more concrete ideas of what he believes courage to be. civic courage is described as a sort of perseverance – "preservation of the belief that has been inculcated by the law through education about what things and sorts of things are to be feared".[ ] ideas of courage being perseverance also are seen in laches. plato further explains this perseverance as being able to persevere through all emotions, like suffering, pleasure, and fear.[ ] as a desirable quality, courage is discussed broadly in aristotle's nicomachean ethics,[ ] where its vice of shortage is cowardice and its vice of excess is recklessness.[ ] thucydides, a th greek historian said; “the bravest are surely those who have the clearest vision of what is before them, glory and danger alike, and yet notwithstanding, go out to meet it.” ancient rome[edit] in the roman empire, courage formed part of the universal virtue of virtus.[ ] roman philosopher and statesman cicero ( – bce) lists the cardinal virtues does not name them such: virtue may be defined as a habit of mind (animi) in harmony with reason and the order of nature. it has four parts: wisdom (prudentiam), justice, courage, temperance.[ ][ ] medieval philosophy[edit] in medieval virtue ethics, championed by averroes and thomas aquinas and still important to roman catholicism, courage is referred to as "fortitude".[ ][ ] according to thomas aquinas:[ ] among the cardinal virtues, prudence ranks first, justice second, fortitude third, temperance fourth, and after these the other virtues. part of his justification for this hierarchy is that: fortitude without justice is an occasion of injustice; since the stronger a man is the more ready is he to oppress the weaker. on fortitude's general and special nature, aquinas says:[ ] the term "fortitude" can be taken in two ways. first, as simply denoting a certain firmness of mind, and in this sense it is a general virtue, or rather a condition of every virtue, since as the philosopher states,[ ] it is requisite for every virtue to act firmly and immovably. secondly, fortitude may be taken to denote firmness only in bearing and withstanding those things wherein it is most difficult to be firm, namely in certain grave dangers. therefore tully says,[ ] that "fortitude is deliberate facing of dangers and bearing of toils." on this sense fortitude is reckoned a special virtue, because it has a special matter. aquinas holds fortitude or courage as being primarily about endurance, not attack:[ ] as stated above (article ), and according to the philosopher,[ ] "fortitude is more concerned to allay fear, than to moderate daring." for it is more difficult to allay fear than to moderate daring, since the danger which is the object of daring and fear, tends by its very nature to check daring to increase fear. now to attack belongs to fortitude in so far as the latter moderates daring, whereas to endure follows the repression of fear. therefore the principal act of fortitude is endurance, that is to stand immovable in the midst of dangers rather than to attack them. western traditions[edit] in both catholicism and anglicanism, courage is also one of the seven gifts of the holy spirit. for thomas aquinas, fortitude is the virtue to remove any obstacle that keeps the will from following reason.[ ] thomas aquinas argues that courage is a virtue which, along with the christian virtues in the summa theologica, can only be exemplified with the presence of the christian virtues: faith, hope, and mercy. in order to understand true courage in christianity it takes someone who displays the virtues of faith, hope, and mercy.[ ] courage is a natural virtue which saint augustine did not consider a virtue for christians. thomas aquinas considers courage a virtue through the christian virtue of mercy.[ ] only through mercy and charity can we call the natural virtue of courage a christian virtue. unlike aristotle, aquinas’ courage is about endurance, not bravery in battle.[ ] the expressions of how to be living human as christ did, taking christ as our forbearance with christian living, paul had suggested these living virtues as three pairs; “for the rest, brothers, whatever is true, whatever is honorable, whatever is righteous, whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is well-spoken of.…” "to be righteous is to be right without; to be pure is to be single in our intention and motive within. we must be right without and pure within." a proper christian life of following in the spirit of christ with forbearance, christian living is to not dissent with others, will always rejoice, will always forbear, and will have no anxiety (philippians : ). this kind of life enjoys the peace of god (philippians : )."[ ] witness lee explains the connection of honor through his grace; "a virtue mentioned in philippians : is “honorable.” honor means dignity. with god in his divinity, it is a matter of his glory, but with us in our humanity, it is a matter of honor or dignity."[ ] eastern traditions[edit] the tao te ching contends that courage is derived from love ("慈故能勇) translated as: "one of courage, with audacity, will die. one of courage, but gentle, spares death. from these two kinds of courage arise harm and benefit."[ ][ ] lao tzu stated in regards to the tao and the question of love: embracing tao, you become embraced. supple, breathing gently, you become reborn. clearing your vision, you become clear. nurturing your beloved, you become impartial. opening your heart, you become accepted. accepting the world, you embrace tao. bearing and nurturing, creating but not owning, giving without demanding, controlling without authority, this is love. lao tzu suggested having love makes a person courageous, and love is powerful, courage is higher when one has depth to their love; "being deeply loved by someone gives you strength, while loving someone deeply gives you courage." in hindu tradition, courage (shauriya) / bravery (dhairya), and patience (taamasa) appear as the first two of ten characteristics (lakshana) of dharma in the hindu manusmṛti, alongside forgiveness (kshama), tolerance (dama), honesty (asthaya), physical restraint (indriya nigraha), cleanliness (shouchya), perceptiveness (dhi), knowledge (vidhya), truthfulness (satya), and control of anger (akrodha). islamic beliefs also present courage and self-control as a key factor in facing the devil (both internally and externally); many believe this because of the courage the prophets of the past displayed (through peace and patience) against those who despised them for their beliefs. modern[edit] pre- th century[edit] thomas hobbes lists virtues into the categories of moral virtues and virtues of men in his work man and citizen.[ ] hobbes outlines moral virtues as virtues in citizens, that is virtues that without exception are beneficial to society as a whole.[ ] these moral virtues are justice (i.e. not violating the law) and charity. courage as well as prudence and temperance are listed as the virtues of men.[ ] by this hobbes means that these virtues are invested solely in the private good as opposed to the public good of justice and charity. hobbes describes courage and prudence as a strength of mind as opposed to a goodness of manners. these virtues are always meant to act in the interests of individual while the positive and/or negative effects of society are merely a byproduct. this stems forth from the idea put forth in leviathan that the state of nature is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short". according to hobbes courage is a virtue of the individual in order to ensure a better chance of survival while the moral virtues address hobbes's social contract which civilized men display (in varying degrees) in order to avoid the state of nature.[ ] hobbes also uses the idea of fortitude as an idea of virtue. fortitude is "to dare" according to hobbes, but also to "resist stoutly in present dangers."[ ] this a more in depth elaboration of hobbes's concept of courage that is addressed earlier in man and citizen. this idea relates back to hobbes's idea that self-preservation is the most fundamental aspect of behavior. david hume listed virtues into two categories in his work a treatise of human nature as artificial virtues and natural virtues. hume noted in the treatise that courage is a natural virtue. in the treatise's section "of pride and humility, their objects and causes", hume clearly stated courage is a cause of pride: "every valuable quality of the mind, whether of the imagination, judgment, memory or disposition; wit, good-sense, learning, courage, justice, integrity; all these are the cause of pride; and their opposites of humility".[ ] hume also related courage and joy to have positive effects on the soul: "(...) since the soul, when elevated with joy and courage, in a manner seeks opposition, and throws itself with alacrity into any scene of thought or action, where its courage meets with matter to nourish and employ it".[ ] along with courage nourishing and employing, hume also wrote that courage defends humans in the treatise: "we easily gain from the liberality of others, but are always in danger of losing by their avarice: courage defends us, but cowardice lays us open to every attack".[ ] hume wrote what excessive courage does to a hero's character in the treatise's section "of the other virtues and vices": "accordingly we may observe, that an excessive courage and magnanimity, especially when it displays itself under the frowns of fortune, contributes in a great measure, to the character of a hero, and will render a person the admiration of posterity; at the same time, that it ruins his affairs, and leads him into dangers and difficulties, with which otherwise he would never have been acquainted".[ ] other understandings of courage that hume offered can be derived from hume's views on morals, reason, sentiment, and virtue from his work an enquiry concerning the principles of morals. th century onward[edit] søren kierkegaard opposed courage to angst, while paul tillich opposed an existential courage to be with non-being,[ ] fundamentally equating it with religion: courage is the self-affirmation of being in spite of the fact of non-being. it is the act of the individual self in taking the anxiety of non-being upon itself by affirming itself ... in the anxiety of guilt and condemnation. ... every courage to be has openly or covertly a religious root. for religion is the state of being grasped by the power of being itself.[ ] j.r.r. tolkien identified in his lecture "beowulf: the monsters and the critics" a "northern 'theory of courage'" – the heroic or "virtuous pagan" insistence to do the right thing even in the face of certain defeat without promise of reward or salvation: it is the strength of the northern mythological imagination that it faced this problem, put the monsters in the centre, gave them victory but no honor, and found a potent and terrible solution in naked will and courage. 'as a working theory absolutely impregnable.' so potent is it, that while the older southern imagination has faded forever into literary ornament, the northern has power, as it were, to revive its spirit even in our own times. it can work, as it did even with the goðlauss viking, without gods: martial heroism as its own end.[ ] virtuous pagan heroism or courage in this sense is "trusting in your own strength," as observed by jacob grimm in his teutonic mythology: men who, turning away in utter disgust and doubt from the heathen faith, placed their reliance on their own strength and virtue. thus in the sôlar lioð we read of vêbogi and râdey â sik þau trûðu, "in themselves they trusted."[ ] ernest hemingway famously defined courage as "grace under pressure".[ ] winston churchill stated, "courage is rightly esteemed the first of human qualities because it is the quality that guarantees all others." according to maya angelou, "courage is the most important of the virtues, because without courage you can't practice any other virtue consistently. you can practice any virtue erratically, but nothing consistently without courage." in beyond good and evil, friedrich nietzsche describes master–slave morality, in which a noble man regards himself as a "determiner of values"; one who does not require approval, but passes judgment. later, in the same text, he lists man's four virtues as courage, insight, sympathy, and solitude, and goes on to emphasize the importance of courage: "the great epochs of our life are the occasions when we gain the courage to re-baptize our evil qualities as our best qualities."[ ] according to the swiss psychologist andreas dick, courage consists of the following components:[ ] 	put at risk, risk or repugnance, or sacrifice safety or convenience, which may result in death, bodily harm, social condemnation or emotional deprivation; 	a knowledge of wisdom and prudence about what is right and wrong in a given moment; 	hope and confidence in a happy, meaningful outcome; 	a free will; 	a motive based on love. implicit theories of courage[edit] researchers who want to study the concept and the emotion of courage have continued to come across a certain problem. while there are "numerous definitions of courage",[ ] they are unable to set "an operational definition of courage on which to base sound explicit theories".[ ] rate et al. states that because of a lack of an operational definition, the advancement of research in courage is limited.[ ] so they conducted studies to try to find "a common structure of courage".[ ] their goal from their research of implicit theories was to find "people's form and content on the idea of courage".[ ] many researchers created studies on implicit theories by creating a questionnaire that would ask "what is courage?".[ ] in addition, in order to "develop a measurement scale of courage, ten experts in the field of psychology came together to define courage.[ ] they defined it as: the ability to act for a meaningful (noble, good, or practical) cause, despite experiencing the fear associated with perceived threat exceeding the available resources[ ][ ] also, because courage is a "multi-dimensional construct, it can be "better understood as an exceptional response to specific external conditions or circumstances than as an attribute, disposition, or character trait".[ ] meaning that rather than being a show of character or an attribute, courage is a response to fear.[ ] from their research, they were able to find the "four necessary components of people's notion of courage".[ ]they are: 	"intentionality/deliberation"[ ] 	"personal fear"[ ] 	"noble/good act"[ ] 	"and personal risk"[ ] with these four components, they were able to define courage as: a willful, intentional act, executed after mindful deliberation, involving objective substantial risk to the actor, primarily motivated to bring about a noble good or worthy end, despite, perhaps, the presence of the emotion of fear.[ ] to further the discussion of the implicit theories of courage, the researchers stated that future research could consider looking into the concept of courage and fear and how individual's might feel fear, overcome it and act, and act despite of it.[ ] clinical courage[edit] the term clinical courage came to light in relation to modern medicine in the s,[ ] mostly in relation to the practice of medicine in remote or resource limited settings. the concept has been described as the practice of medicine outside off a clinician's usual scope of practice, or relevant clinical guidelines, in order to provide essential medical care, where no alternative exists.[ ] it has been specifically discussed in relation to rural generalists,[ ] paramedics,[ ] general practice[ ] and rural medicine.[ ] the opposing theory is that of clinical recklessness, where the actions of a clinician in stepping outside of their competence results in unprofessional behaviour, which exposes patients to risk or indeed harm. society and symbolism[edit] its accompanying animal is the lion.[ ] often, fortitude is depicted as having tamed the ferocious lion. the tarot trump called strength. it is sometimes seen in the catholic church as a depiction of christ's triumph over sin.[ ] it also is a symbol in some cultures as a savior of the people who live in a community with sin and corruption.[ ] awards[edit] see also: category:courage awards several awards claim to recognize courageous actions, including: 	the victoria cross is the highest military award that may be received by members of the british armed forces and the armed forces of other commonwealth countries for valour "in the face of the enemy", the civilian equivalent being the george cross. a total of , vcs have been awarded to individuals, since world war ii. 	the medal of honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the united states government. it is bestowed on members of the united states armed forces who distinguish themselves "conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while engaged in an action against an enemy of the united states". 	distinguished service cross (united states) is the second highest military decoration that can be awarded to a member of the united states army, awarded for extreme gallantry and risk of life in actual combat with an armed enemy force. 	the carnegie hero fund – was established to recognize persons who perform extraordinary acts of heroism in civilian life in the united states and canada, and to provide financial assistance for those disabled and the dependents of those killed saving or attempting to save others. 	the profile in courage award is a private award given to displays of courage similar to those john f. kennedy described in his book profiles in courage. it is given to individuals (often elected officials) who, by acting in accord with their conscience, risked their careers or lives by pursuing a larger vision of the national, state or local interest in opposition to popular opinion or pressure from constituents or other local interests. 	the civil courage prize is a human rights award which is awarded to "steadfast resistance to evil at great personal risk – rather than military valor." it is awarded by the trustees of the train foundation annually and may be awarded posthumously. 	courage to care award is a plaque with miniature bas-reliefs depicting the backdrop for the rescuers' exceptional deeds during the nazis' persecution, deportation and murder of millions of jews. 	the ivan allen jr. prize for social courage is a prize awarded by georgia institute of technology to individuals who uphold the legacy of former atlanta mayor ivan allen jr., whose actions in atlanta, georgia and testimony before congress in support of the civil rights bill legislation set a standard for courage during the turbulent civil rights era of the s.[ ] 	the param vir chakra is the highest military award in india given to those who show the highest degree of valour or self-sacrifice in the presence of the enemy. it can be, and often has been, awarded posthumously. 	the military order of maria theresa, the highest order of the austro-hungarian empire, awarded for "successful military acts of essential impact to a campaign that were undertaken on [an officer's] own initiative, and might have been omitted by an honorable officer without reproach". 	the edelstam prize awarded for outstanding contributions and exceptional courage in standing up for one's beliefs in the defense of human rights. see also[edit] 	philosophy portal 	psychology portal 	anxiety 	boldness 	bushido 	chivalry 	dharma 	karma 	moral character 	risk 	virtue notes[edit] 	^ pianalto, matthew ( ). "moral courage and facing others". philosophical studies. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . s cid  . 	^ rickaby, john ( ). "fortitude". the catholic encyclopedia. . new york: robert appleton company. 	^ aristotle, nicomachean ethics, b – 	^ putman, daniel ( ). "the emotion of courage". journal of social philosophy. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . 	^ putman , pp.  . sfn error: multiple targets ( ×): citerefputman (help) 	^ putman , pp.  . sfn error: multiple targets ( ×): citerefputman (help) 	^ putman , pp.  . sfn error: multiple targets ( ×): citerefputman (help) 	^ a b c d e f putman , pp.  . sfn error: multiple targets ( ×): citerefputman (help) 	^ a b c d putman , pp.  . sfn error: multiple targets ( ×): citerefputman (help) 	^ "plato biography by philosopher, writer (c. – bce)". biography. retrieved october , . 	^ walton , p.  . 	^ a b c d walton , pp.  – . 	^ plato, cooper & hutchinson , pp.  – . 	^ plato, cooper & hutchinson , pp.  – . 	^ plato, cooper & hutchinson , pp.  – . 	^ walton , pp.  – . 	^ aristotle, nichomachean ethics, b - , a - , b - , a - b , b - , a - , a - b , b - , a - , b - , a , a -b , a - , a - , b - , in aristotle, translation, introduction, and commentary, broadie, sarah, & rowe, c., oxford university press, . 	^ mcdonnell , p.  . 	^ mcdonnell , p.  . 	^ de inventione, ii, liii 	^ a b c walton , pp.  – . 	^ "summa theologica". christian classics ethereal library. 	^ a b c "summa theologica: fortitude (secunda secundae partis, q. )". new advent. 	^ ethic. ii 	^ rhet. ii 	^ ethic. iii, 	^ miller , p.  . 	^ miller , pp.  – . 	^ lee, witness. "the experience and growth in life. taking christ as our forbearance". ministrysamples.org. living stream ministry. retrieved may . 	^ lee, witness. "the experience and growth in life. forbearance being the sum total of the human virtues". www.ministrysamples.org. retrieved may . 	^ chapter and , tao te ching (c. ganson uses the word "courage", but the mitchell translation does not.) 	^ "traditional chinese characters". zhonwen.com. tao te ching with hanzi translations 	^ a b hobbes , pp.  – . 	^ hobbes , pp.  – . 	^ hobbes , p.  . 	^ hobbes , pp.  – . 	^ hume , p.  . 	^ hume , p.  . 	^ hume , p.  . 	^ hume , p.  . 	^ tillich , p.  . 	^ tillich , pp.  – . 	^ tolkien, jrr. "beowulf: the monsters and the critics". the tolkien estate. p.  . archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ grimm, jacob ( ). deutsche mythologie (teutonic mythology) (in german) ( ed.). dieterich: göttingen. 	^ carter, richard ( ). "celebrating ernest hemingway's century". neh.gov. national endowment for the humanities. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ nietzsche , p.  . 	^ dick, andreas ( ). mut – Über sich hinauswachsen. bern: hans huber verlag. isbn  - - - - . 	^ "implicit theories of courage". p.  . 	^ a b c rate, clarke & sternberg , pp.  . 	^ a b c d rate, clarke & sternberg , pp.  . 	^ a b rate, clarke & sternberg , pp.  . 	^ woodard , pp.  . 	^ a b c d e f rate, clarke & sternberg , pp.  . 	^ rate, clarke & sternberg , pp.  . 	^ wootton j ( ). "president's message. clinical courage". can j rural med. ( ): – . pmid  . 	^ a b mallinson, tom ( ). "clinical courage". journal of paramedic practice. ( ): – . doi: . /jpar. . . . . issn  - . 	^ konkin, jill; grave, laura; cockburn, ella; couper, ian; stewart, ruth alison; campbell, david; walters, lucie ( ). "exploration of rural physicians' lived experience of practising outside their usual scope of practice to provide access to essential medical care (clinical courage): an international phenomenological study". bmj open. ( ): e . doi: . /bmjopen- - . issn  - . 	^ walters, lucie; laurence, caroline o.; dollard, joanne; elliott, taryn; eley, diann s. ( ). "exploring resilience in rural gp registrars – implications for training". bmc medical education. ( ). doi: . /s - - -x. issn  - . 	^ fox, kevin; corstorphine, wendy; frazer, jenny; johnstone, anna; miller, alasdair; shepherd, neil; cooper, paul ( ). "ten reasons why every junior doctor should spend time working in a remote and rural hospital". future healthcare journal. ( ): – . doi: . /fhj. - . issn  - . 	^ miller , pp.  – . 	^ revelation : 	^ walton , pp.  – . 	^ "bio | ivan allen prize". georgia institute of technology. retrieved - - . references[edit] 	bauhn, per ( ), the value of courage, lund: nordic academic press, isbn  - - - . 	jeanmart, g.; blésin, l. (dir.), figures du courage politique dans la philosophie moderne et contemporaine, numéro thématique de la revue dissensus. revue de philosophie politique de l'université de liège (http://popups.ulg.ac.be/dissensus/), n° , automne . 	avramenko, richard ( ). courage: the politics of life and limb. university of notre dame press. 	"catholic encyclopedia "fortitude"". new advent. 	"summa theologica "second part of the second part"". new advent. see questions – 	becker, ernest ( ). the denial of death. new york: the free press. 	bussey, k. ( ). "lying and truthfulness: children's definitions, standards, and evaluative reactions". child development. pp.  , – . 	deci, e. l.; ryan, r. m. ( ). "the 'what' and 'why' of gal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behavior". psychological inquiry. pp.  , – . 	eisenberger, r. ( ). "learned industriousness". psychological review. pp.  , – . 	evans, p. d.; white, d. g. ( ). "towards an empirical definition of courage". behaviour research and therapy. pp.  , – . 	hobbes, thomas ( ). bernard gert (ed.). man and citizen (de homine and de cive). indianapolis: hackett publishing company. isbn  - - - - . 	hobbes, thomas; tuck, richard ( ). leviathan. cambridge: cambridge university press. 	hume, david ( ). a treatise on human nature : being an attempt to introduce the experimental method of reasoning into moral subjects. the floating press. 	hume, david ( ). an enquiry concerning the principles of morals. lanham: start publishing llc. 	peterson, c.; seligman m. e. p. ( ). character strengths and virtues: a handbook and classification. new york: oxford university press. pp.  – . 	putman, daniel ( ). "the emotions of courage". journal of social philosophy. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . 	nietzsche, friedrich wilhelm ( ). beyond good and evil: prelude to a philosophy of the future. new york: vintage. isbn  - - - - . 	rate, christopher r.; clarke, jennifer a.; sternberg, lindsay & robert j. ( ). "implicit theories of courage". the journal of positive psychology. : ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	ryan, r. m.; frederick, c. ( ). "on energy, personality, and health: subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well-being". journal of personality. pp.  , – . 	mcdonnell, myles ( ). roman manliness: "virtus" and the roman republic. cambridge university press. isbn  - - - - . 	miller, william ian ( ). the mystery of courage. cambridge, massachusetts: harvard university press. isbn  - - - - . 	osho ( ). courage: the joy of living dangerously. macmillan. isbn  - - - - . 	palmquist, stephen ( ). "angst and the paradox of courage". the tree of philosophy. hong kong: philopsychy press. 	plato; cooper, john m.; hutchinson, d.s. ( ). plato: complete works. indianapolis, in: hackett pub. isbn  - - - - . 	tillich, paul ( ). the courage to be. connecticut: yale university press. isbn  - - - - . 	walton, douglas n. ( ). courage: a philosophical investigation. los angeles: university of california press. isbn  - - - - . 	woodard, c.r. ( ). "hardiness and the concept of courage". consulting psychology journal: practice and research. pp.  , – . 	zimmerman, barry j. ( ). self-regulation involves more than meta cognition: a social cognitive perspective. educational psychologist. pp.  , – . 	deutsch, m. ( ). "courage as a concept in social psychology". the journal of positive psychology. : ( ): – . doi: . / . . . 	km, kerfoot ( ). "courage as a concept in social psychology". nursing economics. ( ): – . 	aultman, julie ( ). "moral courage through a collective voice". the journal of positive psychology. : ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	cynthia, l. s. pury; shane, j. lopez ( ). "the psychology of courage: modern research on an ancient virtue". decade of behavior. american psychological association. 	andrei g., zavaliy; aristidou, michael ( ). "courage: a modern look at an ancient virtue, journal of military ethics". journal of military ethics. : ( ): – . doi: . / . . . s cid  . 	robert m., van sant; stevens, margaret talbolt; jones, m.w. ( ). "b and o magazine, volume ". b and o magazine. baltimore and ohio railroad., . : . 	john, ruskin ( ). "the works of john ruskin ...: the stones of venice th ed. , john ruskin". the works of john ruski. allen, . : – . 	lord, herbert gardiner ( ). the psychology of courage. luce, . 	united states., army; pacific division, division of the pacific; washington greely, adolphus ( ). earthquake in california, april , . u.s. government printing office, . p.  . 	pacific, railroads ( ). pacific railroads in congress, and : proceedings compiled from official records. p.  . 	congress, united states.; committee on finance, senate ( ). "revenue act of : hearings before the committee on finance, united states senate, eighty-seventh congress, second session, on h.r. , an act to amend the revenue act of to provide a credit for investment in certain depreciable property, to eliminate certain defects and inequities, and for other purposes,". – . united states: . cite journal requires |journal= (help) external links[edit] 	 quotations related to courage at wikiquote 	 the dictionary definition of courage at wiktionary 	definitions of courage in plato's socratic dialogues 	 media related to courage at wikimedia commons 	 	v 	t 	e seven virtues in christian ethics 	four cardinal virtues	 	prudence (prudentia) 	justice (iustitia) 	fortitude (fortitudo) 	temperance (temperantia) 	sources: plato 	republic, book iv 	cicero 	ambrose 	augustine of hippo 	thomas aquinas 	 	three theological virtues	 	faith (fides) 	hope (spes) 	love (caritas) 	sources: paul the apostle 	 corinthians 	seven deadly sins	 	lust (luxuria) 	gluttony (gula) 	greed (avaritia) 	sloth (acedia) 	wrath (ira) 	envy (invidia) 	pride (superbia) 	source: prudentius, psychomachia 	people: evagrius ponticus 	john cassian 	pope gregory i 	dante alighieri 	peter binsfeld 	related concepts	 	ten commandments 	great commandment 	eschatology 	sin 	original sin 	old covenant 	hamartiology 	 	christian philosophy 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion 	authority control 	 	gnd: - 	ndl: retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=courage&oldid= " 		categories: 	courage 	emotions 	philosophy of love 	virtue 	warrior code hidden categories: 	harv and sfn multiple-target errors 	cs german-language sources (de) 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	cs errors: missing periodical 	commons link is on wikidata 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	wikipedia articles with ndl identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	avañe'ẽ 	Български 	boarisch 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	eesti 	español 	esperanto 	euskara 	فارسی 	français 	galego 	한국어 	हिन्दी 	hrvatski 	interlingua 	italiano 	עברית 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	kreyòl ayisyen 	latina 	magyar 	malagasy 	مصرى 	nederlands 	日本語 	norsk bokmål 	norsk nynorsk 	ਪੰਜਾਬੀ 	polski 	português 	română 	Русский 	shqip 	sicilianu 	simple english 	slovenčina 	slovenščina 	Српски / srpski 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	suomi 	svenska 	tagalog 	தமிழ் 	ไทย 	türkçe 	Українська 	اردو 	tiếng việt 	west-vlams 	吴语 	粵語 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 face - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	face 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from facial feature) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		part of the body at the front of the head for other uses, see face (disambiguation). "faces" and "human face" redirect here. for the bbc television miniseries, see the human face. for other uses, see faces (disambiguation). 	face 	ventrolateral aspect of the face with skin removed, showing muscles of the face. 	details 	identifiers 	latin	facies, facia 	mesh	d 	ta 	a . . . 	ta 	 	fma	 	anatomical terminology[edit on wikidata] the face is the front of an animal's head that features three of the head's sense organs, the eyes, nose, and mouth, and through which animals express many of their emotions.[ ][ ] the face is crucial for human identity, and damage such as scarring or developmental deformities affects the psyche adversely.[ ] contents 	 structure 	 . shape 	 function 	 . emotion 	 . perception and recognition of faces 	 . . biological perspective 	 society and culture 	 . facial surgery 	 . caricatures 	 . metaphor 	 see also 	 references structure the front of the human head is called the face. it includes several distinct areas,[ ] of which the main features are: 	the forehead, comprising the skin beneath the hairline, bordered laterally by the temples and inferiorly by eyebrows and ears 	the eyes, sitting in the orbit and protected by eyelids and eyelashes 	the distinctive human nose shape, nostrils, and nasal septum 	the cheeks, covering the maxilla and mandibula (or jaw), the extremity of which is the chin 	the mouth, with the upper lip divided by the philtrum, sometimes revealing the teeth facial appearance is vital for human recognition and communication. facial muscles in humans allow expression of emotions. the face is itself a highly sensitive region of the human body and its expression may change when the brain is stimulated by any of the many human senses, such as touch, temperature, smell, taste, hearing, movement, hunger, or visual stimuli.[ ] shape the nasal cartilages are important in defining the shape of the nose. the muscles of the face are important when engaging in facial expressions. skeletal anatomy of the face the face is the feature which best distinguishes a person. specialized regions of the human brain, such as the fusiform face area (ffa), enable facial recognition; when these are damaged, it may be impossible to recognize faces even of intimate family members. the pattern of specific organs, such as the eyes, or of parts of them, is used in biometric identification to uniquely identify individuals. the shape of the face is influenced by the bone-structure of the skull, and each face is unique through the anatomical variation present in the bones of the viscerocranium (and neurocranium).[ ] the bones involved in shaping the face are mainly the maxilla, mandible, nasal bone and zygomatic bone. also important are various soft tissues, such as fat, hair and skin (of which color may vary).[ ] the face changes over time, and features common in children or babies, such as prominent buccal fat-pads disappear over time, their role in the infant being to stabilize the cheeks during suckling. while the buccal fat-pads often diminish in size, the prominence of bones increase with age as they grow and develop.[ ] facial shape is an important determinant of beauty, particularly facial symmetry. human face development, by haeckel various face profiles as caricatures, by william hogarth a man's face a woman's face function emotion faces are essential to expressing emotion, consciously or unconsciously. a frown denotes disapproval; a smile usually means someone is pleased. being able to read emotion in another's face is "the fundamental basis for empathy and the ability to interpret a person’s reactions and predict the probability of ensuing behaviors". one study used the multimodal emotion recognition test[ ] to attempt to determine how to measure emotion. this research aimed at using a measuring device to accomplish what people do so easily everyday: read emotion in a face.[ ] the muscles of the face play a prominent role in the expression of emotion,[ ] and vary among different individuals, giving rise to additional diversity in expression and facial features.[ ] variations of the risorius, triangularis and zygomaticus muscles. people are also relatively good at determining if a smile is real or fake. a recent study looked at individuals judging forced and genuine smiles. while young and elderly participants equally could tell the difference for smiling young people, the "older adult participants outperformed young adult participants in distinguishing between posed and spontaneous smiles".[ ] this suggests that with experience and age, we become more accurate at perceiving true emotions across various age groups. perception and recognition of faces main article: face perception the face perception mechanisms of the brain, such as the fusiform face area, can produce facial pareidolias such as this famous rock formation on mars gestalt psychologists theorize that a face is not merely a set of facial features, but is rather something meaningful in its form. this is consistent with the gestalt theory that an image is seen in its entirety, not by its individual parts. according to gary l. allen, people adapted to respond more to faces during evolution as the natural result of being a social species. allen suggests that the purpose of recognizing faces has its roots in the "parent-infant attraction, a quick and low-effort means by which parents and infants form an internal representation of each other, reducing the likelihood that the parent will abandon his or her offspring because of recognition failure".[ ] allen's work takes a psychological perspective that combines evolutionary theories with gestalt psychology. biological perspective research has indicated that certain areas of the brain respond particularly well to faces. the fusiform face area, within the fusiform gyrus, is activated by faces, and it is activated differently for shy and social people. a study confirmed that "when viewing images of strangers, shy adults exhibited significantly less activation in the fusiform gyri than did social adults".[ ] furthermore, particular areas respond more to a face that is considered attractive, as seen in another study: "facial beauty evokes a widely distributed neural network involving perceptual, decision-making and reward circuits. in those experiments, the perceptual response across ffa and loc remained present even when subjects were not attending explicitly to facial beauty".[ ] society and culture facial surgery cosmetic surgery can be used to alter the appearance of the facial features.[ ] maxillofacial surgery may also be used in cases of facial trauma, injury to the face and skin diseases. severely disfigured individuals have recently received full face transplants and partial transplants of skin and muscle tissue.[ ] caricatures caricatures often exaggerate facial features to make a face more easily recognized in association with a pronounced portion of the face of the individual in question—for example, a caricature of osama bin laden might focus on his facial hair and nose; a caricature of george w. bush might enlarge his ears to the size of an elephant's; a caricature of jay leno may pronounce his head and chin; and a caricature of mick jagger might enlarge his lips. exaggeration of memorable features helps people to recognize others when presented in a caricature form.[ ] metaphor by extension, anything which is the forward or world-facing part of a system which has internal structure is considered its "face", like the façade of a building. for example, a public relations or press officer might be called the "face" of the organization he or she represents. "face" is also used metaphorically in a sociological context to refer to reputation or standing in society, particularly chinese society,[ ] and is spoken of as a resource which can be won or lost. because of the association with individuality, the anonymous person is sometimes referred to as "faceless". see also this article uses anatomical terminology. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: faces 		wikimedia commons has media related to face. 	 	diprosopus            	face perception 	facial symmetry 	 	physiognomy 	prosopagnosia references 	^ a b c d e f moore, keith l.; dalley, arthur f.; agur, anne m. r. ( ). moore's clinical anatomy. united states of america: lippincott williams & wilkins. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ "year of discovery, faceless and brainless fish". - - . retrieved december , . 	^ face | define face at dictionary.com. dictionary.reference.com. retrieved on - - . 	^ anatomy of the face and head underlying facial expression archived - - at the wayback machine. face-and-emotion.com. retrieved on - - . 	^ multimodal emotion recognition test (mert) | swiss center for affective sciences archived - - at the wayback machine. affective-sciences.org. retrieved on - - . 	^ bänziger, t.; grandjean, d. & scherer, k. r. ( ). "emotion recognition from expressions in face, voice, and body: the multimodal emotion recognition test (mert)" (pdf). emotion. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ braus, hermann ( ). anatomie des menschen: ein lehrbuch für studierende und Ärzte. p.  . 	^ murphy, n. a.; lehrfeld, j. m. & isaacowitz, d. m. ( ). "recognition of posed and spontaneous dynamic smiles in young and older adults". psychology and aging. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ allen, gary l.; peterson, mary a.; rhodes, gillian ( ). "review: seeking a common gestalt approach to the perception of faces, objects, and scenes". american journal of psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ beaton, e. a., schmidt, l. a., schulkin, j., antony, m. m., swinson, r. p. & hall, g. b. ( ). "different fusiform activity to stranger and personally familiar faces in shy and social adults". social neuroscience. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ chatterjee, a.; thomas, a.; smith, s. e. & aguirre, g. k. ( ). "the neural response to facial attractiveness". neuropsychology. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ plastic and cosmetic surgery: medlineplus. nlm.nih.gov. retrieved on - - . 	^ face transplant surgery at brigham and women's hospital 	^ information about caricatures archived - - at the wayback machine. edu.dudley.gov.uk. retrieved on - - . 	^ ho, david yau-fai (january ). "on the concept of face". american journal of sociology. 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(learn how and when to remove these template messages) 	 	this article possibly contains original research. please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (may ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	 	this article is written like a personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay that states a wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic. please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (may ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	 	this lead needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "contentment" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (may ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) (learn how and when to remove this template message) contentment is an emotional state of satisfaction that can be seen as a mental state, maybe drawn from being at ease in one's situation, body and mind. colloquially speaking, contentment could be a state of having accepted one's situation and is a milder and more tentative form of happiness.[ ] contentment and the pursuit of contentment are possibly a central thread through many philosophical or religious schools across diverse cultures, times and geographies. siddharta might have said "health is the most precious gain and contentment the greatest wealth". john stuart mill, centuries later, would write "i have learned to seek my happiness by limiting my desires, rather than in attempting to satisfy them." marcus aurelius wrote "live with the gods. and he who does so constantly shows them that his soul is satisfied with what is assigned to them." hebrews : reads "keep your lives free from the love of money and be content with what you have, because god has said, 'never will i leave you; never will i forsake you.'"[ ] chinese philosopher zhuang zhou once wrote in the rd century bce (hypothetically) "a gentleman who profoundly penetrates all things and is in harmony with their transformations will be contented with whatever time may bring. he follows the course of nature in whatever situation he may be."[ ] the literature seems to generally agree that contentment is maybe a state ideally reached through being happy with what a person has, as opposed to achieving one's larger ambitions, as socrates described by probably saying "he who is not contented with what he has, would not be contented with what he would like to have." that said, there may be a number of elements of achievement that may make finding a state of personal contentment easier: a strong family unit, a strong local community, and satisfaction of life's basic needs as perhaps expressed in maslow's hierarchy of needs. in general, the more needs in maslow's hierarchy are achieved, the more easily one might achieve contentment. contents 	 general 	 . contentment and positive psychology 	 . . variables that contribute to happiness in research 	 . . satisficer vs. maximizer 	 . . genes 	 . . personality 	 . . goal pursuits 	 . . money 	 . . leisure (also leisure satisfaction) 	 . . health 	 . . laughter 	 . . universal social welfare 	 judaism 	 islam 	 eastern religions 	 . sikhism 	 see also 	 footnotes 	 references general[edit] 	 	this section needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (may ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) contentment is the capital which will never diminish. — ali ibn abi talib[ ] many religions have some form of eternal bliss or heaven as their apparent goal, often contrasted with eternal torment or dissatisfaction. the source of all dissatisfaction appears to stem from the ability to compare experiences and then infer that one's state is not ideal. in the bible, there is an intriguing allegorical account that man's fall from his paradisal state was caused by man eating the forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. man's eyes were "opened" to know the distinction between good and evil (genesis ). in other words, when man becomes intellectually developed to distinguish between good and bad, he realizes that is a gap between what he considers good or ideal and what he is experiencing. the perception of this disparity is what creates psychological and physiological tension. in the tao te ching,[ ] this development of man from his primal state of consciousness called tao is similarly expounded in this manner: "when the tao is lost, there is goodness. when goodness is lost, there is morality ...". morality as we know is the intellectual discernment between good and evil. there is therefore a belief that one can achieve contentment by living "in the moment,"[ ] which represents a way to stop the judgmental process of discriminating between good and bad. however, attempting to live in the moment is difficult because a person's attention is not only distracted by sensory stimuli but also psychological processes that conspire to make them think subconsciously or consciously. this thinking process is always involved with memories; hence, the attempt to stay in the present is a ponderous one given that there is always this subconscious struggle to break away from memories, especially unhappy ones. for this reason, specializations in this pursuit to live in the moment are found in various religious and mystical schools, manifested in forms of meditation and prayer. a more practical way for most people would be to simply practice contentment as an attitude. practicing gratitude is perhaps a way to understand what contentment as an attitude is about. seen in this light, contentment is not an achievement but an attitude that one can adopt at any time. the american philosopher robert bruce raup wrote a book complacency: the foundation of human behavior ( ) in which he claimed that the human need for complacency (i.e. inner tranquility) was the hidden spring of human behavior. raup made this the basis of his pedagogical theory, which he later used in his severe criticisms of the american education system of the s. however, in the context of present-day society, perhaps the multidimensional leisure culture evinces in a very significant way the desire of man to return to his core state of contentment by letting go of his hectic outer activities. contentment and positive psychology[edit] content man on a beach in alexandria (egypt) in many ways, contentment can be closely associated with the concept of happiness and satisfaction. in positive psychology, social scientists study what might contribute to living a good life, or what would lead to people having increased positive mood and overall satisfaction with their life.[ ] happiness, in positive psychology, is defined in a twofold manner, which in totality is referred to as subjective well-being. how much positive emotion (positive affect) as opposed to negative emotion (negative affect) does a person have, and how ones view one's life overall (global satisfaction) are the questions asked in positive psychology to determine happiness. contentment may be more associated or closely related to a person's level of satisfaction with his/her life (global satisfaction), but the idea of contentment is certainly intertwined in the concept of what makes people happy. "contentment", by j. ellsworth gross, in the book lucky go happy : make happiness happen!, paul van der merwe uses a chart to illustrate how being content for long periods of time, can yield more happiness than being ecstatic during a short period.[ ] positive psychology finds it very important to study what contributes to people being happy and to people flourishing, and finds it just as important to focus on the constructive ways in which people function and adapt, as opposed to the general field of psychology which focuses more on what goes wrong or is pathological with human beings.[ ] variables that contribute to happiness in research[edit] satisficer vs. maximizer[edit] these are two concepts that define the ways in which people make choices. a satisficer is a person who will make a decision once his/her criteria is met, and a maximizer, on the other hand, won't make a decision until every possible option is explored.[ ] genes[edit] there is evidence suggesting that there is a relationship between contentment and genes.[ ] personality[edit] through factor analysis, personality can be narrowed down according to the five factor model, which holds that there are five aspects of heritable personality traits: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. research has shown that personality is % heritable, but not always.[ ] there are two aspects of personality which are related to happiness. there is a strong relationship between extraversion and happiness, in that the more extraverted a person is (or behaves) the more happy he/she will be. the other aspect of personality which has a strong relationship to happiness is the genetic predisposition to neuroticism. the more neurotic (emotionally unstable) a person is, the more likely he/she is to be unhappy.[ ] goal pursuits[edit] reaching goals that are important to oneself and that are in alignment with one's personality can contribute to feelings of confidence and mastery. it is important to establish goals that are neither too easy or too hard, but that are optimally challenging. it is also important to note that investing energy in avoiding goals will contribute to diminishing happiness as well as deter one from reaching one's goals, which can be quite intuitive to understand.[ ] money[edit] many people strongly associate money with happiness, and they believe that being rich will contribute greatly to making them happier, and the american society reflects this growing materialism. although wealth is associated with some positive outcomes, i.e. lighter prison sentences for the same crime, better health, and lower infant mortality,[ ] and can act as a buffer in certain instances, as mentioned previously, the overall relationship between money and happiness is marginal. however, beyond a low threshold where the basic needs are met, money has a very small impact on happiness. there is also the concept of the diminishing marginal utility of income (dmui), which is that money has no effect on happiness once a certain income level has been reached, and which represents wealth and happiness as having a curvilinear relationship.[ ] indeed, when one has met his basic needs and have more to spare, it is time to spend or give some to experience happiness. this is because happiness is really a state of in-and-out flow[ ] of one's energy. using or giving money is an expression of out-flowing of one's life-state. attempt to just hoard more and more in the belief that it brings more happiness can lead to the opposite result if only because the means – that is the pursuit of money for happiness – has unwittingly become the ends. leisure (also leisure satisfaction)[edit] the concept of work-life balance is now well-accepted. the 'life' aspect of this 'work-life' concept includes activities devoted to one's personal life which sometimes calls for the kind of commitment and effort no less than that demanded from one's work-life. in some societies, this 'life' aspect might include looking after the elderly and infirm, sending children to and from schools, preparing the meals, cleaning the house and doing the laundry. they are as much work as the work life, and in the midst of all these, the need for leisure activities is simply an alien concept. leisure as a culture is not a universal societal value although the younger generation in developed or near-developed societies seems more inclined toward it. overseas trips, lounging in a cafe with friends, attending concerts, relaxing in a spa, karaoke-ing and similar activities after office hours are now prevalent among that generation. in fact, over the last years, the market has seen a tremendous surge in demand for such leisure services. in his book "in the era of human capital",[ ] richard crawford charted the exponential growth of the business & leisure sector in the post-industrial society. this trend might look like an offshoot of a more affluent society; however, the need for leisure is intrinsic in humans and only through the demands of modern economic life – run as it were by the clock, timetables, deadlines and schedules – did this need fade into the background. humans' need for leisure is intrinsic because that is the state they were born with, or rather, that is the state of life in the natural world. leisure implies that one is not pressured by others or oneself to deliver a certain result but that life is lived to enjoy the simple pleasures of exploring the world that one is born into. this happy state of life is that generally experienced by the pre-school child and is gradually lost when duties and responsibilities of school life and subsequently the adult work-life enter into the picture. not all societies have embraced the leisure culture whether through certain public policies like having a universal welfare system, and psychological and financial preparedness on the part of individuals for retirement wherein leisure is the salient feature. this even applies to developed nations. for example, the us has a "retirement crisis" in which a large percentage of americans do not have sufficient savings for retirement.[ ] economic productivity being often if not always equated with work, the culture of leisure is seldom recognized as a major contributor to a growing business sector. for this reason, many societies do not have in place an infrastructure that strongly supports the leisure culture – such as represented by a universal social welfare system, a wealth of products, services and amenities for retirees. such societies even if they were to become more affluent may continue to find happiness elusive even for retirees. leisure is intrinsically sought after by all as a way to release the tensions and stresses of work-life. it is often used to indulge in play – as is witnessed by how constantly obsessed nowadays people are with surfing the internet, movies and games through their smartphones. there is no doubt that these are enjoyable activities. but leisure also allows people – without the need of any modern gadgets – to re-connect with family and friends and experience the happiness arising from that interaction such as chatting over a drink or meal. health[edit] historically, major eastern mystical teachings on human development, like those from india and china, do not make a separation between the spiritual and physical. happiness or contentment was never viewed as an isolated state from physical health. physical health-enhancing practices such as hatha yoga and qigong – and their respective herbalism known as ayurveda and tcm (traditional chinese medicine) – were consonant with and fully integrated into those mystical teachings in the implicit belief that the attainment of the ideal state of consciousness requires a healthy body as a launchpad or basis even. personal development and health in these systems are understood more as a holistic development of the various aspects of the multidimensional human being. the concept of body and mind interplay (including relationship factor) now known as psychosomatic medicine has always been present in these "mystical teachings", particularly in tcm. an unhappy, angry patient may be told by a tcm physician that there is a lot of trapped heat in their internal organs and then treated accordingly with herbs or acupuncture. at times, if the tcm physician is a qigong practitioner, they may even recommend some qigong exercises for the patient to practise. however given that adepts in such complex holistic analysis and treatment are hard to come by, eastern health maintenance practices may not necessarily be always adequate, reliable or even safe. mainstream western medicine and a good personal knowledge into the common health issues and how to treat them safely at home should also be included in the total package to ensure good health so that the human body can be fit vehicle for optimal and positive performance – the foundation of happiness. outer success and material possession are secondary when health is compromised. one cannot be happy or contented when the body is broken, although there are rare, exceptional individuals who are able to rise above their physical predicament. however, for the vast majority having a good knowledge and an effective protocol for personal health is critical to happiness not just to oneself but also to one's family and friends. laughter[edit] laughter is synonymous with happiness. a proposal is made here that when a line of thought (e.g. joke) or sensation (e.g. tickling) is not expected by one's psychological or physiological order respectively, it triggers a certain chaos and temporary breakdown of that order. the innate contentment intrinsic to the person then breaks through this temporal breach to express itself in happy laughter. laughter has been used as a health therapy[ ] for many years such as in some hospitals through the showing of tv comedies for patients. laughter clubs[ ] have also been formed in india and some asian countries to promote laughter as a form of health-enhancement through regular meet-ups. universal social welfare[edit] contentment has also been studied as a cultural or political phenomenon. the nordic nations, which have repeatedly appeared near the top in happiness index surveys like world happiness report – and most likely correlated economic performance as well – contend that higher rates of happiness are rooted in their welfare system, the "nordic model", which not only fulfills the healthcare, social and other essential needs of their people but also is proposed to provide a high sense of security. other research indicates a substantial portion of scandinavians exaggerate their sense of happiness or contentment when asked informally or in surveys, due to social prohibitions against expressing negativity or unhappiness.[ ] the region's rates of alcohol abuse, among the highest in europe, have also been cited as an indication that the positive social effects attributed to the nordic model are exaggerated.[ ] judaism[edit] some of the earliest[citation needed] references to the state of contentment are found in the reference to the midah (personal attribute) of samayach b'chelko(in hebrew שמח בחלקו). the expression comes from the word samayach (root sin-mem-chet in hebrew - ש.מ.ח) meaning "happiness, joy or contentment", and chelko (root chet-lamed-kuf in hebrew - ח.ל.ק) meaning "portion, lot, or piece", and combined mean contentment with one's lot in life. the attribute is referred to in the mishnahic source which says, "ben zoma said: who is rich? those who are happy with their portion."[ ] the origins of contentment in jewish culture reflect an even older thinking reflected in the book of proverbs which says: "a joyful heart makes a cheerful face; a sad heart makes a despondent mood. all the days of a poor person are wretched, but contentment is a feast without end."[ ] the issue of contentment remained in jewish thinking during the middle ages as evident for example in the writings of solomon ibn gabirol, an eleventh-century spanish poet-philosopher who taught: who seeks more than he needs, hinders himself from enjoying what he has. seek what you need and give up what you need not. for in giving up what you don't need, you'll learn what you really do need.[ ] islam[edit] 	 	this section does not cite any sources. please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (january ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) in islam, true contentment is achieved through establishing a relationship with allah, always keeping him in mind. the quran states: truly, it is in the remembrance of allah(god) that hearts can find contentment — quran - : this verse reveals that the more the people gain the trivial goods of this life, the greater becomes the hunger and the consequent burning of their hearts. moreover, there is no end for worldly desires and greed. but as for those who seek god, the more they turn to him, the greater is their peace of mind. this means that a search for the divine or a supreme deity is inherent within human nature and the innermost yearning of a human being. the real and ultimate goal of a person's life. in a well known hadith (saying of the prophet muhammad) the prophet said: if the son of adam (the human being) were given a valley full of riches, he would love to have a second one; and if he were given the second one, he would love to have a third, for nothing satisfies the belly of adam's son except dust (of the grave). and allah forgives he who repents (turns) to him. — saheeh bukhari-vol :book eastern religions[edit] in yoga (yoga sutras of patanjali), movement or positions, breathing practices, and concentration, as well as the yamas and niyamas, can contribute to a physical state of contentment (santosha). in a buddhist sense, it is the freedom from anxiety, want, or need. contentment is the goal behind all goals because once achieved there is nothing to seek until it is lost. a living system cannot maintain contentment for very long as complete balance and harmony of forces means death. living systems are a complex dance of forces which find a stability far from balance. any attainment of balance is quickly met by rising pain which ends the momentary experience of satisfaction or contentment achieved. buddha's task was to find the solution to this never-ending descent into dissatisfaction or dukkha. the buddhist faith is based on the belief that he succeeded. sikhism[edit] contentment (or sabar or santokh) is an important aspect in sikh life and is known as attainment of first treasure. sikhism categorizes contentment into two forms: contentment (santokh) and true contentment (satt santokh/sabar). contentment can be broken, turning souls greedy for the temporal world, but true contentment is never broken and such a soul is eligible for the supreme state.[ ] the soul having contentment is called saabari[ ] or santokhi. see also[edit] 	comfort 	deferred gratification 	gratification 	pleasure 	happiness footnotes[edit] 	^ eisenblatt, s ( ). the straight road to happiness: a personal guide to enable us to overcome tendencies which block our natural flow of happiness and to explore new horizons of inner joy. p.  . 	^ hebrews : ; keep your lives free from the love of money and be content with what you have, because god has said,"never will i leave you;never will i forsake you."#: deut. : . www.bible.com. 	^ "neo-taoism". a source book in chinese philosophy. translated by wing-tsit chan. princeton university press. . p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ "short sayings from ahlulbayt(as)". duas.org. retrieved october . 	^ tzu, lao ( ). tao te ching. isbn  . 	^ jay dixit (november , ). "the art of now: six steps to living in the moment". psychology today. 	^ a b seligman, martin; michal csikszentmilhalyi (january ). "positive psychology". american psychologist. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / - x. . . . pmid  . 	^ van der merwe, paul. "about the book". luckygohappybook.com. retrieved september , . contentment can yield the same amount of happiness as ecstasy 	^ schwartz, barry; ward, andrew; lyubomirsky, sonja; monterosso, john; white, katherine (november ). "maximizing versus satisficing:happiness is a matter of choice". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ lykken, david; tellegen, auke ( may ). "happiness is a stochastic phenomenon". psychological science. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. s cid  . 	^ krueger r. f.; south s.; johnson w.; iacono w. ( ). "the heritability of personality is not always %: gene-environment interactions and correlations between personality and parenting". j. pers. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmc  . pmid  . 	^ weiss, alexander; bates, timothy; luciano, michelle (march ). "happiness is a personal(ity) thing:the genetics of personality and well-being in a representative sample" (pdf). psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . s cid  . 	^ sheldon, k.m.; elliot, a.j ( ). "goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being:the self-concordance model". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ wilkinson ( ). unhealthy societies:the afflictions of inequality. routledge. isbn  - - - - . 	^ veenhoven, ruut ( ). "is happiness relative?". social indicators research. : – . doi: . /bf . hdl: / . s cid  . 	^ "flow and happiness". pursuit of happiness. retrieved - - . 	^ crawford, richard ( ). in the era of human capital: the emergence of talent, intelligence and knowledge as the economic force and what it means. harperbusiness. 	^ keith miller; david madland; christian e. weller (january , ). "the reality of the retirement crisis". center for american progress. archived from the original on august , . 	^ "laughter therapy". cancer treatment centers of america. retrieved - - . 	^ "laughing yoga cultivates merry mindfulness". fox news. reuters. july , . 	^ michael booth. the almost nearly perfect people: behind the myth of scandinavian utopia. picador, 	^ booth, 	^ "ethics of the fathers: chapter four - texts & writings". www.chabad.org. retrieved - - . 	^ proverbs : and , rabbi meir leibush (malbim) 	^ mivhar hapeninim , as found in the jewish moral virtues, borowitz and schwartz, p. 	^ ਸਤ ਸੰਤੋਖਿ ਸਬਦਿ ਅਤਿ ਸੀਤਲੁ ਸਹਜ ਭਾਇ ਲਿਵ ਲਾਇਆ ॥੩॥ you are true and content; the word of your shabad is cool and soothing. through it, we are lovingly, intuitively attuned to you. || ||, page , adi granth 	^ page , adi granth; ਸਬਰ ਅੰਦਰਿ ਸਾਬਰੀ ਤਨੁ ਏਵੈ ਜਾਲੇਨ੍ਹ੍ਹਿ ॥ sabar anḏar sābrī ṯan evai jāleniĥ. those who are patient abide in patience; in this way, they burn their bodies. references[edit] 	borowitz, eugene b. & weinman schwartz, frances, the jewish moral virtues, jewish publication society, 	meir leibush (malbim), rabbi, translated by charles wengrov and avivah gottlieb zornberg, malbim on mishley: the book of proverbs in hebrew & english, feldheim, 	fohrman, david & kasnett, nesanel, rabbis, editors, babylonian talmud volume , shabbat a, volume i, artscroll / mesorah, 	 		wikiquote has quotations related to: contentment 		look up contentment in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 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the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 depression (mood) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	depression (mood) 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		not to be confused with major depressive disorder. "hopelessness" redirects here. for the album by anohni, see hopelessness (album). "despair" redirects here. for other uses, see despair (disambiguation). state of low mood and aversion to activity 	depression 	 	lithograph of a man diagnosed as suffering from melancholia with strong suicidal tendency ( ) 	specialty	psychiatry depression is a state of low mood and aversion to activity.[ ] it can affect a person's thoughts, behavior, motivation, feelings, and sense of well-being. it may feature sadness, difficulty in thinking and concentration and a significant increase or decrease in appetite and time spent sleeping. people experiencing depression may have feelings of dejection, hopelessness and, sometimes, suicidal thoughts. it can either be short term or long term.[ ] the core symptom of depression is said to be anhedonia, which refers to loss of interest or a loss of feeling of pleasure in certain activities that usually bring joy to people.[ ] depressed mood is a symptom of some mood disorders such as major depressive disorder or dysthymia;[ ] it is a normal temporary reaction to life events, such as the loss of a loved one; and it is also a symptom of some physical diseases and a side effect of some drugs and medical treatments. contents 	 factors 	 . life events 	 . personality 	 . medical treatments 	 . substance-induced 	 . non-psychiatric illnesses 	 . psychiatric syndromes 	 . historical legacy 	 measures 	 connections 	 . alcoholism 	 . bullying 	 . creative thinking 	 . stress management techniques 	 management 	 epidemiology 	 global health 	 see also 	 references 	 external links factors[edit] allegory on melancholy, from circa – , etching and engraving, dimensions of the sheet: × . cm, in the metropolitan museum of art (new york city) life events[edit] adversity in childhood, such as bereavement, neglect, mental abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, or unequal parental treatment of siblings can contribute to depression in adulthood.[ ][ ] childhood physical or sexual abuse in particular significantly correlates with the likelihood of experiencing depression over the victim's lifetime.[ ] life events and changes that may influence depressed moods include (but are not limited to): childbirth, menopause, financial difficulties, unemployment, stress (such as from work, education, family, living conditions etc.), a medical diagnosis (cancer, hiv, etc.), bullying, loss of a loved one, natural disasters, social isolation, rape, relationship troubles, jealousy, separation, or catastrophic injury.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] adolescents may be especially prone to experiencing a depressed mood following social rejection, peer pressure, or bullying.[ ] personality[edit] changes in personality or in one's social environment can affect levels of depression. high scores on the personality domain neuroticism make the development of depressive symptoms as well as all kinds of depression diagnoses more likely,[ ] and depression is associated with low extraversion.[ ] other personality indicators could be: temporary but rapid mood changes, short term hopelessness, loss of interest in activities that used to be of a part of one's life, sleep disruption, withdrawal from previous social life, appetite changes, and difficulty concentrating.[ ] medical treatments[edit] depression may also be the result of healthcare, such as with medication induced depression. therapies associated with depression include interferon therapy, beta-blockers, isotretinoin, contraceptives,[ ] cardiac agents, anticonvulsants, antimigraine drugs, antipsychotics, and hormonal agents such as gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist.[ ] substance-induced[edit] several drugs of abuse can cause or exacerbate depression, whether in intoxication, withdrawal, and from chronic use. these include alcohol, sedatives (including prescription benzodiazepines), opioids (including prescription pain killers and illicit drugs such as heroin), stimulants (such as cocaine and amphetamines), hallucinogens, and inhalants.[ ] non-psychiatric illnesses[edit] main article: depression (differential diagnoses) depressed mood can be the result of a number of infectious diseases, nutritional deficiencies, neurological conditions,[ ] and physiological problems, including hypoandrogenism (in men), addison's disease, cushing's syndrome, hypothyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, lyme disease, multiple sclerosis, parkinson's disease, chronic pain, stroke,[ ] diabetes,[ ] and cancer.[ ] psychiatric syndromes[edit] main article: depressive mood disorders infographic a number of psychiatric syndromes feature depressed mood as a main symptom. the mood disorders are a group of disorders considered to be primary disturbances of mood. these include major depressive disorder (mdd; commonly called major depression or clinical depression) where a person has at least two weeks of depressed mood or a loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities; and dysthymia, a state of chronic depressed mood, the symptoms of which do not meet the severity of a major depressive episode. another mood disorder, bipolar disorder, features one or more episodes of abnormally elevated mood, cognition, and energy levels, but may also involve one or more episodes of depression.[ ] when the course of depressive episodes follows a seasonal pattern, the disorder (major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, etc.) may be described as a seasonal affective disorder. outside the mood disorders: borderline personality disorder often features an extremely intense depressive mood; adjustment disorder with depressed mood is a mood disturbance appearing as a psychological response to an identifiable event or stressor, in which the resulting emotional or behavioral symptoms are significant but do not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode;[ ]: and posttraumatic stress disorder, a mental disorder that sometimes follows trauma, is commonly accompanied by depressed mood.[ ] historical legacy[edit] main article: dispossession, oppression and depression researchers have begun to conceptualize ways in which the historical legacies of racism and colonialism may create depressive conditions.[ ][ ] measures[edit] measures of depression as an emotional disorder include, but are not limited to: beck depression inventory- and the -item depression scale in the patient health questionnaire. both of these measures are psychological tests that ask personal questions of the participant, and have mostly been used to measure the severity of depression. the beck depression inventory (bdi) is a self-report scale that helps a therapist identify the patterns of depression symptoms and monitor recovery. the responses on this scale can be discussed in therapy to devise interventions for the most distressing symptoms of depression.[ ] several studies, however, have used these measures to also determine healthy individuals who are not suffering from depression as a mental disorder, but as an occasional mood disorder. this is substantiated by the fact that depression as an emotional disorder displays similar symptoms to minimal depression and low levels of mental disorders such as major depressive disorder; therefore, researchers were able to use the same measure interchangeably. in terms of the scale, participants scoring between - and - respectively were considered healthy individuals.[ ] another measure of depressed mood would be the iwp multi-affect indicator.[ ] it is a psychological test that indicates various emotions, such as enthusiasm and depression, and asks for the degree of the emotions that the participants have felt in the past week. there are studies that have used lesser items from the iwp multi-affect indicator which was then scaled down to daily levels to measure the daily levels of depression as an emotional disorder.[ ] connections[edit] alcoholism[edit] alcohol can be a depressant which slows down some regions of the brain, like the prefrontal and temporal cortex, negatively affecting rationality and memory.[ ] it also lowers the level of serotonin in the brain, which could potentially lead to higher chances of depressive mood.[ ] the connection between the amount of alcohol intake, level of depressed mood, and how it affects the risks of experiencing consequences from alcoholism, were studied in a research done on college students. the study used latent, distinct profiles of different alcohol intake and level of depression; mild or moderate depression, and heavy or severe drinkers. other indicators consisting of social factors and individual behaviors were also taken into consideration in the research. results showed that the level of depression as an emotion negatively affected the amount of risky behavior and consequence from drinking, while having an inverse relationship with protective behavioral strategies, which are behavioral actions taken by oneself for protection from the relative harm of alcohol intake. having an elevated level of depressed mood does therefore lead to greater consequences from drinking.[ ] bullying[edit] social abuse, such as bullying, are defined as actions of singling out and causing harm on vulnerable individuals. in order to capture a day-to-day observation of the relationship between the damaging effects of social abuse, the victim's mental health and depressive mood, a study was conducted on whether individuals would have a higher level of depressed mood when exposed to daily acts of negative behavior. the result concluded that being exposed daily to abusive behaviors such as bullying has a positive relationship to depressed mood on the same day. the study has also gone beyond to compare the level of depressive mood between the victims and non-victims of the daily bullying. although victims were predicted to have a higher level of depressive mood, the results have shown otherwise that exposure to negative acts has led to similar levels of depressive mood, regardless of the victim status. the results therefore have concluded that bystanders and non-victims feel as equally depressed as the victim when being exposed to acts such as social abuse.[ ] creative thinking[edit] divergent thinking is defined as a thought process that generates creativity in ideas by exploring many possible solutions. having a depressed mood will significantly reduce the possibility of divergent thinking, as it reduces the fluency, variety and the extent of originality of the possible ideas generated.[ ] however, some depressive mood disorders might have a positive effect for creativity. upon identifying several studies and analyzing data involving individuals with high levels of creativity, christa taylor was able to conclude that there is a clear positive relationship between creativity and depressive mood. a possible reason is that having a low mood could lead to new ways of perceiving and learning from the world, but it is unable to account for certain depressive disorders. the direct relationship between creativity and depression remains unclear, but the research conducted on this correlation has shed light that individuals who are struggling with a depressive disorder may be having even higher levels of creativity than a control group, and would be a close topic to monitor depending on the future trends of how creativity will be perceived and demanded.[ ] stress management techniques[edit] there are empirical evidences of a connection between the type of stress management techniques and the level of daily depressive mood.[ ] problem-focused coping leads to lower level of depression. focusing on the problem allows for the subjects to view the situation in an objective way, evaluating the severity of the threat in an unbiased way, thus it lowers the probability of having depressive responses. on the other hand, emotion-focused coping promotes a depressed mood in stressful situations. the person has been contaminated with too much irrelevant information and loses focus on the options for resolving the problem. they fail to consider the potential consequences and choose the option that minimizes stress and maximizes well-being. management[edit] depressed mood may not require professional treatment, and may be a normal temporary reaction to life events, a symptom of some medical condition, or a side effect of some drugs or medical treatments. a prolonged depressed mood, especially in combination with other symptoms, may lead to a diagnosis of a psychiatric or medical condition which may benefit from treatment. the uk national institute for health and care excellence (nice) guidelines indicate that antidepressants should not be routinely used for the initial treatment of mild depression, because the risk-benefit ratio is poor.[ ] physical activity can have a protective effect against the emergence of depression.[ ] physical activity can also decrease depressive symptoms due to the release of neurotrophic proteins in the brain that can help to rebuild the hippocampus that may be reduced due to depression.[ ] also yoga could be considered an ancillary treatment option for patients with depressive disorders and individuals with elevated levels of depression.[ ][ ] reminiscence of old and fond memories is another alternative form of treatment, especially for the elderly who have lived longer and have more experiences in life. it is a method that causes a person to recollect memories of their own life, leading to a process of self-recognition and identifying familiar stimuli. by maintaining one's personal past and identity, it is a technique that stimulates people to view their lives in a more objective and balanced way, causing them to pay attention to positive information in their life stories, which would successfully reduce depressive mood levels.[ ] self-help books are a growing form of treatment for peoples physiological distress. there may be a possible connection between consumers of unguided self-help books and higher levels of stress and depressive symptoms. researchers took many factors into consideration to find a difference in consumers and nonconsumers of self-help books. the study recruited people between the ages of and ; consumers and nonconsumers, in both groups % of them were female. then they broke the consumers into who preferred problem-focused and preferred growth-oriented. those groups were tested for many things including cortisol levels, depressive symptomatology, and stress reactivity levels. there were no large differences between consumers of self-help books and nonconsumers when it comes to diurnal cortisol level, there was a large difference in depressive symptomatology with consumers having a higher mean score. the growth-oriented group has higher stress reactivity levels than the problem-focused group. however, the problem-focused group shows higher depressive symptomatology.[ ] epidemiology[edit] depression is the leading cause of disability worldwide, the united nations (un) health agency reported, estimating that it affects more than million people worldwide – the majority of them women, young people and the elderly. an estimated . percent of the global population suffers from depression, according to a report released by the un world health organization (who), which shows an percent increase in the number of people living with depression between and .[ ][ ][ ] global health[edit] depression is a major mental health cause of disease burden. its consequences further lead to significant burden to public health, which include higher risk of dementia, premature mortality arising from physical disorders and maternal depression impacts on child growth and development.[ ] approximately % to % of depressed people in low and middle income countries are not receiving treatments;[ ] barriers to treatment include: inaccurate assessment, lack of trained health care providers, social stigma and lack of resources.[ ] the world health organization constructed guidelines aiming to increase services for people with mental, neurological and substance use disorders known as the mental health gap action programme (mhgap).[ ] depression is listed as one of conditions prioritized by the programme. trials conducted show possibilities for the programme to be implemented on low-resource primary care settings dependent on primary care practitioners and lay health workers.[ ] examples of therapies by the mhgap targeting depression are the group interpersonal therapy as group treatment for depression and thinking health which utilizes cognitive behavioral therapy to tackle perinatal depression.[ ] furthermore, effective screening in primary care is crucial for the access of treatments. the mhgap programme adopted its approach of improving detection rates of depression by training general practitioners. however, there is still weak evidence supporting this training.[ ] see also[edit] 	behavioral theories of depression 	biology of depression 	cognitive theory of depression 	evolutionary approaches to depression 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additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 intentional stance - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	intentional stance 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		the intentional stance is a term coined by philosopher daniel dennett for the level of abstraction in which we view the behavior of an entity in terms of mental properties. it is part of a theory of mental content proposed by dennett, which provides the underpinnings of his later works on free will, consciousness, folk psychology, and evolution. here is how it works: first you decide to treat the object whose behavior is to be predicted as a rational agent; then you figure out what beliefs that agent ought to have, given its place in the world and its purpose. then you figure out what desires it ought to have, on the same considerations, and finally you predict that this rational agent will act to further its goals in the light of its beliefs. a little practical reasoning from the chosen set of beliefs and desires will in most instances yield a decision about what the agent ought to do; that is what you predict the agent will do. — daniel dennett, the intentional stance, p. contents 	 dennett and intentionality 	 dennett's three levels 	 variants of dennett's three stances 	 objections and replies 	 neural evidence 	 phenomenal stance 	 see also 	 footnotes 	 references dennett and intentionality[edit] dennett ( , p.  ) states that he took the concept of "intentionality" from the work of the german philosopher franz brentano.[ ] when clarifying the distinction between mental phenomena (viz., mental activity) and physical phenomena, brentano (p.  ) argued that, in contrast with physical phenomena,[ ] the "distinguishing characteristic of all mental phenomena"[ ] was "the reference to something as an object" – a characteristic he called "intentional inexistence".[ ] dennett constantly speaks of the "aboutness" of intentionality; for example: "the aboutness of the pencil marks composing a shopping list is derived from the intentions of the person whose list it is" (dennett, , p.  ). john searle ( , pp.  ) stresses that "competence" in predicting/explaining human behaviour involves being able to both recognize others as "intentional" beings, and interpret others' minds as having "intentional states" (e.g., beliefs and desires): 	"the primary evolutionary role of the mind is to relate us in certain ways to the environment, and especially to other people. my subjective states relate me to the rest of the world, and the general name of that relationship is "intentionality." these subjective states include beliefs and desires, intentions and perceptions, as well as loves and hates, fears and hopes. "intentionality," to repeat, is the general term for all the various forms by which the mind can be directed at, or be about, or of, objects and states of affairs in the world." (p. )[ ] according to dennett ( , pp.  – ), folk psychology provides a systematic, "reason-giving explanation" for a particular action, and an account of the historical origins of that action, based on deeply embedded assumptions about the agent;[ ] namely that: 	(a) the agent's action was entirely rational;[ ] 	(b) the agent's action was entirely reasonable (in the prevailing circumstances); 	(c) the agent held certain beliefs;[ ] 	(d) the agent desired certain things; and 	(e) the agent's future action could be systematically predicted from the beliefs and desires so ascribed. this approach is also consistent with the earlier work of fritz heider and marianne simmel, whose joint study revealed that, when subjects were presented with an animated display of -dimensional shapes, they were inclined to ascribe intentions to the shapes.[ ] further, dennett ( , p.  ) argues that, based on our fixed personal views of what all humans ought to believe, desire and do, we predict (or explain) the beliefs, desires and actions of others "by calculating in a normative system";[ ] and, driven by the reasonable assumption that all humans are rational beings – who do have specific beliefs and desires and do act on the basis of those beliefs and desires in order to get what they want – these predictions/explanations are based on four simple rules: 	the agent's beliefs are those a rational individual ought to have (i.e., given their "perceptual capacities", "epistemic needs" and "biography");[ ] 	in general, these beliefs "are both true and relevant to [their] life;[ ] 	the agent's desires are those a rational individual ought to have (i.e., given their "biological needs", and "the most practicable means of satisfying them") in order to further their "survival" and "procreation" needs;[ ] and 	the agent's behaviour will be composed of those acts a rational individual holding those beliefs (and having those desires) ought to perform. dennett's three levels[edit] the core idea is that, when understanding, explaining, and/or predicting the behavior of an object, we can choose to view it at varying levels of abstraction. the more concrete the level, the more accurate in principle our predictions are; the more abstract, the greater the computational power we gain by zooming out and skipping over the irrelevant details. dennett defines three levels of abstraction, attained by adopting one of three entirely different "stances", or intellectual strategies: the physical stance; the design stance; and the intentional stance:[ ] 	the most concrete is the physical stance, the domain of physics and chemistry, which makes predictions from knowledge of the physical constitution of the system and the physical laws that govern its operation; and thus, given a particular set of physical laws and initial conditions, and a particular configuration, a specific future state is predicted (this could also be called the "structure stance").[ ] at this level, we are concerned with such things as mass, energy, velocity, and chemical composition. when we predict where a ball is going to land based on its current trajectory, we are taking the physical stance. another example of this stance comes when we look at a strip made up of two types of metal bonded together and predict how it will bend as the temperature changes, based on the physical properties of the two metals. 	somewhat more abstract is the design stance, the domain of biology and engineering, which requires no knowledge of the physical constitution or the physical laws that govern a system's operation. based on an implicit assumption that there is no malfunction in the system, predictions are made from knowledge of the purpose of the system's design (this could also be called the "teleological stance").[ ] at this level, we are concerned with such things as purpose, function and design. when we predict that a bird will fly when it flaps its wings on the basis that wings are made for flying, we are taking the design stance. likewise, we can understand the bimetallic strip as a particular type of thermometer, not concerning ourselves with the details of how this type of thermometer happens to work. we can also recognize the purpose that this thermometer serves inside a thermostat and even generalize to other kinds of thermostats that might use a different sort of thermometer. we can even explain the thermostat in terms of what it's good for, saying that it keeps track of the temperature and turns on the heater whenever it gets below a minimum, turning it off once it reaches a maximum. 	most abstract is the intentional stance, the domain of software and minds, which requires no knowledge of either structure or design,[ ] and "[clarifies] the logic of mentalistic explanations of behaviour, their predictive power, and their relation to other forms of explanation" (bolton & hill, , p.  ). predictions are made on the basis of explanations expressed in terms of meaningful mental states; and, given the task of predicting or explaining the behaviour of a specific agent (a person, animal, corporation, artifact, nation, etc.), it is implicitly assumed that the agent will always act on the basis of its beliefs and desires in order to get precisely what it wants (this could also be called the "folk psychology stance").[ ] at this level, we are concerned with such things as belief, thinking and intent. when we predict that the bird will fly away because it knows the cat is coming and is afraid of getting eaten, we are taking the intentional stance. another example would be when we predict that mary will leave the theater and drive to the restaurant because she sees that the movie is over and is hungry. 	in , dennett also postulated that, whilst "the intentional stance presupposes neither lower stance", there may well be a fourth, higher level: a "truly moral stance toward the system" – the "personal stance" – which not only "presupposes the intentional stance" (viz., treats the system as rational) but also "views it as a person" ( / , p.  ). a key point is that switching to a higher level of abstraction has its risks as well as its benefits. for example, when we view both a bimetallic strip and a tube of mercury as thermometers, we can lose track of the fact that they differ in accuracy and temperature range, leading to false predictions as soon as the thermometer is used outside the circumstances for which it was designed. the actions of a mercury thermometer heated to  °c can no longer be predicted on the basis of treating it as a thermometer; we have to sink down to the physical stance to understand it as a melted and boiled piece of junk. for that matter, the "actions" of a dead bird are not predictable in terms of beliefs or desires. even when there is no immediate error, a higher-level stance can simply fail to be useful. if we were to try to understand the thermostat at the level of the intentional stance, ascribing to it beliefs about how hot it is and a desire to keep the temperature just right, we would gain no traction over the problem as compared to staying at the design stance, but we would generate theoretical commitments that expose us to absurdities, such as the possibility of the thermostat not being in the mood to work today because the weather is so nice. whether to take a particular stance, then, is determined by how successful that stance is when applied. dennett argues that it is best to understand human behavior at the level of the intentional stance, without making any specific commitments to any deeper reality of the artifacts of folk psychology. in addition to the controversy inherent in this, there is also some dispute about the extent to which dennett is committing to realism about mental properties. initially, dennett's interpretation was seen as leaning more towards instrumentalism,[ ] but over the years, as this idea has been used to support more extensive theories of consciousness, it has been taken as being more like realism. his own words hint at something in the middle, as he suggests that the self is as real as a center of gravity, "an abstract object, a theorist's fiction", but operationally valid.[ ] as a way of thinking about things, dennett's intentional stance is entirely consistent with everyday commonsense understanding; and, thus, it meets eleanor rosch's ( , p.  ) criterion of the "maximum information with the least cognitive effort". rosch argues that, implicit within any system of categorization, are the assumptions that: 	(a) the major purpose of any system of categorization is to reduce the randomness of the universe by providing "maximum information with the least cognitive effort", and 	(b) the real world is structured and systematic, rather than being arbitrary or unpredictable. thus, if a particular way of categorizing information does, indeed, "provide maximum information with the least cognitive effort", it can only do so because the structure of that particular system of categories corresponds with the perceived structure of the real world. also, the intentional stance meets the criteria dennett specified ( , pp.  – ) for algorithms: 	( ) substrate neutrality: it is a "mechanism" that produces results regardless of the material used to perform the procedure ("the power of the procedure is due to its logical structure, not the causal powers of the materials used in the instantiation"). 	( ) underlying mindlessness: each constituent step, and each transition between each step, is so utterly simple, that they can be performed by a "dutiful idiot". 	( ) guaranteed results: "whatever it is that an algorithm does, it always does it, if it is executed without misstep. an algorithm is a foolproof recipe." variants of dennett's three stances[edit] the general notion of a three level system was widespread in the late s/early s; for example, when discussing the mental representation of information from a cognitive psychology perspective, glass and his colleagues ( , p.  ) distinguished three important aspects of representation: 	(a) the content ("what is being represented"); 	(b) the code ("the format of the representation");[ ] and 	(c) the medium ("the physical realization of the code").[ ] other significant cognitive scientists who also advocated a three level system were allen newell, zenon pylyshyn, and david marr. the parallels between the four representations (each of which implicitly assumed that computers and human minds displayed each of the three distinct levels) are detailed in the following table: 	daniel dennett "stances"	zenon pylyshyn "levels of organization"	allen newell "levels of description"	david marr "levels of analysis" 	 physical stance.[ ] 	physical level, or biological level.[ ]	physical level, or device level.[ ]	hardware implementation level.[ ] 	 design stance.[ ] 	symbol level.[ ]	program level, or symbol level.[ ]	representation and algorithm level.[ ] 	 intentional stance.[ ] 	semantic,[ ] or knowledge level.[ ]	knowledge level.[ ][ ]	computational theory level.[ ] objections and replies[edit] the most obvious objection to dennett is the intuition that it "matters" to us whether an object has an inner life or not. the claim is that we don't just imagine the intentional states of other people in order to predict their behaviour; the fact that they have thoughts and feelings just like we do is central to notions such as trust, friendship and love. the blockhead argument proposes that someone, jones, has a twin who is in fact not a person but a very sophisticated robot which looks and acts like jones in every way, but who (it is claimed) somehow does not have any thoughts or feelings at all, just a chip which controls his behaviour; in other words, "the lights are on but no one's home". according to the intentional systems theory (ist), jones and the robot have precisely the same beliefs and desires, but this is claimed to be false. the ist expert assigns the same mental states to blockhead as he does to jones, "whereas in fact [blockhead] has not a thought in his head." dennett has argued against this by denying the premise, on the basis that the robot is a philosophical zombie and therefore metaphysically impossible. in other words, if something acts in all ways conscious, it necessarily is, as consciousness is defined in terms of behavioral capacity, not ineffable qualia.[ ] another objection attacks the premise that treating people as ideally rational creatures will yield the best predictions. stephen stich argues that people often have beliefs or desires which are irrational or bizarre, and ist doesn't allow us to say anything about these. if the person's "environmental niche" is examined closely enough, and the possibility of malfunction in their brain (which might affect their reasoning capacities) is looked into, it may be possible to formulate a predictive strategy specific to that person. indeed this is what we often do when someone is behaving unpredictably — we look for the reasons why. in other words, we can only deal with irrationality by contrasting it against the background assumption of rationality. this development significantly undermines the claims of the intentional stance argument. the rationale behind the intentional stance is based on evolutionary theory, particularly the notion that the ability to make quick predictions of a system's behaviour based on what we think it might be thinking was an evolutionary adaptive advantage. the fact that our predictive powers are not perfect is a further result of the advantages sometimes accrued by acting contrary to expectations. neural evidence[edit] philip robbins and anthony i. jack suggest that "dennett's philosophical distinction between the physical and intentional stances has a lot going for it" from the perspective of psychology and neuroscience. they review studies on abilities to adopt an intentional stance (variously called "mindreading," "mentalizing," or "theory of mind") as distinct from adopting a physical stance ("folk physics," "intuitive physics," or "theory of body"). autism seems to be a deficit in the intentional stance with preservation of the physical stance, while williams syndrome can involve deficits in the physical stance with preservation of the intentional stance. this tentatively suggests a double dissociation of intentional and physical stances in the brain.[ ] however, most studies have found no evidence of impairment in autistic individuals' ability to understand other people's basic intentions or goals; instead, data suggests that impairments are found in understanding more complex social emotions or in considering others' viewpoints.[ ] robbins and jack point to a study[ ] in which participants viewed animated geometric shapes in different "vignettes," some of which could be interpreted as constituting social interaction, while others suggested mechanical behavior. viewing social interactions elicited activity in brain regions associated with identifying faces and biological objects (posterior temporal cortex), as well as emotion processing (right amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex). meanwhile, the mechanical interactions activated regions related to identifying objects like tools that can be manipulated (posterior temporal lobe). the authors suggest "that these findings reveal putative 'core systems' for social and mechanical understanding that are divisible into constituent parts or elements with distinct processing and storage capabilities."[ ] phenomenal stance[edit] robbins and jack argue for an additional stance beyond the three that dennett outlined. they call it the phenomenal stance: attributing consciousness, emotions, and inner experience to a mind. the explanatory gap of the hard problem of consciousness illustrates this tendency of people to see phenomenal experience as different from physical processes. the authors suggest that psychopathy may represent a deficit in the phenomenal but not intentional stance, while people with autism appear to have intact moral sensibilities, just not mind-reading abilities. these examples suggest a double dissociation between the intentional and phenomenal stances.[ ][ ] in a follow-up paper, robbins and jack describe four experiments about how the intentional and phenomenal stances relate to feelings of moral concern. the first two experiments showed that talking about lobsters as strongly emotional led to a much greater sentiment that lobsters deserved welfare protections than did talking about lobsters as highly intelligent. the third and fourth studies found that perceiving an agent as vulnerable led to greater attributions of phenomenal experience. also, people who scored higher on the empathetic-concern subscale of the interpersonal reactivity index had generally higher absolute attributions of mental experience.[ ] bryce huebner ( ) performed two experimental philosophy studies to test students' ascriptions of various mental states to humans compared with cyborgs and robots. experiment showed that while students attributed both beliefs and pains most strongly to humans, they were more willing to attribute beliefs than pains to robots and cyborgs.[ ]: "[t]hese data seem to confirm that commonsense psychology does draw a distinction between phenomenal and non-phenomenal states--and this distinction seems to be dependent on the structural properties of an entity in a way that ascriptions of non-phenomenal states are not."[ ]: – however, this conclusion is only tentative in view of the high variance among participants.[ ]: experiment showed analogous results: both beliefs and happiness were ascribed most strongly to biological humans, and ascriptions of happiness to robots or cyborgs were less common than ascriptions of beliefs.[ ]: see also[edit] 	 	conceptual blending 	folk psychology 	high- and low-level description 	instrumentalism 	intention 	 	intentionality 	level of analysis 	life stance 	marr's levels of analysis 	naturalization of intentionality 	 	operationalism 	philosophical realism 	philosophy of mind 	stance (linguistics) 	theory of mind 	the philosophy of 'as if' 	 footnotes[edit] 	^ in his second edition ( / , pp. – ), brentano added this explanation of "intentional" to his edition: "this expression had been misunderstood in that some people thought it had to do with intention and the pursuit of a goal. in view of this, i might have done better to avoid it altogether. instead of the term 'intentional' the scholastics very frequently used the expression 'objective'. this has to do with the fact that something is an object for the mentally active subject, and, as such, is present in some manner in his consciousness, whether it is merely thought of or also desired, shunned, etc. i preferred the expression 'intentional' because i thought there would be an even greater danger of being misunderstood if i had described the object of thought as 'objectively existing', for modern day thinkers use this expression to refer to what really exists as opposed to 'mere subjective appearances'." 	^ in addition to cogitations (such as judgement, recollection and inference) and emotions (such as joy and sorrow and fear), brentano (op.cit. p. ) includes things such as "hearing a sound, seeing a colored object, feeling warm or cold" in his category of physical phenomena. 	^ by contrast, brentano (p. ) includes things such as "a color... a chord which i hear, warmth, cold, odor which i sense" in his category of mental phenomena. 	^ note that, whilst the term "inexistence" appears haphazardly right throughout the text of bretano's work as both in-existence and 'inexistence, it very clearly always carries the "inherence" meaning (i.e., the fact or condition of existing in something), rather than the "non-existence" meaning (i.e., the fact or condition of not existing). 	^ searle ( , pp. – ) clarifies his usage: "intentionality is an unfortunate word, and like a lot of unfortunate words in philosophy, we owe it to the german-speaking philosophers. the word suggests that intentionality, in the sense of directedness, must always have some connection with 'intending' in the sense in which, for example, i intend to go to the movies tonight. (german has no problem with this because intentionalität' does not sound like absicht', the word for intention in the ordinary sense of intending to go to the movies.) so we have to keep in mind that in english intending is just one form of intentionality among many. foss and bow ( , p. ) present a far more a.i.-oriented view: "we assume that people understand the actions of others by viewing those actions as purposive, as goal directed. people use their knowledge of human intentionality, of the types of goals people have and of the types of plans they devise in service of those goals, to understand action sequences that are described in narratives or observed directly. many recent approaches to comprehension emphasize the role of goal planning knowledge when understanding narratives and conversations, and when remembering observed sequences and goal directed actions. according to these approaches, understanding involves inferring the intentions (i.e. the plans and goals) of the characters, speakers, or actors. such inferences are ubiquitous because narratives frequently provide only sketchy descriptions of the character's actions and goals; speakers rarely state their intentions directly; and observers rarely see all the events preceding or following the action to be explained. therefore, people are forced to use their general knowledge of human intentionality to fill in the missing information; they do this by generating expectations and drawing inferences in order to come up with a plan that explains an actor's behavior. although the importance of this type of knowledge for understanding natural discourse and action sequences has been recognized, only recently have cognitive scientists begun examining the psychological processes involved in drawing inferences about human intentionality..." 	^ because we use folk psychology effortlessly all the time to systematically predict actions, and because this way of thinking about things seems to be so very effective – fodor ( , p. ) speaks of its "extraordinary predictive power" – dennett is certain that the practice of treating others as rational agents must have evolved and developed over time: "we treat each other as if we were rational agents, and this myth – for surely we are not all that rational – works very well because we are pretty rational" (p. ). siegert ( , p. ), agrees: "evolutionary psychology argues that the ability to form a representation of what another human is thinking is an ability that has been acquired and developed through natural selection. the ability to interpret other people's facial expressions, their body language, and their tone of voice, has obvious advantages for survival. in earlier environments, our ancestors had to be able determine who was a friend and who was an enemy, who was a potential mate and who was not. the ability to distinguish between facial expressions associated with suspicion and curiosity, fear and anger, or disgust and sadness, may have been the difference between life and death. in modern society we also rely on this ability for surviving socially, if not literally. our ability to accurately express our emotions, to know how and when to express them, to know when to conceal our emotions, and to be able read and interpret the emotions of other people are skills that impact hugely on our ability to form lasting relationships, breed and raise healthy children, and gain high status in our careers" (p. ). 	^ dennett stresses how research into artificial intelligence has shown just how rational humans actually are: "even the most sophisticated ai programs stumble blindly into misinterpretations and misunderstandings that even small children reliably evade without a second thought" ( , p. ). 	^ note that it is irrelevant whether the agent actually holds these particular beliefs or not; the critical feature is that the observer ascribes them to the agent. the intentional stance involves an observer amassing a constellation of subjective, observer-centred assumptions, unique to that specific observer, that are expressed in the form of a set of supposed beliefs and desires which are attributed to (and projected upon) the object of that observation in order to explain something to the observer. the observer is not trying to objectively determine the agent's actual state of mind. his only need is to be able to represent the agent's behaviour to himself in such a way that he can respond to the agent's behaviour. consequently, these attributions rarely describe any actual belief or desire an agent might maintain at any time; and the objective truth of the observer's subjective assumptions about the agent's "inner life" is entirely irrelevant – always provided, of course, that his response to the agent's behaviour has been appropriate. 	^ see heider & simmel ( ); the animation used in the experiment is at "youtube.com/watch?v=n twwg sfwq". 	^ in other words, humans have a propensity to systematically think as follows: x has performed action a because they believe b, and desires d, and (on the basis of their desire for d, and their belief that b is how things obtain in the real world) x has chosen to a, with the intention of achieving goal g (which, as they understand things, will produce outcome d). this deep desire to eschew disorder and make things systematic has a parallel in the way that humans assess the concept of "randomness". in many circumstances, according to falk and konold ( ; ), an individual's concept of what is "random" is, in fact, far from it – and this "subjective randomness" is, often, far more disordered than a truly random sequence. lisanby and lockhead ( ), also differentiate between subjective randomness and genuine randomness (upon which they which they bestow the tautologous title of "stochastic randomness"). 	"that subjective randomness results from people's failure to make sense of their observations is not a new idea. piaget and inhelder [viz., / ] attribute the origin of the idea of chance in children to their realizing the impossibility of predicting oncoming events or finding causal explanations. the experience of randomness is thus construed as an admission of failure of our intellectual operations" (falk and konold, , p. ). 	^ swinburne ( , pp. – ) argues that one of the most important features of beliefs is that they are involuntary: "belief is a passive state; believing is a state in which you are, it is not a matter of you doing something. and it is an involuntary state, a state in which you find yourself and which you cannot change at will at an instant. i believe that today is tuesday, that i am now in oxford, that aquinas died in ad , and so on and so on. i cannot sudden-ly decide to believe that today is monday, that i am now in italy, or that aquinas lived in the eighteenth century. that belief is involuntary was a claim of locke, leibniz, and hume. "belief consists", wrote hume, "merely in a certain feeling or sentiment; in something that depends not on the will, but must arise from certain determinate causes and principles of which we are not masters." 	^ in addressing cases where an agent's beliefs are not "both true and relevant to [their] life", dennett ( , p. ) notes that "when false beliefs are attributed, special stories must be told to explain how the error resulted from the presence of features in the environment that are deceptive relative to the perceptual capacities of the system." 	^ dennett also addresses the cases in which the desires are "abnormal" and remarks that "[these] 'abnormal' desires are attributable if special stories can be told" ( , p. ). 	^ dennett, d. c., ( ) "three kinds of intentional psychology", pp. – in dennett, d. c., the intentional stance, the mit press, (cambridge), . 	^ perkins ( , p. ), refers to the results of this "machine style" of perception as a "physicist's system". 	^ like rudyard kipling's just so stories, the theme of the "design" category is that things are simply just that way: a parallel to the doctoral candidate in molière's le malade imaginaire, who, when asked why opium made people go to sleep, spoke of it having a "dormitive virtue" (a sleep-inducing factor): "if you know something about the design of an artifact, you can predict its behavior without worrying yourself about the underlying physics of its parts. even small children can readily learn to manipulate such complicated objects as vcrs without having a clue how they work; they know just what will happen when they press a sequence of buttons, because they know what is designed to happen. they are operating from what i call the design stance" (dennett, , p. ). 	^ perkins ( , p. ), refers to the results of this "human style" of perception as a "pragmatist's system". 	^ observing that the term "belief" has a very wide range of meanings – and remarking that "we seldom talk about what people believe, we [usually] talk about what they think and what they know" – dennett ( , p. ) produces a precise definition: "folk psychology has it that beliefs are information-bearing states of people that arise from perceptions and that, together with appropriately related desires, lead to intelligent action". 	^ papineau ( ) defines instrumentalism as: "the doctrine that scientific theories are not true descriptions of an unobservable reality, but merely useful instruments which enable us to order and anticipate the observable world": a parallel to perkins' "pragmatist's system" (perkins, , p. ). 	^ daniel dennett. "the self as a center of narrative gravity". retrieved - - . 	^ glass et al. ( , p. ) distinguish between content and code as follows: "a simple english word like cat is a representation. it represents a certain concept or idea, namely the concept of a furry house-hold pet that purrs. note that this same concept can be represented in many different ways. we could use a picture of a cat to represent the concept. we could translate cat into spanish and represent it by gato. we could represent it in morse code by a series of dots and dashes, or in braille by a certain tactile pattern. across all these examples the information being represented stays the same. this common information is called the content of the representation. each different way the information can be expressed is called a representational code. so the words cat and gato represent the same content, but in different codes (i.e., written english vs. written spanish). in contrast the words cat and lawyer represent different contents, but in the same code (written english)." 	^ glass et al. ( , p. ) distinguish between code and media as follows: "listen to someone singing. then listen to a recording of the same person singing the same song. the two sounds would probably be virtually identical. yet the sound would be produced in very different ways – in one case by human vocal cords, in the other by electronic components. these are two different media for producing the same auditory code." glass et al. also make the point that "cognitive psychology primarily explores representational codes" (p. ) and "cognitive psychologists study representational codes rather than media" (p. ). 	^ in the case of both dennett and pylyshyn's terminology the designation "physical" means "relating to physics" (as in "physical laws"), with the strong implication that we are speaking of "hard science". 	^ "the structure and the principles by which the physical object functions correspond to the physical or the biological level" (pylyshyn, , p. ). "we obviously need the biological level to explain such things as the effects of drugs or jet lag or brain damage on behavior" (p. ). 	^ essentially the same as pylyshyn's physical level or biological level. 	^ specifies the algorithm's physical substrates (marr, , p. ): "how can the representation and algorithm be realized physically?" (p. ). 	^ in "brain writing and mind reading" ( ), dennett very clearly states that he is agnostic about what he terms "brain writing". 	^ "the semantic content of knowledge and goals is assumed to be encoded by symbolic expressions" (pylyshyn, , p. ). "we need the symbol level to explain such things as why some tasks take longer or result in more errors than other tasks" (p. ). "information processing psychology is full of examples of discovering that the form of the representation makes a difference to their [sic] behavior in experiments. for example, in problem-solving experiments it makes a difference whether subjects encode the fact that all the objects in a box are red or the equivalent fact that none of the objects is blue" (p. ). 	^ essentially the same as pylyshyn's symbol level. 	^ specifies how the device does what it does (marr, , p. ): "how can this computational theory be implemented? in particular, what is the representation for the input and output, and what is the algorithm for the transformation?" (p. ). 	^ dennett stressed "that the intentional stance presupposes neither lower stance" (dennett / , p. ) 	^ : "although the cognitive science community tends to use the term knowledge quite freely in discussing semantic level principles, it is sometimes worth distinguishing those semantic entities that are knowledge from those that are goals, percepts, plans, and so on. the more general term semantic level is used in contexts where such distinctions are important. philosophers even talk about the 'intentional' level or 'intentional' objects, but because the use of that terminology tends to raise a large, ancient, and not entirely relevant set of issues, we [viz., pylyshyn and newell] shun that term here" (pylyshyn, , p. ). 	^ pylyshyn ( ): "[explains] why people, or appropriately programmed computers, do certain things by saying what they know and what their goals are and by showing that these are connected in certain meaningful or even rational ways." (p. ) "we need the knowledge level to explain why certain goals and beliefs tend to lead to certain behaviors, and why the behaviors can be changed in rational ways when new beliefs are added by telling things." (p. ) 	^ newell was aware of dennett's views prior to newell's ( ) address that was, later, published in full : "before i finished preparing that address i found and read brainstorms. it was instantly clear to me that the knowledge level and the intentional stance are fundamentally the same, and i indicated as much in the talk." (newell, , p. ) 	^ newell ( ), p. : "the system at the knowledge level is the agent. the components at the knowledge level are goals, actions, and bodies. thus, an agent is composed of a set of actions, a set of goals and a body. the medium at the knowledge level is knowledge (as might be suspected). thus, the agent processes its knowledge to determine the actions to take. finally, the behavior law is the principle of rationality: actions are selected to attain the agent's goals. "to treat a system at the knowledge level is to treat it as having some knowledge and some goals, and believing it will do whatever is within its power to attain its goals, in so far as its knowledge indicates." 	^ this level specifies "what the device does and why" (marr, , p. ): "what is the goal of the computation, why is it appropriate, and what is the logic of the strategy by which it can be carried out?" (p. ) 	^ daniel dennett, the unimagined preposterousness of zombies 	^ a b philip robbins; anthony i. jack (jan ). "the phenomenal stance". philosophical studies. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - -x. 	^ hamilton af ( ). "goals, intentions and mental states: challenges for theories of autism". j child psychol psychiatry. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . 	^ a b alex martin; jill weisberg ( ). "neural foundations for understanding social and mechanical concepts". cogn neuropsychol. ( – ): – . doi: . / . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ anthony i. jack; philip robbins (sep ). "the phenomenal stance". philosophical studies. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - -x. 	^ anthony i. jack; philip robbins (sep ). "the phenomenal stance revisited" (pdf). review of philosophy and psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . 	^ a b c d bryce huebner (mar ). "commonsense concepts of phenomenal consciousness: does anyone care about functional zombies?" (pdf). phenomenology and the cognitive sciences. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . 	philosophy portal 	psychology portal references[edit] 	braddon-mitchell, d., & jackson, f. philosophy of mind and cognition, basil blackwell, oxford, 	bolton, d. & hill, j., mind, meaning, and mental disorder: the nature of causal explanation in psychology and psychiatry, oxford university press, (oxford), . 	brentano, f., ( / ) psychology from an empirical standpoint (second edition), routledge & kegan paul, (london) (the german version of the second edition was published in ). 	dennett, d.c., ( ) "intentional systems", the journal of philosophy, vol. , no. , ( february ), pp. - . 	dennett, d.c., ( / ) "mechanism and responsibility", reprinted in pp.  – in dennett, d.c., brainstorms: philosophical essays on mind and psychology, bradford books, (montgomery), (originally published in ). 	dennett, d.c., ( ) "brain writing and mind reading", minnesota studies in the philosophy of science, : - . 	dennett, d., ( ) "true believers" in dennett, d. the intentional stance, the mit press, cambridge, mass., 	daniel c. dennett ( ), the intentional stance ( th printing), cambridge, massachusetts: the mit press, isbn  - - - - (first published ). 	dennett, d.c., ( ) darwin's dangerous idea: evolution and the meanings of life, simon & schuster, (new york), . 	daniel c. dennett ( ), "chapter . true believers: the intentional strategy and why it works", in john haugeland, mind design ii: philosophy, psychology, artificial intelligence. massachusetts: massachusetts institute of technology. isbn  - - - (first published in scientific explanation, , edited by a.f. heath, oxford: oxford university press; originally presented as a herbert spencer lecture at oxford in november ; also published as chapter in dennett's book the intentional stance). 	dennett, d. "three kinds of intentional psychology" (ip) in heil, j. - philosophy of mind: a guide and anthology, clarendon press, oxford, 	falk, r. & konold, c., "making sense of randomness: implicit encoding as a basis for judgement", psychological review, vol. , no. , (april ), pp. - . 	falk, r. & konold, c., "subjective randomness", pp.  – , in kotz, s., read, c.b. & banks, d.l., encyclopedia of statistical sciences: update volume , john wiley & sons, (new york), . 	fano, vincenzo. "holism and the naturalization of consciousness" in holism, massimo dell'utri. quodlibet. . 	fodor, j. psychosemantics, mit press, cambridge, mass., . 	foss, c.l. & bow, g.h., "understanding actions in relation to goals", pp.  – in sharkey, n.e. (ed.), advances in cognitive science , ellis horwood, (chichester), . 	glass, a.l., holyoak, k.j. & santa, j.l., cognition, addison-wesley publishing company, (reading), . 	heider, f. & simmel, m., "an experimental study of apparent behavior", american journal of psychology, vol. , ( ), pp. - . 	lisanby, s.h. & lockhead, g., "subjective randomness, aesthetics, and structure", pp.  – in lockhead, g.r. & pomerantz, j.r. (eds.), the perception of structure, american psychological association, (washington), . 	lycan, w. mind & cognition, basil blackwell, oxford, 	marr, d., vision: a computational investigation into the human representation of visual information, w.h. freeman & company, (new york), . 	newell, a., ( ) "the knowledge level", artificial intelligence, vol. , no. , (january ), pp. - . 	newell, a. ( ), "the intentional stance and the knowledge level", behavioral and brain sciences, vol. , no. , (september ), pp.  – . 	papineau, d., "instrumentalism", p.  in honderich, t. (ed.), the oxford companion to philosophy, oxford university press, (oxford), . 	perkins, david n., "why the human perceiver is a bad machine", pp.  – in beck, j. hope, b. & rosenfeld, a. (eds.), human and machine vision, academic press, (new york), . 	piaget, j. & inhelder, b. [(leake, l., burrell, p. & fishbein, h.d. eds.), the origin of the idea of chance in children, routledge & kegan paul, (london), [french original ]. 	pylyshyn, z.w., "computing in cognitive science", pp. - in posner, m.i.(ed.), foundations of cognitive science, the mit press, (cambridge), . 	rosch, e., "principles of categorization", pp.  – in rosch, e. & lloyd, b.b. (eds), cognition and categorization, lawrence erlbaum associates, publishers, (hillsdale), . 	searle, j., mind, language and society: philosophy in the real world, phoenix, (london), . 	siegert, r.j., "culture, cognition, and schizophrenia", pp.  – in schumaker, j.f. & ward, t. (eds.), cultural cognition and psychopathology, praeger, (westport), . 	swinburne, r., epistemic justification, oxford university press, (oxford), . 		v 	t 	e daniel dennett 	concepts	 	cartesian theater 	greedy reductionism 	heterophenomenology 	intentional stance 	intuition pump 	memetics 	multiple drafts model 	 	selected works	 	brainstorms ( ) 	the mind's i ( ) 	elbow room ( ) 	consciousness explained ( ) 	darwin's dangerous idea ( ) 	freedom evolves ( ) 	sweet dreams ( ) 	breaking the spell ( ) 	from bacteria to bach and back ( ) 	other	 	the philosophical lexicon 	new atheism 	universal darwinism retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=intentional_stance&oldid= " 		categories: 	abstraction 	cognitive psychology 	cognitive science 	consciousness studies 	intention 	philosophical concepts 	psycholinguistics 	theory of mind 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on september , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 disposition - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	disposition 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for other uses, see disposition (disambiguation). a disposition is a quality of character, a habit, a preparation, a state of readiness, or a tendency to act in a specified way that may be learned. the terms dispositional belief and occurrent belief refer, in the former case, to a belief that is held in the mind but not currently being considered, and in the latter case, to a belief that is currently being considered by the mind. in bourdieu's theory of fields, dispositions are the natural tendencies of each individual to take on a specific position in any field. there is no strict determinism through one's dispositions. the habitus is the choice of positions according to one's dispositions. however, in retrospect a space of possibles can always be observed. a disposition is not a process or event in some duration in time, but rather the state, preparation, or tendency of a structure "in waiting". in the field of possibilities its actual triggering has a statistical value. contents 	 in metaphysics 	 in hermeneutics 	 in law 	 in educational research 	 in religion 	 . in the catholic church 	 . in the anglican communion 	 see also 	 references 	 external links in metaphysics[edit] the debate about dispositions in metaphysics attempts to understand the fundamental nature of properties, including how they relate to laws of nature.[ ] the initial question asks if dispositions are real. realism about dispositions, or dispositionalism, argues that dispositions are causally efficacious properties inherent to objects that are sufficient to produce change. consider fragility. if a glass is suitably struck, it will break. fragility is a property of the glass that accounts for this breaking. paradigmatic examples of dispositional properties include fragility, solubility, and flammability. dispositionalism maintains that even paradigmatic examples of what appears to be qualitative such as squareness has causal powers (for instance - when combined with the property of hardness - to make a square impression in soft wax).[ ] this view is historically argued for by aristotle and leibniz. contemporary proponents include sydney shoemaker, u.t place, stephen mumford, alexander bird, george molnar, brian ellis.[ ] others answer that dispositions are not real properties. anti-realism about dispositions, or categoricalism, argues that dispositions are ontologically derivative of the interaction categorical (or qualitative) properties and laws. accordingly calling a glass fragile, is useful shorthand for describing the potential interactions of its microstructure (a categorical property) and the laws of nature; dispositions are not additional elements of being.[ ] since the microstructure and laws are enough to explain fragility, there is no causal role for a dispositional property, here fragility, to play. this view is historically argued for by descartes, boyle, hume and the logical positivists. contemporary proponents, including david lewis, david malet armstrong, and jonathan schaffer, continue in a neo-humaen, empiricist tradition that argues for categoricalism on the assumption that there are no necessary connections between distinct existences.[ ] middle ground views are possible. the most notable is the limit (or identity) view defended by charles b. martin and john heil. according to this view, dispositional and categorical - or as martin prefers: "qualitative," because categorical seems to be misleading - predicates are different ways of identifying one and the same property.[ ] additionally, the properties lies on a spectrum in which it could approach either limit; however, it can never reach either end because those concepts are unrealisable. ontologically, however, there is no real difference between the two. fragility, for example, is both a real disposition of glass to break upon being struck and an abstraction from the underlying molecular structure. squareness, to take another example, is both a quality of having four sides of equal length that meet at equal angles and an abstraction from the fact this property interacts with its environment to leave square impressions on soft wax (when combined with the property ‘hardness’).[ ] in hermeneutics[edit] in hermeneutics a disposition provides a way in which knowledge can be organised. robbie shilliam defines an intellectual disposition as framing "a set of elements into a coherent problem at the same time as this framing clarifies ethical commitments to the redressing of that problem."[ ] he derives this from the french term dispositif used by michel foucault and developed by giorgio agamben. however, following jeffrey bussolini, he distinguishes a disposition from an apparatus.[ ] this then enables a periodisation within a particular topic as the way a set of elements are framed differently as the social and political contexts changes. shilliam applies this to the black presence in british empire creating a periodisation of academic dispositions as follows: the white abolitionist disposition, the colonial development disposition and upon the dismantling of the empire, the race relations disposition.[ ] in law[edit] in law, a disposition is a civil or criminal hearing where a case can be resolved. in educational research[edit] in educational research, a learning disposition are characteristics or attitudes to learning. these may be learned. some examples are taking responsibility, grit and persistence when faced with problems. in religion[edit] 	 	this section needs expansion with: this is an important topic in christian theology. you can help by adding to it. (may ) in the catholic church[edit] in catholic thought, "disposition" has two meanings. firstly, it may refer to a deliberately practised habit of behaving in a certain way, for example, "a virtue is an habitual and firm disposition to do the good."[ ] secondly, it may refer to a state of a person that is required for reception of a sacrament, for example, a disposition of genuine repentance is required for the forgiveness of sins in confession.[ ] in the anglican communion[edit] 		this section needs expansion. you can help by adding to it. (may ) see also[edit] 	counterfactualism 	dispositional attribution 	nature versus nurture 	adaptive expertise 	habitus (sociology) 	truth references[edit] 	^ max kistler; bruno gnassounou, eds. ( ). dispositions and causal powers. routledge. isbn  . oclc  . 	^ [shoemaker, s., , ‘causality and properties’, in p. van inwagen (ed.), time and cause: essays presented to richard taylor, dordrecht: reidel, – .] 	^ stanford encyclopedia of philosophy: dispositions 	^ stanford encyclopedia of philosophy: dispositions 	^ [hume, d. ( )an enquiry concerning human understanding, oxford: clarendonpress , ed. l.a. selby-bigge and p.h. nidditch.] 	^ armstrong, d. m. ( ). dispositions : a debate. routledge. isbn  . oclc  . 	^ a b c shilliam, robbie. "how black deficit entered the british academy" (pdf). robbieshilliam.wordpress.com. robbie shilliam. retrieved june . 	^ catechism of the catholic church, par. 	^ catholic dictionary, sacramental dispositions. external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: disposition 		look up disposition in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	disposition at philpapers 	disposition at the indiana philosophy ontology project 	zalta, edward n. (ed.). "dispositions". stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=disposition&oldid= " 		categories: 	belief 	causality hidden categories: 	articles to be expanded from may 	all articles to be expanded 	articles using small message boxes 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			Български 	eesti 	español 	français 	한국어 	nederlands 	português 	română 	Русский 	Српски / srpski 	svenska 	Українська 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on march , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 digital object identifier - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	digital object identifier 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from doi (identifier)) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for the use of digital object identifiers on wikipedia, see wikipedia:digital object identifier. iso standard unique string identifier for a digital object digital object identifier	 	acronym	doi 	organisation	international doi foundation 	introduced	  ( ) 	example	 . / 	website	www.doi.org a digital object identifier (doi) is a persistent identifier or handle used to identify objects uniquely, standardized by the international organization for standardization (iso).[ ] an implementation of the handle system,[ ][ ] dois are in wide use mainly to identify academic, professional, and government information, such as journal articles, research reports, data sets, and official publications. however, they also have been used to identify other types of information resources, such as commercial videos. a doi aims to be "resolvable", usually to some form of access to the information object to which the doi refers. this is achieved by binding the doi to metadata about the object, such as a url, indicating where the object can be found. thus, by being actionable and interoperable, a doi differs from identifiers such as isbns and isrcs which aim only to identify their referents uniquely. the doi system uses the indecs content model for representing metadata. the doi for a document remains fixed over the lifetime of the document, whereas its location and other metadata may change. referring to an online document by its doi is supposed to provide a more stable link than simply using its url. but every time a url changes, the publisher has to update the metadata for the doi to link to the new url.[ ][ ][ ] it is the publisher's responsibility to update the doi database. if they fail to do so, the doi resolves to a dead link leaving the doi useless. the developer and administrator of the doi system is the international doi foundation (idf), which introduced it in .[ ] organizations that meet the contractual obligations of the doi system and are willing to pay to become a member of the system can assign dois.[ ] the doi system is implemented through a federation of registration agencies coordinated by the idf.[ ] by late april more than million doi names had been assigned by some , organizations,[ ] and by april this number had grown to million doi names assigned through , organizations. contents 	 nomenclature and syntax 	 . display 	 applications 	 features and benefits 	 comparison with other identifier schemes 	 resolution 	 idf organizational structure 	 standardization 	 prefix and publisher 	 see also 	 notes 	 references 	 external links nomenclature and syntax [edit] a doi is a type of handle system handle, which takes the form of a character string divided into two parts, a prefix and a suffix, separated by a slash. 	prefix/suffix the prefix identifies the registrant of the identifier and the suffix is chosen by the registrant and identifies the specific object associated with that doi. most legal unicode characters are allowed in these strings, which are interpreted in a case-insensitive manner. the prefix usually takes the form .nnnn, where nnnn is at least a four digit number greater than or equal to , whose limit depends only on the total number of registrants.[ ][ ] the prefix may be further subdivided with periods, like .nnnn.n.[ ] for example, in the doi name . / , the prefix is . and the suffix is . the " ." part of the prefix distinguishes the handle as part of the doi namespace, as opposed to some other handle system namespace,[a] and the characters in the prefix identify the registrant; in this case the registrant is the international doi foundation itself. is the suffix, or item id, identifying a single object (in this case, the latest version of the doi handbook). doi names can identify creative works (such as texts, images, audio or video items, and software) in both electronic and physical forms, performances, and abstract works[ ] such as licenses, parties to a transaction, etc. the names can refer to objects at varying levels of detail: thus doi names can identify a journal, an individual issue of a journal, an individual article in the journal, or a single table in that article. the choice of level of detail is left to the assigner, but in the doi system it must be declared as part of the metadata that is associated with a doi name, using a data dictionary based on the indecs content model. display[edit] the official doi handbook explicitly states that dois should display on screens and in print in the format doi: . / .[ ] contrary to the doi handbook, crossref, a major doi registration agency, recommends displaying a url (for example, https://doi.org/ . / ) instead of the officially specified format (for example, doi: . / )[ ][ ] this url is persistent (there is a contract that ensures persistence in the doi.org domain), so it is a purl – providing the location of an http proxy server which will redirect web accesses to the correct online location of the linked item.[ ][ ] the crossref recommendation is primarily based on the assumption that the doi is being displayed without being hyperlinked to its appropriate url – the argument being that without the hyperlink it is not as easy to copy-and-paste the full url to actually bring up the page for the doi, thus the entire url should be displayed, allowing people viewing the page containing the doi to copy-and-paste the url, by hand, into a new window/tab in their browser in order to go to the appropriate page for the document the doi represents.[ ] since doi is a namespace within the handle system, it is semantically correct to represent it as the uri info:doi/ . / . applications[edit] major applications of the doi system currently include: 	scholarly materials (journal articles, books, ebooks, etc.) through crossref, a consortium of around , publishers; airiti, a leading provider of electronic academic journals in chinese and taiwanese; and the japan link center (jalc) an organization providing link management and doi assignment for electronic academic journals in japanese. 	research datasets through datacite, a consortium of leading research libraries, technical information providers, and scientific data centers; 	european union official publications through the eu publications office; 	the chinese national knowledge infrastructure project at tsinghua university and the institute of scientific and technical information of china (istic), two initiatives sponsored by the chinese government. 	permanent global identifiers for both commercial and non-commercial audio/visual content titles, edits, and manifestations through the entertainment id registry, commonly known as eidr. in the organisation for economic co-operation and development's publication service oecd ilibrary, each table or graph in an oecd publication is shown with a doi name that leads to an excel file of data underlying the tables and graphs. further development of such services is planned.[ ] other registries include crossref and the multilingual european doi registration agency.[ ] since , rfcs can be referenced as doi: . /rfc….[ ] features and benefits[edit] the idf designed the doi system to provide a form of persistent identification, in which each doi name permanently and unambiguously identifies the object to which it is associated. it also associates metadata with objects, allowing it to provide users with relevant pieces of information about the objects and their relationships. included as part of this metadata are network actions that allow doi names to be resolved to web locations where the objects they describe can be found. to achieve its goals, the doi system combines the handle system and the indecs content model with a social infrastructure. the handle system ensures that the doi name for an object is not based on any changeable attributes of the object such as its physical location or ownership, that the attributes of the object are encoded in its metadata rather than in its doi name, and that no two objects are assigned the same doi name. because doi names are short character strings, they are human-readable, may be copied and pasted as text, and fit into the uri specification. the doi name-resolution mechanism acts behind the scenes, so that users communicate with it in the same way as with any other web service; it is built on open architectures, incorporates trust mechanisms, and is engineered to operate reliably and flexibly so that it can be adapted to changing demands and new applications of the doi system.[ ] doi name-resolution may be used with openurl to select the most appropriate among multiple locations for a given object, according to the location of the user making the request.[ ] however, despite this ability, the doi system has drawn criticism from librarians for directing users to non-free copies of documents that would have been available for no additional fee from alternative locations.[ ] the indecs content model as used within the doi system associates metadata with objects. a small kernel of common metadata is shared by all doi names and can be optionally extended with other relevant data, which may be public or restricted. registrants may update the metadata for their doi names at any time, such as when publication information changes or when an object moves to a different url. the international doi foundation (idf) oversees the integration of these technologies and operation of the system through a technical and social infrastructure. the social infrastructure of a federation of independent registration agencies offering doi services was modelled on existing successful federated deployments of identifiers such as gs and isbn. comparison with other identifier schemes[edit] a doi name differs from commonly used internet pointers to material, such as the uniform resource locator (url), in that it identifies an object itself as a first-class entity, rather than the specific place where the object is located at a certain time. it implements the uniform resource identifier (uniform resource name) concept and adds to it a data model and social infrastructure.[ ] a doi name also differs from standard identifier registries such as the isbn, isrc, etc. the purpose of an identifier registry is to manage a given collection of identifiers, whereas the primary purpose of the doi system is to make a collection of identifiers actionable and interoperable, where that collection can include identifiers from many other controlled collections.[ ] the doi system offers persistent, semantically-interoperable resolution to related current data and is best suited to material that will be used in services outside the direct control of the issuing assigner (e.g., public citation or managing content of value). it uses a managed registry (providing social and technical infrastructure). it does not assume any specific business model for the provision of identifiers or services and enables other existing services to link to it in defined ways. several approaches for making identifiers persistent have been proposed. the comparison of persistent identifier approaches is difficult because they are not all doing the same thing. imprecisely referring to a set of schemes as "identifiers" doesn't mean that they can be compared easily. other "identifier systems" may be enabling technologies with low barriers to entry, providing an easy to use labeling mechanism that allows anyone to set up a new instance (examples include persistent uniform resource locator (purl), urls, globally unique identifiers (guids), etc.), but may lack some of the functionality of a registry-controlled scheme and will usually lack accompanying metadata in a controlled scheme. the doi system does not have this approach and should not be compared directly to such identifier schemes. various applications using such enabling technologies with added features have been devised that meet some of the features offered by the doi system for specific sectors (e.g., ark). a doi name does not depend on the object's location and, in this way, is similar to a uniform resource name (urn) or purl but differs from an ordinary url. urls are often used as substitute identifiers for documents on the internet although the same document at two different locations has two urls. by contrast, persistent identifiers such as doi names identify objects as first class entities: two instances of the same object would have the same doi name. resolution[edit] doi name resolution is provided through the handle system, developed by corporation for national research initiatives, and is freely available to any user encountering a doi name. resolution redirects the user from a doi name to one or more pieces of typed data: urls representing instances of the object, services such as e-mail, or one or more items of metadata. to the handle system, a doi name is a handle, and so has a set of values assigned to it and may be thought of as a record that consists of a group of fields. each handle value must have a data type specified in its <type> field, which defines the syntax and semantics of its data. while a doi persistently and uniquely identifies the object to which it is assigned, doi resolution may not be persistent, due to technical and administrative issues. to resolve a doi name, it may be input to a doi resolver, such as doi.org. another approach, which avoids typing or cutting-and-pasting into a resolver is to include the doi in a document as a url which uses the resolver as an http proxy, such as https://doi.org/ (preferred)[ ] or http://dx.doi.org/, both of which support https. for example, the doi . / can be included in a reference or hyperlink as https://doi.org/ . / . this approach allows users to click on the doi as a normal hyperlink. indeed, as previously mentioned, this is how crossref recommends that dois always be represented (preferring https over http), so that if they are cut-and-pasted into other documents, emails, etc., they will be actionable. other doi resolvers and http proxies include http://hdl.handle.net, and https://doi.pangaea.de/. at the beginning of the year , a new class of alternative doi resolvers was started by http://doai.io. this service is unusual in that it tries to find a non-paywalled version of a title and redirects the user to that instead of the publisher's version.[ ][ ] since then, other open-access favoring doi resolvers have been created, notably https://oadoi.org/ in october [ ] (later unpaywall). while traditional doi resolvers solely rely on the handle system, alternative doi resolvers first consult open access resources such as base (bielefeld academic search engine).[ ][ ] an alternative to http proxies is to use one of a number of add-ons and plug-ins for browsers, thereby avoiding the conversion of the dois to urls,[ ] which depend on domain names and may be subject to change, while still allowing the doi to be treated as a normal hyperlink. for example. the cnri handle extension for firefox, enables the browser to access handle system handles or dois like hdl: / or doi: . / directly in the firefox browser, using the native handle system protocol. this plug-in can also replace references to web-to-handle proxy servers with native resolution. a disadvantage of this approach for publishers is that, at least at present, most users will be encountering the dois in a browser, mail reader, or other software which does not have one of these plug-ins installed. idf organizational structure[edit] the international doi foundation (idf), a non-profit organisation created in , is the governance body of the doi system.[ ] it safeguards all intellectual property rights relating to the doi system, manages common operational features, and supports the development and promotion of the doi system. the idf ensures that any improvements made to the doi system (including creation, maintenance, registration, resolution and policymaking of doi names) are available to any doi registrant. it also prevents third parties from imposing additional licensing requirements beyond those of the idf on users of the doi system. the idf is controlled by a board elected by the members of the foundation, with an appointed managing agent who is responsible for co-ordinating and planning its activities. membership is open to all organizations with an interest in electronic publishing and related enabling technologies. the idf holds annual open meetings on the topics of doi and related issues. registration agencies, appointed by the idf, provide services to doi registrants: they allocate doi prefixes, register doi names, and provide the necessary infrastructure to allow registrants to declare and maintain metadata and state data. registration agencies are also expected to actively promote the widespread adoption of the doi system, to cooperate with the idf in the development of the doi system as a whole, and to provide services on behalf of their specific user community. a list of current ras is maintained by the international doi foundation. the idf is recognized as one of the federated registrars for the handle system by the dona foundation (of which the idf is a board member), and is responsible for assigning handle system prefixes under the top-level prefix.[ ] registration agencies generally charge a fee to assign a new doi name; parts of these fees are used to support the idf. the doi system overall, through the idf, operates on a not-for-profit cost recovery basis. standardization[edit] the doi system is an international standard developed by the international organization for standardization in its technical committee on identification and description, tc /sc .[ ] the draft international standard iso/dis , information and documentation – digital object identifier system met the iso requirements for approval. the relevant iso working group later submitted an edited version to iso for distribution as an fdis (final draft international standard) ballot,[ ] which was approved by % of those voting in a ballot closing on november .[ ] the final standard was published on april .[ ] doi is a registered uri under the info uri scheme specified by ietf rfc  . info:doi/ is the infouri namespace of digital object identifiers.[ ] the doi syntax is a niso standard, first standardised in , ansi/niso z . - syntax for the digital object identifier.[ ] the maintainers of the doi system have deliberately not registered a doi namespace for urns, stating that: urn architecture assumes a dns-based resolution discovery service (rds) to find the service appropriate to the given urn scheme. however no such widely deployed rds schemes currently exist.... doi is not registered as a urn namespace, despite fulfilling all the functional requirements, since urn registration appears to offer no advantage to the doi system. it requires an additional layer of administration for defining doi as a urn namespace (the string urn:doi: . / rather than the simpler doi: . / ) and an additional step of unnecessary redirection to access the resolution service, already achieved through either http proxy or native resolution. if rds mechanisms supporting urn specifications become widely available, doi will be registered as a urn. — international doi foundation, factsheet: doi system and internet identifier specifications prefix and publisher[edit] usually a prefix of doi code corresponds to a publisher. 	doi prefix 	publisher 	 . 	american medical association 	 . 	wiley-vch (germany) 	 . 	springer (germany) 	 . 	elsevier 	 . 	cambridge university press 	 . 	american chemical society 	 . 	nature publishing group 	 . 	royal society of chemistry 	 . 	informa 	 . 	oxford university press 	 . 	highwire press 	 . 	wiley-blackwell (united states) 	 . 	hindawi publishing corporation 	 . 	karger publishers 	 . 	the endocrine society (united states) 	 . 	public library of science (plos) 	 . 	bioscientifica 	 . 	dove medical press 	 . 	frontiers media 	 . 	mdpi 	 . 	african journals online 	 . 	ivyspring international publisher see also[edit] 	arxiv 	bibcode 	datacite 	digital identity 	metadata standards 	object identifier 	orcid 	pmid 	publisher item identifier (pii) 	permalink 	scientific literature 	universally unique identifier (uuid) notes[edit] 	^ other registries are identified by other strings at the start of the prefix. handle names that begin with " ." are also in use, as for example in the following citation: hammond, joseph l., jr.; brown, james e.; liu, shyan-shiang s. (may ). "development of a transmission error model and an error control model l". technical report radc-tr- - . rome air development center. bibcode: stin... h. hdl: . /ada . cite journal requires |journal= (help) references[edit] 	^ a b "iso : (en), information and documentation – digital object identifier system". iso. retrieved april . 	^ "the handle system". 	^ "factsheets". 	^ witten, ian h.; david bainbridge & david m. nichols ( ). how to build a digital library ( nd ed.). amsterdam; boston: morgan kaufmann. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ langston, marc; tyler, james ( ). "linking to journal articles in an online teaching environment: the persistent link, doi, and openurl". the internet and higher education. ( ): – . doi: . /j.iheduc. . . . 	^ "how the 'digital object identifier' works". businessweek. businessweek. july . retrieved april . assuming the publishers do their job of maintaining the databases, these centralized references, unlike current web links, should never become outdated or broken. 	^ paskin, norman ( ), "digital object identifier (doi) system", encyclopedia of library and information sciences ( rd ed.), taylor and francis, pp.  – 	^ a b davidson, lloyd a.; douglas, kimberly (december ). "digital object identifiers: promise and problems for scholarly publishing". journal of electronic publishing. ( ). doi: . / . . . 	^ "welcome to the doi system". doi.org. june . retrieved august . 	^ "doi news, april : . doi system exceeds million assigned identifiers". doi.org. april . retrieved july . 	^ "doi info & guidelines". crossref.org. publishers international linking association, inc. . archived from the original on october . retrieved june . all doi prefixes begin with " " to distinguish the doi from other implementations of the handle system followed by a four-digit number or string (the prefix can be longer if necessary). 	^ "factsheet—key facts on digital object identifier system". doi.org. international doi foundation. june . retrieved june . over , doi name prefixes within the doi system 	^ "doi handbook— numbering". doi.org. international doi foundation. february . retrieved june . the registrant code may be further divided into sub-elements for administrative convenience if desired. each sub-element of the registrant code shall be preceded by a full stop. 	^ "frequently asked questions about the doi system: . what can a doi name be assigned to?". international doi foundation. july [update of earlier version]. retrieved july . cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ "doi handbook – numbering". doi.org. february . section . . screen and print presentation. archived from the original on june . retrieved june . 	^ "doi display guidelines". 	^ "new crossref doi display guidelines are on the way". 	^ powell, andy (june ). "resolving doi based urns using squid: an experimental system at ukoln". d-lib magazine. issn  - . 	^ chrissiecw. "crossref revises doi display guidelines - crossref". www.crossref.org. 	^ green, t. ( ). "we need publishing standards for datasets and data tables". research information. doi: . / . 	^ "multilingual european doi registration agency". medra.org. . 	^ levine, john r. ( ). "assigning digital object identifiers to rfcs § dois for rfcs". iab. doi: . /rfc . rfc  . 	^ timmer, john ( march ). "dois and their discontents". ars technica. retrieved march . 	^ derisi, susanne; kennison, rebecca; twyman, nick ( ). "editorial: the what and whys of dois". plos biology. ( ): e . doi: . /journal.pbio. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ franklin, jack ( ). "open access to scientific and technical information: the state of the art". in grüttemeier, herbert; mahon, barry (eds.). open access to scientific and technical information: state of the art and future trends. ios press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ "doi system and internet identifier specifications". doi.org. may . retrieved august . 	^ "doi system and standard identifier registries". doi.org. retrieved august . 	^ international doi foundation ( august ). "resolution". doi handbook. retrieved march . 	^ a b "doai". capsh (committee for the accessibility of publications in sciences and humanities). retrieved august . 	^ schonfeld, roger c. ( march ). "co-opting 'official' channels through infrastructures for openness". the scholarly kitchen. retrieved october . 	^ a b piwowar, heather ( october ). "introducing oadoi: resolve a doi straight to oa". retrieved march . 	^ "doi system tools". 	^ "chapter : the international doi foundation". doi handbook. doi.org. retrieved july . 	^ "dona foundation multi-primary administrators". archived from the original on january . retrieved february . 	^ "digital object identifier (doi) becomes an iso standard". iso.org. may . retrieved may . 	^ "about_the_doi.html doi standards and specifications". doi.org. june . retrieved august . 	^ "overviews & standards – standards and specifications: . iso tc /sc standards". doi.org. november . retrieved july . 	^ "about "info" uris – frequently asked questions". info-uri.info. retrieved august . 	^ "ansi/niso z . - syntax for the digital object identifier". techstreet.com. retrieved august . external links[edit] 		wikidata has the property: 	 doi (p ) (see uses) 	official website 	short doi – doi foundation service for converting long dois to shorter equivalents 	factsheet: doi system and internet identifier specifications 	crossref doi lookup 		v 	t 	e international numbering standards 	standards 	 	iso : international standard book number (isbn) 	iso : international standard serial number (issn) 	iso : international standard recording code (isrc) 	iso : international securities identification number (isin) 	iso/iec : issuer identification number (iin) 	iso : business entity identifier (bic) 	iso : international standard music number (ismn) 	iso : international bank account number (iban) 	iso : international standard identifier for libraries... 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(learn how and when to remove these template messages) 	 	this article contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information. such statements should be clarified or removed. (november ) 	 	this article needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "doubt" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (september ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	 	this article possibly contains original research. please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (september ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) (learn how and when to remove this template message) doubt is a mental state in which the mind remains suspended between two or more contradictory propositions, unable to be certain of any of them.[ ][better source needed] doubt on an emotional level is indecision between belief and disbelief. it may involve uncertainty, distrust or lack of conviction on certain facts, actions, motives, or decisions. doubt can result in delaying or rejecting relevant action out of concern for mistakes or missed opportunities. doubt contents 	 definition 	 society 	 psychology 	 philosophy 	 theology 	 law 	 science 	 see also 	 notes and references 	 further reading definition[edit] the concept of doubt as a suspense between two contradictory propositions covers a range of phenomena: on a level of the mind it involves reasoning, examination of facts and evidence and on an emotional level believing and disbelieving in premodern theology doubt was "the voice of an uncertain conscience" and important to realize, because when in doubt "the safer way is not to act at all". society[edit] doubt sometimes tends to call on reason. doubt may encourage people to hesitate before acting, and/or to apply more rigorous methods. doubt may have particular importance as leading towards disbelief or non-acceptance. politics, ethics and law, with decisions that often determine the course of individual life, place great importance on doubt, and often foster elaborate adversarial processes to carefully sort through all available evidence. societally, doubt creates an atmosphere of distrust, being accusatory in nature and de facto alleging either foolishness or deceit on the part of another. such a stance has been fostered in western european society since the enlightenment, in opposition to tradition and authority. psychology[edit] sigmund freud's psychoanalytic theory attributes doubt (which may be interpreted as a symptom of a phobia emanating from the ego) to childhood, when the ego develops. childhood experiences, these theories maintain, can plant doubt about one's abilities and even about one's very identity. cognitive mental as well as more spiritual approaches abound in response to the wide variety of potential causes for doubt. behavioral therapy — in which a person systematically asks his own mind if the doubt has any real basis — uses rational, socratic methods. this method contrasts to those of say, the buddhist faith, which involve a more esoteric approach to doubt and inaction. buddhism sees doubt as a negative attachment to one's perceived past and future. to let go of the personal history of one's life (affirming this release every day in meditation) plays a central role in releasing the doubts — developed in and attached to — that history. partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt.[ ] philosophy[edit] descartes employed cartesian doubt as a pre-eminent methodological tool in his fundamental philosophical investigations. branches of philosophy like logic devote much effort to distinguish the dubious, the probable and the certain. much of illogic rests on dubious assumptions, dubious data or dubious conclusions, with rhetoric, whitewashing, and deception playing their accustomed roles. theology[edit] the incredulity of saint thomas by caravaggio. doubt that god(s) exist may form the basis of agnosticism — the belief that one cannot determine the existence or non-existence of god(s). it may also form other brands of skepticism, such as pyrrhonism, which do not take a positive stance in regard to the existence of god(s), but remain negative. alternatively, doubt over the existence of god(s) may lead to acceptance of a particular religion: compare pascal's wager. doubt of a specific theology, scriptural or deistic, may bring into question the truth of that theology's set of beliefs. on the other hand, doubt as to some doctrines but acceptance of others may lead to the growth of heresy and/or the splitting off of sects or groups of thought. thus proto-protestants doubted papal authority, and substituted alternative methods of governance in their new (but still recognizably similar) churches. christianity often debates doubt in the contexts of salvation and eventual redemption in an afterlife. this issue has become particularly important in protestantism, which requires only the acceptance of jesus, though more contemporary versions have arisen within the protestant churches that resemble catholicism. doubts, by henrietta rae, doubt as a path towards (deeper) belief lies at the heart of the story of saint thomas the apostle. note in this respect the theological views of georg hermes: ... the starting-point and chief principle of every science, and hence of theology also, is not only methodical doubt, but positive doubt. one can believe only what one has perceived to be true from reasonable grounds, and consequently one must have the courage to continue doubting until one has found reliable grounds to satisfy the reason.[ ] christian existentialists such as søren kierkegaard suggest that for one to truly have belief in god, one would also have to doubt one's beliefs about god; the doubt is the rational part of a person's thought involved in weighing evidence, without which the belief would have no real substance. belief is not a decision based on evidence that, say, certain beliefs about god are true or a certain person is worthy of love. no such evidence could ever be enough to pragmatically justify the kind of total commitment involved in true theological belief or romantic love. belief involves making that commitment anyway. kierkegaard thought that to have belief is at the same time to have doubt.[ ][ ] law[edit] most criminal cases within an adversarial system require that the prosecution proves its contentions beyond a reasonable doubt — a doctrine also called the "burden of proof". this means that the state must present propositions which preclude "reasonable doubt" in the mind of a reasonable person as to the guilt of defendant. some doubt may persist, but only to the extent that it would not affect a "reasonable person's" belief in the defendant's guilt. if the doubt raised does affect a "reasonable person's" belief, the jury is not satisfied beyond a "reasonable doubt". the jurisprudence of the applicable jurisdiction usually defines the precise meaning of words such as "reasonable" and "doubt" for such purposes. science[edit] to doubt everything or to believe everything are two equally convenient solutions; both dispense with the necessity of reflection. —henri poincaré, science and hypothesis ( ) (from dover abridged edition of ) the scientific method regularly quantifies doubt, and uses it to determine whether further research is needed. isaac asimov, in his essay collection fact and fancy, described science as a system for causing and resolving intelligent doubt.[ ] see also[edit] 	doubting thomas 	fear, uncertainty and doubt 	further research is needed 	list of ethics topics 	methodic doubt 	philosophical skepticism 	question 	reasonable doubt 	skepticism 	self-doubt notes and references[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: doubt 		look up doubt or dubious in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikimedia commons has media related to doubt. 	^ sharpe, alfred. "doubt". the catholic encyclopedia. vol. . new york: robert appleton. retrieved - - . a state in which the mind is suspended between two contradictory propositions and unable to assent to either of them. 	^ braiker, harriet b. ( ). who's pulling your strings ? how to break the cycle of manipulation. isbn  - - - . 	^ schulte, karl joseph ( ). "george hermes". the catholic encyclopedia. . new york: robert appleton. retrieved - - . 	^ concluding unscientific postscript to philosophical fragments, ed. by howard v. hong and edna h. hong, v. , princeton university press, , pp. – 	^ soren kierkegaard's journals and papers, trans. hong and malantschuk, p. . 	^ "archived copy". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) further reading[edit] 	berger, peter l. and zijderveld, anton ( ). in praise of doubt: how to have convictions without becoming a fanatic. new york: harperone. isbn  - - - - . a book by two eminent sociologists, one american and the other dutch. 	hecht, jennifer michael ( ). doubt: a history: the great doubters and their legacy of innovation from socrates and jesus to thomas jefferson and emily dickinson. san francisco: harpersanfrancisco. isbn  - - - . this book traces the role of doubt through human history, all over the world, particularly regarding religion. 	hein, david (winter ). "faith and doubt in rose macaulay's the towers of trebizond". anglican theological review ( ): – . issn  - . 		v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion 	authority control 	 	gnd: - retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=doubt&oldid= " 		categories: 	doubt 	epistemology 	skepticism 	emotions hidden categories: 	cs : long volume value 	cs maint: archived copy as title 	articles with weasel words from november 	articles needing additional references from september 	all articles needing additional references 	articles that may contain original research from september 	all articles that may contain original research 	articles with multiple maintenance issues 	all articles lacking reliable references 	articles lacking reliable references from november 	commons category link is on wikidata 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	avañe'ẽ 	Български 	brezhoneg 	català 	Čeština 	deutsch 	español 	esperanto 	euskara 	فارسی 	français 	galego 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	हिन्दी 	Íslenska 	italiano 	עברית 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	latina 	lietuvių 	lumbaart 	nederlands 	日本語 	norsk nynorsk 	polski 	português 	română 	Русский 	shqip 	sicilianu 	simple english 	slovenčina 	Српски / srpski 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	svenska 	தமிழ் 	türkçe 	Українська 	tiếng việt 	粵語 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 curiosity - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	curiosity 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		quality related to inquisitive thinking "curious" redirects here. for other uses, see curious (disambiguation) and curiosity (disambiguation). 	 	this article relies too much on references to primary sources. please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (june ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e curious children gather around photographer toni frissell, looking at her camera (circa ) curiosity (from latin cūriōsitās, from cūriōsus "careful, diligent, curious", akin to cura "care") is a quality related to inquisitive thinking such as exploration, investigation, and learning, evident by observation in humans and other animals.[ ][ ] curiosity is heavily associated with all aspects of human development, in which derives the process of learning and desire to acquire knowledge and skill.[ ] the term curiosity can also be used to denote the behavior or emotion of being curious, in regard to the desire to gain knowledge or information. curiosity as a behavior and emotion is attributed over millennia as the driving force behind not only human development, but developments in science, language, and industry.[ ] contents 	 causes 	 curiosity-driven behavior 	 theories 	 . curiosity-drive theory 	 . optimal-arousal theory 	 . cognitive-consistency theory 	 . integration of the reward pathway into theory 	 role of neurological aspects and structures 	 . motivation and reward 	 . . nucleus accumbens 	 . . caudate nucleus 	 . . anterior cortices 	 . . cortisol 	 . attention 	 . . striatum 	 . . precuneus 	 . memory and learning 	 . . hippocampus and the parahippocampal gyrus 	 . . amygdala 	 early development 	 ethicality 	 impact from disease 	 morbid curiosity 	 state and trait curiosity 	 curiosity in artificial intelligence 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading causes[edit] children peer over shoulders to see what their friends are reading. curiosity can be seen as an innate quality of many different species. it is common to human beings at all ages from infancy[ ] through adulthood,[ ] and is easy to observe in many other animal species; these include apes, cats, and rodents.[ ] early definitions cite curiosity as a motivated desire for information.[ ] this motivational desire has been said to stem from a passion or an appetite for knowledge, information, and understanding. these traditional ideas of curiosity have recently expanded to look at the difference between curiosity as the innate exploratory behavior that is present in all animals and curiosity as the desire for knowledge that is specifically attributed to humans.[according to whom?] daniel berlyne[ ] recognized three major variables playing a role in evoking curiosity; namely, psychophysical variables, ecological variables, and collative variables. psychophysical variables correspond to physical intensity, while ecological variables to motivational significance and task relevance. collative variables are called “collative” because they involve a comparison between different stimuli or features, which may be actually perceived or which may be recalled from memory. berlyne mentioned four collative variables; namely, novelty, complexity, uncertainty, and conflict. at the same time, he suggested that all collative variables probably involve conflict. additionally, he considered three variables supplementary to novelty, namely change, surprisingness, and incongruity. finally, curiosity may not only be aroused by the perception of some stimulus associated with the aforementioned variables ("specific exploration"), but also by a lack of stimulation, out of “boredom” ("diversive exploration").[ ] curiosity-driven behavior[edit] curiosity-driven behavior is often defined as behavior through which knowledge is gained, and should therefore encompass all behaviors that provide access to or increase sensory information. berlyne[ ] divided curiosity-driven behavior into three categories; namely, orienting responses, locomotor exploration, and investigatory responses, or, investigatory manipulation. previously, berlyne[ ] had already suggested that curiosity also includes verbal activities, such as asking questions, and symbolic activities, consisting of internally fueled mental processes such as thinking ("epistemic exploration"). theories[edit] like other desires and need states that take on an appetitive quality (e.g. food), curiosity is linked with exploratory behavior and experiences of reward. curiosity can be described as positive emotions and acquiring knowledge; when one's curiosity has been aroused it is considered inherently rewarding and pleasurable. discovering new information may also be rewarding because it can help reduce undesirable states of uncertainty rather than stimulating interest. theories have arisen in attempts to further understand this need to rectify states of uncertainty and the desire to participate in pleasurable experiences of exploratory behaviors. curiosity-drive theory[edit] curiosity-drive theory relates to the undesirable experiences of "uncertainty". the reduction of these unpleasant feelings, in turn, is rewarding. this theory suggests that people desire coherence and understanding in their thought processes. when this coherence is disrupted by something that is unfamiliar, uncertain, or ambiguous, it is curiosity-drive that attempts to gather information and knowledge of the unfamiliar to restore coherent thought processes. through this theory, the general concept dictates that curiosity is developed strictly out of the desire to make sense of unfamiliar aspects of one's environment through interaction of exploratory behaviors. once understanding of the unfamiliar has been achieved and coherence has been restored, these behaviors and desires will subside. subsets of curiosity-drive theory differ on whether curiosity is a primary or secondary drive and if this curiosity-drive is originated due to one's need to make sense of and regulate their environment or if it is caused by an external stimulus.[ ] causes can range from basic needs that need to be satisfied (e.g. hunger, thirst) to needs in fear induced situations.[ ] each of these subset theories state that whether the need is primary or secondary curiosity is developed from experiences that create a sensation of uncertainty or perceived unpleasantness. curiosity then acts as a means in which to dispel this uncertainty. by exhibiting curious and exploratory behavior, one is able to gain knowledge of the unfamiliar and thus reduce the state of uncertainty or unpleasantness. this theory, however, does not address the idea that curiosity can often be displayed even in the absence of new or unfamiliar situations.[ ] this type of exploratory behavior is common in many species. take the example of a human toddler who, if bored in his current situation devoid of arousing stimuli, will walk about until something interesting is found. the observation of curiosity even in the absence of novel stimuli pinpoints one of the major shortcomings in the curiosity-drive model. optimal-arousal theory[edit] optimal-arousal theory developed out of the need to explain the desire for some to seek out opportunities to engage in exploratory behaviors without the presence of uncertain or ambiguous situations. optimal-arousal theory attempts to explain this aspect of curiosity by suggesting that one can be motivated to maintain a pleasurable sense of arousal through these exploratory behaviors. the concept of optimal-arousal of curiosity suggests that there is a tendency to maintain an optimal level of arousal.[ ] when a stimulus is encountered that is associated with complexity, uncertainty, conflict, or novelty, this will increase arousal, and exploratory behavior is employed to learn about that stimulus and thereby reduce arousal again. in contrast, if the environment is boring and lacks excitement, arousal is reduced and exploratory behavior will be engaged in order to increase information input and stimulation, and thereby increasing arousal again. this theory addresses both curiosity elicited by uncertain or unfamiliar situations and curiosity elicited in the absence of such situations. cognitive-consistency theory[edit] cognitive-consistency theories assume that "when two or more simultaneously active cognitive structures are logically inconsistent, arousal is increased, which activates processes with the expected consequence of increasing consistency and decreasing arousal."[ ] similar to optimal-arousal theory, cognitive-consistency theory suggests that there is a tendency to maintain arousal at a preferred, or expected, level, but it also explicitly links the amount of arousal to the amount of experienced inconsistency between an expected situation and the actually perceived situation. when this inconsistency is small, exploratory behavior triggered by curiosity is employed to gather information with which expectancy can be updated through learning to match perception, thereby reducing inconsistency.[ ][ ][ ] this approach puts curiosity in a broader perspective, also involving aggression and fear. that is, if the inconsistency is larger, fear or aggressive behavior may be employed to alter the perception in order to make it match expectancy, depending on the size of the inconsistency as well as the specific context. aggressive behavior is assumed to alter perception by forcefully manipulating it into matching the expected situation, while uninhibited fear results in fleeing, thereby removing the inconsistent stimulus from the perceptual field and resolving the inconsistency.[ ] integration of the reward pathway into theory[edit] taking into account the shortcomings of both curiosity-drive and optimal-arousal theories, attempts have been made to integrate neurobiological aspects of reward, wanting, and pleasure into a more comprehensive theory for curiosity. research suggests that the act of wanting and desiring new information directly involves mesolimbic pathways of the brain that directly account for dopamine activation. the use of these pathways and dopamine activation may account for the assigning of value to new information and then interpreting as reward.[ ][ ][ ] this aspect of neurobiology can accompany curiosity-drive theory in motivating exploratory behavior. role of neurological aspects and structures[edit] although the phenomenon of curiosity is widely regarded, its root causes are relatively unknown beyond theory. however, recent studies have provided some insight into the neurological mechanisms that make up what is known as the reward pathway[ ] which may impact characteristics associated with curiosity, such as learning, memory, and motivation. due to the complex nature of curiosity, research that focuses on specific neural processes with these characteristics can help create a better understanding the phenomenon of curiosity as a whole. the following are characteristics of curiosity and their links to neural aspects that can be thought of as essential in creating exploratory behaviors. motivation and reward[edit] dopamine pathway in the brain the drive to learn new information or perform some action is often initiated by the anticipation of reward. in this way, the concepts of motivation and reward are naturally tied to the notion of curiosity.[ ] this idea of reward is defined as the positive reinforcement of an action that encourages a particular behavior by using the emotional sensations of relief, pleasure, and satisfaction that correlate with happiness. many areas in the brain are used to process reward and come together to form what is called the reward pathway. in this pathway many neurotransmitters play a role in the activation of the reward sensation, including dopamine, serotonin and opioid chemicals.[ ] dopamine is linked to the process of curiosity, as it is responsible for assigning and retaining reward values of information gained. research suggests higher amounts of dopamine is released when the reward is unknown and the stimulus is unfamiliar, compared to activation of dopamine when stimulus is familiar.[ ] nucleus accumbens[edit] the nucleus accumbens is a formation of neurons and is important in reward pathway activation. as previously mentioned, the reward pathway is an integral part in the induction of curiosity. the release of dopamine in investigating response to novel or exciting stimuli. the fast dopamine release observed during childhood and adolescence is important in development, as curiosity and exploratory behavior are the largest facilitators of learning during early years. in addition, the sensation pleasure of "liking" can occur when opioids are released by nucleus accumbens. this helps someone evaluate the unfamiliar situation or environment and attach value to the novel object. these processes of both wanting and liking play a role in activating the reward system of the brain, and perhaps in the stimulation of curious or information-seeking tendencies as well.[ ][ ][ ] caudate nucleus[edit] the caudate nucleus, is a region of the brain that is highly responsive to dopamine. the caudate nucleus is another component of the reward pathway. research has suggested the role of the caudate nucleus anticipates the possibility of and is in anticipation of reward of exploratory behavior and gathered information, thus contributing to factors of curiosity.[ ][ ] anterior cortices[edit] regions of the anterior cortices correspond to both conflict and arousal and, as such, seem to reinforce certain exploratory models of curiosity.[ ] cortisol[edit] cortisol is a chemical known for its role in stress regulation. however, cortisol may also be associated with curious or exploratory behavior. findings in recent studies suggesting the role of cortisol with curiosity support the idea of optimal arousal theory. it is suggested the release of a small amount cortisol causing stress encourages curious behavior, while too much stress can initiate a "back away" response.[ ][ ] attention[edit] attention is important to the understanding of curiosity because it directly correlates with one's abilities to selectively focus and concentrate on particular stimuli in the surrounding environment. as there are limited cognitive and sensory resources to understand and evaluate various stimuli, attention allows the brain to better focus on what it perceives to be the most important or relevant of these stimuli. individuals tend to focus their energies on stimuli that are particularly stimulating or engaging. indicating that the more attention a stimulus garners, the more frequent one's energy and focus will be directed towards that stimulus. this idea suggests an individual will focus their attention on new or unfamiliar stimuli in an effort to better understand or make sense of the unknown over the more familiar or repetitive stimuli, creating the idea that curiosity demands attention.[ ] striatum[edit] the striatum is a part of the brain which coordinates motivation with body movement. it would seem natural that the striatum plays a role in attention and reward anticipation, both of which are important in the provocation of curiosity.[ ] precuneus[edit] the precuneus is a region of the brain that is involved in attention, episodic memory, and visuospatial processing. there has been a correlation found between the amount of grey matter in the precuneus and levels of curious and exploratory behaviors; suggesting that the precuneus density has an influence on levels of curiosity.[ ] memory and learning[edit] memory plays an important role in the understanding of curiosity. if curiosity is the desire to seek out and understand unfamiliar or novel stimuli, one's memory is important in determining if the stimuli is indeed unfamiliar. memory is the process by which the brain can store and access information. in order to determine if the stimulus is novel, an individual must remember if the stimulus has been encountered before. thus, memory plays an integral role in dictating the level of novelty or unfamiliarity, and the level of need for curiosity. it can also be suggested that curiosity can affect memory. as previously mentioned, stimuli that are novel tend to capture more of our attention. additionally, novel stimuli usually have a reward value associated with them, the anticipated reward of what learning that new information may bring. with stronger associations and more attention devoted to a stimulus, it is probable that the memory formed from that stimulus will be longer lasting and easier to recall, both of which facilitate better learning. hippocampus and the parahippocampal gyrus[edit] the hippocampus is important in memory formation and recall and therefore instrumental in determining the novelty of various stimuli.[ ] research suggests the hippocampus is involved in generating the underlying motivation to explore for the purpose of learning.[ ][ ][ ] the parahippocampal gyrus (phg), the area of grey matter surrounding the hippocampus, has recently been implicated in the process of curiosity. this finding suggests that the phg may be involved in the amplification of curiosity more so than the primary induction of curiosity.[ ] amygdala[edit] the amygdala often is associated with emotional processing, particularly for the emotion of fear, as well as memory. it is suggested the amygdala is important in processing emotional reactions towards novel or unexpected stimuli and the induction of exploratory behavior. this implies a potential connection between curiosity levels and the amygdala. however, more research is needed on direct correlation.[ ] early development[edit] jean piaget is considered to be the most influential child researcher. he argued that babies and children are constantly trying to make sense of their reality and that it contributed to their intellectual development. according to piaget, children develop hypotheses, conduct experiments and then reassess their hypotheses depending on what they observe. piaget was the first to closely document children's actions and interpret them as consistent, calculated effort to test and learn about their environment.[ ] there is no universally accepted definition for curiosity in children. most research on curiosity has been focused on adults and which typically used self-report measures are inappropriate and inapplicable for studying children. curiosity is mostly thought of as attributable to a mature person and is characterized in young children as a fledgling feature of their outlook on the world.[ ] exploratory behaviour is commonly observed in children and is associated with their curiosity development. several studies look at children's curiosity by simply observing their interaction with novel and familiar toys.[ ] there has been evidence found of a relationship between the anxiety children might feel and their curiosity. one study found that object curiosity in -year-olds was negatively related to psychological maladjusted so children who exhibit more anxiety in classroom settings engaged in less curious behaviour. it has also been suggested that certain aspects of classroom learning is dependent on curiosity which can be affected by students' anxiety.[ ] other measures of childhood curiosity have used exploratory behaviour as a basis but differing on how which parts of this behaviour is best to focus on. some studies have examined children's preference for complexity/the unknown as a basis for their curiosity measure; others have relied on novelty preference as their basis.[ ] researchers have also looked at the relationship between a child's reaction to surprise and curiosity. it has been suggested that children are further motivated to learn when dealing with uncertainty. it is argued that their reactions to not having their expectations met would fuel their curiosity more than the introduction of a novel or complex object would.[ ] ethicality[edit] there is a widely held belief that children's curiosity becomes discouraged throughout the process of formal education: "children are born scientists. from the first ball they send flying to the ant they watch carry a crumb, children use science's tools—enthusiasm, hypotheses, tests, conclusions—to uncover the world's mysteries. but somehow students seem to lose what once came naturally." [ ] sir ken robinson discusses a similar phenomenon in his ted talk titled "do schools kill creativity?" when curiosity in young people leads to knowledge-gathering it is widely seen as a positive.[ ] impact from disease[edit] left: normal brain. right: ad afflicted brain. severe degeneration of areas implicated in curiosity different neurodegenerative diseases or other psychological disorders can affect various characteristics of curiosity, for instance alzheimer's disease's effects on memory or depression on motivation and reward. alzheimer's is a neurodegenerative disease that directly affects the capability and capacity for memory. depression is a mood disorder that is characterized by a lack of interest in one's environment and feelings of sadness or hopelessness. a lack of curiosity for novel stimuli might also be used as a potential predictor for these and other illnesses.[ ] morbid curiosity[edit] "morbid curiosity" redirects here. for the magazine, see morbid curiosity (magazine). a crowd mills around the site of a car accident in czechoslovakia in . morbid curiosity exemplifies an aspect of curiosity that can be seen as focused on objects of death, violence, or any other event that may cause harm physically or emotionally.[ ] the idea of morbid curiosity typically is described as having an addictive quality. this addictive aspect of the need to understand or make sense of topics that surround harm, violence or death can be attributed to the idea of one's need to relate unusual and often difficult circumstances to a primary emotion or experience of their own, described as meta-emotions.[ ] understanding these difficult circumstances dates back to aristotle in his poetics, stating, "we enjoy and admire paintings of objects that in themselves would annoy or disgust us."[ ] state and trait curiosity[edit] there are two distinct classifications of types of curiosity: state and trait curiosity. both types determine whether curiosity comes from within or outside of a person. state curiosity is external such as wondering why things happen for the sake of just curiousness, for example, wondering why most stores open at a.m. this type of curiosity tends to be the most relatable for people on a day-to-day basis since state curiosity relates to high levels of reward. on the other hand, trait curiosity relates to people who are interested in learning. generally, it could be trying out a new sport or food, or traveling to a new unknown place. one can look at curiosity as the urge that draws people out of their comfort zones and fears as the agent that keeps them within those zones.[ ] curiosity in artificial intelligence[edit] ai agents are able to display curiosity, and curiosity in ai can be useful for improving the success of an ai agent at various tasks. in artificial intelligence, curiosity is typically defined quantitatively, as the uncertainty the agent has in predicting its own actions given its current state.[ ][ ] in , a study trained ai agent to play video games, but they were rewarded only for curiosity. the agents reliably learned advantageous game behaviors based solely on the curiosity reward.[ ] see also[edit] 	broaden-and-build 	interest (emotion) 	inquiry 	play (activity) references[edit] 	^ a b berlyne de. ( ). "a theory of human curiosity". br j psychol. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. pmid  . 	^ a b c berlyne de. ( ). "the arousal and satiation of perceptual curiosity in the rat". j. comp. physiol. psychol. ( ): – . doi: . /h . pmid  . 	^ zuss, m. ( ) the practice of theoretical curiosity. new york, n.y.: springer publishing.[isbn missing] 	^ keller, h., schneider, k., henderson, b. (eds.) ( ). curiosity and exploration. new york, n.y.: springer publishing.[isbn missing] 	^ ofer g, durban j ( ). "curiosity: reflections on its nature and functions". am j psychother. ( ): – . doi: . /appi.psychotherapy. . . . . pmid  . 	^ a b loewenstein, g ( ). "the psychology of curiosity: a review and reinterpretation". psychological bulletin. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / - . . . . 	^ a b c d berlyne, d.e. ( ). conflict, arousal, and curiosity. new york, ny: mcgraw-hill. 	^ berlyne, d.e. ( ). "uncertainty and conflict: a point of contact between information-theory and behavior-theory concepts". psychological review. : – . doi: . /h . 	^ a b c edleman, s. . curiosity and exploration. california state university, northridge. retrieved from "archived copy". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) 	^ a b litman, jordan ( ). "curiosity and the pleasures of learning: wanting and liking new information". cognition & emotion. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . s cid  . see also a non-paywalled publication[permanent dead link] 	^ a b c van kampen, h.s. ( ). "the principle of consistency and the cause and function of behaviour". behavioural processes. : – . doi: . /j.beproc. . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ inglis, i.r. ( ). "towards a cognitive theory of exploratory behaviour". in archer, j.; birke, l.i.a. (eds.). exploration in animals and humans. wokingham, england: van nostrand reinhold. pp.  – . 	^ a b c d costa, vincent d.; tran, valery l.; turchi, janita; averbeck, bruno b. ( ). "dopamine modulates novelty seeking behavior during decision making". behavioral neuroscience. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b kakade, sham; dayan, peter ( ). "dopamine: generalization and bonuses". neural networks. ( – ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . pmid  . archived from the original on - - . 	^ "archived copy". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) 	^ a b c min jeong, k.; ming, h.; krajbich, i. m.; loewenstein, g.; mcclure, s. m.; wang, j.; camerer, c. f. ( ). "the wick in the candle of learning: epistemic curiosity activates reward circuitry and enhances memory". psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . s cid  . 	^ a b lehrer, jonah. "the itch of curiosity". wired.com. wired. archived from the original on july . retrieved july . 	^ a b jepma, m., verdonschot, r., van steenbergen, h., rombouts, s., & nieuwenhuis, s. ( ). neural mechanisms underlying the induction and relief of perceptual curiosity. frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, 	^ karen, j.; kimberly, l.; christine, l.; alan, f.; steven, e.; david, m. ( ). "early life stress and novelty seeking behavior in adolescent monkeys". psychoneuroendocrinology. ( ): – . doi: . /j.psyneuen. . . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b stuart, z.; cecelia, m.; allan, l.; james, l. ( ). "predicting the onset of alzheimer's disease with a behavioral task". alzheimer's & dementia. ( ): s . doi: . /j.jalz. . . . s cid  . 	^ kimberley, a.; francys, s.; chet, c. ( ). "curious monkeys have increased gray matter density in the precuneus". neuroscience letters. ( ): – . doi: . /j.neulet. . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ saab bj, georgiou j, nath a, lee fj, wang m, michalon a, liu f, mansuy im, roder jc ( ). "ncs- in the dentate gyrus promotes exploration, synaptic plasticity, and rapid acquisition of spatial memory". neuron. ( ): – . doi: . /j.neuron. . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ sahay a, scobie kn, hill as, o'carroll cm, kheirbek ma, burghardt ns, fenton aa, dranovsky a, hen r ( ). "increasing adult hippocampal neurogenesis is sufficient to improve pattern separation". nature. ( ): – . bibcode: natur. .. s. doi: . /nature . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ leussis mp, berry-scott em, saito m, jhuang h, de haan g, alkan o, luce cj, madison jm, sklar p, serre t, root de, petryshen tl ( ). "the ank bipolar disorder gene regulates psychiatric-related behaviors that are modulated by lithium and stress". biological psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . /j.biopsych. . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ montgomery, k ( ). "the relation between fear induced by novel stimulation and exploratory behavior". journal of comparative and physiological psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /h . pmid  . 	^ engel, s. . children's need to know: curiosity in schools. harvard educational review. retrieved from "archived copy". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) 	^ a b c d e f jirout, j. & klahr, d. . children's scientific curiosity: in search of an operational definition of an elusive concept. developmental review. retrieved from "archived copy" (pdf). archived from the original (pdf) on - - . retrieved - - .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) 	^ cohen, robert ( ). the development of spatial cognition. p.  . 	^ scrivner, coltan. "the psychology of morbid curiosity". psyarxiv.com. retrieved - - . 	^ zuckerman, marvin; patrick litle ( ). "personality and curiosity about morbid and sexual events". personality and individual differences. ( ): – . doi: . / - ( ) - . 	^ aristotle ( january ). poetics. oup oxford. isbn  . retrieved august . 	^ "how curiosity works". howstuffworks.com. january . archived from the original on september . retrieved may . 	^ pathak, deepak. "curiosity-driven exploration by self-supervised prediction". university of california, berkeley. retrieved august . 	^ pathak, deepak ( may ). "curiosity-driven exploration by self-supervised prediction". cornell university. arxiv: . . 	^ "large-scale study of curiosity-driven learning". iclr. . further reading[edit] 	edelman, susan (spring ). "curiosity and exploration". california state university, northridge 	manguel, alberto ( ). curiosity. new haven, ct: yale university press. isbn  - - - - . 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=curiosity&oldid= " 		categories: 	attention deficit hyperactivity disorder 	creativity 	emotions 	interest (psychology) 	motivation 	problem solving skills 	psychological attitude 	virtue hidden categories: 	pages with missing isbns 	cs maint: archived copy as title 	all articles with dead external links 	articles with dead external links from july 	articles with permanently dead external links 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	articles lacking reliable references from june 	all articles lacking reliable references 	all articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases 	articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from june 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	avañe'ẽ 	azərbaycanca 	Български 	català 	dansk 	deutsch 	eesti 	español 	euskara 	فارسی 	français 	galego 	한국어 	हिन्दी 	italiano 	עברית 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	kiswahili 	latina 	lietuvių 	magyar 	മലയാളം 	မြန်မာဘာသာ 	nederlands 	日本語 	norsk bokmål 	ਪੰਜਾਬੀ 	polski 	português 	română 	Русский 	shqip 	sicilianu 	simple english 	Српски / srpski 	suomi 	svenska 	ไทย 	Тоҷикӣ 	türkçe 	Українська 	اردو 	tiếng việt 	粵語 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; 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(november ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) credulity is a person's willingness or ability to believe that a statement is true, especially on minimal or uncertain evidence.[ ][ ] credulity is not necessarily a belief in something that may be false: the subject of the belief may even be correct, but a credulous person will believe it without good evidence. contents 	 meaning 	 examples 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links meaning[edit] the words gullible and credulous are commonly used as synonyms. goepp & kay ( ) state that while both words mean "unduly trusting or confiding", gullibility stresses being duped or made a fool of, suggesting a lack of intelligence, whereas credulity stresses uncritically forming beliefs, suggesting a lack of skepticism.[ ] jewell ( ) states the difference is a matter of degree: the gullible are "the easiest to deceive", while the credulous are "a little too quick to believe something, but they usually aren't stupid enough to act on it."[ ] yamagishi, kikuchi & kosugi ( ) characterize a gullible person as one who is both credulous and naïve.[ ] greenspan ( ) stresses the distinction that gullibility involves an action in addition to a belief, and there is a cause-effect relationship between the two states: "gullible outcomes typically come about through the exploitation of a victim's credulity.[ ] examples[edit] 	 	this section needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (april ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) many societies mark april fools' day or all fools' day on april each year. the day features the commission of hoaxes and other practical jokes of varying sophistication on friends, family members, enemies, and neighbors, or sending them on a fool's errand, the aim of which is to embarrass the gullible. cold reading, a magic trick that gives the appearance of a psychic experience, relies on the credulous belief of an audience that something psychic is occurring. hence the audience fits the utterances of the cold reader to be consistent with psychic abilities, while ignoring any contrary evidence. a confidence trick or confidence game is an attempt to defraud a person or group by gaining their confidence. confidence artists exploit human characteristics such as greed and dishonesty, and have victimized individuals from all walks of life. politics and practical jokes are also related to credulity. pseudoscience, a methodology, belief, or practice that is claimed to be scientific, or that is made to appear to be scientific, but which does not adhere to an appropriate scientific methodology,[ ][ ][ ][ ] lacks supporting evidence or plausibility,[ ] or otherwise lacks scientific status.[ ] professor paul dehart hurd[ ] argued that a large part of gaining scientific literacy is "being able to distinguish science from pseudo-science such as astrology, quackery, the occult, and superstition".[ ] a religion is a system of human thought which usually includes a set of narratives, symbols, beliefs and practices that give meaning to the practitioner's experiences of life through reference to a higher power, god or gods, or ultimate truth.[ ] atheists and members of other religions may regard many other religious faiths as credulous cults.[ ] a snipe hunt, a form of wild-goose chase that is also known as a fool's errand, is a type of practical joke that involves experienced people making fun of credulous newcomers by giving them an impossible or imaginary task. the origin of the term is a practical joke where inexperienced campers are told about a bird or animal called the snipe as well as a usually preposterous method of catching it, such as running around the woods carrying a bag or making strange noises.[ ] superstition is a credulous belief or notion, not based on reason or knowledge. the word "superstition" is often used pejoratively to refer to folk beliefs deemed irrational. this leads to some superstitions being called "old wives' tales." it is also commonly applied to beliefs and practices surrounding luck, prophecy and spiritual beings, particularly the irrational belief that future events can be influenced or foretold by specific unrelated prior events. treacle mining is the fictitious mining of treacle, similar to molasses in a raw form similar to coal. the subject purports to be a serious topic, but is in fact an attempt to test the credulity of the reader. the thick black nature of treacle makes the deception plausible. the topic has been a standing joke in british humor for a century or more. in literature, lewis carroll provides a discussion of credulity: alice laughed. 'there's no use trying,' she said, 'one can't believe impossible things.' 'i daresay you haven't had much practice,' said the queen. 'when i was your age, i always did it for half-an-hour a day. why, sometimes i've believed as many as six impossible things before breakfast. [...]'[ ] see also[edit] 	delusion 	faith 	fallacy 	moon is made of green cheese 	noble lie 	scepticism 	stupidity references[edit] 	^ "credulity | meaning of credulity in longman dictionary of contemporary english | ldoce". www.ldoceonline.com. retrieved - - . 	^ [ ] credulity, merriam-webster, inc., retrieved june , 	^ goepp & kay , p.  . 	^ jewell , p.  . 	^ yamagishi, kikuchi & kosugi , p.  . 	^ greenspan , p.  . 	^ "pseudoscientific - pretending to be scientific, falsely represented as being scientific", from the oxford american dictionary, published by the oxford english dictionary. 	^ hansson, sven ove ( ). "defining pseudoscience," philosophia naturalis, : – , cited in "science and pseudo-science" ( ) in stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. the stanford article states: "many writers on pseudoscience have emphasized that pseudoscience is non-science posing as science. the foremost modern classic on the subject (gardner ) bears the title fads and fallacies in the name of science. according to brian baigrie ( , ), "[w]hat is objectionable about these beliefs is that they masquerade as genuinely scientific ones." these and many other authors assume that to be pseudoscientific, an activity or a teaching has to satisfy the following two criteria (hansson ): ( ) it is not scientific, and ( ) its major proponents try to create the impression that it is scientific." 	^ for example, hewitt et al. conceptual physical science addison wesley; edition (july , ) isbn  - - - , bennett et al. the cosmic perspective e addison wesley; edition (july , ) isbn  - - - 	^ see also, e.g., gauch hg jr. scientific method in practice ( ) 	^ the national science foundation adopts the definition of (shermer, ): "claims presented so that they appear [to be] scientific even though they lack supporting evidence and plausibility" (shermer , p. ). in contrast, science is "a set of methods designed to describe and interpret observed and inferred phenomena, past or present, and aimed at building a testable body of knowledge open to rejection or confirmation" (shermer , p. ). shermer m. ( ). why people believe weird things: pseudoscience, superstition, and other confusions of our time. new york: w. h. freeman and company. cited by national science foundation (official report) ( ). "science and technology: public attitudes and understanding". science and engineering indicators . archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "a pretended or spurious science; a collection of related beliefs about the world mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method or as having the status that scientific truths now have.", from the oxford english dictionary second edition . 	^ memorial resolution: paul dehart hurd. [ ] retrieved april 	^ hurd, p.d. ( ). "scientific literacy: new minds for a changing world". science education, , – .. abstract online at www .interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/ /abstract; retrieved november. 	^ while religion is difficult to define, the standard model of religion as used in religious studies was defined by clifford geertz (religion as a cultural system, ). for an influential critique of geertz's model see talal asad's the construction of religion as an anthropological category ( ). 	^ compare: laynton, robert ( ). " : spirituality: basic considerations". behind the masks of god - an exploration of the nature and content of mystical transcendent experience. stoke-on-trent: companion guides. p.  . isbn  . if i am a religious person i may well have constructed a quite highly differentiated network of spiritual meanings and values. thus, when someone in a religious meeting begins to speak using a language i do not understand or recognize, i may allocate such an event quite happily to the category 'speaking in tongues' and related categories such as 'holy spirit', 'blessing', 'inspiration' and so on may also be activated. if i am not a religious person then i may activate different categories such as 'superstition', 'emotionalism', 'gullibility', 'religious mania' and so on. 	^ etymonline.com - snipe 	^ carroll, lewis ( ) [ ]. " : wool and water". through the looking-glass: and what alice found there. london: macmillan and company limited. p.  . retrieved - - . alice laughed. 'there's no use trying,' she said, 'one can't believe impossible things.' [...] 'i daresay you haven't had much practice,' said the queen. 'when i was your age, i always did it for half-an-hour a day. why, sometimes i've believed as many as six impossible things before breakfast. [...]' 	goepp, philip h.; kay, mairé weir (june ), gove, philip b. (ed.), merriam-webster's dictionary of synonyms: a dictionary of discriminated synonyms with antonyms and analogous and contrasted words, springfield, ma: merriam-webster, isbn  - - - 	greenspan, stephen ( ), annals of gullibility: why we get duped and how to avoid it, praeger publishers, isbn  - - - - 	jewell, elizabeth, ed. ( ), pocket oxford dictionary & thesaurus ( nd american ed.), new york: oxford university press us, isbn  - - - 	yamagishi, toshio; kikuchi, masako; kosugi, motoko (april ), "trust, gullibility, and social intelligence" (pdf), asian journal of social psychology, ( ): – , doi: . / - x. , archived from the original (pdf) on july , retrieved april further reading[edit] 	blakeman, rufus ( ), a philosophical essay on credulity and superstition, new york: d. appleton & company external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: credulity 		look up credulity in wiktionary, the free dictionary. retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=credulity&oldid= " 		categories: 	belief hidden categories: 	articles with too many wikilinks from november 	all articles with too many wikilinks 	articles covered by wikiproject wikify from november 	all articles covered by wikiproject wikify 	articles needing additional references from april 	all articles needing additional references 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			فارسی 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on august , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 consumer confidence - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	consumer confidence 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 			 	this article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (january ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) consumer confidence is an economic indicator that measures the degree of optimism that consumers feel about the overall state of the economy and their personal financial situation. if the consumer has confidence in the immediate and near future economy and his/her personal finance, then the consumer will spend more than save. when consumer confidence is high, consumers make more purchases. when confidence is low, consumers tend to save more and spend less. a month-to-month trend in consumer confidence reflects the outlook of consumers with respect to their ability to find and retain good jobs according to their perception of the current state of the economy and their personal financial situation. consumer confidence typically increases when the economy expands, and decreases when the economy contracts. in the united states, there is evidence that the measure is a lagging indicator of stock market performance. contents 	 usage 	 . conference board, present situation index and the business cycles 	 united states 	 . consumer confidence index 	 . . methodology 	 . university of michigan consumer sentiment index 	 . bloomberg consumer comfort index 	 . consumer confidence average index 	 . gallup economic confidence index 	 canada 	 india 	 israel 	 spain 	 worldwide 	 . nielsen global consumer confidence 	 gfk consumer confidence barometer (uk) 	 see also 	 references 	 external links usage[edit] investors, manufacturers, retailers, banks, public opinion researchers and government agencies use various assessments of consumer confidence in planning their actions. the ability to predict major changes in consumer confidence allows businesses to gauge the willingness of consumers to make new purchases. as a result, businesses can adjust their operations and the government can prepare for changing tax revenue. if confidence is dropping and consumers are expected to reduce their spending, most producers will tend to reduce their production volumes accordingly. for example, if manufacturers anticipate consumers will reduce retail purchases, especially for expensive and durable goods, they will cut down their inventories in advance and may delay investing in new projects and facilities. similarly, if banks expect consumers to decrease their spending, they will prepare for the reduction in lending activities, such as mortgage applications and credit card use. builders will plan for the decline in home construction volumes. the government will get ready for the reduction in future tax revenues. on the other hand, if consumer confidence is improving, people are expected to increase their purchases of goods and services. in anticipation of that change, manufacturers can boost production and inventories. large employers can increase hiring rates. builders can prepare for higher housing construction rates. banks can plan for a rise in demand for credit products. government can expect improved tax revenues based on the increase in consumer spending.[citation needed] conference board, present situation index and the business cycles[edit] major drops in the present situation index tend to precede a drop in the business cycle. the economy enters a recession after the conference board, present situation index drops by points from its prior year's value.,[ ][ ] united states[edit] there exist several indicators that attempt to track and measure consumer confidence in the us: consumer confidence index[edit] the consumer confidence index (cci) is produced by the non-profit business group the conference board since . the cci is designed to assess the overall confidence, relative financial health and spending power of the us average consumer. the conference board releases the headline consumer confidence index figure each month, alongside a present situation index and an expectations index. methodology[edit] the cci is based on the data from a monthly survey of , us households. the data is calculated for the united states as a whole and for each of the country's nine census regions. the survey consists of five questions on the following topics: i) current business conditions, ii) business conditions for the next six months, iii) current employment conditions, iv) employment conditions for the next six months, v) total family income for the next six months. opinion on current conditions make up to % of the index and expectation about future as %, thus making it a "leading indicator". after all surveys are collected, each question's positive responses are divided by the sum of its positive and negative responses. the resulting relative value is then used as an "index value" and compared against each respective monthly value for . in that year, the result of the index was arbitrarily set at , representing it as index benchmark. that year was chosen as a benchmark year because it was neither a peak nor trough in the business cycle. the index values for all five questions are averaged together to produce the cci.[ ] the present situation index is based on answers to questions about the respondent's assessment of 	his current business situation 	the current employment conditions the expectations index is based on responses to questions about respondents expectations for six months in the future of: 	business conditions 	the job expectations 	total household income university of michigan consumer sentiment index[edit] the university of michigan consumer sentiment index (mcsi) is produced by the university of michigan and distributed by thomson reuters.[ ] the mcsi is designed to gauge consumer attitudes toward the overall business climate, the state of personal finances, and consumer spending. the university of michigan releases three related figures each month: the index of consumer sentiment (ics, or mcsi), the index of current economic conditions (icc), and the index of consumer expectations (ice). the most recent data for ics is published by reuters here.[ ] the index of consumer expectations is an official component of the u.s. index of leading economic indicators. on june , , the cnbc reported that thomson reuters allows fee-paying customers access to the index before it is available to others.[ ] see also: university_of_michigan_consumer_sentiment_index § implications 	methodology of the mcsi the index of consumer sentiment (ics) is based on the monthly telephone survey of the us household data. the index is aggregated from five questions on the following topics: i) personal financial situation now and a year ago, ii) personal financial situation one year from now, iii) overall financial condition of the business for the next twelve months, iv) overall financial condition of the business for the next five years, v) current attitude toward buying major household items. the ics is calculated from computing the "relative scores" for each of the five index questions: the percent giving favorable replies minus the percent giving unfavorable replies, plus . each relative score is then rounded to the nearest whole number. all five relative scores are then summed and the sum is divided by . (the base period) and is added to the result (a constant to correct for sample design changes from the s). icc is calculated by dividing the sum of the rounded "relative scores" of the questions one and five by . and adding . ice is calculated by dividing the sum of the rounded "relative scores" of the questions two, three, and four by . and adding .[ ] bloomberg consumer comfort index[edit] the bloomberg consumer comfort index represents a four-week rolling average based on telephone interviews a week with adults nationwide, giving a sample size of , for each four-week period. the survey began in december by the polling firm langer research associates and was originally known as "the abc news consumer comfort index" before bloomberg licensed the rights in .[ ] the index is based on consumers' ratings of the economy, the buying climate, and personal finances. unlike the other indicators, it measures only current conditions with no questions about expectations. 	methodology of the consumer comfort index the index aggregates consumer responses to three questions on the following topics: i) national economy ("would you describe the state of the nation's economy these days as excellent, good, not so good, or poor?", ii) on personal finances ("would you describe the state of your own personal finances these days as excellent, good, not so good, or poor?") and iii) buying climate ("considering the cost of things today and your own personal finances, would you say now is an excellent time, a good time, a not so good time, or a poor time to buy the things you want and need?"). the index is derived by subtracting the negative response to each question from the positive response to that question. the three resulting numbers are then added and divided by three. the index can range from + (everyone positive on all three measures) to - (all negative on all three measures).[ ] consumer confidence average index[edit] the consumer confidence average index (ccai) is a monthly indicator that aggregates data from the above three major national polls on consumer confidence. it represents the rescaled average of the conference board consumer confidence index, the university of michigan consumer sentiment index, and the bloomberg consumer comfort index. 	methodology of the ccai the ccai takes into account historical values of all three indexes starting from december . the value of the consumer confidence average represents the lowest value of each index. the value of the consumer confidence average represents the highest value of each index.[ ] gallup economic confidence index[edit] the gallup economic confidence index is a broad indicator of americans’ confidence in national economic conditions, based on the combined responses to two questions. one question asks americans to evaluate current economic conditions; the other measures their perceptions of whether the economy is getting better or getting worse. gallup has asked the component questions periodically since , monthly since october , and daily since january . gallup reports results of the economic confidence index on gallup.com on a daily, weekly, monthly, and quarterly basis. 	methodology of the eci gallup’s economic confidence index is a composite of the two questions that gallup asks daily of a nationally representative sample of adults, aged and older, and reports weekly based on approximately , interviews. the first question asks americans to rate economic conditions in the country today, and second question asks whether they think economic conditions in the country as a whole are getting better or getting worse. the two questions have equal weight in the index, which is reported without revisions or seasonal adjustments. they can also be analyzed separately, providing insight into changes in the overall index. the survey is conducted with respondents contacted on landlines and cellphones, and includes spanish-language interviewing. gallup calculates the economic confidence index by adding the percentage of people rating current economic conditions (["excellent" + "good"] minus "poor") to the percentage saying the economy is ("getting better" minus "getting worse"), and then dividing that sum by two. the gallup economic confidence index has a possible maximum of + (reached if all americans rate current economic conditions as excellent or good, and all americans say the economy is getting better) and a possible minimum of - (reached if all rate the current economy as poor, and say the economy is getting worse).[ ] canada[edit] the conference board of canada's index of consumer confidence has been ongoing since . it is constructed from responses to four attitudinal questions posed to a random sample of canadian households. those surveyed are asked to give their views about their households' current and expected financial positions and the short-term employment outlook. they are also asked to assess whether now is a good or a bad time to make a major purchase such as a house, car or other big-ticket items. india[edit] main article: indian consumer confidence index the relevance of a consumer confidence index for a country like india is evident from the fact that consumption expenditure accounts for over % of india's gdp. the blufin consumer confidence index is the first monthly, statistically robust index of consumer sentiment in india. the cci is designed to provide reliable insights into the direction of the indian national and regional economies. released once a month, the index is computed from the results of a monthly survey of , consumers in cities across india.the zyfin (formerly known as blufin) consumer confidence index was developed by a team of financial economists and statisticians led by dr. sam thomas, ph.d., director of research and development at blufin. dr thomas is also professor of banking and finance at the weatherhead school of management, case western reserve university, cleveland, ohio. israel[edit] the israeli consumer confidence index is conducted by israel's daily globes and is published monthly by globes's research unit. spain[edit] the spanish cci is made since . the instituto de crédito oficial (ico) based its calculation on the methodology of michigan and the usa conference board. since november is the centro de investigaciones sociológicas (cis) who is responsible for its publication. the cci is built up from a monthly survey of opinion with implementing standardized telephone questionnaire to a representative sample of the population resident in spain of individuals over years. the sampling procedure is multistage, with selection of primary sampling units (municipalities) in a random proportional to each of the spanish provinces and the secondary units (households) from telephone numbers and the last units (individuals) as cross-gender quotas and age. the cci-cis is published on th[clarification needed] every month or the next working day in case of bank holidays or weekend. worldwide[edit] prior to , there had been no systematic attempt to track and measure consumer confidence around the world. in and , gallup collected global economic confidence data through its gallup world poll, and analyzed the data from countries surveyed in both years. gallup's economic confidence index is based on the combined responses to two questions: the first asking individuals to rate economic conditions in their country today, and the second, whether they think economic conditions in the country as a whole are getting better or getting worse.[ ] nielsen global consumer confidence[edit] the nielsen global consumer confidence index measures the confidence, major concerns and spending habits of online consumers in countries on the half-annual basis. the index is developed based on consumers' confidence in the job market, status of their personal finances and readiness to spend. it is produced by the nielsen company (nielsen customized research) from its nielsen global online consumer survey. in april the survey answers included responses from , online users.[ ] in the first quarter , three of the best countries are india ( ), indonesia ( ), and philippines ( ) among countries surveyed, while three of the worst countries are ukraine ( ), south korea ( ), and serbia ( ).[ ] gfk consumer confidence barometer (uk)[edit] the gfk consumer confidence barometer has now been running in the same format across europe since the early s. gfk have been conducting the consumer confidence barometer in the uk since june . the survey is carried out on a monthly basis on behalf of the european commission, who sponsor the same research in all european union member countries. the main aim of this research is to monitor the general public's confidence in the british economy. each month the survey tracks changes in personal finance, general economic situation, inflation, unemployment, current purchasing climate, consumer spending and saving. quarterly research tracks car purchasing, home purchasing and home improvements. results from the gfk consumer confidence barometer are available as either a -monthly or annual subscription, running from may – april. subscriptions can also be taken out part way through subscription year purchase of back-data is also possible. the gfk consumer confidence barometer is published on the last working day of each month at : am see also[edit] 	trust (economics) references[edit] 	^ consumer confidence: a useful indicator of . . . the labor market? | jason bram, robert rich, and joshua abel | (section) ok, but can it predict turning points? 	^ the predictive content of high frequency consumer confidence data | serena ng, jonathan wright | july , | page , paragraph | the cbci, mcsi, bcci and rcci indices fell to all-time lows before lehman collapsed in 	^ "understanding the consumer confidence index". investopedia.com. retrieved - - . 	^ "investment management". thomson reuters. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "investment management". thomson reuters. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ eamon javers ( - - ). "thomson reuters gives elite traders early advantage". cnbc.com. retrieved - - . 	^ [ ] 	^ [ ] 	^ "the washington post-abc news consumer comfort index survey". washingtonpost.com. retrieved - - . 	^ "consumer confidence average index (ccai)". researchscape. retrieved - - . 	^ mccarthy, justin. "understanding gallup's economic measures". gallup. retrieved - - . 	^ mccarthy, justin. "global economic confidence little changed since ". gallup. retrieved - - . 	^ [ ] 	^ "q consumer confidence report". the nielsen company. may , . external links[edit] 	the conference board website 	conference board consumer confidence index page 	reuters/university of michigan surveys of consumers 	consumer confidence average index 	conference board of canada consumer confidence 	a list of consumer confidence surveys 	gfk nop consumer confidence barometer 	zyfin (formerly known as blufin) consumer confidence index for india 	understanding gallup's economic measures 		v 	t 	e consumer behaviour 	concepts	 	consumption 	autonomous consumption 	induced consumption 	consumer culture theory 	consumer debt 	consumer economy 	consumer spending 	research types	 	consumer behaviour 	consumer choice 	consumer economics 	consumer neuroscience 	consumer product 	marketing research 	consumer attributes	 	consumer confidence 	consumer confusion 	consumer ethnocentrism 	consumer socialization 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business-cycle theory 	new institutional 	physiocracy 	socialist 	stockholm 	supply-side 	thermoeconomics 	notable economists and thinkers within economics 	 	françois quesnay 	adam smith 	david ricardo 	thomas robert malthus 	johann heinrich von thünen 	friedrich list 	hermann heinrich gossen 	jules dupuit 	antoine augustin cournot 	john stuart mill 	karl marx 	william stanley jevons 	henry george 	léon walras 	alfred marshall 	georg friedrich knapp 	francis ysidro edgeworth 	vilfredo pareto 	friedrich von wieser 	john bates clark 	thorstein veblen 	john r. commons 	irving fisher 	wesley clair mitchell 	john maynard keynes 	joseph schumpeter 	arthur cecil pigou 	frank knight 	john von neumann 	alvin hansen 	jacob viner 	edward chamberlin 	ragnar frisch 	harold hotelling 	michał kalecki 	oskar r. lange 	jacob marschak 	gunnar myrdal 	abba p. lerner 	roy harrod 	piero sraffa 	simon kuznets 	joan robinson 	e. f. schumacher 	friedrich hayek 	john hicks 	tjalling koopmans 	nicholas georgescu-roegen 	wassily leontief 	john kenneth galbraith 	hyman minsky 	herbert a. simon 	milton friedman 	paul samuelson 	kenneth arrow 	william baumol 	gary becker 	elinor ostrom 	robert solow 	amartya sen 	robert lucas jr. 	joseph stiglitz 	richard thaler 	paul krugman 	thomas piketty 	more 	international organizations	 	asia-pacific economic cooperation 	economic cooperation organization 	european free trade association 	international monetary fund 	organisation for economic co-operation and development 	world bank 	world trade organization 	 	category 	index 	lists 	outline 	publications 	business portal retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=consumer_confidence&oldid= " 		categories: 	consumer confidence hidden categories: 	articles lacking in-text citations from january 	all articles lacking in-text citations 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from march 	wikipedia articles needing clarification from july 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			azərbaycanca 	español 	한국어 	simple english 	ไทย 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may 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(learn how and when to remove these template messages) 	 	the examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. you may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (september ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	 	this article needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "government agency" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (february ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) (learn how and when to remove this template message) a government or state agency, sometimes an appointed commission, is a permanent or semi-permanent organization in the machinery of government that is responsible for the oversight and administration of specific functions, such as an administration. there is a notable variety of agency types. although usage differs, a government agency is normally distinct both from a department or ministry, and other types of public body established by government. the functions of an agency are normally executive in character, since different types of organizations (such as commissions) are most often constituted in an advisory role—this distinction is often blurred in practice however, it is not allowed. a government agency may be established by either a national government or a state government within a federal system. the term is not normally used for an organization created by the powers of a local government body. agencies can be established by legislation or by executive powers. the autonomy, independence and accountability of government agencies also vary widely. contents 	 history 	 australia 	 canada 	 france 	 germany 	 greece 	 iceland 	 india 	 russian federation 	 sweden 	 united kingdom 	 united states 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links history[edit] early examples of organizations that would now be termed a government agency include the british navy board, responsible for ships and supplies, which was established[ ] in by king henry viii and the british commissioners of bankruptcy established[ ] in . from , the new deal saw growth in us federal agencies, the "alphabet agencies" as they were used to deliver new programs created by legislation, such as the federal emergency relief administration. from the s, as part of new public management, several countries including australia and the united kingdom developed the use of agencies to improve efficiency in public services. australia[edit] main article: list of australian government entities canada[edit] main article: structure of the canadian federal government france[edit] administrative law in france refers to autorité administrative indépendante (aai) or independent administrative authorities. they tend to be prominent in the following areas of public policy; 	economic and financial regulation 	information and communication 	defence of citizens' rights independent administrative authorities in france may not be instructed or ordered to take specific actions by government. germany[edit] main article: federal agency (germany) greece[edit] main article: general secretariat for macedonia and thrace the general secretariat for macedonia and thrace (greek: Γενική Γραμματεία Μακεδονίας-Θράκης), previously ministry for macedonia and thrace (greek: Υπουργείο Μακεδονίας-Θράκης) is a government agency of the hellenic republic that is responsible for the greek regions of macedonia and thrace. iceland[edit] main article: government agencies in iceland india[edit] see also: list of indian government agencies the term agency in india has several meanings; for example, the cabinet and the parliament secretariat describes itself[ ] as a "nodal agency for coordination amongst the ministries of the govt. of india". most notably as an international feature, what appear to be independent agencies (or apex agencies) include some that have active roles for ministers: such as, the national security council, the indian council of agricultural research, and the planning commission, which is chaired ex officio by the prime minister. russian federation[edit] russia has had many government agencies throughout its history. the ussr had the secretive kgb. today, russian government agencies such as the fsb, fso, and the gru use spetsnaz or other masked operators for any missions. other organizations include kremlin and presidential security. sweden[edit] main article: government agencies in sweden the government agencies in sweden are state controlled organizations who act independently to carry out the policies of the government of sweden. the ministries are relatively small and merely policy-making organizations, allowed to control agencies by policy decisions but not by direct orders. this means that while the agencies are subject to decisions made by the government, ministers are explicitly prohibited (so called ban on ministerstyre) from interfering with the day-to-day operation in an agency or the outcome in individual cases as well. in addition to the state and its agencies, there are also local government agencies, which are extensions of municipalities and county councils. united kingdom[edit] main article: british government departments agencies in the united kingdom are either executive agencies answerable to government ministers or non-departmental public bodies answerable directly to one of the parliaments or devolved assemblies of the united kingdom. they are also commonly known as quangos. agencies can be created by enabling legislation by the parliament of the united kingdom, scottish parliament or the national assembly for wales. agencies in england usually answer to westminster or the british government. in scotland they usually answer to the scottish government or the scottish parliament and in wales to the national assembly for wales. some have remits that cover the entire uk and these organisations are funded by and answer to the british government. united states[edit] main article: list of federal agencies in the united states the congress and president of the united states delegate specific authority to government agencies to regulate the complex facets of the modern american federal state. also, most of the u.s. states have created similar government agencies. each of the states' governments is similar to the national government with all but one having a bicameral legislature. the term "government agency" or "administrative agency" usually applies to one of the independent agencies of the united states government, which exercise some degree of independence from the president's control. although the heads of independent agencies are often appointed by the government, they can usually be removed only for cause. the heads of independent agencies work together in groups, such as a commission, board or council. independent agencies often function as miniature versions of the tripartite federal government with the authority to legislate (through the issuing, or "promulgation" of regulations), to adjudicate disputes, and to enforce agency regulations (through enforcement personnel). examples of independent agencies include the federal communications commission (fcc), federal reserve board, u.s. securities and exchange commission (sec), the national labor relations board (nlrb) and the federal trade commission (ftc). a broader definition of the term "government agency" also means the united states federal executive departments that include the president's cabinet-level departments, and their sub-units. examples of these agencies include the department of energy (doe) and the internal revenue service (irs), which is a bureau of the department of the treasury. most federal agencies are created by congress through statutes called "enabling acts" which define the scope of an agency's authority. because the constitution does not expressly mention federal agencies (as it does the three branches), some commentators have called agencies the "headless fourth branch" of the federal government. however, most independent agencies are technically part of the executive branch, with a few located in the legislative branch of government. by enacting the administrative procedure act (apa) in , congress established some means to oversee government agency action. the apa established uniform administrative law procedures for a federal agency's promulgation of rules, and adjudication of claims. the apa also sets forth the process for judicial review of agency action. see also[edit] 	classification of the functions of government 	government-owned corporation 	regulatory agency 	statutory authority 	statutory corporation references[edit] 	^ a brief history of the royal navy, royal navy museum, accessed at [ ] june , 	^ macleavy, j. and o. gay ( ) the quango debate, house of commons library research paper / , p. accessed at "archived copy" (pdf). archived from the original (pdf) on - - . retrieved - - .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) 	^ cabinet secretariat, government of india at [ ], accessed june , further reading[edit] 	machinery of government reform: principles and practice in "the organisation of central government departments: a history – ", esrc whitehall programme at nuffield college, university of oxford. (accessed october , ) external links[edit] 	encyclopedic dictionary of public administration, agency 	find government & non-government jobs in easy way 		v 	t 	e civil service 	concepts	 	public sector 	government agency 	bureaucracy 	bureaucrat 	technocracy 	diplomat 	public administration 	public policy 	public service 	by country/territory	 	australia 	bangladesh 	brazil 	canada 	china 	hong kong 	france 	germany 	india 	ireland 	italy 	japan 	malaysia 	new zealand 	nigeria 	pakistan 	russia 	singapore 	sri lanka 	united kingdom 	northern ireland 	united states 	european union 	categories	 	national civil service commissions 	government occupations 	civil service by country 	 	see also: civil service reform in developing countries 	authority control 	 	gnd: - 	lccn: sh 	ndl: retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=government_agency&oldid= " 		categories: 	government agencies 	independent government agencies by country hidden categories: 	cs maint: archived copy as title 	articles with limited geographic scope from september 	articles needing additional references from february 	all articles needing additional references 	articles with multiple maintenance issues 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	wikipedia articles with lccn identifiers 	wikipedia articles with ndl identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	azərbaycanca 	Беларуская 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	eesti 	español 	فارسی 	français 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	ilokano 	bahasa indonesia 	italiano 	עברית 	ລາວ 	magyar 	Македонски 	nederlands 	日本語 	norsk bokmål 	norsk nynorsk 	português 	Русский 	simple english 	Српски / srpski 	suomi 	svenska 	türkçe 	Українська 	tiếng việt 	walon 	ייִדיש 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 george akerlof - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	george akerlof 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		american economist (born ) 	george akerlof 	akerlof in 	born	george arthur akerlof ( - - ) june , (age  ) new haven, connecticut, u.s. 	spouse(s)	janet yellen 	 	institution	georgetown university university of california, berkeley 	school or tradition	new keynesian economics 	alma mater	lawrenceville school yale university (b.a.) mit (ph.d.) london school of economics 	doctoral advisor	robert solow[ ] 	doctoral students	charles engel adriana kugler 	influences	john maynard keynes 	contributions	information asymmetry efficiency wages 	awards	nobel memorial prize in economic sciences ( ) 	information at ideas / repec 	 george arthur akerlof (born june , ) is an american economist who is a university professor at the mccourt school of public policy at georgetown university and koshland professor of economics emeritus at the university of california, berkeley.[ ][ ] he won the nobel memorial prize in economic sciences (shared with michael spence and joseph e. stiglitz). contents 	 early life and education 	 contributions to economics 	 . "the market for lemons" and asymmetric information 	 . identity economics 	 . reproductive technology shock 	 . looting 	 . norms and macroeconomics 	 personal life 	 bibliography 	 references 	 external links early life and education[edit] akerlof was born in new haven, connecticut, united states, the son of rosalie clara grubber (née hirschfelder) and gösta carl Åkerlöf, who was a chemist and inventor.[ ][ ][ ] his mother was jewish, from a family that had emigrated from germany. his father was a swedish immigrant.[ ] akerlof graduated from the lawrenceville school[ ] in and received the aldo leopold award in . in he received his ba degree from yale university, in his phd degree from mit and taught at the london school of economics – . contributions to economics[edit] "the market for lemons" and asymmetric information[edit] akerlof is perhaps best known for his article, "the market for lemons: quality uncertainty and the market mechanism", published in quarterly journal of economics in , in which he identified certain severe problems that afflict markets characterized by asymmetric information, the paper for which he was awarded the nobel memorial prize.[ ] in efficiency wage models of the labor market, akerlof and coauthor/former fed chair janet yellen propose rationales for the efficiency wage hypothesis in which employers pay above the market-clearing wage, in contradiction to the conclusions of neoclassical economics. identity economics[edit] in his latest work, akerlof and collaborator rachel kranton of duke university introduce social identity into formal economic analysis, creating the field of identity economics. drawing on social psychology and many fields outside of economics, akerlof and kranton argue that individuals do not have preferences only over different goods and services. they also adhere to social norms for how different people should behave. the norms are linked to a person's social identities. these ideas first appeared in their article "economics and identity", published in quarterly journal of economics in . reproductive technology shock[edit] in the late s akerlof's ideas attracted the attention of some on both sides of the debate over legal abortion. in articles appearing in the quarterly journal of economics,[ ] the economic journal,[ ] and other forums akerlof described a phenomenon that he labeled "reproductive technology shock." he contended that the new technologies that had helped to spawn the late twentieth century sexual revolution, modern contraceptives and legal abortion, had not only failed to suppress the incidence of out-of-wedlock childbearing but also had actually worked to increase it. according to akerlof, for women who did not use them, these technologies had largely transformed the old paradigm of socio-sexual assumptions, expectations, and behaviors in ways that were especially disadvantageous. for example, the availability of legal abortion now allowed men to view their offspring as the deliberate product of female choice rather than as the joint product of sexual intercourse. thus, it encouraged biological fathers to reject not only the notion of an obligation to marry the mother but also the idea of a paternal obligation. while akerlof did not recommend legal restrictions on either abortion or the availability of contraceptives his analysis seemed to lend support to those who did. thus, a scholar strongly associated with liberal and democratic-leaning policy positions has been approvingly cited by conservative and republican-leaning analysts and commentators.[ ][ ] looting[edit] in akerlof and paul romer brought forth "looting: the economic underworld of bankruptcy for profit", describing how under certain conditions, owners of corporations will decide it is more profitable for them personally to 'loot' the company and 'extract value' from it instead of trying to make it grow and prosper. for example: bankruptcy for profit will occur if poor accounting, lax regulation, or low penalties for abuse give owners an incentive to pay themselves more than their firms are worth and then default on their debt obligations. bankruptcy for profit occurs most commonly when a government guarantees a firm's debt obligations.[ ] norms and macroeconomics[edit] in his presidential address to the american economic association, akerlof proposed natural norms that decision makers have for how they should behave, and showed how such norms can explain discrepancies between theory and observed facts about the macroeconomy. akerlof proposed a new agenda for macroeconomics, using social norms to explain macroeconomic behavior.[ ] he is considered[according to whom?] together with gary becker as one of the founders of social economics. he is a trustee of economists for peace and security and co-director of the social interactions, identity and well-being program at the canadian institute for advanced research (cifar). he is on the advisory board of the institute for new economic thinking. he was elected a fellow of the american academy of arts and sciences in .[ ] personal life[edit] his wife, janet yellen, was the chair of the board of governors of the federal reserve system and professor emeritus at berkeley's haas school of business,[ ] and was the former president and ceo of the federal reserve bank of san francisco and former chair of president bill clinton's council of economic advisors.[ ][ ] his son robert akerlof[ ] has a phd in economics from harvard university and teaches at the university of warwick.[ ] akerlof was one of the signees of a amici curiae brief that expressed support for harvard university in the students for fair admissions v. harvard lawsuit. other signees of the brief include alan b. krueger, robert m. solow, janet yellen, cecilia rouse, as well as numerous others.[ ] bibliography[edit] this list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items with reliable sources. 	akerlof, george a. ( ). an economic theorist's book of tales : essays that entertain the consequences of new assumptions in economic theory. cambridge: cambridge university press. 	akerlof, george a., and janet yellen. . efficiency wage models of the labor market. orlando, fla.: academic press. 	akerlof, george a., romer, paul m., brookings papers on economic activity, "looting: the economic underworld of bankruptcy for profit" vol. , no. ( ), pp.  – [ ] 	akerlof, george a. . "economics and identity," quarterly journal of economics, ( ), pp. – . 	akerlof, george a. . explorations in pragmatic economics, oxford university press. isbn  - - - - . 	akerlof, george a. . "identity and the economics of organizations," journal of economic perspectives, ( ), pp. – . 	akerlof, george a. "thoughts on global warming." chinadialogue ( ). july . 	akerlof, george a. and robert j. shiller. . animal spirits: how human psychology drives the economy, and why it matters for global capitalism. princeton, new jersey: princeton university press. isbn  - - - - . 	akerlof, george a., and rachel e. kranton. . identity economics: how our identities shape our work, wages, and well-being, princeton, new jersey: princeton university press. isbn  - - - - . description & toc, "introduction," pp. – , and preview. 	george a. akerlof and robert j. shiller. . phishing for phools: the economics of manipulation and deception, princeton university press. isbn  - - - - . references[edit] 	^ akerlof, george ( ). wages and capital (pdf) (ph.d.). massachusetts institute of technology. retrieved june , . 	^ "george akerlof (aka mr. janet yellen) heads to georgetown - real time economics - wsj". blogs.wsj.com. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "faculty". 	^ swedberg, r. ( ). economics and sociology: redefining their boundaries : conversations with economists and sociologists. princeton university press. p.  . isbn  . retrieved - - . 	^ secretary, o.h.; sciences, n.a. ( ). biographical memoirs. . national academies press. p.  . isbn  . retrieved - - . 	^ http://digitalcollections.library.cmu.edu/awweb/awarchive?type=file&item= 	^ a b c george akerlof on nobelprize.org "the princeton country day school ended at grade nine. at that point most of my classmates dispersed among different new england prep schools. both for financial reasons and also because they preferred that i stay at home, my family sent me down the road to the lawrenceville school." 	^ writing the “the market for ‘lemons’”: a personal and interpretive essay by george a. akerlof 	^ "citations of akerlof: the market for lemons: quality uncertainty and the market mechanism". google scholar. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ both the american economic review and the review of economic studies rejected the paper for "triviality", while the reviewers for journal of political economy rejected it as incorrect, arguing that if this paper was correct, then no goods could be traded. only on the fourth attempt did the paper get published in quarterly journal of economics.[ ] today, the paper is one of the most-cited papers in modern economic theory (more than citations in academic papers as of july ).[ ] 	^ akerlof, george a.; yellen, janet & katz, lawrence f. ( ), "an analysis on out-of-wedlock childbearing in the united states", quarterly journal of economics, the mit press, ( ): – , doi: . / , jstor  , s cid  	^ akerlof, george a. ( ), "men without children", economic journal, blackwell publishing, ( ): – , doi: . / - . , jstor  	^ failed promises of abortion, archived from the original on - - 	^ the facts of life & marriage 	^ george akerlof and paul romer, "looting: the economic underworld of bankruptcy for profit", brookings papers on economic activity , brookings institution, washington, dc, , as quoted in yves smith ( ), econned, palgrave macmillan, isbn  - - - - pp. – 	^ the missing motivation in macroeconomics 	^ "book of members, – : chapter a" (pdf). american academy of arts and sciences. retrieved april , . 	^ "janet yellen fact sheet | berkeley-haas". newsroom.haas.berkeley.edu. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ trustees, economists for peace and security archived july , , at the wayback machine 	^ janet l. yellen, white house council of economic advisors archived - - at the wayback machine. 	^ "academic staff – university of warwick department of economics". www .warwick.ac.uk. retrieved - - . 	^ admissionscase.harvard.edu (pdf) https://admissionscase.harvard.edu/files/adm-case/files/economists_amended_brief_dkt._ - .pdf. retrieved - - . missing or empty |title= (help) 	^ george a. akerlof and paul m. romer ( december ). "looting: the economic underworld of bankruptcy for profit" (pdf). retrieved - - . external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: george akerlof 	george a. akerlof at university of california, berkeley 	identity economics 	biography at encyclopædia britannica 	george akerlof on nobelprize.org including the nobel prize lecture december , behavioral macroeconomics and macroeconomic behavior 	profile and papers at research papers in economics/repec 	works by or about george akerlof in libraries (worldcat catalog) 	"george a. akerlof ( – )". the concise encyclopedia of economics. library of economics and liberty ( nd ed.). liberty fund. . 	articles 	akerlof's criticism of bush, february , 	akerlof slams bush government, july , 	awards 	preceded by james j. heckman daniel l. mcfadden 	 laureate of the nobel memorial prize in economics served alongside: a. michael spence, joseph e. stiglitz 	succeeded by daniel kahneman vernon l. smith 	academic offices 	preceded by daniel mcfadden 	 president of the american economic association – 	succeeded by thomas j. sargent 		v 	t 	e keynesians 	founder	 	john maynard keynes 	neo-keynesians	 	gardner ackley 	robert solow 	william baumol 	james duesenberry 	robert eisner 	trygve haavelmo 	alvin hansen 	roy harrod 	walter heller 	john hicks 	lawrence klein 	james meade 	lloyd metzler 	franco modigliani 	robert mundell 	arthur melvin okun 	don patinkin 	william phillips 	william poole 	paul samuelson 	james tobin 	post-keynesians	 	victoria chick 	paul davidson 	evsey domar 	james k. galbraith 	john kenneth galbraith 	myron j. gordon 	geoff harcourt 	michael hudson 	richard kahn 	nicholas kaldor 	michał kalecki 	steve keen 	jan kregel 	marc lavoie 	abba p. lerner 	hyman minsky 	bill mitchell 	basil moore 	steven pressman 	joan robinson 	g. l. s. shackle 	pavlina r. tcherneva 	anthony thirlwall 	sidney weintraub 	l. randall wray 	new keynesians	 	george akerlof 	ben bernanke 	olivier blanchard 	alan blinder 	guillermo 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modigliani 	 : james m. buchanan jr. 	 : robert m. solow 	 : maurice allais 	 : trygve haavelmo 	 : harry m. markowitz / merton h. miller / william f. sharpe 	 : ronald h. coase 	 : gary s. becker 	 : robert w. fogel / douglass c. north 	 : john c. harsanyi / john f. nash jr. / reinhard selten 	 : robert e. lucas jr. 	 : james a. mirrlees / william vickrey 	 : robert c. merton / myron s. scholes 	 : amartya sen 	 : robert a. mundell 	 : james j. heckman / daniel l. mcfadden 	 –present	 	 : george a. akerlof / a. michael spence / joseph e. stiglitz 	 : daniel kahneman / vernon l. smith 	 : robert f. engle iii / clive w.j. granger 	 : finn e. kydland / edward c. prescott 	 : robert j. aumann / thomas c. schelling 	 : edmund s. phelps 	 : leonid hurwicz / eric s. maskin / roger b. myerson 	 : paul krugman 	 : elinor ostrom / oliver e. williamson 	 : peter a. diamond / dale t. mortensen / christopher a. pissarides 	 : thomas j. sargent / christopher a. sims 	 : alvin e. roth / lloyd s. shapley 	 : eugene f. fama / lars peter hansen / robert j. shiller 	 : jean tirole 	 : angus deaton 	 : oliver hart / bengt holmström 	 : richard h. thaler 	 : william nordhaus / paul romer 	 : abhijit banerjee / esther duflo / michael kremer 	 : paul milgrom / robert b. wilson 	 	v 	t 	e nobel prize laureates 	chemistry	 	william standish knowles (united states) 	ryōji noyori (japan) 	karl barry sharpless (united states) 	 	literature	v. s. naipaul (trinidad & tobago/united kingdom) 	peace	 	united nations 	kofi annan (ghana) 	physics	 	eric allin cornell (united states) 	wolfgang ketterle (germany) 	carl wieman (united states) 	physiology or medicine	 	leland h. hartwell (united states) 	tim hunt (united kingdom) 	paul nurse (united kingdom) 	economic sciences	 	george akerlof (united states) 	michael spence (united states) 	joseph stiglitz (united states) 	 	nobel prize recipients 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	v 	t 	e presidents of the american economic association 	 – 	 	francis a. walker ( ) 	charles f. dunbar ( ) 	john b. clark ( ) 	henry c. adams ( ) 	arthur t. hadley ( ) 	richard t. ely ( ) 	 – 	 	edwin r. a. seligman ( ) 	f. w. taussig ( ) 	jeremiah w. jenks ( ) 	simon n. patten ( ) 	davis r. dewey ( ) 	edmund j. james ( ) 	henry w. farnam ( ) 	frank a. fetter ( ) 	david kinley ( ) 	john h. gray ( ) 	walter f. willcox ( ) 	thomas n. carver ( ) 	john r. commons ( ) 	irving fisher ( ) 	henry b. gardner ( ) 	herbert j. davenport ( ) 	jacob h. hollander ( ) 	henry r. seager ( ) 	carl c. plehn ( ) 	wesley c. mitchell ( ) 	allyn a. young ( ) 	 – 	 	edwin w. kemmerer ( ) 	thomas s. adams ( ) 	fred m. taylor ( ) 	edwin f. gay ( ) 	matthew b. hammond ( ) 	ernest l. bogart ( ) 	george e. barnett ( ) 	william z. ripley ( ) 	harry a. millis ( ) 	john m. clark ( ) 	alvin s. johnson ( ) 	oliver m. w. sprague ( ) 	alvin hansen ( ) 	jacob viner ( ) 	frederick c. mills ( ) 	sumner slichter ( ) 	edwin g. nourse ( ) 	albert b. wolfe ( ) 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additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 economic development - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	economic development 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		process and policies to improve economic well-being 	part of a series on 	economics 	 	index 	outline 	category 	 	history 	branches 	classification 	history of economics 	schools of economics 	 	mainstream economics 	heterodox economics 	economic methodology 	 	economic theory 	political economy 	 	microeconomics 	macroeconomics 	 	international economics 	 	applied economics 	 	mathematical economics 	econometrics 	jel classification codes 	 	concepts 	theory 	techniques 	economic systems 	economic growth 	market 	national accounting 	experimental economics 	computational economics 	 	game theory 	operations research 	middle income trap 	 by application 	agricultural 	behavioral 	business 	cultural 	demographic 	development 	digitization 	ecological 	education 	engineering 	environmental 	evolutionary 	expeditionary 	economic geography 	financial 	health 	economic history 	industrial organization 	information 	institutional 	knowledge 	labour 	law 	managerial 	monetary 	natural resource 	organizational 	personnel 	economic planning 	economic policy 	public economics 	public / social choice 	regional 	rural 	service 	socioeconomics 	economic sociology 	economic statistics 	urban 	welfare 	welfare economics 	 notable economists 	françois quesnay 	adam smith 	david ricardo 	thomas robert malthus 	john stuart mill 	karl marx 	william stanley jevons 	léon walras 	alfred marshall 	irving fisher 	john maynard keynes 	arthur cecil pigou 	john hicks 	wassily leontief 	paul samuelson 	more 	 lists 	economists 	publications (journals) 	 glossary 	glossary of economics 	 	 business portal 	 money portal 		v 	t 	e in the economic study of the public sector, economic and social development is the process by which the economic well-being and quality of life of a nation, region, local community, or an individual are improved according to targeted goals and objectives. the term has been used frequently in the th and st centuries, but the concept has existed in the west for far longer. "modernization", "westernization", and especially "industrialization" are other terms often used while discussing economic development. whereas economic development is a policy intervention aiming to improve the well-being of people, economic growth is a phenomenon of market productivity and increases in gdp; economist amartya sen describes economic growth as but "one aspect of the process of economic development". economists primarily focus on the growth aspect and the economy at large, whereas researchers of community economic development concern themselves with socioeconomic development as well. many institutions of higher education offer economic development as an area of study and research such as mcgill university, london school of economics, international institute of social studies, balsillie school of international affairs, and the norman paterson school of international affairs. contents 	 definition and terminology 	 history 	 . growth and development 	 economic development goals 	 economic development policies 	 . organization 	 . international economic development council 	 development indicators and indices 	 . gdp per capita – growing development population 	 . modern transportation 	 . introduction of the gdi and gem 	 . gender empowerment measure 	 . gender development index 	 community competition 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links definition and terminology[edit] see also: developed country and developing country gross domestic product real growth rates, – and – , in selected countries rate of change of gross domestic product, world and organisation for economic co-operation and development, since the precise definition of economic development has been contested: while economists in the th century viewed development primarily in terms of economic growth, sociologists instead emphasized broader processes of change and modernization.[ ] development and urban studies scholar karl seidman summarizes economic development as "a process of creating and utilizing physical, human, financial, and social assets to generate improved and broadly shared economic well-being and quality of life for a community or region".[ ] daphne greenwood and richard holt distinguish economic development from economic growth on the basis that economic development is a "broadly based and sustainable increase in the overall standard of living for individuals within a community", and measures of growth such as per capita income do not necessarily correlate with improvements in quality of life.[ ] economic development is a wider concept and has qualitative dimensions. economic development implies economic growth plus progressive changes in certain important variables which determine well-being of the people,e.g: health, education. the university of iowa's center for international finance and development states that: 'economic development' is a term that practitioners, economists, politicians, and others have used frequently in the th century. the concept, however, has been in existence in the west for centuries. modernization, westernisation, and especially industrialisation are other terms people have used while discussing economic development. economic development has a direct relationship with the environment. though the concept's origin is uncertain, some scholars argue that development is closely bound up with the evolution of capitalism and the demise of feudalism.[ ] others link it to the postcolonial state.[ ] mansell and wehn also state that economic development has been understood by non-practitioners since the world war ii to involve economic growth, namely the increases in per capita income, and (if currently absent) the attainment of a standard of living equivalent to that of industrialized countries.[ ][ ] economic development can also be considered as a static theory that documents the state of an economy at a certain time. according to schumpeter and backhaus ( ), the changes in this equilibrium state to document in economic theory can only be caused by intervening factors coming from the outside.[ ] history[edit] economic development originated in the post-war period of reconstruction initiated by the united states. in , during his inaugural speech, president harry truman identified the development of undeveloped areas as a priority for the west: 	“more than half the people of the world are living in conditions approaching misery. their food is inadequate, they are victims of disease. their economic life is primitive and stagnant. their poverty is a handicap and a threat both to them and to more prosperous areas. for the first time in history humanity possesses the knowledge and the skill to relieve the suffering from these people ... i believe that we should make available to peace-loving peoples the benefits of our store of technical knowledge in order to help them the realize their aspirations for a better life… what we envisage is a program of development based on the concepts of democratic fair dealing ... greater production is the key to prosperity and peace. and the key to greater production is a wider and more vigorous application of modem scientific and technical knowledge." there have been several major phases of development theory since . alexander gerschenkron argued that the less developed the country is at the outset of economic development (relative to others), the more likely certain conditions are to occur. hence, all countries do not progress similarly.[ ] from the s to the s the state played a large role in promoting industrialization in developing countries, following the idea of modernization theory. this period was followed by a brief period of basic needs development focusing on human capital development and redistribution in the s. neoliberalism emerged in the s pushing an agenda of free trade and removal of import substitution industrialization policies. in economics, the study of economic development was borne out of an extension to traditional economics that focused entirely on national product, or the aggregate output of goods and services. economic development was concerned with the expansion of people's entitlements and their corresponding capabilities, morbidity, nourishment, literacy, education, and other socio-economic indicators.[ ] borne out of the backdrop of keynesian economics (advocating government intervention), and neoclassical economics (stressing reduced intervention), with the rise of high-growth countries (singapore, south korea, hong kong) and planned governments (argentina, chile, sudan, uganda), economic development and more generally development economics emerged amidst these mid- th century theoretical interpretations of how economies prosper.[ ] also, economist albert o. hirschman, a major contributor to development economics, asserted that economic development grew to concentrate on the poor regions of the world, primarily in africa, asia and latin america yet on the outpouring of fundamental ideas and models.[ ] it has also been argued, notably by asian and european proponents of infrastructure-based development, that systematic, long-term government investments in transportation, housing, education, and healthcare are necessary to ensure sustainable economic growth in emerging countries. growth and development[edit] 	 	this section does not cite any sources. please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (august ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) economic growth deals with an increase in the level of output, but economic development is related to an increase in output coupled with improvement in the social and political welfare of people within a country. dependency theorists argue that poor countries have sometimes experienced economic growth with little or no economic development initiatives; for instance, in cases where they have functioned mainly as resource-providers to wealthy industrialized countries. there is an opposing argument, however, that growth causes development because some of the increase in income gets spent on human development factors such as education and health. according to ranis et al., economic growth and development is a two-way relationship. according to them, the first chain consists of economic growth benefiting human development, since economic growth is likely to lead families and individuals to use their heightened incomes to increase expenditures, which in turn furthers human development. at the same time, the increased consumption and spending, health, education, and infrastructure systems grow and contribute to economic growth. in addition to increasing private incomes, economic growth also generates additional resources that can be used to improve social services (such as healthcare, safe drinking water, etc.). by generating additional resources for social services, unequal income distribution will be mitigated as such social services are distributed equally across each community, thereby benefiting each individual. concisely, the relationship between human development and economic development can be explained in three ways. first, an increase in average income leads to improvement in health and nutrition (known as capability expansion through economic growth). second, it is believed that social outcomes can only be improved by reducing income poverty (known as capability expansion through poverty reduction). lastly, social outcomes can also be improved with essential services such as education, healthcare, and clean drinking water (known as capability expansion through social services). john joseph puthenkalam's research aims at the process of economic growth theories that lead to economic development. after analyzing the existing capitalistic growth-development theoretical apparatus, he introduces the new model which integrates the variables of freedom, democracy, and human rights into the existing models and argue that any future economic growth-development of any nation depends on this emerging model as we witness the third wave of unfolding demand for democracy in the middle east. he develops the knowledge sector in growth theories with two new concepts of 'micro knowledge' and 'macro knowledge'. micro knowledge is what an individual learns from school or various existing knowledge and macro knowledge is the core philosophical thinking of a nation that all individuals inherently receive. how to combine both these pieces of knowledge would determine further growth that leads to the economic development of developing nations. yet others believe that several basic building blocks need to be in place for growth and development to take place. for instance, some economists believe that a fundamental first step toward development and growth is to address property rights issues, otherwise, only a small part of the economic sector will be able to participate in growth. that is, without inclusive property rights in the equation, the informal sector will remain outside the mainstream economy, excluded and without the same opportunities for study. the economic development of countries can also be implicated or contributed by the multinational corporations' companies. economic development goals[edit] the development of a country has been associated with different concepts but generally encompasses economic growth through higher productivity,[ ] political systems that represent as accurately as possible the preferences of its citizens,[ ][ ] the extension of rights to all social groups and the opportunities to get them[ ] and the proper functionality of institutions and organizations that are able to attend more technically and logistically complex tasks (i.e. raise taxes and deliver public services).[ ][ ] these processes describe the state's capabilities to manage its economy, polity, society and public administration.[ ] generally, economic development policies attempt to solve issues in these topics. with this in mind, economic development is typically associated with improvements in a variety of areas or indicators (such as literacy rates, life expectancy, and poverty rates), that may be causes of economic development rather than consequences of specific economic development programs. for example, health and education improvements have been closely related to economic growth, but the causality with economic development may not be obvious. in any case, it is important to not expect that particular economic development programs be able to fix many problems at once as that would be establishing unsurmountable goals for them that are highly unlikely they can achieve. any development policy should set limited goals and a gradual approach to avoid falling victim to something prittchet, woolcock and andrews call ‘premature load bearing’.[ ] many times the economic development goals of specific countries cannot be reached because they lack the state's capabilities to do so. for example, if a nation has little capacity to carry out basic functions like security and policing or core service delivery it is unlikely that a program that wants to foster a free-trade zone (special economic zones) or distribute vaccinations to vulnerable populations can accomplish their goals. this has been something overlooked by multiple international organizations, aid programs and even participating governments who attempt to carry out ‘best practices’ from other places in a carbon-copy manner with little success. this isomorphic mimicry –adopting organizational forms that have been successful elsewhere but that only hide institutional dysfunction without solving it on the home country –can contribute to getting countries stuck in ‘capability traps’ where the country does not advance in its development goals.[ ] an example of this can be seen through some of the criticisms of foreign aid and its success rate at helping countries develop.[citation needed] beyond the incentive compatibility problems that can happen to foreign aid donations –that foreign aid granting countries continue to give it to countries with little results of economic growth[ ] but with corrupt leaders that are aligned with the granting countries’ geopolitical interests and agenda[ ] –there are problems of fiscal fragility associated to receiving an important amount of government revenues through foreign aid. governments that can raise a significant amount of revenue from this source are less accountable to their citizens (they are more autonomous) as they have less pressure to legitimately use those resources.[ ] just as it has been documented for countries with an abundant supply of natural resources such as oil,[ ] countries whose government budget consists largely of foreign aid donations and not regular taxes are less likely to have incentives to develop effective public institutions.[ ] this in turn can undermine the country's efforts to develop. economic development policies[edit] in its broadest sense, policies of economic development encompass two major areas: 	governments undertaking to meet broad economic objectives such as price stability, high employment, and sustainable growth. such efforts include monetary and fiscal policies, regulation of financial institutions, trade, and tax policies. 	programs that provide infrastructure and services such as highways, parks, affordable housing, crime prevention, and k– education. 	job creation and retention through specific efforts in business finance, marketing, neighborhood development, workforce development, small business development, business retention and expansion,[ ] technology transfer, and real estate development. this third category is a primary focus of economic development professionals. contractionary monetary policy is a tool used by central banks to slow down a country’s economic growth. an example would be raising interest rates to decrease lending. in the united states, the use of contractionary monetary policy has increased women’s unemployment.[ ] seguino and heintz uses a panel dataset for each states with unemployment, labor force participation by race, and annual labor market statistics. in addition, for contractionary monetary policy they utilize the federal funds rate, the short-term interest rates charged to banks. seguino and heintz seguino concludes that the impact of a one percentage point increase in the federal funds rate relative to white and black women’s unemployment is . and . , respectively[ ] one growing understanding in economic development is the promotion of regional clusters and a thriving metropolitan economy. in today's global landscape, location is vitally important and becomes a key in competitive advantage.[citation needed] international trade and exchange rates are a key issue in economic development. currencies are often either under-valued or over-valued, resulting in trade surpluses or deficits. furthermore, the growth of globalization has linked economic development with trends on international trade and participation in global value chains (gvcs) and international financial markets. the last financial crisis had a huge effect on economies in developing countries. economist jayati ghosh states that it is necessary to make financial markets in developing countries more resilient by providing a variety of financial institutions. this could also add to financial security for small-scale producers.[ ] organization[edit] main article: economic development organization 	 	this section does not cite any sources. please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "economic development" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (september ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) economic development has evolved into a professional industry of highly specialized practitioners. the practitioners have two key roles: one is to provide leadership in policy-making, and the other is to administer policy, programs, and projects. economic development practitioners generally work in public offices on the state, regional, or municipal level, or in public–private partnerships organizations that may be partially funded by local, regional, state, or federal tax money. these economic development organizations function as individual entities and in some cases as departments of local governments. their role is to seek out new economic opportunities and retain their existing business wealth. there are numerous other organizations whose primary function is not economic development that work in partnership with economic developers. they include the news media, foundations, utilities, schools, health care providers, faith-based organizations, and colleges, universities, and other education or research institutions. international economic development council[edit] with more than , professional economic developers employed worldwide in this highly specialized industry, the international economic development council (iedc) headquartered in washington, d.c. is a non-profit organization dedicated to helping economic developers do their job more effectively and raising the profile of the profession. with over , members across the us and internationally, serving exclusively the economic development community, iedc membership represents the entire range of the profession ranging from regional, state, local, rural, urban, and international economic development organizations, as well as chambers of commerce, technology development agencies, utility companies, educational institutions, consultants and redevelopment authorities. many individual states also have associations comprising economic development professionals, who work closely with iedc.[citation needed] development indicators and indices[edit] there are various types of macroeconomic and sociocultural indicators or "metrics" used by economists and geographers to assess the relative economic advancement of a given region or nation. the world bank's "world development indicators" are compiled annually from officially recognized international sources and include national, regional and global estimates.[ ] gdp per capita – growing development population[edit] gdp per capita is gross domestic product divided by mid year population. gdp is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any product taxes and minus any subsidizes not included in the value of the products. it is calculated without making deductions for depreciation of fabricated assets or for depletion and degradation of natural resources. modern transportation[edit] european development economists have argued that the existence of modern transportation networks- such as high-speed rail infrastructure constitutes a significant indicator of a country's economic advancement: this perspective is illustrated notably through the basic rail transportation infrastructure index (known as brti index)[ ] and related models such as the (modified) rail transportation infrastructure index (rti).[ ] introduction of the gdi and gem[edit] in an effort to create an indicator that would help measure gender equality, the un has created two measures: the gender-related development index (gdi) and the gender empowerment measure (gem). these indicators were first introduced in the undp human development report.[ ] gender empowerment measure[edit] the gender empowerment measure (gem) focuses on aggregating various indicators that focus on capturing the economic, political, and professional gains made by women. the gem is composed of just three variables: income earning power, share in professional and managerial jobs, and share of parliamentary seats.[ ] gender development index[edit] the gender development (gdi) measures the gender gap in human development achievements. it takes disparity between men and women into account in through three variables, health, knowledge, and living standards.[ ] community competition[edit] 	 	this section does not cite any sources. please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (august ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) one unintended consequence of economic development is the intense competition between communities, states, and nations for new economic development projects in today's globalized world. for example, when amazon was looking for the next location to place their second headquarters (amazon hq ), cities and regions across the nation began submitting bids to amazon. other countries, such as canada and mexico, also submitted proposals in an attempt to win.[ ] with the struggle to attract and retain business, competition is further intensified by the use of many variations of economic incentives to the potential business such as: tax incentives, investment capital, donated land, utility rate discounts, and many others. iedc places significant attention on the various activities undertaken by economic development organizations to help them compete and sustain vibrant communities. additionally, the use of community profiling tools and database templates to measure community assets versus other communities is also an important aspect of economic development. job creation, economic output, and increase in taxable basis are the most common measurement tools. when considering measurement, too much emphasis has been placed on economic developers for "not creating jobs". however, the reality is that economic developers do not typically create jobs, but facilitate the process for existing businesses and start-ups to do so. therefore, the economic developer must make sure that there are sufficient economic development programs in place to assist the businesses achieve their goals. those types of programs are usually policy-created and can be local, regional, statewide and national in nature. see also[edit] 	constitutional economics 	development finance institution 	european free trade association 	factors of production 	financial deepening 	gender and development 	green growth 	infrastructure 	international development 	international monetary fund 	north–south divide 	opportunity management 	organisation for economic co-operation and development 	private sector development 	socioeconomics 	world bank group references[edit] 	^ jaffee, david ( ). levels of socio-economic development theory. westport and london: praeger. p.  . isbn  . 	^ seidman, karl f. ( ). economic development finance. thousand oaks: sage publications. p.  . isbn  . 	^ greenwood, daphne t.; holt, richard p. f. ( ). local economic development in the st century. armonk and london: m. e. sharpe. pp.  – . isbn  . 	^ r. conteras, "how the concept of development got started" university of iowa center for international finance and development e-book [ ] archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ escobar, arturo (november ). "power and visibility: development and the invention and management of the third world". cultural anthropology. ( ): – . doi: . /can. . . . a . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ "archived copy". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) 	^ mansell, r & and wehn, u. . knowledge societies: information technology for sustainable development. new york: oxford university press. 	^ schumpeter, joseph & backhaus, ursula, . the theory of economic development. in joseph alois schumpeter. pp. – . doi: . / - - - _ 	^ gerschenkron, alexander ( ). economic backwardness in historical perspective. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. 	^ see michael todaro and stephen c. smith, "economic development" ( th ed.). archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . , pearson education and addison-wesley ( ). 	^ sen, a ( ). "development: which way now?". economic journal. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ hirschman, a. o. ( ). the rise and decline of development economics. essays in trespassing: economics to politics to beyond. pp. – 	^ simon kuznets ( ). modern economic growth: rate, structure and spread, yale university press, new haven, connecticut. 	^ kenneth shepsle and mark bonchek ( ), analyzing politics, second edition, norton, pp. – . 	^ g. bingham powell ( ). elections as instruments of democracy: majoritarian and proportional views. yale university press, new haven, connecticut. 	^ c.a. bayly ( ). “indigenous and colonial origins of comparative economic development: the case of colonial india and africa”, policy research working paper , the world bank. 	^ deborah bräutigam ( ), “building leviathan: revenue, state capacity and governance”, ids bulletin , no. , pp. – 	^ daron acemoglu and james robinson ( ), why nations fail, new york: crown business. 	^ a b c lant pritchett, michael woolcock & matt andrews ( ). looking like a state: techniques of persistent failure in state capability for implementation, the journal of development studies, : , – , doi: . / . . 	^ william easterly ( ), “can foreign aid buy growth?” in journal of economic perspectives ( ), pp. – . 	^ ethan bueno de mesquita ( ), political economy for public policy, princenton university press, chapter . 	^ a b todd moss, gunilla pettersson and nicolas van de walle ( ), “an aid institutions paradox? a review essay on aid dependency and state building in sub-saharan africa”, working paper , center for global development. 	^ michael ross ( ), the oil curse: how petroleum wealth shapes the development of nations. 	^ "what is br&e?". business retention and expansion international. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ seguino, stephanie ( - - ). "engendering macroeconomic theory and policy". feminist economics. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . hdl: / . issn  - . 	^ seguino, stephanie; heintz, james (july ). "monetary tightening and the dynamics of us race and gender stratification". american journal of economics and sociology. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. issn  - . 	^ jayati gosh (january ). "too much of the same". dandc.eu. d+c development and cooperation. 	^ "world development indicators | databank". databank.worldbank.org. retrieved - - . 	^ firzli, m. nicolas j. (september ). "transportation infrastructure and country attractiveness". revue analyse financière. paris. retrieved april . 	^ m. nicolas j. firzli : ‘ lti rome conference: infrastructure-driven development to conjure away the eu malaise?’, revue analyse financière, q – issue n° 	^ united nations development programme ( ). human development report . new york: oxford university press for the united nations development programme (undp). isbn  - - - - . oclc  . 	^ united nations development programme ( ). human development report . new york: oxford university press for the united nations development programme (undp). isbn  - - - - . oclc  . 	^ "gender development index (gdi) | human development reports". hdr.undp.org. retrieved - - . 	^ https://www.brookings.edu/research/amazon-hq -how-did-we-get-here-what-comes-next/ further reading[edit] 	vâsquez, ian ( ). "development, economic". in hamowy, ronald (ed.). the encyclopedia of libertarianism. thousand oaks, ca: sage; cato institute. pp.  – . doi: . / .n . isbn  - - - - . lccn  . oclc  . 	rosnick, david; et al. ( ). the scorecard on development, – : china and the global economic rebound (report). washington, dc: center for economic and policy research. external links[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to economic development. 	 	v 	t 	e lists of countries by gdp rankings 	purchasing power parity (ppp)	 	per capita 	past 	per capita 	past and projected 	per capita 	private consumption per capita 	per person employed 	ten largest historically 	 th century 	nominal	 	per capita 	past and projected 	per capita 	sector composition 	growth rate	 	african countries 	asian states 	european union member states 	european countries 	latin american and caribbean countries 	oceanian countries 	per capita 	 – growth 	industrial growth 	gross national income (gni)	 	ppp per capita 	nominal per capita 	countries by region	 	africa 	ppp 	nominal 	commonwealth of nations 	ppp 	nominal 	latin america & caribbean 	ppp 	nominal 	north america 	ppp 	nominal 	nominal per capita 	south america 	ppp 	arab league 	nominal and per capita 	ppp and per capita 	asean 	asia 	asia & pacific 	ppp 	former soviet republics 	europe 	ppp 	ppp per capita 	nominal 	nominal per capita 	oceania 	ppp 	ppp per capita 	nominal 	nominal per capita 	subnational divisions	 	albania 	argentina 	australia 	austria 	belarus 	belgium 	brazil 	bulgaria 	canada 	chile 	per capita 	china 	per capita 	colombia 	croatia 	czech republic 	finland 	france 	nominal 	nominal per capita 	germany 	nominal 	nominal per capita 	greece 	hungary 	india 	ppp 	per capita 	indonesia 	italy 	nominal per capita 	japan 	per capita 	kenya 	malaysia 	mexico 	per capita 	netherlands 	nigeria 	norway 	pakistan 	peru 	philippines 	poland (per capita) 	portugal 	romania 	russia 	per capita 	serbia 	slovakia 	south africa 	per capita 	south korea 	spain 	sweden 	switzerland 	united kingdom 	nominal 	nominal per capita 	united states 	ppp 	nominal 	nominal per capita 	taiwan 	tanzania 	thailand 	turkey 	vietnam 	oecd 	top country subdivisions by gdp 	nominal 	 	lists of countries by financial rankings 	list of international rankings 	list of top international rankings by country 	lists by country 	 	v 	t 	e capitalism 	aspects and perspectives 	general	 	anarchy of production 	business cycle 	centralization 	competition 	depression 	deregulation 	economic bubble 	economic development 	economic liberalism 	economic planning 	entrepreneurship 	ecoprenuership 	externalities 	financial crisis 	financial revolution 	globalization 	history of capitalist theory 	industrial revolution 	invention 	market economy 	market failure 	merchantilism 	meritocracy 	multinational corporation 	nationalization 	oligopoly 	perspectives on capitalism by school of thought 	privatization 	profit 	property rights 	recession 	regulation 	wage labour 	wealth 	ideology	 	anglo-saxon 	authoritarian 	corporate 	democratic 	dirigist 	free-market 	humanistic 	laissez-faire 	liberal 	libertarian 	market 	mercantilist 	mixed 	monopoly 	national 	neo 	neoliberal 	nordic 	private 	raw 	regulated market 	regulatory 	rhine 	social 	state 	state-sponsored 	welfare 	cultural aspects	 	advertising 	american dream 	consumerism 	decentralization 	economic freedom 	economic mobility 	individualism 	liberalism 	liberty 	mainstream 	philanthropy 	private foundation 	private property 	rule of law 	social alienation 	spontaneous order 	social aspects	 	corporatism 	economic inequality 	employment 	freedom of association 	labour market flexibility 	labour supply 	productivity 	prosperity 	social venture capital 	unemployment 	criticism	 	anti-capitalism 	market fundamentalism 	marxism 	wage slavery 	antithesis	 	anarchism 	anarcho-communism 	anarcho-primitivism 	anarcho-syndicalism 	collectivist anarchism 	communalism 	communism 	economic democracy 	eco-socialism 	free-market socialism 	green anarchism 	individualist anarchism 	libertarian socialism 	market anarchism 	market socialism 	mutualism 	participism 	post-capitalism 	post-scarcity economy 	sharing economy 	social anarchism 	socialism 	syndicalism 	authority control 	 	gnd: - 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wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	distrust 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		not trusting 	 	this article needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "distrust" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (june ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) for the video game, see distrust (video game). 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e distrust is a formal way of not trusting any one party too much in a situation of grave risk or deep doubt. it is commonly expressed in civics as a division or balance of powers, or in politics as means of validating treaty terms. systems based on distrust simply divide the responsibility so that checks and balances can operate. the phrase "trust, but verify" refers specifically to distrust. an electoral system or adversarial process inevitably is based on distrust, but not on mistrust. parties compete in the system, but they do not compete to subvert the system itself, or gain bad faith advantage through it - if they do they are easily caught by the others. much mistrust does exist between parties, and it is exactly this which motivates putting in place a formal system of distrust. diplomatic protocol for instance, which applies between states, relies on such means as formal disapproval which in effect say "we do not trust that person". it also tends to rely on a strict etiquette - distrusting each person's habits to signal their intent, and instead relying on a global standard for behaviour in sensitive social settings. a protocol as defined in computer science uses a more formal idea of distrust itself. different parts of a system are not supposed to "trust" each other but rather perform specific assertions, requests and validations. once these are passed, the responsibility for errors lies strictly with the receiving part of the system, not that which sent the original information. applying this principle inside one program is called contract-based design. corporate governance relies on distrust insofar as the board is not to trust the reports it receives from management, but is empowered to investigate them, challenge them, and otherwise act on behalf of shareholders vs. managers. the fact that they rarely or never do so in most american companies is a sign that the distrust relationship has broken down - accounting scandals and calls for accounting reform are the inevitable result. it is precisely to avoid such larger crises of trust in "the system" that formal distrust measures are put in place to begin with. study[edit] neuroeconomics explain how economists are attempting to understand why humans trust or distrust others by recording physiological measurements during trust experiments.[ ] economists conducted an experiment observing distrust through a trust game. subjects were asked to anonymously donate various amounts of money to other anonymous subjects with no guarantee of receiving money in return. various conditions were run of the experiment and after each decision, subjects' levels of dht were measured. the results of this experiment suggest men and women respond to distrust physiologically differently; a heightened level of the hormone dihydrotestosterone (dht) in men is associated with distrust. however, more experiments need to be conducted and more results need to be obtained to accurately state the relationship between the amount of dht present in males and responses to distrust.[ ] distrust has also been shown to increase the speed and performance of individuals and groups[ ] at certain tasks. one way to classify tasks is to split them into routine (normal, usual) and nonroutine (creative, unusual, undefined). in experiments distrust has been shown to increase performance in nonroutine tasks while decreasing performance in routine tasks.[ ] more broadly, it has been argued that distrust, by supporting healthy suspicion and vigilance, does not always have detrimental consequences and can be related to positive outcomes.[ ][ ] research on high risk settings such as oil platforms, investment banking, medical surgery, aircraft piloting and nuclear powerplants has related distrust to failure avoidance.[ ][ ] when non-routine strategies are needed, distrusting persons perform better, while when routine strategies are needed trusting persons perform better.[ ] this research was extended to entrepreneurial firms by gudmundsson and lechner.[ ] they argued that in entrepreneurial firms the threat of failure is ever present resembling non-routine situations in high risk settings. they found that the firms of distrusting entrepreneurs were more likely to survive than the firms of optimistic or overconfident entrepreneurs. the reasons were that distrusting entrepreneurs would emphasize failure avoidance through sensible task selection, and more analysis.[ ] kets de vries has pointed out that distrusting entrepreneurs are more alert about their external environment.[ ] thus, distrusting entrepreneurs are less likely to discount negative events, and are more likely to engage control mechanisms.[ ][ ][ ][ ] thus, according to gudmundsson and lechner distrust leads to higher precaution and therefore increases chances of entrepreneurial firm survival.[ ] see also[edit] 	cynicism (contemporary) 	paranoia 		wikiquote has quotations related to: distrust references[edit] 	^ a b zak, paul j.; karla borja; william t. matzner; robert kurzban ( ). "the neuroeconomics of distrust: sex differences in behavior and physiology" (pdf). the american economic review. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ lowry, paul benjamin; justin scott giboney; ryan schuetzler; jacob richardson; tom gregory; john romney; bonnie anderson ( – january ). "the value of distrust in computer-based decision-making groups". rd annual hawaii international conference on system sciences. ssrn  . 	^ schul, y.; mayo, r.; burnstein, e. ( ). "the value of distrust". journal of experimental social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /j.jesp. . . . 	^ kramer, roderick m. ( ). "trust and distrust in organizations: emerging perspectives, enduring questions". annual review of psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /annurev.psych. . . . issn  - . pmid  . 	^ guo, shiau-ling; lumineau, fabrice; lewicki, roy j. ( ). "revisiting the foundations of organizational distrust". foundations and trends in management. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . 	^ conchie, s. m. & donald, i. j. ( ). the functions and development of safety-specific trust and distrust. safety science, ( ) - . 	^ burns, c., mearns, k. & mcgeorge, p. ( ). explicit and implicit trust within safety culture. risk analysis, ( ), - . 	^ schul, y., mayo, r., & burnstein, e. ( ). the value of distrust. journal of experimental social psychology, , – . 	^ a b c gudmundsson, s.v. and lechner, c. ( ) cognitive biases, organization, and entrepreneurial firm survival. european management journal, ( ), - 	^ teach, r.d., schwartz, r.g., & tarpley, f.a. ( ). the recognition and exploitation of opportunity in the software industry: a study of surviving firms. frontiers of entrepreneurship research. wellesley, ma: babson college, – . 	^ a b kets de vries, m. ( ). the entrepreneur on the couch. insead quarterly, , - . 	^ davis, j. h., schoorman, f. d., & donaldson, l. ( ). toward a stewardship theory of management. academy of management review, , - . 	^ lewicki, r., mcallister, d., & bies, r. ( ). trust and distrust: new relationships and realities. academy of management review, , – . 	authority control 	 	gnd: - retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=distrust&oldid= " 		categories: 	reputation management 	concepts in ethics 	accountability 	doubt hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	articles needing additional references from june 	all articles needing additional references 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	deutsch 	فارسی 	한국어 	italiano 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	magyar 	ਪੰਜਾਬੀ 	اردو 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 gratification - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	gratification 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		pleasurable emotional reaction of happiness in response to a fulfillment of a desire or goal american basketball player kevin durant, after receiving the gold medal at the fiba world championship 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e gratification is the pleasurable emotional reaction of happiness in response to a fulfillment of a desire or goal. it is also identified as a response stemming from the fulfillment of social needs such as affiliation, socializing, social approval, and mutual recognition.[ ] gratification, like all emotions, is a motivator of behavior and thus plays a role in the entire range of human social systems. contents 	 immediate and delayed gratification 	 . criticism 	 bipolar disorder 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading immediate and delayed gratification[edit] the term immediate gratification is often used to label the satisfactions gained by more impulsive behaviors: choosing now over tomorrow.[ ] the skill of giving preference to long-term goals over more immediate ones is known as deferred gratification or patience, and it is usually considered a virtue, producing rewards in the long term.[ ] there are sources who claim that the prefrontal cortex plays a part in the incidence of these two types of gratification, particularly in the case of delayed gratification since one of its functions involve predicting future events.[ ][ ] walter mischel developed the well-known marshmallow experiment to test gratification patterns in four-year-olds, offering one marshmallow now or two after a delay.[ ] he discovered in long-term follow-up that the ability to resist eating the marshmallow immediately was a good predictor of success in later life. however, tyler w. watts, greg j. duncan, and haonan quan, published revisiting the marshmallow test: a conceptual replication investigating links between early delay of gratification and later outcomes[ ] debunking the original marshmallow experiment. concluding that "this bivariate correlation was only half the size of those reported in the original studies and was reduced by two thirds in the presence of controls for family background, early cognitive ability, and the home environment. most of the variation in adolescent achievement came from being able to wait at least s. associations between delay time and measures of behavioral outcomes at age were much smaller and rarely statistically significant." criticism[edit] while one might say that those who lack the skill to delay are immature, an excess of this skill can create problems as well; i.e. an individual becomes inflexible, or unable to take pleasure in life (anhedonia) and seize opportunities for fear of adverse consequences.[ ] there are also circumstances, in an uncertain/negative environment, when seizing gratification is the rational approach,[ ] as in wartime.[ ] bipolar disorder[edit] gratification is a major issue in bipolar disorder. one sign of the onset of depression is a spreading loss of the sense of gratification in such immediate things as friendship, jokes, conversation, food and sex.[ ] long-term gratification seems even more meaningless.[ ] by contrast, the manic can find gratification in almost anything, even a leaf falling, or seeing their crush for example.[ ] there is also the case of the so-called manic illusion of gratification , which is analogous to an infant's illusion of obtaining food. here, if the food is not given right away, he fantasizes about it and this eventually give way to stronger emotions such as anger and depression.[ ] see also[edit] 	contentment 	cost-benefit analysis 	pleasure 	social sciences 	uses and gratifications theory 	utilitarianism references[edit] 	^ van eimeren, w.; engelbrecht, r.; flagle, ch.d. ( ). third international conference on system science in health care: troisième conférence internationale sur la science des systèmes dans le domaine de la santé. berlin: springer verlag. p.  . isbn  . 	^ r. f. baumeister/b. j. bushman, social psychology and human nature ( ) p. 	^ baumeister, p. 	^ fuster, joaquin ( ). the prefrontal cortex. london: academic press. pp.  . isbn  . 	^ maciocia, giovanni ( ). the psyche in chinese medicine: treatment of emotional and mental disharmonies with acupuncture and chinese herbs. edinburgh: elsevier health sciences. p.  . isbn  . 	^ daniel goleman, emotional intelligence ( ) p. - 	^ watts, tyler w.; duncan, greg j.; quan, haonan ( ). "revisiting the marshmallow test: a conceptual replication investigating links between early delay of gratification and later outcomes". psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ eric berne, sex in human loving ( ) p. 	^ frank munger, labouring below the line ( ) p. 	^ james holland, the battle of britain ( ) p. - 	^ aaron t. beck/brad a. alford, depression ( ) p. 	^ beck, p. 	^ beck, p. 	^ welton, welton; david, koenig; harold ( ). the treatment of bipolar disorder in pastoral counseling: community and silence. new york: routledge. isbn  . further reading[edit] 		look up gratification in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: gratification 	o'donoghue, ted; rabin, matthew ( ). "the economics of immediate gratification" (pdf). journal of behavioral decision making. ( ): – . doi: . /(sici) - ( / ) : < ::aid-bdm > . .co; -u. - an academic paper treating gratification and self-control problems 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 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policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 cristina bicchieri - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	cristina bicchieri 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		italian–american philosopher 	cristina bicchieri 	 	born	 milan 	nationality	italian–american 	 	era	 th-/ st-century philosophy 	region	western philosophy 	school	analytic 	main interests 	philosophy of social science, rational choice, game theory 	 cristina bicchieri (born ) is an italian–american philosopher. she is the s.j.p. harvie professor of social thought and comparative ethics in the philosophy and psychology departments at the university of pennsylvania, professor of legal studies in the wharton school, and director of the philosophy, politics and economics program.[ ] she has worked on problems in the philosophy of social science, rational choice and game theory.[ ] more recently, her work has focused on the nature and evolution of social norms, and the design of behavioral experiments to test under which conditions norms will be followed.[ ] she is a leader in the field of behavioral ethics and is the director of the behavioral ethics lab (belab) at the university of pennsylvania.[ ] contents 	 life and career 	 philosophical work 	 . social norms 	 . epistemic foundations of game theory 	 books 	 see also 	 references 	 external links life and career[edit] bicchieri was born in milan, italy. she received her laurea in philosophy, summa cum laude, from the university of milan in , and her phd in philosophy of science at cambridge university in .[ ] before moving to the university of pennsylvania, she taught in the program of philosophy and economics at barnard college, columbia university, in the philosophy department at notre dame university and in the departments of philosophy and social and decision sciences at carnegie mellon university.[ ] she is also a member of the advisory board at the school of government at luiss university of rome, where she occasionally teaches.[ ] bicchieri has served as a consultant to unicef since , and she has advised various ngos and other international organizations on social norms and how to deal with them when combating negative social practices.[ ] her work on social norms has been adopted by unicef in its campaigns to eliminate practices that violate human rights.[ ] she was knighted cavaliere ordine al merito della republica italiana in .[ ] philosophical work[edit] bicchieri is especially known for her work regarding the epistemic foundations of game theory and social norms.[ ] her recent experimental work is a major contribution to behavioral ethics,[ ] as it shows how different kind of expectations influence pro-social behavior. the behavioral ethics lab which she leads specializes in the study of social norms, moral heuristics, biases, resource division, cheating, corruption, measures of autonomy and their relation to social change.[ ] social norms[edit] bicchieri has developed a new theory of social norms that challenges several of the fundamental methodological assumptions of the social sciences.[ ] she argues that the stress social scientists place upon rational deliberation obscures the fact that many successful choices occur even though the individuals make their choices without much deliberation. she explores in depth the more automatic components of coordination and proposes a heuristic account of coordination that complements the more traditional deliberational account.[ ] according to her heuristic account, individuals conform with a social norm as an automatic response to cues in their situation that focus their attention on this particular norm. a social norm is analyzed as a rule for choosing in a mixed-motive game, such as the prisoner's dilemma, that members of a population prefer to follow on condition that they expect sufficiently many in the population to follow the rule. bicchieri applies this account of social norms and heuristic selection of norms to a number of important problems in the social sciences, including bargaining, the prisoners' dilemma and suboptimal norms based upon pluralistic ignorance.[ ] her most recent research is experimental, showing how normative and empirical expectations support norm compliance, and how manipulating such expectations can radically change behavior.[ ] her experimental results show that most subjects have a conditional preference for following pro-social norms.[ ] manipulating their expectations causes major behavioral changes (i.e., from fair to unfair choices, from cooperation to defection). she asserts that there are no such things as stable dispositions or unconditional preferences (to be fair, reciprocate, cooperate, and so on). she similarly concludes that policymakers who want to induce pro-social behavior have to work on changing people's expectations about how others behave and how others think one should behave in similar situations (i.e. people's empirical and normative expectations). these results have major consequences for our understanding of moral behavior and the construction of better normative theories, grounded on what people can in fact do.[ ] epistemic foundations of game theory[edit] bicchieri pioneered work on counterfactuals and belief-revision in games, and the consequences of relaxing the common knowledge assumption.[ ] her contributions include axiomatic models of players' theory of the game and the proof that—in a large class of games—a player's theory of the game is consistent only if the player's knowledge is limited.[ ] an important consequence of assuming bounded knowledge is that it allows for more intuitive solutions to familiar games such as the finitely repeated prisoner's dilemma or the chain-store paradox. bicchieri has also devised mechanical procedures (algorithms) that allow players to compute solutions for games of perfect and imperfect information. devising such procedures is particularly important for artificial intelligence applications, since interacting software agents have to be programmed to play a variety of 'games'.[ ] books[edit] 	norms in the wild: how to diagnose, measure and change social norms (oxford university press, )) isbn  	the grammar of society: the nature and dynamics of social norms (cambridge university press, )) isbn  - - - 	the logic of strategy (with brian skyrms and richard jeffrey) (oxford university press, ) isbn  - - - - 	the dynamics of norms (with brian skyrms and richard jeffrey) (cambridge university press, ) isbn  - - - 	rationality and coordination (cambridge university press, ; second edition, ) isbn  - - - 	knowledge, belief and strategic interaction (with maria luisa dalla chiara) (cambridge university press, ) isbn  - - - 	ragioni per credere, ragioni per fare: convenzioni e vincoli nel metodo scientifico (feltrinelli, ) isbn  see also[edit] 	italian philosophy 	list of italian philosophers references[edit] 	^ a b c d e "cristina bicchieri". philosophy.sas.upenn.edu/. university of pennsylvania. archived from the original on december . retrieved november . 	^ a b c "belab". belab.org. university of pennsylvania. archived from the original on november . retrieved november . 	^ "cristina bicchieri". sog.luiss.it/. libera università internazionale degli studi sociali. archived from the original on december . retrieved november . 	^ "advisory board". sog.luiss.it/. libera università internazionale degli studi sociali "guido carli". retrieved november . 	^ "the philosopher queen of unicef". penn gazette. university of pennsylvania. retrieved november . 	^ "changing norms to change lives" (pdf). www.sas.upenn.edu. university of pennsylvania. retrieved november . 	^ "cristina bicchieri receives italian knighthood". www.sas.upenn.edu. university of pennsylvania. retrieved november . 	^ guala, francesco ( ). "review: the grammar of society: the nature and dynamics of social norms" (pdf). the british journal for the philosophy of science. ( ): – . doi: . /bjps/axm . 	^ a b c. bicchieri,the grammar of society: the nature and dynamics of social norms (cambridge university press, ) 	^ bicchieri, c.; chavez, a. ( ). "norm manipulation, norm evasion: experimental evidence". economics and philosophy. ( ): – . doi: . /s . 	^ bicchieri, c. ( ). "norms, preferences, and conditional behavior". politics, philosophy, and economics. ( ): – . doi: . / x . s cid  . 	^ c. bicchieri and a. chavez ( ), behaving as expected: public information and fairness norms, journal of behavioral decision making, ( ): - . 	^ bicchieri, c. ( ). "counterfactuals, belief changes, and equilibrium refinements". philosophical topics. ( ): – . doi: . /philtopics . 	^ c. bicchieri, rationality and coordination (cambridge university press ). 	^ c. bicchieri and a. antonelli ( ), game-theoretic axioms for local rationality and bounded knowledge, journal of logic, language and information external links[edit] 	 	this section's use of external links may not follow wikipedia's policies or guidelines. please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (april ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	bicchieri's department 	belab website 	bicchieri's personal page 	interview about norms in the wild[permanent dead link] 	ppe program 	norms in the wild 	the grammar of society 	gintis review 	rationality and coordination 	another gintis review 	luiss international relations master's degree 	authority control 	 	bibsys: 	bnf: cb q (data) 	gnd: 	isni: 	lccn: n 	nkc: vse 	nta: 	sudoc: 	viaf: 	 worldcat identities: lccn-n retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=cristina_bicchieri&oldid= " 		categories: 	living people 	 th-century american philosophers 	 st-century american philosophers 	italian philosophers 	italian emigrants to the united states 	american women philosophers 	philosophers of science 	game theorists 	university of milan alumni 	columbia university faculty 	university of notre dame faculty 	carnegie mellon university faculty 	university of pennsylvania faculty 	people from milan 	alumni of 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	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			español 	فارسی 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 desire - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	desire 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		emotion of longing for a person, object or outcome for other uses, see desire (disambiguation). 		look up desire in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e desire is the emotion of longing or hoping for a person, object, or outcome. the same sense is expressed by words such as "craving". when a person desires something or someone, their sense of longing is excited by the enjoyment or the thought of the item or person, and they want to take actions to obtain their goal. the motivational aspect of desire has long been noted by philosophers (for example, stating that human desire is the fundamental motivation of all human action) as well as by scientists (see motivational salience). marketing and advertising companies have used psychological research on how desire is stimulated to find more effective ways to induce consumers into buying a given product or service. while some advertising attempts to give buyers a sense of lack or wanting, other types of advertising create desire associating the product with desirable attributes, by showing either a celebrity or a model with the product. desire plays a key role in art. the theme of desire is at the core of romance novels, which often create drama by showing cases where human desire is impeded by social conventions, class, or cultural barriers. the theme of desire is also used in other literary genres, such as gothic novels (e.g., dracula by bram stoker, in which desire is mingled with fear and dread). poets ranging from homer to toni morrison have dealt with the theme of desire in their work. just as desire is central to the written fiction genre of romance, it is the central theme of melodrama films, which use plots that appeal to the heightened emotions of the audience by showing "crises of human emotion, failed romance or friendship", in which desire is thwarted or unrequited. contents 	 in philosophy 	 in religion 	 . buddhism 	 . christianity 	 . hinduism 	 scientific perspectives 	 . neuropsychology 	 . psychiatry 	 in marketing 	 in fiction and art 	 . written fiction 	 . film 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading in philosophy[edit] main article: philosophy of desire saudade ( ), by josé ferraz de almeida júnior in philosophy, desire has been identified as a philosophical problem since antiquity. in the republic, plato argues that individual desires must be postponed in the name of the higher ideal. in de anima, aristotle claims that desire is implicated in animal interactions and the propensity of animals to motion; at the same time, he acknowledges that reasoning also interacts with desire. hobbes ( – ) proposed the concept of psychological hedonism, which asserts that the "fundamental motivation of all human action is the desire for pleasure." baruch spinoza ( – ) had a view which contrasted with hobbes, in that "he saw natural desires as a form of bondage" that are not chosen by a person of their own free will. david hume ( – ) claimed that desires and passions are non-cognitive, automatic bodily responses, and he argued that reasoning is "capable only of devising means to ends set by [bodily] desire".[ ] immanuel kant ( – ) called any action based on desires a hypothetical imperative, which means they are a command of reason, applying only if one desires the goal in question.[ ] kant also established a relation between the beautiful and pleasure in critique of judgment. georg wilhelm friedrich hegel claimed that "self-consciousness is desire". because desire can cause humans to become obsessed and embittered, it has been called one of the causes of woe for mankind.[ ] in religion[edit] buddhism[edit] in buddhism, craving (see taṇhā) is thought to be the cause of all suffering that one experiences in human existence. the eradication of craving leads one to ultimate happiness, or nirvana. however, desire for wholesome things is seen as liberating and enhancing.[ ] while the stream of desire for sense-pleasures must be cut eventually, a practitioner on the path to liberation is encouraged by the buddha to "generate desire" for the fostering of skillful qualities and the abandoning of unskillful ones.[ ] for an individual to effect his or her liberation, the flow of sense-desire must be cut completely; however, while training, he or she must work with motivational processes based on skillfully applied desire.[ ] according to the early buddhist scriptures, the buddha stated that monks should "generate desire" for the sake of fostering skillful qualities and abandoning unskillful ones.[ ] there is a double message here between what buddha said, that desire must be created, and what some monks propose to their followers, that desire must be cut. truth is buddhism entails two aspects: the ideas monks taught to civilize peasantry, on the one hand, and the esoteric teachings of tantra (aimed at leaders) for self-realization, on the other, where—just as buddha said—desire must be generated. oscar r. gómez holds that teachings imparted privately by the th dalai lama are meant for leaders to be able to choose a specific desire consciously by creating it previously from the inside. people have a tendency to live based on desires coming from the outside, and such desires are the ones making choices for them. as an alternative, tantric tibetan buddhism allows to choose a desire consciously; to create desire rather than being created by it.[ ] christianity[edit] within christianity, desire is seen as something that can either lead a person towards god or away from him. desire is not considered to be a bad thing in and of itself; rather, it is a powerful force within the human that, once submitted to the lordship of christ, can become a tool for good, for advancement, and for abundant living. hinduism[edit] in hinduism, the rig veda's creation myth nasadiya sukta states regarding the one (ekam) spirit: "in the beginning there was desire (kama) that was first seed of mind. poets found the bond of being in non-being in their heart's thought". scientific perspectives[edit] neuropsychology[edit] main article: motivational salience while desires are often classified as emotions by laypersons, psychologists often describe desires as different from emotions.[citation needed] for psychologists, desires arise from bodily structures and functions (e.g., the stomach needing food and the blood needing oxygen). on the other hand, emotions arise from a person's mental state. a study by the university of michigan indicated that, while humans experience desire and fear as psychological opposites, they share the same brain circuit.[ ] a study entitled "the neural correlates of desire" showed that the human brain categorizes stimuli according to its desirability by activating three different brain areas: the superior orbitofrontal cortex, the mid-cingulate cortex, and the anterior cingulate cortex.[ ][non-primary source needed] in affective neuroscience, "desire" and "wanting" are operationally defined as motivational salience;[ ][ ] the form of "desire" or "wanting" associated with a rewarding stimulus (i.e., a stimulus which acts as a positive reinforcer, such as palatable food, an attractive mate, or an addictive drug) is called "incentive salience" and research has demonstrated that incentive salience, the sensation of pleasure, and positive reinforcement are all derived from neuronal activity within the reward system.[ ][ ][ ] studies have shown that dopamine signaling in the nucleus accumbens shell and endogenous opioid signaling in the ventral pallidum are at least partially responsible for mediating an individual's desire (i.e., incentive salience) for a rewarding stimulus and the subjective perception of pleasure derived from experiencing or "consuming" a rewarding stimulus (e.g., pleasure derived from eating palatable food, sexual pleasure from intercourse with an attractive mate, or euphoria from using an addictive drug).[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] research also shows that the orbitofrontal cortex has connections to both the opioid and dopamine systems, and stimulating this cortex is associated with subjective reports of pleasure.[ ] psychiatry[edit] see also: philosophy_of_desire § psychoanalysis austrian psychiatrist sigmund freud, who is best known for his theories of the unconscious mind and the defense mechanism of repression and for creating the clinical practice of psychoanalysis, proposed the notion of the oedipus complex, which argues that desire for the mother creates neuroses in their sons. freud used the greek myth of oedipus to argue that people desire incest and must repress that desire. he claimed that children pass through several stages, including a stage in which they fixate on the mother as a sexual object. that this "complex" is universal has long since been disputed. even if it were true, that would not explain those neuroses in daughters, but only in sons. while it is true that sexual confusion can be aberrative in a few cases, there is no credible evidence to suggest that it is a universal scenario. while freud was correct in labeling the various symptoms behind most compulsions, phobias and disorders, he was largely incorrect in his theories regarding the etiology of what he identified.[ ] french psychoanalyst and psychiatrist jacques lacan ( – ) argues that desire first occurs during a "mirror phase" of a baby's development, when the baby sees an image of wholeness in a mirror which gives them a desire for that being. as a person matures, lacan claims that they still feel separated from themselves by language, which is incomplete, and so a person continually strives to become whole. he uses the term "jouissance" to refer to the lost object or feeling of absence (see manque) which a person believes to be unobtainable.[ ] in marketing[edit] in the field of marketing, desire is the human appetite for a given object of attention. desire for a product is stimulated by advertising, which attempts to give buyers a sense of lack or wanting. in store retailing, merchants attempt to increase the desire of the buyer by showcasing the product attractively, in the case of clothes or jewellery, or, for food stores, by offering samples. with print, tv, and radio advertising, desire is created by giving the potential buyer a sense of lacking ("are you still driving that old car?") or by associating the product with desirable attributes, either by showing a celebrity using or wearing the product, or by giving the product a "halo effect" by showing attractive models with the product. nike's "just do it" ads for sports shoes are appealing to consumers' desires for self-betterment. in some cases, the potential buyer already has the desire for the product before they enter the store, as in the case of a decorating buff entering their favorite furniture store. the role of the salespeople in these cases is simply to guide the customer towards making a choice; they do not have to try to "sell" the general idea of making a purchase, because the customer already wants the products. in other cases, the potential buyer does not have a desire for the product or service, and so the company has to create the sense of desire. an example of this situation is for life insurance. most young adults are not thinking about dying, so they are not naturally thinking about how they need to have accidental death insurance. life insurance companies, though, are attempting to create a desire for life insurance with advertising that shows pictures of children and asks "if anything happens to you, who will pay for the children's upkeep?".[citation needed] marketing theorists call desire the third stage in the hierarchy of effects, which occurs when the buyer develops a sense that if they felt the need for the type of product in question, the advertised product is what would quench their desire.[ ] in fiction and art[edit] written fiction[edit] the theme of desire is at the core of the romance novel. novels which are based around the theme of desire, which can range from a long aching feeling to an unstoppable torrent, include madame bovary by gustave flaubert; love in the time of cholera by gabriel garcia marquez; lolita by vladimir nabokov; jane eyre by charlotte brontë, and dracula by bram stoker. brontë's characterization of jane eyre depicts her as torn by an inner conflict between reason and desire, because "customs" and "conventionalities" stand in the way of her romantic desires.[ ] e.m. forster's novels use homoerotic codes to describe same-sex desire and longing. close male friendships with subtle homoerotic undercurrents occur in every novel, which subverts the conventional, heterosexual plot of the novels.[ ] in the gothic-themed dracula, stoker depicts the theme of desire which is coupled with fear. when the lucy character is seduced by dracula, she describes her sensations in the graveyard as a mixture of fear and blissful emotion. poet w.b. yeats depicts the positive and negative aspects of desire in his poems such as "the rose for the world", "adam's curse", "no second troy", "all things can tempt me", and "meditations in time of civil war". some poems depict desire as a poison for the soul; yeats worked through his desire for his beloved, maud gonne, and realized that "our longing, our craving, our thirsting for something other than reality is what dissatisfies us". in "the rose for the world", he admires her beauty, but feels pain because he cannot be with her. in the poem "no second troy", yeats overflows with anger and bitterness because of their unrequited love.[ ] poet t. s. eliot dealt with the themes of desire and homoeroticism in his poetry, prose and drama.[ ] other poems on the theme of desire include john donne's poem "to his mistress going to bed", carol ann duffy's longings in "warming her pearls"; ted hughes' "lovesong" about the savage intensity of desire; and wendy cope's humorous poem "song". philippe borgeaud's novels analyse how emotions such as erotic desire and seduction are connected to fear and wrath by examining cases where people are worried about issues of impurity, sin, and shame. film[edit] just as desire is central to the written fiction genre of romance, it is the central theme of melodrama films, which are a subgenre of the drama film. like drama, a melodrama depends mostly on in-depth character development, interaction, and highly emotional themes. melodramatic films tend to use plots that appeal to the heightened emotions of the audience. melodramatic plots often deal with "crises of human emotion, failed romance or friendship, strained familial situations, tragedy, illness, neuroses, or emotional and physical hardship." film critics sometimes use the term "pejoratively to connote an unrealistic, bathos-filled, campy tale of romance or domestic situations with stereotypical characters (often including a central female character) that would directly appeal to feminine audiences."[ ] also called "women's movies", "weepies", tearjerkers, or "chick flicks". "melodrama… is hollywood's fairly consistent way of treating desire and subject identity", as can be seen in well-known films such as gone with the wind, in which "desire is the driving force for both scarlett and the hero, rhett". scarlett desires love, money, the attention of men, and the vision of being a virtuous "true lady". rhett butler desires to be with scarlett, which builds to a burning longing that is ultimately his undoing, because scarlett keeps refuses his advances; when she finally confesses her secret desire, rhett is worn out and his longing is spent. in cathy cupitt's article on "desire and vision in blade runner", she argues that film, as a "visual narrative form, plays with the voyeuristic desires of its audience". focusing on the dystopian s science fiction film blade runner, she calls the film an "object of visual desire", in which it plays to an "expectation of an audience's delight in visual texture, with the 'retro-fitted' spectacle of the post-modern city to ogle" and with the use of the "motif of the 'eye'". in the film, "desire is a key motivating influence on the narrative of the film, both in the 'real world', and within the text."[ ] see also[edit] 	motivation 	saudade 	taṇhā 	trishna (vedic thought) 	valence (psychology) 	wish references[edit] 	^ ethics chapter. routledge encyclopedia of philosophy cd-rom, v. . , london: routledge edward craig (ed). "morality and emotions". by martha c. nussbaum 	^ "desire - behaviour". encyclopædia britannica. 	^ hagen, steve. buddhism plain and simple. new york: broadway books, . 	^ charles s. prebish, and damien keown, buddhism - the ebook. journal of buddhist ethics online books, , page . 	^ a b thanissaro bhikkhu, "the wings to awakening". 	^ steven collins, selfless persons: thought and imagery in theravada buddhism. cambridge university press, , page : "in the end, the flowing streams of sense-desire must be 'cut' or 'crossed' completely; nevertheless, for the duration of the path, a monk must perforce work with motivational and perceptual processes as they ordinarily are, that is to say, based on desire ... thus, during mental training, the stream is not to be 'cut' immediately, but guided, like water along viaducts. the meditative steadying of the mind by counting in- and out-breaths (in the mindfulness of breathing) is compared to the steadying of a boat in 'a fierce current' by its rudder. the disturbance of the flow of a mountain stream by irrigation channels cut into its sides it used to illustrate the weakening of insight by the five 'hindrances'." 	^ gómez, oscar r. ( ). manual of tantra vol iii ...from tantra to the technology of desire. editorial menteclara. isbn  - - - - . read at: academia.edu 	^ "changing stress levels can make brain flip from 'desire' to 'dread'". mar. , http://www.ns.umich.edu/htdocs/releases/story.php?id= 	^ kawabata h, zeki s ( ). "the neural correlates of desire". plos one. ( ): e . bibcode: ploso... . k. citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /journal.pone. . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ a b schultz w ( ). "neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data". physiological reviews. ( ): – . doi: . /physrev. . . pmc  . pmid  . rewards in operant conditioning are positive reinforcers. ... operant behavior gives a good definition for rewards. anything that makes an individual come back for more is a positive reinforcer and therefore a reward. although it provides a good definition, positive reinforcement is only one of several reward functions. ... rewards are attractive. they are motivating and make us exert an effort. ... rewards induce approach behavior, also called appetitive or preparatory behavior, and consummatory behavior. ... thus any stimulus, object, event, activity, or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward. ... rewarding stimuli, objects, events, situations, and activities consist of several major components. first, rewards have basic sensory components (visual, auditory, somatosensory, gustatory, and olfactory) ... second, rewards are salient and thus elicit attention, which are manifested as orienting responses (figure , middle). the salience of rewards derives from three principal factors, namely, their physical intensity and impact (physical salience), their novelty and surprise (novelty/surprise salience), and their general motivational impact shared with punishers (motivational salience). a separate form not included in this scheme, incentive salience, primarily addresses dopamine function in addiction and refers only to approach behavior (as opposed to learning) ... these emotions are also called liking (for pleasure) and wanting (for desire) in addiction research ( ) and strongly support the learning and approach generating functions of reward. 	^ a b malenka rc, nestler ej, hyman se ( ). sydor a, brown ry (eds.). molecular neuropharmacology: a foundation for clinical neuroscience ( nd ed.). new york: mcgraw-hill medical. pp.  – , , . isbn  - - - - . vta da neurons play a critical role in motivation, reward-related behavior (chapter ), attention, and multiple forms of memory. this organization of the da system, wide projection from a limited number of cell bodies, permits coordinated responses to potent new rewards. thus, acting in diverse terminal fields, dopamine confers motivational salience (“wanting”) on the reward itself or associated cues (nucleus accumbens shell region), updates the value placed on different goals in light of this new experience (orbital prefrontal cortex), helps consolidate multiple forms of memory (amygdala and hippocampus), and encodes new motor programs that will facilitate obtaining this reward in the future (nucleus accumbens core region and dorsal striatum). in this example, dopamine modulates the processing of sensorimotor information in diverse neural circuits to maximize the ability of the organism to obtain future rewards. 	^ a b malenka rc, nestler ej, hyman se ( ). "chapter : reinforcement and addictive disorders". in sydor a, brown ry (eds.). molecular neuropharmacology: a foundation for clinical neuroscience ( nd ed.). new york: mcgraw-hill medical. pp.  – , . isbn  . the neural substrates that underlie the perception of reward and the phenomenon of positive reinforcement are a set of interconnected forebrain structures called brain reward pathways; these include the nucleus accumbens (nac; the major component of the ventral striatum), the basal forebrain (components of which have been termed the extended amygdala, as discussed later in this chapter), hippocampus, hypothalamus, and frontal regions of cerebral cortex. these structures receive rich dopaminergic innervation from the ventral tegmental area (vta) of the midbrain. addictive drugs are rewarding and reinforcing because they act in brain reward pathways to enhance either dopamine release or the effects of dopamine in the nac or related structures, or because they produce effects similar to dopamine. ... a macrostructure postulated to integrate many of the functions of this circuit is described by some investigators as the extended amygdala. the extended amygdala is said to comprise several basal forebrain structures that share similar morphology, immunocytochemical features, and connectivity and that are well suited to mediating aspects of reward function; these include the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, the central medial amygdala, the shell of the nac, and the sublenticular substantia innominata. 	^ a b berridge kc, kringelbach ml (may ). "pleasure systems in the brain". neuron. ( ): – . doi: . /j.neuron. . . . pmc  . pmid  . in the prefrontal cortex, recent evidence indicates that the ofc and insula cortex may each contain their own additional hot spots (d.c. castro et al., soc. neurosci., abstract). in specific subregions of each area, either opioid-stimulating or orexin-stimulating microinjections appear to enhance the number of ‘‘liking’’ reactions elicited by sweetness, similar to the nac and vp hot spots. successful confirmation of hedonic hot spots in the ofc or insula would be important and possibly relevant to the orbitofrontal mid-anterior site mentioned earlier that especially tracks the subjective pleasure of foods in humans (georgiadis et al., ; kringelbach, ; kringelbach et al., ; small et al., ; veldhuizen et al., ). finally, in the brainstem, a hindbrain site near the parabrachial nucleus of dorsal pons also appears able to contribute to hedonic gains of function (söderpalm and berridge, ). a brainstem mechanism for pleasure may seem more surprising than forebrain hot spots to anyone who views the brainstem as merely reflexive, but the pontine parabrachial nucleus contributes to taste, pain, and many visceral sensations from the body and has also been suggested to play an important role in motivation (wu et al., ) and in human emotion (especially related to the somatic marker hypothesis) (damasio, ). 	^ kringelbach ml, berridge kc ( ). "the joyful mind". from abuse to recovery: understanding addiction. macmillan. pp.  – . isbn  . retrieved april . so it makes sense that the real pleasure centers in the brain—those directly responsible for generating pleasurable sensations—turn out to lie within some of the structures previously identified as part of the reward circuit. one of these so-called hedonic hotspots lies in a subregion of the nucleus accumbens called the medial shell. a second is found within the ventral pallidum, a deep-seated structure near the base of the forebrain that receives most of its signals from the nucleus accumbens. ... on the other hand, intense euphoria is harder to come by than everyday pleasures. the reason may be that strong enhancement of pleasure—like the chemically induced pleasure bump we produced in lab animals—seems to require activation of the entire network at once. defection of any single component dampens the high. 	^ grall-bronnec m, sauvaget a ( ). "the use of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for modulating craving and addictive behaviours: a critical literature review of efficacy, technical and methodological considerations". neurosci. biobehav. rev. : – . doi: . /j.neubiorev. . . . pmid  . studies have shown that cravings are underpinned by activation of the reward and motivation circuits (mcbride et al., , wang et al., , wing et al., , goldman et al., , jansen et al., and volkow et al., ). according to these authors, the main neural structures involved are: the nucleus accumbens, dorsal striatum, orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlpfc), amygdala, hippocampus and insula. 	^ koob gf, volkow nd (august ). "neurobiology of addiction: a neurocircuitry analysis". lancet psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . pmc  . pmid  . drug addiction represents a dramatic dysregulation of motivational circuits that is caused by a combination of exaggerated incentive salience and habit formation, reward deficits and stress surfeits, and compromised executive function in three stages. the rewarding effects of drugs of abuse, development of incentive salience, and development of drug-seeking habits in the binge/intoxication stage involve changes in dopamine and opioid peptides in the basal ganglia. the increases in negative emotional states and dysphoric and stress-like responses in the withdrawal/negative affect stage involve decreases in the function of the dopamine component of the reward system and recruitment of brain stress neurotransmitters, such as corticotropin-releasing factor and dynorphin, in the neurocircuitry of the extended amygdala. the craving and deficits in executive function in the so-called preoccupation/anticipation stage involve the dysregulation of key afferent projections from the prefrontal cortex and insula, including glutamate, to the basal ganglia and extended amygdala. molecular genetic studies have identified transduction and transcription factors that act in neurocircuitry associated with the development and maintenance of addiction that might mediate initial vulnerability, maintenance, and relapse associated with addiction. ... substance-induced changes in transcription factors can also produce competing effects on reward function. for example, repeated substance use activates accumulating levels of Δfosb, and animals with elevated Δfosb exhibit exaggerated sensitivity to the rewarding eff ects of drugs of abuse, leading to the hypothesis that Δfosb might be a sustained molecular trigger or switch that helps initiate and maintain a state of addiction. , 	^ kringelbach, morten l. (may , ). "searching the brain for happiness". bbc news. archived from the original on october , . 	^ "sigmund freud ( — )". the university of tennessee, martin. march , . retrieved january , . 	^ "a systemic perspective on cognition and mathematics". lin forrest publishers. june , . retrieved january , . 	^ "archived copy". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) cs maint: bot: original-url status unknown (link) 	^ desire, class position, and gender in jane eyre and pickwick papers benjamin graves ' (english brown university, ) 	^ distant desire: homoerotic codes and the subversion of the english novel in e.m. forster's fiction (sexuality and literature) by parminder kaur bakshi 	^ "sepulveda - desire: can't live with it, can't live without it". 	^ gender, desire, and sexuality in t. s. eliot. edited by cassandra laity. drew university, new jersey. nancy k. gish. university of southern maine ( isbn  - - - - | isbn  - - - ) 	^ "melodramas films". 	^ "cathy cupitt, eyeballing the simulacra desire and vision in blade runner". archived from the original on october , . retrieved - - .cs maint: bot: original-url status unknown (link) further reading[edit] 	marks, joel. the ways of desire: new essays in philosophical psychology on the concept of wanting. transaction publishers, 	jadranka skorin-kapov, the aesthetics of desire and surprise: phenomenology and speculation. lexington books 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion 	authority control 	 	gnd: - 		wikiquote has quotations related to: desire retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=desire&oldid= " 		categories: 	emotions 	philosophy of love 	personal life 	philosophy of sexuality hidden categories: 	cs maint: archived copy as title 	cs maint: bot: original-url status unknown 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from january 	all pages needing factual verification 	wikipedia articles needing factual verification from september 	articles with unsourced statements from february 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	Български 	Čeština 	deutsch 	eesti 	esperanto 	euskara 	français 	gaeilge 	한국어 	हिन्दी 	עברית 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	lietuvių 	magyar 	नेपाल भाषा 	日本語 	norsk bokmål 	occitan 	ਪੰਜਾਬੀ 	română 	slovenčina 	suomi 	tagalog 	தமிழ் 	తెలుగు 	türkçe 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 generalized trust - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	generalized trust 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		trust that people have in members of society in general generalized trust, also known as spontaneous sociability,[ ] is the trust that people have in their fellow members of society in general. it is often measured in survey-based social science research by asking the question, "generally speaking, would you say that most people can be trusted or that you can’t be too careful in dealing with people?" this question has been included in the general social surveys in the united states, the world values survey, and the european social surveys.[ ][ ] unlike many other human behavioral traits, generalized trust has been found to exhibit a moderate to low heritability in behavior genetic studies, implying that culture is more important in the development of such trust than is genetics. the significant cross-national variation in levels of generalized trust also supports a significant role for cultural factors.[ ] it has been found to be associated with intelligence, happiness, and self-reported health.[ ] references[edit] 	^ bac, mehmet (march ). "generalized trust and wealth". international review of law and economics. ( ): – . doi: . /j.irle. . . . 	^ nannestad, peter (june ). "what have we learned about generalized trust, if anything?". annual review of political science. ( ): – . doi: . /annurev.polisci. . . . issn  - . 	^ a b carl, noah; billari, francesco c. ( - - ). dowd, jennifer beam (ed.). "generalized trust and intelligence in the united states". plos one. ( ): e . doi: . /journal.pone. . issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ van lange, paul a. m. (february ). "generalized trust: four lessons from genetics and culture". current directions in psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . 		this sociology-related article is a stub. you can help wikipedia by expanding it.	v 	t 	e retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=generalized_trust&oldid= " 		categories: 	sociology stubs 	sociological terminology hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description with empty wikidata description 	all stub articles 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		add links 	 		 this page was last edited on august , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 gratitude - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	gratitude 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		"thank" and "you're welcome" redirect here. for the protein symbol, see thank. for other uses, see thank you (disambiguation), thanks (disambiguation), you're welcome (disambiguation), and gratitude (disambiguation). see also: the wiktionary entries thank, thanks, thank you, and you're welcome. feeling or attitude in acknowledgment of a benefit that one has received or will receive 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e gratitude, thankfulness, or gratefulness, from the latin word gratus ‘pleasing, thankful’,[ ] is a feeling of appreciation felt by and/or similar positive response shown by the recipient of kindness,[ ][ ][ ] gifts, help, favors, or other types of generosity,[ ] towards the giver of such gifts.[ ][ ] the experience of gratitude has historically been a focus of several world religions.[ ] it has also been a topic of interest to ancient, medieval and modern philosophers, and continues to engage contemporary philosophers.[ ] the systematic study of gratitude within psychology only began around the year , possibly because psychology traditionally focused more on understanding distress than on understanding positive emotions. the study of gratitude within psychology has included the understanding of the short term experience of the emotion of gratitude (state gratitude), individual differences in how frequently people feel gratitude (trait gratitude), and the relationship between these two aspects, as well as the therapeutic benefits of gratitude.[ ][ ] contents 	 comparison with indebtedness 	 as a motivator of behavior 	 religious approaches 	 . jewish conceptions 	 . christian conceptions 	 . islamic conceptions 	 individual differences 	 empirical findings 	 . association with well-being 	 . relationship to altruism 	 . psychological interventions 	 conclusions 	 further reading 	 see also 	 references 	 external links comparison with indebtedness[edit] gratitude is not the same as indebtedness. while both emotions occur following help, indebtedness occurs when a person perceives that they are under an obligation to make some repayment of compensation for the aid.[ ] the emotions lead to different actions; indebtedness can motivate the recipient of the aid to avoid the person who has helped them, whereas gratitude can motivate the recipient to seek out their benefactor and to improve their relationship with them.[ ][ ] as a motivator of behavior[edit] gratitude may also serve to reinforce future prosocial behavior in benefactors. for example, one experiment found that customers of a jewelry store who were called and thanked showed a subsequent % increase in purchases. in comparison, customers who were called and told about a sale showed only a % increase in purchases, and customers who were not called at all did not show an increase.[ ] in another study, regular patrons of a restaurant gave bigger tips when servers wrote "thank you" on their checks.[ ] when people are grateful, they don’t forget or refuse the negative part of life; they just see the good things about it. people who are more grateful than others are more likely to overcome hardships they have. emmos, mccullough, and tsang found that gratitude comes from personality traits such as high positive emotions, openness, and happiness.[ ] religious approaches[edit] see also: filial piety in buddhism § repaying the debt of gratitude the link between spirituality and gratitude has recently become a popular subject of study. while these two characteristics are certainly not dependent on each other, studies have found that spirituality is capable of enhancing a person’s ability to be grateful and therefore, those who regularly attend religious services or engage in religious activities are more likely to have a greater sense of gratitude in all areas of life.[ ][ ] gratitude is viewed as a prized human propensity in the christian, buddhist, muslim, jewish, baha'i, and hindu traditions.[ ] worship with gratitude to god[ ] is a common theme in such religions and therefore, the concept of gratitude permeates religious texts, teachings,[ ] and traditions. for this reason, it is one of the most common emotions that religions aim to provoke and maintain in followers and is regarded as a universal religious sentiment.[ ] jewish conceptions[edit] in judaism, gratitude is an essential part of the act of worship and a part of every aspect of a worshiper’s life. according to the hebrew worldview, all things come from god and because of this, gratitude is extremely important to the followers of judaism. the hebrew scriptures are filled with the idea of gratitude. two examples included in the psalms are "o lord my god, i will give thanks to you forever," and "i will give thanks to the lord with my whole heart" (ps. : ; ps. : ). the jewish prayers also often incorporate gratitude beginning with the shema, where the worshiper states that out of gratitude, "you shall love the eternal, your god, with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your might" (deut. : ). one of the crucial blessings in the central thrice-daily prayer, the "amidah", is called "modim" – "we give thanks to you"; this is also the only blessing which is recited by the congregation together with the leader during their repetition of the amidah. the concluding prayer, the alenu, also speaks of gratitude by thanking god for the particular destiny of the jewish people. along with these prayers, faithful worshipers recite more than one hundred blessings called berachot throughout the day.[ ] in judaism there is also a major emphasis on gratitude for acts of human kindness and goodness. christian conceptions[edit] new orleans: thank you message in the grotto of our lady of guadalupe church; added by those for whom prayer or miracles were granted gratitude has been said to mold and shape the entire christian life. martin luther referred to gratitude as "the basic christian attitude" and today it is still referred to as "the heart of the gospel."[ ] christians are strongly encouraged to praise and give gratitude to their creator. in christian gratitude, god is seen as the selfless giver of all good things and because of this, there is a deep sense of gratefulness which enables christians to share a common bond, shaping all aspects of a follower’s life. gratitude in christianity is an acknowledgment of god’s generosity that inspires christians to shape their own thoughts and actions around such ideals.[ ] instead of simply a sentimental feeling, christian gratitude is regarded as a virtue that shapes not only emotions and thoughts but also actions and deeds.[ ][ ] jonathan edwards writes in his a treatise concerning religious affections that gratitude and thankfulness toward god are among the signs of true religion. because of this interpretation, modern measures of religious spirituality include assessments of thankfulness and gratitude towards god. allport ( ) suggested that mature religious intentions come from feelings of profound gratitude and edwards ( / ) claimed that the "affection" of gratitude is one of the most accurate ways of finding the presence of god in a person’s life. in a study done by samuels and lester ( ) it was contended that in a small sample of catholic nuns and priests, out of emotions, love and gratitude were the most experienced emotion towards god.[ ] in the orthodox, catholic, lutheran and anglican churches, the most important rite is called the eucharist; the name derives from the greek word eucharistia for thanksgiving.[ ] islamic conceptions[edit] the islamic sacred text, the quran, is filled with the idea of gratitude. islam encourages its followers to be grateful and express thanks to god in all circumstances. islamic teaching emphasizes the idea that those who are grateful will be rewarded with more. a traditional islamic saying states that, "the first who will be summoned to paradise are those who have praised god in every circumstance"[ ] in the quran it is also stated in sura that those who are grateful will be given more by god. many practices of the islamic faith also encourage gratitude. the pillar of islam calling for daily prayer encourages believers to pray to god five times a day in order to thank him for his goodness. the pillar of fasting during the month of ramadan is for the purpose of putting the believer in a state of gratitude.[ ] individual differences[edit] much of the recent work psychological research into gratitude has focused on the nature of individual difference in gratitude, and the consequences of being a more or less grateful person.[ ] three scales have been developed to measure individual differences in gratitude, each of which assesses somewhat different conceptions.[ ] the gq [ ] measures individual differences in how frequently and intensely people feel gratitude. the appreciation scale[ ] measures different aspects of gratitude: appreciation of people, possessions, the present moment, rituals, feeling of awe, social comparisons, existential concerns, and behaviour which expresses gratitude. the grat[ ] assesses gratitude towards other people, gratitude towards the world in general, and a lack of resentment for what you do not have. a recent study showed that each of these scales are actually all measuring the same way of approaching life; this suggests that individual differences in gratitude include all of these components.[ ] empirical findings[edit] association with well-being[edit] a large body of work in the early st century has suggested that people who are more grateful have higher levels of subjective well-being. grateful people are happier, less depressed, less stressed,[ ] and more satisfied with their lives and social relationships.[ ][ ][ ] specifically, in terms of depression, gratitude may serve as a buffer by enhancing the coding and retrievability of positive experiences.[ ] grateful people also have higher levels of control of their environments, personal growth, purpose in life, and self acceptance.[ ] grateful people have more positive ways of coping with the difficulties they experience in life, being more likely to seek support from other people, reinterpret and grow from experiences, and spend more time planning how to deal with the problem.[ ] grateful people also have less negative coping strategies, being less likely to try to avoid the problem, deny there is a problem, blame themselves, or cope through substance use.[ ] grateful people sleep better, and this seems to be because they think less negative and more positive thoughts just before going to sleep.[ ] numerous studies suggest that grateful people are more likely to have higher levels of happiness and lower levels of stress and depression.[ ][ ][ ] in addition, a person's gratitude can protect the relationship satisfaction of their partner.[ ] while many emotions and personality traits are important to well-being and mental health, there is evidence that gratitude may be uniquely important. first, a longitudinal study showed that people who were more grateful coped better with a life transition. specifically, people who were more grateful before the transition were less stressed, less depressed, and more satisfied with their relationships three months later.[ ] second, two recent studies have suggested that gratitude may have a unique relationship with well-being, and can explain aspects of well-being that other personality traits cannot. both studies showed that gratitude was able to explain more well-being than the big five and of the most commonly studied personality traits.[ ][ ] gratitude has also been shown to foster physical health.[ ] for example, in one study, if teens wrote letters of gratitude to other people over a month, they were more inclined to eat healthier food.[ ] arguably, when people feel grateful, they feel an obligation to reciprocate the efforts of other individuals. therefore, rather than indulge and sacrifice their own health—a behaviour that would dismiss the efforts that other individuals invested in them—they may feel compelled to live a healthier life. alternatively, gratitude tends to elicit positive emotions, and these positive emotions tend to divert attention to favourable possibilities in the future. individuals become more inclined to engage in behaviours that could benefit this future, such as healthy eating.[ ] relationship to altruism[edit] gratitude has also been shown to improve a person’s altruistic tendencies. one study conducted by david desteno and monica bartlett ( ) found that gratitude is correlated with economic generosity. in this study, using an economic game, increased gratitude was shown to directly mediate increased monetary giving. from these results, this study shows that grateful people are more likely to sacrifice individual gains for communal profit (desteno & bartlett, ). a study conducted by mccullough, emmons, & tsang, ( ) found similar correlations between gratitude and empathy, generosity, and helpfulness towards the creation of a social reciprocity even with strangers that is beneficial to the individuals in the short and in the middle terms.[ ][ ] psychological interventions[edit] given that gratitude appears to be a strong determinant of people's well-being, several psychological interventions have been developed to increase gratitude.[ ][ ] for example, watkins and colleagues[ ] had participants test a number of different gratitude exercises, such as thinking about a living person for whom they are grateful, writing about someone for whom they are grateful, and writing a letter to deliver to someone for whom they are grateful. participants in the control condition were asked to describe their living room. participants who engaged in a gratitude exercise showed increases in their experiences of positive emotion immediately after the exercise, and this effect was strongest for participants who were asked to think about a person for whom they are grateful. participants who had grateful personalities to begin with showed the greatest benefit from these gratitude exercises. in another study concerning gratitude, participants were randomly assigned to one of six therapeutic intervention conditions designed to improve the participants' overall quality of life (seligman et al., ).[ ] out of these conditions, it was found that the biggest short-term effects came from a "gratitude visit" where participants wrote and delivered a letter of gratitude to someone in their life. this condition showed a rise in happiness scores by percent and a significant fall in depression scores, results which lasted up to one month after the visit. out of the six conditions, the longest lasting effects were associated with the act of writing "gratitude journals" where participants were asked to write down three things they were grateful for every day. these participants’ happiness scores also increased and continued to increase each time they were tested periodically after the experiment. in fact, the greatest benefits were usually found to occur around six months after treatment began. this exercise was so successful that although participants were only asked to continue the journal for a week, many participants continued to keep the journal long after the study was over. similar results have been found from studies conducted by emmons and mccullough ( )[ ] and lyubomirsky et. all. ( ). see also gratitude journal. recently ( ), the greater good science center at the university of california, berkeley, has been offering awards for dissertation-level research projects with the greatest potential to advance the science and practice of gratitude.[ ] conclusions[edit] according to cicero, "gratitude is not only the greatest of the virtues but the parent of all others." multiple studies have shown the correlation between gratitude and increased wellbeing not only for the individual but for all people involved.[ ][ ] the positive psychology movement has embraced these studies and in an effort to increase overall well-being, has begun to make an effort to incorporate exercises to increase gratitude into the movement. although in the past gratitude has been neglected by psychology, in recent years much progress has been made in studying gratitude and its positive effects.[ ] further reading[edit] 	library resources about gratitude 	 	resources in your library 	resources in other libraries 	"gratitude," in the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy.. 	a network for grateful living, founded by br. david steindl-rast. 	"how i found gratitude in a bowl of stew by chad daniels 	david desteno ( ). emotional success: the power of gratitude, compassion, and pride. eamon dolan/houghton mifflin harcourt. isbn  - . (summarizes scientific studies) 	kenner, ellen (summer ). "how to savor gratitude and disarm 'gratitude traps'". the objective standard. glen allen press. ( ): – . see also[edit] 	praise[ ] 	universal value references[edit] 	^ definition of gratitude - oxford dictionary 	^ m i, polikarpov ( ). continuous advances in qcd - proceedings of the conference. world scientific, . p.  . 	^ feild, edward ( ). "a charge delivered to the clergy of the diocese of newfoundland ... ". the british library: . cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ blackwood, william ( ). "the quarterly journal of agriculture, vol ix june - march ". the quarterly journal of agriculture. : . 	^ parliament, legislative assembly, canada, parliament ( ). "journals of the legislative assembly of the province of canada, volume , part ". journals of the legislative assembly of the province of canada. ( ): . 	^ definition of gratitude - cambridge dictionary 	^ britton, john ( ). "cathedral antiquities: salisbury. . gloucester. ". cathedral antiquities. longman. : . 	^ a b c d e f emmons, robert a.; crumpler, cheryl a. ( ). "gratitude as a human strength: appraising the evidence". journal of social and clinical psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /jscp. . . . . 	^ manela, tony. gratitude. in stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, edited by edward n. zalta, . [ ] 	^ wood, a. m.; maltby, j.; stewart, n.; linley, p. a.; joseph, s. ( ). "a social-cognitive model of trait and state levels of gratitude" (pdf). emotion. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ a b mccullough, m. e.; tsang, j.; emmons, r. a. ( ). "gratitude in intermediate affective terrain: links of grateful moods to individual differences and daily emotional experience" (pdf). journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ greenberg, m. s. ( ). a theory of indebtedness. in k. j. gergen, m. s. greenberg & r. h. wills (eds.), social exchange: advances in theory and research: new york: plenum. 	^ watkins, p. c.; scheer, j.; ovnicek, m.; kolts, r. ( ). "the debt of gratitude: dissociating gratitude and indebtedness". cognition and emotion. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ tsang, j. a. ( ). 	^ carey, j. r.; clicque, s. h.; leighton, b. a.; milton, f. ( ). "a test of positive reinforcement of customers". journal of marketing. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ rind, b.; bordia, p. ( ). "effect of server's "thank you" and personalization on restaurant tipping". journal of applied social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	^ a b mccullough, m.e.; emmons, r.a.; tsang, j. ( ). "the grateful disposition: a conceptual and empirical topography". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ emmons, robert a.; michael e. mccullough. "highlights from the research project of gratitude and thankfulness". archived from the original on august , . retrieved august . 	^ calvin, jean ( ). "commentary on the psalms. - ". calvin translation society: . 	^ gifford, william ( ). the quarterly review february & may . oxford university. p.  . 	^ a b c emmons, robert a.; kneezel, teresa t. ( ). "giving gratitude: spiritual and religious correlates of gratitude". journal of psychology and christianity. ( ): – . 	^ clarke, lowther ( ). "palladius, the lausiac history". translations of christian literature. series i: vii. 	^ seiss, joseph a. ( ). the lutheran quarterly, volume . p.  . 	^ a b c d wood, a. m.; joseph, s.; linley, p. a. ( ). "gratitude: the parent of all virtues" (pdf). the psychologist. : – . 	^ a b wood, a. m., maltby, j., stewart, n., & joseph, s. ( ). conceptualizing gratitude and appreciation as a unitary personality trait. archived - - at the wayback machine personality and individual differences, , - . 	^ a b mccullough, m. e.; emmons, r. a.; tsang, j. ( ). "the grateful disposition: a conceptual and empirical topography". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ adler, m. g.; fagley, n. s. ( ). "appreciation: individual differences in finding value and meaning as a unique predictor of subjective well-being". journal of personality. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . 	^ watkins, p. c.; woodward, k.; stone, t.; kolts, r. l. ( ). "gratitude and happiness: development of a measure of gratitude, and relationships with subjective well-being". social behavior and personality'. ( ): – . doi: . /sbp. . . . . 	^ d.r., j.s., cregg, cheavens ( ). "gratitude interventions: effective self-help? a meta-analysis of the impact on symptoms of depression and anxiety". journal of happiness studies. doi: . /s - - - . s cid  . 	^ a b wood, a. m., joseph, s., & maltby, j. ( ). personalpages.manchester.ac.uk archived - - at the wayback machine, gratitude uniquely predicts satisfaction with life: incremental validity above the domains and facets of the five factor model. personality and individual differences, , - . 	^ kashdan, t.b., uswatte, g., & julian, t. ( ). gratitude and hedonic and eudaimonic well-being in vietnam war veterans. behaviour research and therapy, - . 	^ watkins, p. c., woodward, k., stone, t., & kolts, r. l. ( ). gratitude and happiness: development of a measure of gratitude, and relationships with subjective well-being. social behavior & personality, ( ), . 	^ a b wood, a. m., joseph, s. & maltby ( ). gratitude predicts psychological well-being above the big five facets. archived - - at the wayback machine personality and individual differences, , - . 	^ a b wood, a. m., joseph, s., & linley, p. a. ( ). coping style as a psychological resource of grateful people. archived - - at the wayback machine journal of social and clinical psychology, , – . 	^ wood, a. m., joseph, s., lloyd, j., & atkins, s. ( ). gratitude influences sleep through the mechanism of pre-sleep cognitions. archived - - at the wayback machine journal of psychosomatic research, , - 	^ a b mccullough, m. e.; tsang, j.; emmons, r.a. ( ). "gratitude in intermediate affective terrain: links of grateful moods with individual differences and daily emotional experience". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ "grateful individuals tend to experience less depressive symptoms". psypost. retrieved - - . 	^ park, yoobin; impett, emily a.; macdonald, geoff; lemay jr., edward p. ( , jan ). saying "thank you": partners' expressions of gratitude protect relationship satisfaction and commitment from the harmful effects of attachment insecurity. journal of personality and social psychology. http://doi.org/ . /pspi 	^ wood, a. m.; maltby, j.; gillett, r.; linley, p. a.; joseph, s. ( ). "the role of gratitude in the development of social support, stress, and depression: two longitudinal studies" (pdf). journal of research in personality. ( ): – . doi: . /j.jrp. . . . 	^ a b c fritz, megan m.; armenta, christina n.; walsh, lisa c.; lyubomirsky, sonja (march ). "gratitude facilitates healthy eating behavior in adolescents and young adults". journal of experimental social psychology. : – . doi: . /j.jesp. . . . issn  - . 	^ a b desteno, d; bartlett, m. y.; baumann, j; williams, l. a.; dickens, l ( ). "gratitude as moral sentiment: emotion-guided cooperation in economic exchange". emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ emmons, robert a.; michael e. mccullough. "highlights from the research project on gratitude and thankfulness". archived from the original on august , . retrieved august . 	^ emmons, r. a. & mccullough, m. e. ( ). counting blessings versus burdens: an experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life. journal of personality and social psychology, , - . (electronic copy)[dead link] 	^ watkins, p. c.; woodward, k.; stone, t.; kolts, r. l. ( ). "gratitude and happiness: development of a measure of gratitude, and relationships with subjective well-being". social behavior and personality. ( ): – . doi: . /sbp. . . . . 	^ seligman, m. e. p.; steen, t. a.; park, n.; peterson, c. ( ). "positive psychology progress: empirical validation of interventions". american psychologist. ( ): – . doi: . / - x. . . . pmid  . 	^ "gratitude dissertation fellows". ggsc.berkeley.edu. 	^ g.w., hohmann ( ). "some effects of spinal cord lesions on experienced emotional feelings". psychophysiology. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. pmid  . 	^ gould, tara. 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myrdal 	simon kuznets 	joan robinson 	friedrich hayek 	john hicks 	richard stone 	hyman minsky 	milton friedman 	paul samuelson 	lawrence klein 	edmund phelps 	robert lucas jr. 	edward c. prescott 	peter diamond 	william nordhaus 	joseph stiglitz 	thomas j. sargent 	paul krugman 	n. gregory mankiw 	 see also 	macroeconomic model 	publications in macroeconomics 	economics 	applied 	microeconomics 	political economy 	mathematical economics 	 	 money portal 	 business portal 		v 	t 	e one can define economic growth as the increase in the inflation-adjusted market value of the goods and services produced by an economy over time. statisticians conventionally measure such growth as the percent rate of increase in real gross domestic product, or real gdp.[ ] growth is usually calculated in real terms – i.e., inflation-adjusted terms – to eliminate the distorting effect of inflation on the prices of goods produced. measurement of economic growth uses national income accounting.[ ] since economic growth is measured as the annual percent change of gross domestic product (gdp), it has all the advantages and drawbacks of that measure. the economic growth-rates of countries are commonly compared[by whom?] using the ratio of the gdp to population (per-capita income).[ ] the "rate of economic growth" refers to the geometric annual rate of growth in gdp between the first and the last year over a period of time. this growth rate represents the trend in the average level of gdp over the period, and ignores any fluctuations in the gdp around this trend. economists refer to an increase in economic growth caused by more efficient use of inputs (increased productivity of labor, of physical capital, of energy or of materials) as intensive growth. in contrast, gdp growth caused only by increases in the amount of inputs available for use (increased population, for example, or new territory) counts as extensive growth.[ ] development of new goods and services also generates economic growth.[citation needed] as it so happens, in the u.s. about % of consumer spending in went on goods and services that did not exist in .[ ] contents 	 measurement 	 long-term growth 	 . growth and innovation 	 determinants of per capita gdp growth 	 . productivity 	 . factor accumulation 	 other factors affecting growth 	 . human capital 	 . political institutions 	 . entrepreneurs and new products 	 . structural change 	 growth theories 	 . the malthusian theory 	 . classical growth theory 	 . solow–swan model 	 . endogenous growth theory 	 . unified growth theory 	 inequality and growth 	 . theories 	 . evidence: reduced form 	 . evidence: mechanisms 	 importance of long-run growth 	 . quality of life 	 . equitable growth 	 environmental impact 	 . global warming 	 . resource constraint 	 . energy 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links 	 . articles and lectures 	 . data measurement[edit] main article: gross domestic product the economic growth rate is calculated from data on gdp estimated by countries' statistical agencies. the rate of growth of gdp per capita is calculated from data on gdp and people for the initial and final periods included in the analysis of the analyst. long-term growth[edit] living standards vary widely from country to country, and furthermore, the change in living standards over time varies widely from country to country. below is a table which shows gdp per person and annualized per person gdp growth for a selection of countries over a period of about years. the gdp per person data are adjusted for inflation, hence they are "real". gdp per person (more commonly called "per capita" gdp) is the gdp of the entire country divided by the number of people in the country; gdp per person is conceptually analogous to "average income". economic growth by country[ ] 	country 	period 	real gdp per person at beginning of period 	real gdp per person at end of period 	annualized growth rate 	japan 	 – 	$ , 	$ , 	 . % 	brazil 	 – 	$ 	$ , 	 . % 	mexico 	 – 	$ , 	$ , 	 . % 	germany 	 – 	$ , 	$ , 	 . % 	canada 	 – 	$ , 	$ , 	 . % 	china 	 – 	$ 	$ , 	 . % 	united states 	 – 	$ , 	$ , 	 . % 	argentina 	 – 	$ , 	$ , 	 . % 	united kingdom 	 – 	$ , 	$ , 	 . % 	india 	 – 	$ 	$ , 	 . % 	indonesia 	 – 	$ 	$ , 	 . % 	bangladesh 	 – 	$ 	$ , 	 . % seemingly small differences in yearly gdp growth lead to large changes in gdp when compounded over time. for instance, in the above table, gdp per person in the united kingdom in the year was $ , . at the same time in the united states, gdp per person was $ , , lower than the uk by about %. however, in the positions were reversed: gdp per person was $ , in the united kingdom and $ , in the united states, i.e. gdp per person in the us was % more than it was in the uk. as the above table shows, this means that gdp per person grew, on average, by . % per year in the us and by . % in the uk. thus, a difference in gdp growth by only a few tenths of a percent per year results in large differences in outcomes when the growth is persistent over a generation. this and other observations have led some economists to view gdp growth as the most important part of the field of macroeconomics: ...if we can learn about government policy options that have even small effects on long-term growth rates, we can contribute much more to improvements in standards of living than has been provided by the entire history of macroeconomic analysis of countercyclical policy and fine-tuning. economic growth [is] the part of macroeconomics that really matters.[ ] growth and innovation[edit] creative economics the system of economic growth in developed regions it has been observed that gdp growth is influenced by the size of the economy. the relation between gdp growth and gdp across the countries at a particular point of time is convex. growth increases with gdp reaches its maximum and then begins to decline. there exists some extremum value. this is not exactly middle-income trap. it is observed for both developed and developing economies. actually, countries having this property belong to conventional growth domain. however, the extremum could be extended by technological and policy innovations and some countries move into innovative growth domain with higher limiting values.[ ] determinants of per capita gdp growth[edit] historic world gdp per capita in national income accounting, per capita output can be calculated using the following factors: output per unit of labor input (labor productivity), hours worked (intensity), the percentage of the working-age population actually working (participation rate) and the proportion of the working-age population to the total population (demographics). "the rate of change of gdp/population is the sum of the rates of change of these four variables plus their cross products."[ ] economists distinguish between long-run economic growth and short-run economic changes in production. short-run variation in economic growth is termed the business cycle. generally, economists attribute the ups and downs in the business cycle to fluctuations in aggregate demand. in contrast, economic growth is concerned with the long-run trend in production due to structural causes such as technological growth and factor accumulation. productivity[edit] main article: productivity improving technologies increases in labor productivity (the ratio of the value of output to labor input) have historically been the most important source of real per capita economic growth.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] "in a famous estimate, mit professor robert solow concluded that technological progress has accounted for percent of the long-term rise in u.s. per capita income, with increased investment in capital explaining only the remaining percent."[ ] increases in productivity lower the real cost of goods. over the th century the real price of many goods fell by over %.[ ] economic growth has traditionally been attributed to the accumulation of human and physical capital and the increase in productivity and creation of new goods arising from technological innovation.[ ] further division of labour (specialization) is also fundamental to rising productivity.[ ] before industrialization technological progress resulted in an increase in the population, which was kept in check by food supply and other resources, which acted to limit per capita income, a condition known as the malthusian trap.[ ][ ] the rapid economic growth that occurred during the industrial revolution was remarkable because it was in excess of population growth, providing an escape from the malthusian trap.[ ] countries that industrialized eventually saw their population growth slow down, a phenomenon known as the demographic transition. increases in productivity are the major factor responsible for per capita economic growth—this has been especially evident since the mid- th century. most of the economic growth in the th century was due to increased output per unit of labor, materials, energy, and land (less input per widget). the balance of the growth in output has come from using more inputs. both of these changes increase output. the increased output included more of the same goods produced previously and new goods and services.[ ] during the industrial revolution, mechanization began to replace hand methods in manufacturing, and new processes streamlined production of chemicals, iron, steel, and other products.[ ] machine tools made the economical production of metal parts possible, so that parts could be interchangeable.[ ] (see: interchangeable parts.) during the second industrial revolution, a major factor of productivity growth was the substitution of inanimate power for human and animal labor. also there was a great increase in power as steam-powered electricity generation and internal combustion supplanted limited wind and water power.[ ] since that replacement, the great expansion of total power was driven by continuous improvements in energy conversion efficiency.[ ] other major historical sources of productivity were automation, transportation infrastructures (canals, railroads, and highways),[ ][ ] new materials (steel) and power, which includes steam and internal combustion engines and electricity. other productivity improvements included mechanized agriculture and scientific agriculture including chemical fertilizers and livestock and poultry management, and the green revolution. interchangeable parts made with machine tools powered by electric motors evolved into mass production, which is universally used today.[ ] productivity lowered the cost of most items in terms of work time required to purchase. real food prices fell due to improvements in transportation and trade, mechanized agriculture, fertilizers, scientific farming and the green revolution. great sources of productivity improvement in the late th century were railroads, steam ships, horse-pulled reapers and combine harvesters, and steam-powered factories.[ ][ ] the invention of processes for making cheap steel were important for many forms of mechanization and transportation. by the late th century both prices and weekly work hours fell because less labor, materials, and energy were required to produce and transport goods. however, real wages rose, allowing workers to improve their diet, buy consumer goods and afford better housing.[ ] mass production of the s created overproduction, which was arguably one of several causes of the great depression of the s.[ ] following the great depression, economic growth resumed, aided in part by increased demand for existing goods and services, such as automobiles, telephones, radios, electricity and household appliances. new goods and services included television, air conditioning and commercial aviation (after ), creating enough new demand to stabilize the work week.[ ] the building of highway infrastructures also contributed to post world war ii growth, as did capital investments in manufacturing and chemical industries.[ ] the post world war ii economy also benefited from the discovery of vast amounts of oil around the world, particularly in the middle east. by john w. kendrick's estimate, three-quarters of increase in u.s. per capita gdp from to was due to increased productivity.[ ] economic growth in the united states slowed down after .[ ] in contrast growth in asia has been strong since then, starting with japan and spreading to four asian tigers, china, southeast asia, the indian subcontinent and asia pacific.[ ] in south korea had a lower per capita gdp than ghana,[ ] and by it was times as high as ghana's.[ ] the japanese economic growth has slackened considerably since the late s. productivity in the united states grew at an increasing rate throughout the th century and was most rapid in the early to middle decades of the th century.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] u.s. productivity growth spiked towards the end of the century in – , due to an acceleration in the rate of technological innovation known as moore's law.[ ][ ][ ][ ] after u.s. productivity growth returned to the low levels of – .[ ] factor accumulation[edit] capital in economics ordinarily refers to physical capital, which consists of structures (largest component of physical capital) and equipment used in business (machinery, factory equipment, computers and office equipment, construction equipment, business vehicles, medical equipment, etc.).[ ] up to a point increases in the amount of capital per worker are an important cause of economic output growth. capital is subject to diminishing returns because of the amount that can be effectively invested and because of the growing burden of depreciation. in the development of economic theory, the distribution of income was considered to be between labor and the owners of land and capital.[ ] in recent decades there have been several asian countries with high rates of economic growth driven by capital investment.[ ] the work week declined considerably over the th century.[ ][ ] by the s the average work week in the u.s. was hours, but the work week was reduced to hours (after which overtime premium was applied) as part of the national industrial recovery act of . demographic factors may influence growth by changing the employment to population ratio and the labor force participation rate.[ ] industrialization creates a demographic transition in which birth rates decline and the average age of the population increases. women with fewer children and better access to market employment tend to join the labor force in higher percentages. there is a reduced demand for child labor and children spend more years in school. the increase in the percentage of women in the labor force in the u.s. contributed to economic growth, as did the entrance of the baby boomers into the workforce.[ ] see: spending wave other factors affecting growth[edit] human capital[edit] many theoretical and empirical analyses of economic growth attribute a major role to a country's level of human capital, defined as the skills of the population or the work force. human capital has been included in both neoclassical and endogenous growth models.[ ][ ][ ] a country's level of human capital is difficult to measure since it is created at home, at school, and on the job. economists have attempted to measure human capital using numerous proxies, including the population's level of literacy, its level of numeracy, its level of book production/capita, its average level of formal schooling, its average test score on international tests, and its cumulative depreciated investment in formal schooling. the most commonly-used measure of human capital is the level (average years) of school attainment in a country, building upon the data development of robert barro and jong-wha lee.[ ] this measure is widely used because barro and lee provide data for numerous countries in five-year intervals for a long period of time. one problem with the schooling attainment measure is that the amount of human capital acquired in a year of schooling is not the same at all levels of schooling and is not the same in all countries. this measure also presumes that human capital is only developed in formal schooling, contrary to the extensive evidence that families, neighborhoods, peers, and health also contribute to the development of human capital. despite these potential limitations, theodore breton has shown that this measure can represent human capital in log-linear growth models because across countries gdp/adult has a log-linear relationship to average years of schooling, which is consistent with the log-linear relationship between workers' personal incomes and years of schooling in the mincer model.[ ] eric hanushek and dennis kimko introduced measures of students' mathematics and science skills from international assessments into growth analysis.[ ] they found that this measure of human capital was very significantly related to economic growth. eric hanushek and ludger wößmann have extended this analysis.[ ][ ] theodore breton shows that the correlation between economic growth and students' average test scores in hanushek and wößmann's analyses is actually due to the relationship in countries with less than eight years of schooling. he shows that economic growth is not correlated with average scores in more educated countries.[ ] hanushek and wößmann further investigate whether the relationship of knowledge capital to economic growth is causal. they show that the level of students' cognitive skills can explain the slow growth in latin america and the rapid growth in east asia.[ ] joerg baten and jan luiten van zanden employ book production per capita as a proxy for sophisticated literacy capabilities and find that "countries with high levels of human capital formation in the th century initiated or participated in the industrialization process of the th century, whereas countries with low levels of human capital formation were unable to do so, among them many of today’s less developed countries such as india, indonesia, and china."[ ] political institutions[edit] see also: great divergence § property rights, great divergence § efficiency of markets and state intervention, and great divergence § state prohibition of new technology “as institutions influence behavior and incentives in real life, they forge the success or failure of nations.”[ ] in economics and economic history, the transition to capitalism from earlier economic systems was enabled by the adoption of government policies that facilitated commerce and gave individuals more personal and economic freedom. these included new laws favorable to the establishment of business, including contract law and laws providing for the protection of private property, and the abolishment of anti-usury laws.[ ][ ] much of this literature was built on the success story of the british state after the glorious revolution of , in which high fiscal capacity combined with constraints on the power of the king generated some respect for the rule of law.[ ][ ][ ][ ] however, others have questioned that this institutional formula is not so easily replicable elsewhere as a change in the constitution—and the type of institutions created by that change—does not necessarily create a change in political power if the economic powers of that society are not aligned with the new set of rule of law institutions.[ ] in england, a dramatic increase in the state's fiscal capacity followed the creation of constraints on the crown, but elsewhere in europe increases in state capacity happened before major rule of law reforms.[ ] there are many different ways through which states achieved state (fiscal) capacity and this different capacity accelerated or hindered their economic development. thanks to the underlying homogeneity of its land and people, england was able to achieve a unified legal and fiscal system since the middle ages that enabled it to substantially increase the taxes it raised after .[ ] on the other hand, the french experience of state building faced much stronger resistance from local feudal powers keeping it legally and fiscally fragmented until the french revolution despite significant increases in state capacity during the seventeenth century.[ ][ ] furthermore, prussia and the habsburg empire—much more heterogeneous states than england—were able to increase state capacity during the eighteenth century without constraining the powers of the executive.[ ] nevertheless, it is unlikely that a country will generate institutions that respect property rights and the rule of law without having had first intermediate fiscal and political institutions that create incentives for elites to support them. many of these intermediate level institutions relied on informal private-order arrangements that combined with public-order institutions associated with states, to lay the foundations of modern rule of law states.[ ] in many poor and developing countries much land and housing are held outside the formal or legal property ownership registration system. in many urban areas the poor "invade" private or government land to build their houses, so they do not hold title to these properties. much unregistered property is held in informal form through various property associations and other arrangements. reasons for extra-legal ownership include excessive bureaucratic red tape in buying property and building. in some countries, it can take over steps and up to years to build on government land. other causes of extra-legal property are failures to notarize transaction documents or having documents notarized but failing to have them recorded with the official agency.[ ] not having clear legal title to property limits its potential to be used as collateral to secure loans, depriving many poor countries of one of their most important potential sources of capital. unregistered businesses and lack of accepted accounting methods are other factors that limit potential capital.[ ] businesses and individuals participating in unreported business activity and owners of unregistered property face costs such as bribes and pay-offs that offset much of any taxes avoided.[ ] "democracy does cause growth", according to acemoglu et al. specifically, "democracy increases future gdp by encouraging investment, increasing schooling, inducing economic reforms, improving public goods provision, and reducing social unrest."[ ] unesco and the united nations also consider that cultural property protection, high-quality education, cultural diversity and social cohesion in armed conflicts are particularly necessary for qualitative growth.[ ] according to daron acemoglu, simon johnson and james robinson, the positive correlation between high income and cold climate is a by-product of history. europeans adopted very different colonization policies in different colonies, with different associated institutions. in places where these colonizers faced high mortality rates (e.g., due to the presence of tropical diseases), they could not settle permanently, and they were thus more likely to establish extractive institutions, which persisted after independence; in places where they could settle permanently (e.g. those with temperate climates), they established institutions with this objective in mind and modeled them after those in their european homelands. in these 'neo-europes' better institutions in turn produced better development outcomes. thus, although other economists focus on the identity or type of legal system of the colonizers to explain institutions, these authors look at the environmental conditions in the colonies to explain institutions. for instance, former colonies have inherited corrupt governments and geopolitical boundaries (set by the colonizers) that are not properly placed regarding the geographical locations of different ethnic groups, creating internal disputes and conflicts that hinder development. in another example, societies that emerged in colonies without solid native populations established better property rights and incentives for long-term investment than those where native populations were large.[ ] entrepreneurs and new products[edit] policymakers and scholars frequently emphasize the importance of entrepreneurship for economic growth. however, surprisingly few research empirically examine and quantify entrepreneurship's impact on growth. this is due to endogeneity—forces that drive economic growth also drive entrepreneurship. in other words, the empirical analysis of the impact of entrepreneurship on growth is difficult because of the joint determination of entrepreneurship and economic growth. a few papers use quasi-experimental designs, and have found that entrepreneurship and the density of small businesses indeed have a causal impact on regional growth.[ ][ ] another major cause of economic growth is the introduction of new products and services and the improvement of existing products. new products create demand, which is necessary to offset the decline in employment that occurs through labor-saving technology (and to a lesser extent employment declines due to savings in energy and materials).[ ][ ] in the u.s. by about % of consumer spending was for goods and services that did not exist in . also, the creation of new services has been more important than invention of new goods.[ ] structural change[edit] main article: rostow's stages of growth economic growth in the u.s. and other developed countries went through phases that affected growth through changes in the labor force participation rate and the relative sizes of economic sectors. the transition from an agricultural economy to manufacturing increased the size of the sector with high output per hour (the high-productivity manufacturing sector), while reducing the size of the sector with lower output per hour (the lower productivity agricultural sector). eventually high productivity growth in manufacturing reduced the sector size, as prices fell and employment shrank relative to other sectors.[ ][ ] the service and government sectors, where output per hour and productivity growth is low, saw increases in their shares of the economy and employment during the s.[ ] the public sector has since contracted, while the service economy expanded in the s. the structural change could also be viewed from another angle. it is possible to divide real economic growth into two components: an indicator of extensive economic growth—the ‘quantitative’ gdp—and an indicator of the improvement of the quality of goods and services—the ‘qualitative’ gdp.[ ] growth theories [edit] the malthusian theory[edit] main article: malthusian trap the malthusian theory proposes that over most of human history technological progress caused larger population growth but had no impact on income per capita in the long run. according to the theory, while technologically advanced economies over this epoch were characterized by higher population density, their level of income per capita was not different than those among technologically regressed society. the conceptual foundations of the malthusian theory were formed by thomas malthus,[ ] and a modern representation of these approach is provided by ashraf and galor.[ ] in line with the predictions of the malthusian theory, a cross-country analysis finds a significant positive effect of the technological level on population density and an insignificant effect on income per capita significantly over the years – .[ ] classical growth theory[edit] in classical (ricardian) economics, the theory of production and the theory of growth are based on the theory or law of variable proportions, whereby increasing either of the factors of production (labor or capital), while holding the other constant and assuming no technological change, will increase output, but at a diminishing rate that eventually will approach zero. these concepts have their origins in thomas malthus’s theorizing about agriculture. malthus's examples included the number of seeds harvested relative to the number of seeds planted (capital) on a plot of land and the size of the harvest from a plot of land versus the number of workers employed.[ ] see also diminishing returns. criticisms of classical growth theory are that technology, an important factor in economic growth, is held constant and that economies of scale are ignored.[ ] one popular theory in the s was the big push model, which suggested that countries needed to jump from one stage of development to another through a virtuous cycle, in which large investments in infrastructure and education coupled with private investments would move the economy to a more productive stage, breaking free from economic paradigms appropriate to a lower productivity stage.[ ] the idea was revived and formulated rigorously, in the late s by kevin murphy, andrei shleifer and robert vishny.[ ] solow–swan model[edit] main article: solow–swan model robert solow and trevor swan developed what eventually became the main model used in growth economics in the s.[ ][ ] this model assumes that there are diminishing returns to capital and labor. capital accumulates through investment, but its level or stock continually decreases due to depreciation. due to the diminishing returns to capital, with increases in capital/worker and absent technological progress, economic output/worker eventually reaches a point where capital per worker and economic output/worker remain constant because annual investment in capital equals annual depreciation. this condition is called the 'steady state'. in the solow–swan model if productivity increases through technological progress, then output/worker increases even when the economy is in the steady state. if productivity increases at a constant rate, output/worker also increases at a related steady-state rate. as a consequence, growth in the model can occur either by increasing the share of gdp invested or through technological progress. but at whatever share of gdp invested, capital/worker eventually converges on the steady state, leaving the growth rate of output/worker determined only by the rate of technological progress. as a consequence, with world technology available to all and progressing at a constant rate, all countries have the same steady state rate of growth. each country has a different level of gdp/worker determined by the share of gdp it invests, but all countries have the same rate of economic growth. implicitly in this model rich countries are those that have invested a high share of gdp for a long time. poor countries can become rich by increasing the share of gdp they invest. one important prediction of the model, mostly borne out by the data, is that of conditional convergence; the idea that poor countries will grow faster and catch up with rich countries as long as they have similar investment (and saving) rates and access to the same technology. the solow–swan model is considered an "exogenous" growth model because it does not explain why countries invest different shares of gdp in capital nor why technology improves over time. instead, the rate of investment and the rate of technological progress are exogenous. the value of the model is that it predicts the pattern of economic growth once these two rates are specified. its failure to explain the determinants of these rates is one of its limitations. although the rate of investment in the model is exogenous, under certain conditions the model implicitly predicts convergence in the rates of investment across countries. in a global economy with a global financial capital market, financial capital flows to the countries with the highest return on investment. in the solow-swan model countries with less capital/worker (poor countries) have a higher return on investment due to the diminishing returns to capital. as a consequence, capital/worker and output/worker in a global financial capital market should converge to the same level in all countries.[ ] since historically financial capital has not flowed to the countries with less capital/worker, the basic solow–swan model has a conceptual flaw. beginning in the s, this flaw has been addressed by adding additional variables to the model that can explain why some countries are less productive than others and, therefore, do not attract flows of global financial capital even though they have less (physical) capital/worker. in practice, convergence was rarely achieved. in , solow applied his model to data from the u.s. gross national product to estimate contributions. this showed that the increase in capital and labor stock only accounted for about half of the output, while the population increase adjustments to capital explained eighth. this remaining unaccounted growth output is known as the solow residual. here the a of (t) "technical progress" was the reason for increased output. nevertheless, the model still had flaws. it gave no room for policy to influence the growth rate. few attempts were also made by the rand corporation the non-profit think tank and frequently visiting economist kenneth arrow to work out the kinks in the model. they suggested that new knowledge was indivisible and that it is endogenous with a certain fixed cost. arrow's further explained that new knowledge obtained by firms comes from practice and built a model that "knowledge" accumulated through experience.[ ] according to harrod, the natural growth rate is the maximum rate of growth allowed by the increase of variables like population growth, technological improvement and growth in natural resources. in fact, the natural growth rate is the highest attainable growth rate which would bring about the fullest possible employment of the resources existing in the economy. endogenous growth theory[edit] main article: endogenous growth theory unsatisfied with the assumption of exogenous technological progress in the solow–swan model, economists worked to "endogenize" (i.e., explain it "from within" the models) productivity growth in the s; the resulting endogenous growth theory, most notably advanced by robert lucas, jr. and his student paul romer, includes a mathematical explanation of technological advancement.[ ][ ] this model also incorporated a new concept of human capital, the skills and knowledge that make workers productive. unlike physical capital, human capital has increasing rates of return. research done in this area has focused on what increases human capital (e.g. education) or technological change (e.g. innovation).[ ] on memorial day weekend in , a conference in buffalo brought together the great minds in economics the idea was to evaluate the conflicting theories of growth. romer, krugman, barro, becker were in attendance along with many other rising stars and high profiled economists of the time. amongst many papers that day the one that stood out was romer's “ micro foundations for aggregate technological change.” the micro foundation claimed that endogenous technological change had the concept of intellectual property imbedded and that knowledge is an input and output of production. romer argued that outcomes to the national growth rates were significantly affected by public policy, trade activity, and intellectual property. he stressed that cumulative capital and specialization were key, and that not only population growth can increase capital of knowledge, it was human capital that is specifically trained in harvesting new ideas.[ ] one branch of endogenous growth theory was developed on the foundations of the schumpeterian theory, named after the th-century austrian economist joseph schumpeter.[ ] the approach explains growth as a consequence of innovation and a process of creative destruction that captures the dual nature of technological progress: in terms of creation, entrepreneurs introduce new products or processes in the hope that they will enjoy temporary monopoly-like profits as they capture markets. in doing so, they make old technologies or products obsolete. this can be seen as an annulment of previous technologies, which makes them obsolete, and "destroys the rents generated by previous innovations".[ ]: [ ] a major model that illustrates schumpeterian growth is the aghion–howitt model [ru].[ ][ ] unified growth theory[edit] main article: unified growth theory unified growth theory was developed by oded galor and his co-authors to address the inability of endogenous growth theory to explain key empirical regularities in the growth processes of individual economies and the world economy as a whole.[ ][ ] unlike endogenous growth theory that focuses entirely on the modern growth regime and is therefore unable to explain the roots of inequality across nations, unified growth theory captures in a single framework the fundamental phases of the process of development in the course of human history: (i) the malthusian epoch that was prevalent over most of human history, (ii) the escape from the malthusian trap, (iii) the emergence of human capital as a central element in the growth process, (iv) the onset of the fertility decline, (v) the origins of the modern era of sustained economic growth, and (vi) the roots of divergence in income per capita across nations in the past two centuries. the theory suggests that during most of human existence, technological progress was offset by population growth, and living standards were near subsistence across time and space. however, the reinforcing interaction between the rate of technological progress and the size and composition of the population has gradually increased the pace of technological progress, enhancing the importance of education in the ability of individuals to adapt to the changing technological environment. the rise in the allocation of resources towards education triggered a fertility decline enabling economies to allocate a larger share of the fruits of technological progress to a steady increase in income per capita, rather than towards the growth of population, paving the way for the emergence of sustained economic growth. the theory further suggests that variations in biogeographical characteristics, as well as cultural and institutional characteristics, have generated a differential pace of transition from stagnation to growth across countries and consequently divergence in their income per capita over the past two centuries.[ ][ ] inequality and growth[edit] theories[edit] further information: economic inequality and effects of economic inequality the prevailing views about the role of inequality in the growth process has radically shifted in the past century.[ ] the classical perspective, as expressed by adam smith, and others, suggests that inequality fosters the growth process.[ ][ ] specifically, since the aggregate saving increases with inequality due to higher property to save among the wealthy, the classical viewpoint suggests that inequality stimulates capital accumulation and therefore economic growth.[ ] the neoclassical perspective that is based on representative agent approach denies the role of inequality in the growth process. it suggests that while the growth process may affect inequality, income distribution has no impact on the growth process. the modern perspective which has emerged in the late s suggests, in contrast, that income distribution has a significant impact on the growth process. the modern perspective, originated by galor and zeira,[ ][ ] highlights the important role of heterogeneity in the determination of aggregate economic activity, and economic growth. in particular, galor and zeira argue that since credit markets are imperfect, inequality has an enduring impact on human capital formation, the level of income per capita, and the growth process.[ ] in contrast to the classical paradigm, which underlined the positive implications of inequality for capital formation and economic growth, galor and zeira argue that inequality has an adverse effect on human capital formation and the development process, in all but the very poor economies. later theoretical developments have reinforced the view that inequality has an adverse effect on the growth process. specifically, alesina and rodrik and persson and tabellini advance a political economy mechanism and argue that inequality has a negative impact on economic development since it creates a pressure for distortionary redistributive policies that have an adverse effect on investment and economic growth.[ ][ ] in accordance with the credit market imperfection approach, a study by roberto perotti showed that inequality is associated with lower level of human capital formation (education, experience, apprenticeship) and higher level of fertility, while lower level of human capital is associated with lower growth and lower levels of economic growth. in contrast, his examination of the political economy channel found no support for the political economy mechanism.[ ] consequently, the political economy perspective on the relationship between inequality and growth have been revised and later studies have established that inequality may provide an incentive for the elite to block redistributive policies and institutional changes. in particular, inequality in the distribution of land ownership provides the landed elite with an incentive to limit the mobility of rural workers by depriving them from education and by blocking the development of the industrial sector.[ ] a unified theory of inequality and growth that captures that changing role of inequality in the growth process offers a reconciliation between the conflicting predictions of classical viewpoint that maintained that inequality is beneficial for growth and the modern viewpoint that suggests that in the presence of credit market imperfections, inequality predominantly results in underinvestment in human capital and lower economic growth. this unified theory of inequality and growth, developed by oded galor and omer moav,[ ] suggests that the effect of inequality on the growth process has been reversed as human capital has replaced physical capital as the main engine of economic growth. in the initial phases of industrialization, when physical capital accumulation was the dominating source of economic growth, inequality boosted the development process by directing resources toward individuals with higher propensity to save. however, in later phases, as human capital become the main engine of economic growth, more equal distribution of income, in the presence of credit constraints, stimulated investment in human capital and economic growth. in , french economist thomas piketty postulated that in periods when the average annual rate on return on investment in capital (r) exceeds the average annual growth in economic output (g), the rate of inequality will increase.[ ] according to piketty, this is the case because wealth that is already held or inherited, which is expected to grow at the rate r, will grow at a rate faster than wealth accumulated through labor, which is more closely tied to g. an advocate of reducing inequality levels, piketty suggests levying a global wealth tax in order to reduce the divergence in wealth caused by inequality. evidence: reduced form[edit] the reduced form empirical relationship between inequality and growth was studied by alberto alesina and dani rodrik, and torsten persson and guido tabellini.[ ][ ] they find that inequality is negatively associated with economic growth in a cross-country analysis. robert barro reexamined the reduced form relationship between inequality on economic growth in a panel of countries.[ ] he argues that there is "little overall relation between income inequality and rates of growth and investment". however, his empirical strategy limits its applicability to the understanding of the relationship between inequality and growth for several reasons. first, his regression analysis control for education, fertility, investment, and it therefore excludes, by construction, the important effect of inequality on growth via education, fertility, and investment. his findings simply imply that inequality has no direct effect on growth beyond the important indirect effects through the main channels proposed in the literature. second, his study analyzes the effect of inequality on the average growth rate in the following years. however, existing theories suggest that the effect of inequality will be observed much later, as is the case in human capital formation, for instance. third, the empirical analysis does not account for biases that are generated by reverse causality and omitted variables. recent papers based on superior data, find negative relationship between inequality and growth. andrew berg and jonathan ostry of the international monetary fund, find that "lower net inequality is robustly correlated with faster and more durable growth, controlling for the level of redistribution".[ ] likewise, dierk herzer and sebastian vollmer find that increased income inequality reduces economic growth.[ ] evidence: mechanisms[edit] the galor and zeira's model predicts that the effect of rising inequality on gdp per capita is negative in relatively rich countries but positive in poor countries.[ ][ ] these testable predictions have been examined and confirmed empirically in recent studies.[ ][ ] in particular, brückner and lederman test the prediction of the model by in the panel of countries during the period – , by considering the impact of the interaction between the level of income inequality and the initial level of gdp per capita. in line with the predictions of the model, they find that at the th percentile of initial income in the world sample, a percentage point increase in the gini coefficient increases income per capita by . %, whereas at the th percentile of initial income a percentage point increase in the gini coefficient decreases income per capita by - . %. moreover, the proposed human capital mechanism that mediates the effect of inequality on growth in the galor-zeira model is also confirmed. increases in income inequality increase human capital in poor countries but reduce it in high and middle-income countries. this recent support for the predictions of the galor-zeira model is in line with earlier findings. roberto perotti showed that in accordance with the credit market imperfection approach, developed by galor and zeira, inequality is associated with lower level of human capital formation (education, experience, apprenticeship) and higher level of fertility, while lower level of human capital is associated with lower levels of economic growth.[ ] princeton economist roland benabou's finds that the growth process of korea and the philippines "are broadly consistent with the credit-constrained human-capital accumulation hypothesis".[ ] in addition, andrew berg and jonathan ostry[ ] suggest that inequality seems to affect growth through human capital accumulation and fertility channels. in contrast, perotti argues that the political economy mechanism is not supported empirically. inequality is associated with lower redistribution, and lower redistribution (under-investment in education and infrastructure) is associated with lower economic growth.[ ] importance of long-run growth[edit] over long periods of time, even small rates of growth, such as a % annual increase, have large effects. for example, the united kingdom experienced a . % average annual increase in its inflation-adjusted gdp between and .[ ] in , the gdp was , million pounds. it grew to , , million pounds by . a growth rate that averaged . % over years resulted in a -fold increase in gdp by . the large impact of a relatively small growth rate over a long period of time is due to the power of exponential growth. the rule of , a mathematical result, states that if something grows at the rate of x% per year, then its level will double every /x years. for example, a growth rate of . % per annum leads to a doubling of the gdp within . years, whilst a growth rate of % per year leads to a doubling of gdp within nine years. thus, a small difference in economic growth rates between countries can result in very different standards of living for their populations if this small difference continues for many years. quality of life[edit] one theory that relates economic growth with quality of life is the "threshold hypothesis", which states that economic growth up to a point brings with it an increase in quality of life. but at that point – called the threshold point – further economic growth can bring with it a deterioration in quality of life.[ ] this results in an upside-down-u-shaped curve, where the vertex of the curve represents the level of growth that should be targeted. happiness has been shown to increase with gdp per capita, at least up to a level of $ , per person.[ ] economic growth has the indirect potential to alleviate poverty, as a result of a simultaneous increase in employment opportunities and increased labor productivity.[ ] a study by researchers at the overseas development institute (odi) of countries that experienced growth found that in cases, poverty was alleviated.[ ] in some instances, quality of life factors such as healthcare outcomes and educational attainment, as well as social and political liberties, do not improve as economic growth occurs.[ ][dubious – discuss] productivity increases do not always lead to increased wages, as can be seen in the united states, where the gap between productivity and wages has been rising since the s.[ ] equitable growth[edit] main article: inclusive growth while acknowledging the central role economic growth can potentially play in human development, poverty reduction and the achievement of the millennium development goals, it is becoming widely understood amongst the development community that special efforts must be made to ensure poorer sections of society are able to participate in economic growth.[ ][ ][ ] the effect of economic growth on poverty reduction – the growth elasticity of poverty – can depend on the existing level of inequality.[ ][ ] for instance, with low inequality a country with a growth rate of % per head and % of its population living in poverty, can halve poverty in ten years, but a country with high inequality would take nearly years to achieve the same reduction.[ ][ ] in the words of the secretary general of the united nations ban ki-moon: "while economic growth is necessary, it is not sufficient for progress on reducing poverty."[ ] environmental impact[edit] see also: the limits to growth and overconsumption critics such as the club of rome argue that a narrow view of economic growth, combined with globalization, is creating a scenario where we could see a systemic collapse of our planet's natural resources.[ ][ ] the marginal costs of a growing economy may gradually exceed the marginal benefits, however measured. concerns about negative environmental effects of growth have prompted some people to advocate lower levels of growth, or the abandoning of growth altogether. in academia, concepts like uneconomic growth, steady-state economy and degrowth have been developed in order to achieve this and to overcome possible growth imperatives. in politics, green parties embrace the global greens charter, recognising that "... the dogma of economic growth at any cost and the excessive and wasteful use of natural resources without considering earth's carrying capacity, are causing extreme deterioration in the environment and a massive extinction of species."[ ]: the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services published by the united nations' intergovernmental science-policy platform on biodiversity and ecosystem services warned that given the substantial loss of biodiversity, society should not focus solely on economic growth.[ ][ ] anthropologist eduardo s. brondizio, one of the co-chairs of the report, said "we need to change our narratives. both our individual narratives that associate wasteful consumption with quality of life and with status, and the narratives of the economic systems that still consider that environmental degradation and social inequality are inevitable outcomes of economic growth. economic growth is a means and not an end. we need to look for the quality of life of the planet."[ ] those more optimistic about the environmental impacts of growth believe that, though localized environmental effects may occur, large-scale ecological effects are minor. the argument, as stated by commentator julian lincoln simon, states that if these global-scale ecological effects exist, human ingenuity will find ways to adapt to them.[ ] in , a warning on climate change signed by , scientists from over nations said economic growth is the driving force behind the "excessive extraction of materials and overexploitation of ecosystems" and that this "must be quickly curtailed to maintain long-term sustainability of the biosphere." they add that "our goals need to shift from gdp growth and the pursuit of affluence toward sustaining ecosystems and improving human well-being by prioritizing basic needs and reducing inequality."[ ][ ] global warming[edit] see also: economics of global warming up to the present, there is a close correlation between economic growth and the rate of carbon dioxide emissions across nations, although there is also a considerable divergence in carbon intensity (carbon emissions per gdp).[ ] up to the present, there is also a direct relation between global economic wealth and the rate of global emissions.[ ] the stern review notes that the prediction that, "under business as usual, global emissions will be sufficient to propel greenhouse gas concentrations to over ppm co by and over – ppm by the end of this century is robust to a wide range of changes in model assumptions." the scientific consensus is that planetary ecosystem functioning without incurring dangerous risks requires stabilization at – ppm.[ ] as a consequence, growth-oriented environmental economists propose government intervention into switching sources of energy production, favouring wind, solar, hydroelectric, and nuclear. this would largely confine use of fossil fuels to either domestic cooking needs (such as for kerosene burners) or where carbon capture and storage technology can be cost-effective and reliable.[ ] the stern review, published by the united kingdom government in , concluded that an investment of % of gdp (later changed to %) would be sufficient to avoid the worst effects of climate change, and that failure to do so could risk climate-related costs equal to % of gdp. because carbon capture and storage are as yet widely unproven, and its long term effectiveness (such as in containing carbon dioxide 'leaks') unknown, and because of current costs of alternative fuels, these policy responses largely rest on faith of technological change. british conservative politician and journalist nigel lawson has deemed carbon emission trading an 'inefficient system of rationing'. instead, he favours carbon taxes to make full use of the efficiency of the market. however, in order to avoid the migration of energy-intensive industries, the whole world should impose such a tax, not just britain, lawson pointed out. there is no point in taking the lead if nobody follows suit.[ ] resource constraint[edit] see also: energy returned on energy invested, substitute good, mining, peak minerals, and steady-state economy § present situation: exceeding global limits to growth many earlier predictions of resource depletion, such as thomas malthus' predictions about approaching famines in europe, the population bomb,[ ][ ] and the simon–ehrlich wager ( )[ ] have not materialized. diminished production of most resources has not occurred so far, one reason being that advancements in technology and science have allowed some previously unavailable resources to be produced.[ ] in some cases, substitution of more abundant materials, such as plastics for cast metals, lowered growth of usage for some metals. in the case of the limited resource of land, famine was relieved firstly by the revolution in transportation caused by railroads and steam ships, and later by the green revolution and chemical fertilizers, especially the haber process for ammonia synthesis.[ ][ ] resource quality is composed of a variety of factors including ore grades, location, altitude above or below sea level, proximity to railroads, highways, water supply and climate. these factors affect the capital and operating cost of extracting resources. in the case of minerals, lower grades of mineral resources are being extracted, requiring higher inputs of capital and energy for both extraction and processing. copper ore grades have declined significantly over the last century.[ ][ ] another example is natural gas from shale and other low permeability rock, whose extraction requires much higher inputs of energy, capital, and materials than conventional gas in previous decades. offshore oil and gas have exponentially increased cost as water depth increases. some physical scientists like sanyam mittal regard continuous economic growth as unsustainable.[ ][ ] several factors may constrain economic growth – for example: finite, peaked, or depleted resources. in , the limits to growth study modeled limitations to infinite growth; originally ridiculed,[ ][ ][ ] some of the predicted trends have materialized, raising concerns of an impending collapse or decline due to resource constraints.[ ][ ][ ] malthusians such as william r. catton, jr. are skeptical of technological advances that improve resource availability. such advances and increases in efficiency, they suggest, merely accelerate the drawing down of finite resources. catton claims that increasing rates of resource extraction are "...stealing ravenously from the future".[ ] energy[edit] further information on energy role in economy: econodynamics further information on energy efficiency: productivity improving technologies (historical) § energy efficiency energy economic theories hold that rates of energy consumption and energy efficiency are linked causally to economic growth. the garrett relation holds that there has been a fixed relationship between current rates of global energy consumption and the historical accumulation of world gdp, independent of the year considered. it follows that economic growth, as represented by gdp growth, requires higher rates of energy consumption growth. seemingly paradoxically, these are sustained through increases in energy efficiency.[ ] increases in energy efficiency were a portion of the increase in total factor productivity.[ ] some of the most technologically important innovations in history involved increases in energy efficiency. these include the great improvements in efficiency of conversion of heat to work, the reuse of heat, the reduction in friction and the transmission of power, especially through electrification.[ ][ ] there is a strong correlation between per capita electricity consumption and economic development.[ ][ ] see also[edit] 	degrowth 	economic development 	export-oriented industrialization 	green growth 	growth accounting 	the limits to growth 	list of countries by real gdp growth rate 	post-growth 	productivism 	prosperity without growth 	sufficiency economy 	uneconomic growth 	unified growth theory 	the white man's burden 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( ). the unbound prometheus: technological change and industrial development in western europe from to the present. cambridge, new york: press syndicate of the university of cambridge. pp.  , . isbn  - - - - . 	^ devine, jr., warren d. ( ). "from shafts to wires: historical perspective on electrification". journal of economic history. ( ): – [p. ]. doi: . /s . 	^ committee on electricity in economic growth energy engineering board commission on engineering and technical systems national research council ( ). electricity in economic growth. washington, dc: national academy press. pp.  , . isbn  - - - - . 	^ paepke, c. owen ( ). the evolution of progress: the end of economic growth and the beginning of human transformation. new york, toronto: random house. p.  . isbn  - - - - . further reading[edit] 	acemoglu, daron; robinson, james a. ( ). why nations fail: the origins of power, prosperity, and poverty. crown business division of random house. isbn  - - - - . 	argyrous, g., forstater, m and mongiovi, g. (eds.) ( ) growth, distribution, and effective demand: essays in honor of edward j. nell. new york: m.e. sharpe. 	barro, robert j. ( ) determinants of economic growth: a cross-country empirical study. mit press: cambridge, ma. 	galor, o. ( ) from stagnation to growth: unified growth theory. handbook of economic growth, elsevier. 	halevi, joseph; laibman, david and nell, edward j. (eds.) ( ) beyond the steady state: essays in the revival of growth theory, edited with, london, uk: 	hickel, jason ( ). less is more: how degrowth will save the world. penguin random house. isbn  . 	jones, charles i. ( ) introduction to economic growth nd ed. w. w. norton & company: new york, n.y. 	lucas, robert e., jr. ( ) the industrial revolution: past and future, federal reserve bank of minneapolis, annual report online edition 	schumpeter, jospeph a. ( ) the theory of economic development reprint, transaction publishers 	weil, david n. ( ) economic growth nd ed. addison wesley. external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: economic growth articles and lectures[edit] 	"economic growth." encyclopædia britannic. . encyclopædia britannica online. november . 	beyond classical and keynesian macroeconomic policy. paul romer's plain-english explanation of endogenous growth theory. 	cepr economics seminar series two seminars on the importance of growth with economists dean baker and mark weisbrot 	on global economic history by jan luiten van zanden. explores the idea of the inevitability of the industrial revolution. 	the economist has no clothes – essay by robert nadeau in scientific american on the basic assumptions behind current economic theory 	world growth institute. an organization dedicated to helping the developing world realize its full potential via economic growth. 	why does growth keep slowing down? st. louis federal reserve bank data[edit] 	angus maddison's historical dataseries – series for almost 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 (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 cooperation - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	cooperation 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for other uses, see cooperation (disambiguation). this article is about cooperation as used in the social sciences. for co-operation in evolution, see co-operation (evolution). for the economic model, see cooperative. many animal species cooperate with each other in mutual symbiosis. one example is the ocellaris clownfish, which dwells among the tentacles of ritteri sea anemones. the anemones provide the clownfish with protection from their predators (which cannot tolerate the stings of the sea anemone's tentacles), while the fish defend the anemones against butterflyfish (which eat anemones) cooperation (written as co-operation in british english) is the process of groups of organisms working or acting together for common, mutual, or some underlying benefit, as opposed to working in competition for selfish benefit.[ ] many animal and plant species cooperate both with other members of their own species and with members of other species (symbiosis or mutualism).[ ] contents 	 among humans 	 among other animals 	 kin selection 	 cooperative systems 	 the prisoner's dilemma 	 see also 	 notes 	 references 	 external links among humans[edit] humans cooperate for the same reasons as other animals: immediate benefit, genetic relatedness, and reciprocity, but also for particularly human reasons, such as honesty signaling (indirect reciprocity), cultural group selection, and for reasons having to do with cultural evolution.[ ] language allows humans to cooperate on a very large scale. certain studies have suggested that fairness affects human cooperation; individuals are willing to punish at their own cost (altruistic punishment) if they believe that they are being treated unfairly.[ ][ ] sanfey, et al. conducted an experiment where individuals were scanned using mri while playing an ultimatum game in the role of the responder.[ ] they received offers from other human partners and from a computer partner. responders refused unfair offers from human partners at a significantly higher rate than those from a computer partner. the experiment also suggested that altruistic punishment is associated with negative emotions that are generated in unfair situations by the anterior insula of the brain.[ ] it has been observed that image scoring, where a participant learns of their counterpart's prior behavior or reputation, promotes cooperative behavior in situations where direct reciprocity is unlikely.[ ] this implies that in situations where reputation and status are involved, humans tend to cooperate more. among other animals[edit] cooperation is common in non-human animals. besides cooperation with an immediate benefit for both actors, this behavior appears to occur mostly between relatives.[ ] spending time and resources assisting a related individual may at first seem destructive to the organism's chances of survival but is actually beneficial over the long-term. since relatives share part of their genetic make-up, enhancing each other's chances of survival may actually increase the likelihood that the helper's genetic traits will be passed on to future generations.[ ] the cooperative pulling paradigm is an experimental design used to assess if and under which conditions animals cooperate. it involves two or more animals pulling rewards towards themselves via an apparatus they can not successfully operate alone.[ ] some researchers assert that cooperation is more complex than this. they maintain that helpers may receive more direct, and less indirect, gains from assisting others than is commonly reported. furthermore, they insist that cooperation may not solely be an interaction between two individuals but may be part of the broader goal of unifying populations.[ ] kin selection[edit] one specific form of cooperation in animals is kin selection, which can be defined as animals helping to rear a relative's offspring in order to enhance their own fitness.[ ][ ] different theories explaining kin selection have been proposed, including the "pay-to-stay" and "territory inheritance" hypotheses. the "pay-to-stay" theory suggests that individuals help others rear offspring in order to return the favor of the breeders allowing them to live on their land. the "territory inheritance" theory contends that individuals help in order to have improved access to breeding areas once the breeders depart. these two hypotheses both appear to be valid, at least in cichlid fish.[ ] studies conducted on red wolves support previous researchers'[ ] contention that helpers obtain both immediate and long-term gains from cooperative breeding. researchers evaluated the consequences of red wolves' decisions to stay with their packs for extended periods of time after birth. it was found that this "delayed dispersal," while it involved helping other wolves rear their offspring, extended male wolves' life spans. these findings suggest that kin selection may not only benefit an individual in the long-term in terms of increased fitness but in the short-term as well through enhanced chance of survival.[ ] some research even suggests that certain species provide more help to the individuals with which they are more closely related. this phenomenon is known as kin discrimination.[ ] in their meta-analysis, researchers compiled data on kin selection as mediated by genetic relatedness in species, including the western bluebird, pied kingfisher, australian magpie, and dwarf mongoose. they found that different species exhibited varying degrees of kin discrimination, with the largest frequencies occurring among those who have the most to gain from cooperative interactions.[ ] cooperative systems[edit] cooperation is a process by which the components of a system work together to achieve the global properties.[ ] in other words, individual components that appear to be "selfish" and independent work together to create a highly complex, greater-than-the-sum-of-its-parts system. the phenomenon is generally known as 'emergence' and is considered an outcome of self-organization.[ ] examples: 	the components in a cell work together to keep it living. 	neurons create thought and consciousness, other cells work together and communicate to produce multicellular organisms. 	organisms form food chains and ecosystems. 	people form families, tribes, cities and nations. 	atoms cooperate in a simple way, by combining to make up molecules. understanding the mechanisms that create cooperating agents in a system is one of the most important and least well understood phenomena in nature, though there has not been a lack of effort.[citation needed] individual action on behalf of a larger system may be coerced (forced), voluntary (freely chosen), or even unintentional, and consequently individuals and groups might act in concert even though they have almost nothing in common as regards interests or goals. examples of that can be found in market trade, military wars, families, workplaces, schools and prisons, and more generally any institution or organization of which individuals are part (out of own choice, by law, or forced).[citation needed] the prisoner's dilemma[edit] for many years, the prisoner's dilemma game pointed out that even if all members of a group would benefit if all cooperate, individual self-interest may not favor cooperation. the prisoner's dilemma codifies this problem and has been the subject of much research, both theoretical and experimental. the first extensive experimental studies were conducted in the early s by anatol rapoport and albert chammah.[ ] results from experimental economics show that humans often act more cooperatively than strict self-interest would seem to dictate. while economic experiments require subjects to make relatively abstract decisions for small stakes, evidence from natural experiments for high stakes support the claim that humans act more cooperatively than strict self-interest would dictate.[ ] one reason may be that if the prisoner's dilemma situation is repeated (the iterated prisoner's dilemma), it allows non-cooperation to be punished more, and cooperation to be rewarded more, than the single-shot version of the problem would suggest. it has been suggested that this is one reason for the evolution of complex emotions in higher life forms.[ ][ ] see also[edit] 	agreeableness 	collaboration 	cooperativeness (personality trait) 	cooperative gameplay 	dictator game 	dunbar's number 	the evolution of cooperation 	game theory 	management cybernetics 	polytely 	teamwork notes[edit] 	^ a b c d lindenfors, patrik ( ). for whose benefit? the biological and cultural evolution of human cooperation. springer. isbn  - - - - . 	^ kohn, alfie ( ). no contest: the case against competition. houghton mifflin harcourt. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ fehr, ernst ( ). "altruistic punishment in humans" (pdf). nature. macmillan magazines ltd. ( ): – . bibcode: natur. .. f. doi: . / a. pmid  . s cid  . archived from the original (pdf) on september . retrieved july . 	^ a b c sanfey, alan g.; et al. ( ). "the neural basis of economic decision-making in the ultimatum game" (pdf). science. ( ): – . bibcode: sci... . s. doi: . /science. . pmid  . s cid  . retrieved july . 	^ wedekind, claus; milinski, manfred ( may ). "cooperation through image scoring in humans". science. ( ): – . doi: . /science. . . . issn  - . 	^ a b hamilton, w.d. ( ). "the genetical evolution of social behaviour". journal of theoretical biology, , – . 	^ de waal, frans ( ). "are we smart enough to know how smart animals are?" isbn  - - - - , p. 	^ a b c clutton-brock, t. ( ). "breeding together: kin selection and mutualism in cooperative vertebrates". science, ( ), – . doi: . /science. . . 	^ balshine-earn, s., neat, f.c., reid, h., & taborsky, m. ( ). "paying to stay or paying to breed? field evidence for direct benefits of helping behavior in a cooperatively breeding fish". behavioral ecology, ( ), – . 	^ sparkman, a. m., adams, j. r., steury, t. d., waits, l. p., & murray, d. l. ( ). "direct fitness benefits of delayed dispersal in the cooperatively breeding red wolf (canis rufus)". behavioral ecology, ( ), – . doi: . /beheco/arq 	^ a b griffin, a. s., & west, s. a. ( ). "kin discrimination and the benefit of helping in cooperatively breeding vertebrates". science, ( ), – . doi: . /science. 	^ mobus, g.e. & kalton, m.c. ( ). principles of systems science, chapter : emergence, springer, new york 	^ rapoport, a., & chammah, a. m. ( ). prisoner’s dilemma: a study of conflict and cooperation. ann arbor, mi: university of michigan press. 	^ van den assem, van dolder, and thaler ( ). "split or steal? cooperative behavior when the stakes are large". ssrn  . cite journal requires |journal= (help)cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ olsen, harrington, and siegelmann ( ). "conspecific emotional cooperation biases population dynamics: a cellular automata approach". cite journal requires |journal= (help)cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ harrington, olsen, and siegelmann ( ). "communicated somatic markers benefit the individual and the species". cite journal requires |journal= (help)cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) references[edit] 	herbert gintis, samuel bowles, a cooperative species: human reciprocity and its evolution, princeton university press, , isbn  - - - (reviewed in the montreal review) 	patrik lindenfors, ( ). for whose benefit? the biological and cultural evolution of cooperation, springer. isbn  - - - - 	tom r. tyler, "why people cooperate: the role of social motivations", princeton university press, , isbn  - - - - 	michael tomasello, ( ), why we cooperate. mit press. isbn  - - - - (reviewed in the montreal review) 	raimo tuomela, "cooperation, a philosophic study", philosophical studies series, vol. kluwer academic publishers, , isbn  - - - - 	robert axelrod, the complexity of cooperation, princeton paperbacks, isbn  - - - 	robert axelrod, the evolution of cooperation, basic books, isbn  - - - 	richard dawkins ( ), the selfish gene, second edition – includes two chapters about the evolution of cooperation, isbn  - - - 	herbert gintis, samuel bowles, robert t. boyd, ernst fehr (eds.), moral sentiments and material interests: the foundations of cooperation in economic life (economic learning and social evolution). mit 	john mcmurtry, "how competition goes wrong." journal of applied philosophy, ( ): – , . 	dennis rivers, newconversations.net, the seven challenges: a workbook and reader about communicating more cooperatively, fourth edition, – treats cooperation as a set of skills that can be improved. 	m.j. van den assem, d. van dolder and r.h. thaler ( ). "split or steal? cooperative behavior when the stakes are large" external links[edit] 		look up cooperation in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: cooperation 	 media related to cooperation at wikimedia commons 	an operation of cooperation, a book about cooperation and the benefits of this path, as opposed to working alone. 	rheingold.com, the cooperation project: objectives, accomplishments, and proposals. howard rheingold's project with institute for the future. 	etra.cc, cooperation platform for transport research (scientific) 	imprology.com, the far games, a list of games using theatrical improvisation to encourage collaboration and distributed leadership 	authority control 	 	gnd: - 	nara: retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=cooperation&oldid= " 		categories: 	collaboration 	ethology 	organizational theory 	moral psychology hidden categories: 	cs errors: missing periodical 	cs maint: multiple names: authors list 	use dmy dates from november 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from july 	commons category link from wikidata 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nara identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	Беларуская 	bosanski 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	español 	esperanto 	فارسی 	français 	galego 	Հայերեն 	हिन्दी 	bahasa indonesia 	isixhosa 	italiano 	עברית 	lietuvių 	magyar 	मराठी 	日本語 	norsk bokmål 	polski 	português 	română 	Русский 	simple english 	Српски / srpski 	svenska 	தமிழ் 	Тоҷикӣ 	türkçe 	Українська 	اردو 	tiếng việt 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 greed - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	greed 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		insatiable longing for material gain for other uses, see greed (disambiguation). "avarice" and "avaritia" redirect here. for other uses, see avarice (disambiguation) and avaritia (disambiguation). painting the worship of mammon, the new testament representation and personification of material greed, by evelyn de morgan. shakespeare sacrificed: or the offering to avarice by james gillray. the father and mother by boardman robinson depicting war as the offspring of greed and pride. 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e greed (or avarice) is an uncontrolled longing for increase in the acquisition or use: of material gain (be it food, money, land, or animate/inanimate possessions); or social value, such as status, or power. greed has been identified as undesirable throughout known human history because it creates behavior-conflict between personal and social goals. contents 	 nature of greed 	 views of greed 	 . in animals 	 . ancient views 	 . . aristophanes 	 . . lucretius 	 . . epictetus 	 . medieval europe 	 . . augustine 	 . . aquinas 	 . . dante 	 . . chaucer 	 . early modern europe 	 . . luther 	 . . montaigne 	 . . spinoza 	 . . locke 	 . . laurence sterne 	 . . rousseau 	 . . adam smith 	 . . edward gibbon 	 . modern period 	 . . john stuart mill 	 . . goethe 	 . . marx 	 . . meher baba 	 . . ivan boesky 	 inspirations 	 genetics 	 see also 	 references 	 external links nature of greed[edit] the initial motivation for (or purpose of) greed and actions associated with it may be the promotion of personal or family survival. it may at the same time be an intent to deny or obstruct competitors from potential means (for basic survival and comfort) or future opportunities; therefore being insidious or tyrannical and having a negative connotation. alternately, the purpose could be defense or counteractive response to such obstructions being threatened by others. but regardless of purpose, greed intends to create an inequity of access or distribution to community wealth. modern economic thought frequently distinguishes greed from self-interest, even in its earliest works,[ ][ ] and spends considerable effort distinguishing the line between the two. by the mid- th century - affected by the phenomenological ideas of hegel - economic and political thinkers began to define greed inherent to the structure of society as a negative and inhibitor to the development of societies.[ ][ ] keynes wrote ‘the world is not so governed from above that private and social interest always coincide. it is not so managed here below that in practice they coincide’.[ ] both views continue to pose fundamental questions in today's economic thinking.[ ] as a secular psychological concept, greed is an inordinate desire to acquire or possess more than one needs. the degree of inordinance is related to the inability to control the reformulation of "wants" once desired "needs" are eliminated. erich fromm described greed as "a bottomless pit which exhausts the person in an endless effort to satisfy the need without ever reaching satisfaction." it is typically used to criticize those who seek excessive material wealth, although it may equally be applied to the need to feel more excessively moral, social, or otherwise better than someone else. one individual consequence of greedy activity may be an inability to sustain any of the costs or burdens associated with that which has been or is being accumulated, leading to a backfire or destruction, whether of self or more generally. other outcomes may include a degradation of social position, or exclusion from community protections. so, the level of "inordinance" of greed pertains to the amount of vanity, malice or burden associated with it. views of greed[edit] in animals[edit] animal examples of greed in literary observations are frequently the attribution of human motivations to other species. the dog-in-the-manger, or piggish behaviors are typical examples. characterizations of the wolverine (whose scientific name (gulo gulo)) means "glutton") remark both on its outsized appetite, and its penchant for spoiling food remaining after it has gorged[ ] ancient views[edit] ancient views of greed abound in nearly every culture. in classical greek thought; pleonexy (an unjust desire for tangible/intangible worth attaining to others) is discussed in the works of plato and aristotle.[ ] pan-hellenic disapprobation of greed is seen by the mythic punishment meted to tantalus, from whom ever-present food and water is eternally withheld. late-republican and imperial politicians and historical writers fixed blame for the demise of the roman republic on greed for wealth and power, from sallust and plutarch[ ] to the gracchi and cicero. the persian empires had the three-headed zoroastrian demon aži dahāka (representing unslaked desire) as a fixed part of their folklore. in the sanskrit dharmashastras the "root of all immorality is lobha (greed)."[ ], as stated in the laws of manu ( : ).[ ] in early china, both the shai jan jing and the zuo zhuan texts count the greedy taotie among the malevolent four perils besetting gods and men. north american indian tales often cast bears as proponents of greed (considered a major threat in a communal society).[ ] greed is also personified by the fox in early allegoric literature of many lands.[ ][ ] greed (as a cultural quality) was often imputed as a racial pejorative by the ancient greeks and romans; as such it was used against egyptians, punics, or other oriental peoples;[ ] and generally to any enemies or people whose customs were considered strange. by the late middle ages the insult was widely directed towards jews.[ ] in the books of moses, the commandments of the sole deity are written in the book of exodus ( : - ), and again in deuteronomy ( : - ); two of these particularly deal directly with greed, prohibiting theft and covetousness. these commandments are moral foundations of not only judaism, but also of christianity, islam, unitarian universalism, and the baháʼí faith among others. the quran advises do not spend wastefully, indeed, the wasteful are brothers of the devils..., but it also says do not make your hand [as though] chained to your neck..."[ ] the christian gospels quote jesus as saying, "“watch out! be on your guard against all kinds of greed; a man's life does not consist in the abundance of his possessions”,[ ] and "for everything in the world—the lust of the flesh, the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life—comes not from the father but from the world.".[ ] aristophanes[edit] in the aristophanes satire plutus, an athenian and his slave say to plutus, the god of wealth, that while men may become weary of greed for love, music, figs, and other pleasures, they will never tire of greed for wealth: if a man has thirteen talents, he has all the greater ardour to possess sixteen; if that wish is achieved, he will want forty or will complain that he knows not how to make both ends meet.[ ] lucretius[edit] the roman poet lucretius thought that the fear of dying and poverty were major drivers of greed, with dangerous consequences for morality and order: and greed, again, and the blind lust of honours      which force poor wretches past the bounds of law,      and, oft allies and ministers of crime,      to push through nights and days with hugest toil      to rise untrammelled to the peaks of power—      these wounds of life in no mean part are kept      festering and open by this fright of death.[ ] epictetus[edit] the roman stoic epictetus also saw the dangerous moral consequences of greed, and so advised the greedy to instead take pride in letting go of the desire for wealth, rather than be like the man with a fever who cannot drink his fill: nay, what a price the rich themselves, and those who hold office, and who live with beautiful wives, would give to despise wealth and office and the very women whom they love and win! do you not know what the thirst of a man in a fever is like, how different from the thirst of a man in health? the healthy man drinks and his thirst is gone: the other is delighted for a moment and then grows giddy, the water turns to gall, and he vomits and has colic, and is more exceeding thirsty. such is the condition of the man who is haunted by desire in wealth or in office, and in wedlock with a lovely woman: jealousy clings to him, fear of loss, shameful words, shameful thoughts, unseemly deeds.[ ] jacques callot, greed, probably after medieval europe[edit] augustine[edit] in the fifth century, st. augustine wrote: greed is not a defect in the gold that is desired but in the man who loves it perversely by falling from justice which he ought to esteem as incomparably superior to gold [...][ ] aquinas[edit] st. thomas aquinas states greed "is a sin against god, just as all mortal sins, in as much as man condemns things eternal for the sake of temporal things."[ ]:a he also wrote that "greed can be “a sin directly against one’s neighbor, since one man cannot over-abound (superabundare) in external riches, without another man lacking them, for temporal goods cannot be possessed by many at the same time." dante[edit] dante's th century epic poem inferno assigns those committed to the deadly sin of greed to punishment in the fourth of the nine circles of hell. the inhabitants are misers, hoarders, and spendthrifts; they must constantly battle one another. the guiding spirit, virgil, tells the poet these souls have lost their personality in their disorder, and are no longer recognizable: "that ignoble life, which made them vile before, now makes them dark, and to all knowledge indiscernible."[ ] in dante's purgatory, avaricious penitents were bound and laid face down on the ground for having concentrated too much on earthly thoughts. chaucer[edit] dante's near-contemporary, geoffrey chaucer, wrote of greed in his prologue to the pardoner's tale these words: "radix malorum est cupiditas"(or “the root of all evil is greed”);[ ] however the pardoner himself serves us as a charicature of churchly greed.[ ] early modern europe[edit] luther[edit] martin luther especially condemned the greed of the usurer: therefore is there, on this earth, no greater enemy of man (after the devil) than a gripe-money, and usurer, for he wants to be god over all men. turks, soldiers, and tyrants are also bad men, yet must they let the people live, and confess that they are bad, and enemies, and do, nay, must, now and then show pity to some. but a usurer and money-glutton, such a one would have the whole world perish of hunger and thirst, misery and want, so far as in him lies, so that he may have all to himself, and every one may receive from him as from a god, and be his serf for ever. to wear fine cloaks, golden chains, rings, to wipe his mouth, to be deemed and taken for a worthy, pious man .... usury is a great huge monster, like a werewolf, who lays waste all, more than any cacus, gerion or antus. and yet decks himself out, and would be thought pious, so that people may not see where the oxen have gone, that he drags backwards into his den.[ ] montaigne[edit] michel de montaigne thought that 'it is not want, but rather abundance, that creates avarice', that 'all moneyed men i conclude to be covetous', and that: ‘tis the greatest folly imaginable to expect that fortune should ever sufficiently arm us against herself; ‘tis with our own arms that we are to fight her; accidental ones will betray us in the pinch of the business. if i lay up, ‘tis for some near and contemplated purpose; not to purchase lands, of which i have no need, but to purchase pleasure: “non esse cupidum, pecunia est; non esse emacem, vertigal est.” [“not to be covetous, is money; not to be acquisitive, is revenue.” —cicero, paradox., vi. .] i neither am in any great apprehension of wanting, nor in desire of any more: “divinarum fructus est in copia; copiam declarat satietas.” [“the fruit of riches is in abundance; satiety declares abundance.” —idem, ibid., vi. .] and i am very well pleased that this reformation in me has fallen out in an age naturally inclined to avarice, and that i see myself cleared of a folly so common to old men, and the most ridiculous of all human follies.[ ] spinoza[edit] baruch spinoza thought that the masses were concerned with money-making more than any other activity, since, he believed, it seemed to them like spending money was prerequisite for enjoying any goods and services.[ ] yet he did not consider this preoccupation to be necessarily a form of greed, and felt that the ethics of the situation were nuanced: this result is the fault only of those, who seek money, not from poverty or to supply their necessary wants, but because they have learned the arts of gain, wherewith they bring themselves to great splendour. certainly they nourish their bodies, according to custom, but scantily, believing that they lose as much of their wealth as they spend on the preservation of their body. but they who know the true use of money, and who fix the measure of wealth solely with regard to their actual needs, live content with little.[ ] locke[edit] john locke claims that unused property is wasteful and an offence against nature, because "as anyone can make use of to any advantage of life before it spoils; so much he may by his labour fix a property in. whatever is beyond this, is more than his share, and belongs to others.”[ ] laurence sterne[edit] in the laurence sterne novel tristram shandy, the titular character describes his uncle's greed for knowledge about fortifications, saying that the 'desire of knowledge, like the thirst of riches, increases ever with the acquisition of it', that 'the more my uncle toby pored over his map, the more he took a liking to it', and that 'the more my uncle toby drank of this sweet fountain of science, the greater was the heat and impatience of his thirst'.[ ] rousseau[edit] the swiss philosophe jean-jacques rousseau compared man in the state of nature, who has no need of greed since he can find food anywhere, with man in the state of society: for whom first necessaries have to be provided, and then superfluities; delicacies follow next, then immense wealth, then subjects, and then slaves. he enjoys not a moment's relaxation; and what is yet stranger, the less natural and pressing his wants, the more headstrong are his passions, and, still worse, the more he has it in his power to gratify them; so that after a long course of prosperity, after having swallowed up treasures and ruined multitudes, the hero ends up by cutting every throat till he finds himself, at last, sole master of the world. such is in miniature the moral picture, if not of human life, at least of the secret pretensions of the heart of civilised man.[ ] adam smith[edit] political economist adam smith thought the greed for food to be limited, but the greed for other goods to be limitless: the rich man consumes no more food than his poor neighbour. in quality it may be very different, and to select and prepare it may require more labour and art; but in quantity it is very nearly the same. but compare the spacious palace and great wardrobe of the one, with the hovel and the few rags of the other, and you will be sensible that the difference between their clothing, lodging, and household furniture, is almost as great in quantity as it is in quality. the desire of food is limited in every man by the narrow capacity of the human stomach; but the desire of the conveniencies and ornaments of building, dress, equipage, and household furniture, seems to have no limit or certain boundary.[ ] edward gibbon[edit] in his account of the sack of rome, historian edward gibbon remarks that: avarice is an insatiate and universal passion; since the enjoyment of almost every object that can afford pleasure to the different tastes and tempers of mankind may be procured by the possession of wealth. in the pillage of rome, a just preference was given to gold and jewels, which contain the greatest value in the smallest compass and weight: but, after these portable riches had been removed by the more diligent robbers, the palaces of rome were rudely stripped of their splendid and costly furniture.[ ] modern period[edit] john stuart mill[edit] in his essay utilitarianism, john stuart mill writes of greed for money that: the love of money is not only one of the strongest moving forces of human life, but money is, in many cases, desired in and for itself; the desire to possess it is often stronger than the desire to use it, and goes on increasing when all the desires which point to ends beyond it, to be compassed by it, are falling off. it may be then said truly, that money is desired not for the sake of an end, but as part of the end. from being a means to happiness, it has come to be itself a principal ingredient of the individual's conception of happiness. the same may be said of the majority of the great objects of human life—power, for example, or fame; except that to each of these there is a certain amount of immediate pleasure annexed, which has at least the semblance of being naturally inherent in them; a thing which cannot be said of money.[ ] goethe[edit] frontispiece to a printing of doctor faustus showing faustus conjuring mephistophilis. johann wolfgang von goethe's tragic play faust, mephistopheles, disguised as a starving man, comes to plutus, faust in disguise, to recite a cautionary tale about avariciously living beyond your means: starveling. away from me, ye odious crew!     welcome, i know, i never am to you.     when hearth and home were women's zone,     as avaritia i was known.     then did our household thrive throughout,     for much came in and naught went out!     zealous was i for chest and bin;     'twas even said my zeal was sin.     but since in years most recent and depraving     woman is wont no longer to be saving     and, like each tardy payer, collars     far more desires than she has dollars,     the husband now has much to bore him;     wherever he looks, debts loom before him.     her spinning-money is turned over     to grace her body or her lover;     better she feasts and drinks still more     with all her wretched lover-corps.     gold charms me all the more for this:     male's now my gender, i am avarice!   leader of the women.     with dragons be the dragon avaricious,     it's naught but lies, deceiving stuff!     to stir up men he comes, malicious,     whereas men now are troublesome enough.[ ] near the end of the play, faust confesses to mephistopheles: that’s the worst suffering can bring, being rich, to feel we lack something.[ ] marx[edit] karl marx thought that 'avarice and the desire to get rich are the ruling passions' in the heart of every burgeoning capitalist, who later develops a 'faustian conflict' in his heart 'between the passion for accumulation, and the desire for enjoyment' of his wealth.[ ] he also stated that 'with the possibility of holding and storing up exchange-value in the shape of a particular commodity, arises also the greed for gold' and that 'hard work, saving, and avarice are, therefore, [the hoarder's] three cardinal virtues, and to sell much and buy little the sum of his political economy.'[ ] marx discussed what he saw as the specific nature of the greed of capitalists thusly: use-values must therefore never be looked upon as the real aim of the capitalist; neither must the profit on any single transaction. the restless never-ending process of profit-making alone is what he aims at. this boundless greed after riches, this passionate chase after exchange-value, is common to the capitalist and the miser; but while the miser is merely a capitalist gone mad, the capitalist is a rational miser. the never-ending augmentation of exchange-value, which the miser strives after, by seeking to save his money from circulation, is attained by the more acute capitalist, by constantly throwing it afresh into circulation.[ ] meher baba[edit] meher baba dictated that "greed is a state of restlessness of the heart, and it consists mainly of craving for power and possessions. possessions and power are sought for the fulfillment of desires. man is only partially satisfied in his attempt to have the fulfillment of his desires, and this partial satisfaction fans and increases the flame of craving instead of extinguishing it. thus greed always finds an endless field of conquest and leaves the man endlessly dissatisfied. the chief expressions of greed are related to the emotional part of man."[ ] ivan boesky[edit] ivan boesky famously defended greed in an may commencement address at the uc berkeley's school of business administration, in which he said, "greed is all right, by the way. i want you to know that. i think greed is healthy. you can be greedy and still feel good about yourself".[ ] this speech inspired the film wall street, which features the famous line spoken by gordon gekko: "greed, for lack of a better word, is good. greed is right, greed works. greed clarifies, cuts through, and captures the essence of the evolutionary spirit. greed, in all of its forms; greed for life, for money, for love, knowledge has marked the upward surge of mankind."[ ] inspirations[edit] scavenging and hoarding of materials or objects, theft and robbery, especially by means of violence, trickery, or manipulation of authority are all actions that may be inspired by greed. such misdeeds can include simony, where one profits from soliciting goods within the actual confines of a church. a well-known example of greed is the pirate hendrick lucifer, who fought for hours to acquire cuban gold, becoming mortally wounded in the process. he died of his wounds hours after having transferred the booty to his ship.[ ] genetics[edit] some research suggests there is a genetic basis for greed. it is possible people who have a shorter version of the ruthlessness gene (avpr a) may behave more selfishly.[ ] see also[edit] 	contempt 	financialization 	interest 	narcissism 	genoeconomics 	pleonexia 	seven deadly sins 	american greed 	greed, film 	greed, film 	greed (game show) 	ojukokoro (greed), film 	greed (jelinek novel), novel 	greed is good 	theft 	mr. krabs 	usury references[edit] 	^ charles de montesquieu, the spirit of the laws (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), p. 	^ adam smith, the wealth of nations (new york: modern library, ), p. 	^ thorstein veblen, the theory of the leisure class ( ed.), p. 	^ karl marx, the communist manifesto, london, 	^ keynes, the end of laissez-faire, http://www.panarchy.org/keynes/laissezfaire. .html 	^ http://piotr-evdokimov.com/greed.pdf 	^ https://www.visionlearning.com/blog/ / / /wolverines-give-insight-evolution-greed/ 	^ https://countercurrents.org/ / /the-evolution-of-greed-from-aristotle-to-gordon-gekko 	^ http://www.reallycoolblog.com/greed-power-and-prestige-explaining-the-fall-of-the-roman-republic/ 	^ https://qz.com/india/ /wealth-interest-and-greed-the-dharma-of-doing-business-in-medieval-india/ 	^ https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu/manu .htm 	^ http://www.native-languages.org/legends-greed.htm 	^ casal, u. a. ( ). "the goblin fox and badger and other witch animals of japan". folklore studies. : – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ https://www.behtarlife.com/ / /foolish-and-greedy-fox-hindi-story.html 	^ the invention of racism in classical antiquity, benjamin isaac, princeton university press, ; isbn  - - 	^ https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/usury-and-moneylending-in-judaism/ 	^ https://quran.com/ / - ?translations= 	^ luke : 	^ john : 	^ aristophanes. plutus. the internet classics archive. 	^ lucretius. of the nature of things, book iii. project gutenberg. 	^ epictetus. the discourses of epictetus, book iv, chapter . translated by percy ewing matheson.internet sacred text archive. 	^ https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/ -greed-is-not-a-defect-in-the-gold-that-is, 	^ thomas aquinas. "the summa theologica ii-ii.q (the vices opposed to liberality, and in the first place, of covetousness)" ( , second and revised ed.). new advent. 	^ https://www.owleyes.org/text/dantes-inferno/read/canto- #root- - 	^ https://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~chaucer/teachslf/pard-par.htm, line 	^ https://partiallyexaminedlife.com/ / / /a-philosophical-horror-story-chaucers-the-pardoners-tale/ 	^ in karl marx, capital, volume , chapter , footnote . translated by samuel moore and edward aveling. edited by frederick engels. marxists internet archive. 	^ michel de montaigne. essays of michel de montaigne. book i, chapter xl. translated by charles cotton. project gutenberg. 	^ baruch spinoza. the ethics, book iv, appendix, xxviii. 'now for providing these nourishments the strength of each individual would hardly suffice, if men did not lend one another mutual aid. but money has furnished us with a token for everything: hence it is with the notion of money, that the mind of the multitude is chiefly engrossed: nay, it can hardly conceive any kind of pleasure, which is not accompanied with the idea of money as cause.' translated by r. h. m. elwes. project gutenberg. 	^ spinoza. the ethics, book iv, appendix, xxix. 	^ https://www.earlymoderntexts.com/assets/pdfs/locke a.pdf, chapter 	^ laurence sterne. tristram shandy, book ii, chapter iii. project gutenberg. 	^ jean-jacques rousseau. on the origin of inequality. appendix. translated by g. d. h. cole. american university of beirut. 	^ adam smith. the wealth of nations, book i, chapter xi, part ii. project gutenberg. 	^ edward gibbon. history of the decline and fall of the roman empire, volume iii, chapter xxxi, part iv. project gutenberg. 	^ john stuart mill. utilitarianism, chapter iv. project gutenberg. 	^ johann wolfgang von goethe. faust, part ii, section . translated by george madison priest. goethe (re)collected. 	^ goethe. faust, part ii, act v, scene iii. translated by a. s. kline. goethe (re)collected. 	^ karl marx. capital, volume , part , chapter . translated by samuel moore and edward aveling. edited by frederick engels. marxists internet archive. 	^ karl marx. capital, volume , part , chapter iii. 'in order that gold may be held as money, and made to form a hoard, it must be prevented from circulating, or from transforming itself into a means of enjoyment. the hoarder, therefore, makes a sacrifice of the lusts of the flesh to his gold fetish. he acts in earnest up to the gospel of abstention. on the other hand, he can withdraw from circulation no more than what he has thrown into it in the shape of commodities. the more he produces, the more he is able to sell. hard work, saving, and avarice are, therefore, his three cardinal virtues, and to sell much and buy little the sum of his political economy.' 	^ marx. capital, volume , part , chapter iv. 	^ baba, meher ( ). discourses. volume ii. san francisco: sufism reoriented. p. . 	^ gabriel, satya j (november , ). "oliver stone's wall street and the market for corporate control". economics in popular film. mount holyoke. retrieved - - . 	^ ross, brian (november , ). "greed on wall street". abc news. retrieved - - . 	^ dreamtheimpossible (september , ). "examples of greed". archived from the original on january , . retrieved october , . 	^ 'ruthlessness gene' discovered external links[edit] 	 quotations related to greed at wikiquote 	 the dictionary definition of greed at wiktionary 	 media related to greed at wikimedia commons 	 	v 	t 	e seven deadly sins 	 	lust 	gluttony 	greed 	sloth 	wrath 	envy 	pride 	persons categorizing and describing the sins	 	evagrius ponticus 	john cassian 	pope gregory i 	dante alighieri 	peter binsfeld 	 	in art and culture	 	divine comedy 	inferno 	purgatorio 	the seven deadly sins ( play) 	the seven deadly sins and the four last things (painting) 	the seven deadly sins ( ballet) 	the seven deadly sins ( film) 	the seven deadly sins ( film) 	the muppet show: sex and violence ( ) 	seven ( film) 	fullmetal alchemist (manga series) 	fullmetal alchemist ( anime) 	fullmetal alchemist: brotherhood ( anime) 	the seven deadly sins (manga series) 	the seven deadly sins of modern times (painting) 	jack 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encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		problem-solving method that is sufficient for immediate solutions or approximations for other uses, see heuristic (disambiguation). a heuristic technique, or a heuristic (/hjʊəˈrɪstɪk/; ancient greek: εὑρίσκω, heurískō, 'i find, discover'), is any approach to problem solving or self-discovery that employs a practical method that is not guaranteed to be optimal, perfect, or rational, but is nevertheless sufficient for reaching an immediate, short-term goal or approximation. where finding an optimal solution is impossible or impractical, heuristic methods can be used to speed up the process of finding a satisfactory solution. heuristics can be mental shortcuts that ease the cognitive load of making a decision.[ ]: [ ] examples that employ heuristics include using trial and error, a rule of thumb or an educated guess. contents 	 overview 	 history 	 . adaptive toolbox 	 . cognitive-experiential self-theory 	 . attribute substitution 	 psychology 	 . informal models of heuristics 	 . formal models of heuristics 	 . cognitive maps 	 philosophy 	 law 	 stereotyping 	 artificial intelligence 	 critiques and controversies 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading overview[edit] heuristics are the strategies derived from previous experiences with similar problems. these strategies depend on using readily accessible, though loosely applicable, information to control problem solving in human beings, machines and abstract issues.[ ][ ] the most fundamental heuristic is trial and error, which can be used in everything from matching nuts and bolts to finding the values of variables in algebra problems. in mathematics, some common heuristics involve the use of visual representations, additional assumptions, forward/backward reasoning and simplification.[ ] here are a few commonly used heuristics from george pólya's book, how to solve it:[ ] 	if you are having difficulty understanding a problem, try drawing a picture. 	if you can't find a solution, try assuming that you have a solution and seeing what you can derive from that ("working backward"). 	if the problem is abstract, try examining a concrete example. 	try solving a more general problem first (the "inventor's paradox": the more ambitious plan may have more chances of success). in psychology, heuristics are simple, efficient rules, learned or inculcated by evolutionary processes, that have been proposed to explain how people make decisions, come to judgments, and solve problems typically when facing complex problems or incomplete information. researchers test if people use those rules with various methods. these rules work well under most circumstances, but in certain cases can lead to systematic errors or cognitive biases.[ ] history[edit] main article: heuristics in judgment and decision making the study of heuristics in human decision-making was developed in the s and the s by the psychologists amos tversky and daniel kahneman[ ] although the concept had been originally introduced by the nobel laureate herbert a. simon, whose original, primary object of research was problem solving that showed that we operate within what he calls bounded rationality. he coined the term satisficing, which denotes a situation in which people seek solutions, or accept choices or judgments, that are "good enough" for their purposes although they could be optimized.[ ] rudolf groner analyzed the history of heuristics from its roots in ancient greece up to contemporary work in cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence,[ ] proposing a cognitive style "heuristic versus algorithmic thinking," which can be assessed by means of a validated questionnaire.[ ] adaptive toolbox[edit] gerd gigerenzer and his research group argued that models of heuristics need to be formal to allow for predictions of behavior that can be tested.[ ] they study the fast and frugal heuristics in the "adaptive toolbox" of individuals or institutions, and the ecological rationality of these heuristics; that is, the conditions under which a given heuristic is likely to be successful.[ ] the descriptive study of the "adaptive toolbox" is done by observation and experiment, the prescriptive study of the ecological rationality requires mathematical analysis and computer simulation. heuristics – such as the recognition heuristic, the take-the-best heuristic, and fast-and-frugal trees – have been shown to be effective in predictions, particularly in situations of uncertainty. it is often said that heuristics trade accuracy for effort but this is only the case in situations of risk. risk refers to situations where all possible actions, their outcomes and probabilities are known. in the absence of this information, that is under uncertainty, heuristics can achieve higher accuracy with lower effort.[ ] this finding, known as a less-is-more effect, would not have been found without formal models. the valuable insight of this program is that heuristics are effective not despite of their simplicity — but because of it. furthermore, gigerenzer and wolfgang gaissmaier found that both individuals and organizations rely on heuristics in an adaptive way.[ ] cognitive-experiential self-theory[edit] heuristics, through greater refinement and research, have begun to be applied to other theories, or be explained by them. for example, the cognitive-experiential self-theory (cest) also is an adaptive view of heuristic processing. cest breaks down two systems that process information. at some times, roughly speaking, individuals consider issues rationally, systematically, logically, deliberately, effortfully, and verbally. on other occasions, individuals consider issues intuitively, effortlessly, globally, and emotionally.[ ] from this perspective, heuristics are part of a larger experiential processing system that is often adaptive, but vulnerable to error in situations that require logical analysis.[ ] attribute substitution[edit] in , daniel kahneman and shane frederick proposed that cognitive heuristics work by a process called attribute substitution, which happens without conscious awareness.[ ] according to this theory, when somebody makes a judgment (of a "target attribute") that is computationally complex, a more easily calculated "heuristic attribute" is substituted. in effect, a cognitively difficult problem is dealt with by answering a rather simpler problem, without being aware of this happening.[ ] this theory explains cases where judgments fail to show regression toward the mean.[ ] heuristics can be considered to reduce the complexity of clinical judgments in health care.[ ] psychology[edit] informal models of heuristics[edit] 	affect heuristic — mental shortcut which uses emotion to influence the decision. emotion is the effect that plays the lead role that makes the decision or solves the problem quickly or efficiently. is used while judging the risks and benefits of something, depending on the positive or negative feelings that people associate with a stimulus. can also be considered the gut decision since if the gut feeling is right, then the benefits are high and the risks are low.[ ] 	anchoring and adjustment — describes the common human tendency to rely more heavily on the first piece of information offered (the "anchor") when making decisions. for example, in a study done with children, the children were told to estimate the number of jellybeans in a jar. groups of children were given either a high or low "base" number (anchor). children estimated the number of jellybeans to be closer to the anchor number that they were given.[ ] 	availability heuristic — a mental shortcut that occurs when people make judgments about the probability of events by the ease with which examples come to mind. for example, in a tversky & kahneman experiment, the majority of participants reported that there were more words in the english language that start with the letter k than for which k was the third letter. there are actually twice as many words in the english language that have k as the third letter as those that start with k, but words that start with k are much easier to recall and bring to mind.[ ] 	contagion heuristic — follows the law of contagion or similarity. this leads people to avoid others that are viewed as “contaminated” to the observer. this happens due to the fact of the observer viewing something that is seen as bad or to seek objects that have been associated with what seems good. somethings one can view as harmful can tend not to really be. this sometimes leads to irrational thinking on behalf of the observer.[ ] 	effort heuristic — the worth of an object is determined by the amount of effort put into the production of the object. objects that took longer to produce are more valuable while the objects that took less time are deemed not as valuable. also applies to how much effort is put into achieving the product. this can be seen as the difference of working and earning the object versus finding the object on the side of the street. it can be the same object but the one found will not be deemed as valuable as the one that we earned. 	escalation of commitment — describes the phenomenon where people justify increased investment in a decision, based on the cumulative prior investment, despite new evidence suggesting that the cost, starting today, of continuing the decision outweighs the expected benefit. this is related to the sunk cost fallacy. 	familiarity heuristic — a mental shortcut applied to various situations in which individuals assume that the circumstances underlying the past behavior still hold true for the present situation and that the past behavior thus can be correctly applied to the new situation. especially prevalent when the individual experiences a high cognitive load.[ ] 	naïve diversification — when asked to make several choices at once, people tend to diversify more than when making the same type of decision sequentially. 	peak–end rule — experience of an event is judged by the feelings of the peak of the event and nothing more. usually not every event is seen as complete but what was felt at the climax whether the event was pleasant or unpleasant to the observer. all other feelings is not lost but is not used. this can also include how long the event happened. 	representativeness heuristic — a mental shortcut used when making judgments about the probability of an event under uncertainty. or, judging a situation based on how similar the prospects are to the prototypes the person holds in his or her mind. for example, in a tversky and kahneman experiment,[ ] participants were given a description of a woman named linda. based on the description, it was likely that linda was a feminist. eighty to ninety percent of participants, choosing from two options, chose that it was more likely for linda to be a feminist and a bank teller than only a bank teller. the likelihood of two events cannot be greater than that of either of the two events individually. for this reason, the representativeness heuristic is exemplary of the conjunction fallacy.[ ] 	scarcity heuristic — works as the same as the economy. the scarcer an object or event is, the more value that thing holds. the abundance is the indicator of the value and is a mental shortcut that places a value on an item based on how easily it might be lost, especially to competitors. the scarcity heuristic stems from the idea that the more difficult it is to acquire an item the more value that item has. in many situations we use an item’s availability, its perceived abundance, to quickly estimate quality and/or utility. this can lead to systemic errors or cognitive bias.[ ] 	simulation heuristic — simplified mental strategy in which people determine the likelihood of an event happening based on how easy it is to mentally picture the event happening. people regret the events that are easier to image over the ones that would be harder to. it is also thought that people will use this heuristic to predict the likelihood of another's behavior happening. this shows that people are constantly simulating everything around them in order to be able to predict the likelihood of events around them. it is believe that people do this by mentally undoing events that they have experienced and then running mental simulations of the events with the corresponding input values of the altered model.[ ] 	social proof - also known as the informational social influence which was given its name by robert cialdini in his book called influence written in . it is where people copy the actions of others in order to attempt to undertake the behavior in a given situation. it is more prominent in situations were people are unable to determine the appropriate mode of behavior and are driven to the assumption that the surrounding people have more knowledge about the current situation. this can be see more dominantly in ambiguous social situations.[ ] formal models of heuristics[edit] 	fast-and-frugal trees 	fluency heuristic 	gaze heuristic 	recognition heuristic 	satisficing 	similarity heuristic 	take-the-best heuristic cognitive maps[edit] heuristics were also found to be used in the manipulation and creation of cognitive maps.[ ] cognitive maps are internal representations of our physical environment, particularly associated with spatial relationships. these internal representations are used by our memory as a guide in our external environment. it was found that when questioned about maps imaging, distancing, etc., people commonly made distortions to images. these distortions took shape in the regularization of images (i.e., images are represented as more like pure abstract geometric images, though they are irregular in shape). there are several ways that humans form and use cognitive maps, with visual intake being an especially key part of mapping: the first is by using landmarks, whereby a person uses a mental image to estimate a relationship, usually distance, between two objects. the second is route-road knowledge, and is generally developed after a person has performed a task and is relaying the information of that task to another person. the third is a survey, whereby a person estimates a distance based on a mental image that, to them, might appear like an actual map. this image is generally created when a person's brain begins making image corrections. these are presented in five ways: 	right-angle bias: when a person straightens out an image, like mapping an intersection, and begins to give everything -degree angles, when in reality it may not be that way. 	symmetry heuristic: when people tend to think of shapes, or buildings, as being more symmetrical than they really are. 	rotation heuristic: when a person takes a naturally (realistically) distorted image and straightens it out for their mental image. 	alignment heuristic: similar to the previous, where people align objects mentally to make them straighter than they really are. 	relative-position heuristic: people do not accurately distance landmarks in their mental image based on how well they remember that particular item. another method of creating cognitive maps is by means of auditory intake based on verbal descriptions. using the mapping based from a person's visual intake, another person can create a mental image, such as directions to a certain location.[ ] philosophy[edit] a heuristic device is used when an entity x exists to enable understanding of, or knowledge concerning, some other entity y. a good example is a model that, as it is never identical with what it models, is a heuristic device to enable understanding of what it models. stories, metaphors, etc., can also be termed heuristic in this sense. a classic example is the notion of utopia as described in plato's best-known work, the republic. this means that the "ideal city" as depicted in the republic is not given as something to be pursued, or to present an orientation-point for development. rather, it shows how things would have to be connected, and how one thing would lead to another (often with highly problematic results), if one opted for certain principles and carried them through rigorously. heuristic is also often used as a noun to describe a rule-of-thumb, procedure, or method.[ ] philosophers of science have emphasized the importance of heuristics in creative thought and the construction of scientific theories.[ ] (see the logic of scientific discovery by karl popper; and philosophers such as imre lakatos,[ ] lindley darden, william c. wimsatt, and others.) law[edit] in legal theory, especially in the theory of law and economics, heuristics are used in the law when case-by-case analysis would be impractical, insofar as "practicality" is defined by the interests of a governing body.[ ] the present securities regulation regime largely assumes that all investors act as perfectly rational persons. in truth, actual investors face cognitive limitations from biases, heuristics, and framing effects. for instance, in all states in the united states the legal drinking age for unsupervised persons is years, because it is argued that people need to be mature enough to make decisions involving the risks of alcohol consumption. however, assuming people mature at different rates, the specific age of would be too late for some and too early for others. in this case, the somewhat arbitrary deadline is used because it is impossible or impractical to tell whether an individual is sufficiently mature for society to trust them with that kind of responsibility. some proposed changes, however, have included the completion of an alcohol education course rather than the attainment of years of age as the criterion for legal alcohol possession. this would put youth alcohol policy more on a case-by-case basis and less on a heuristic one, since the completion of such a course would presumably be voluntary and not uniform across the population. the same reasoning applies to patent law. patents are justified on the grounds that inventors must be protected so they have incentive to invent. it is therefore argued that it is in society's best interest that inventors receive a temporary government-granted monopoly on their idea, so that they can recoup investment costs and make economic profit for a limited period. in the united states, the length of this temporary monopoly is years from the date the patent application was filed, though the monopoly does not actually begin until the application has matured into a patent. however, like the drinking-age problem above, the specific length of time would need to be different for every product to be efficient. a -year term is used because it is difficult to tell what the number should be for any individual patent. more recently, some, including university of north dakota law professor eric e. johnson, have argued that patents in different kinds of industries – such as software patents – should be protected for different lengths of time.[ ] stereotyping[edit] stereotyping is a type of heuristic that people use to form opinions or make judgments about things they have never seen or experienced.[ ] they work as a mental shortcut to assess everything from the social status of a person (based on their actions),[ ] to whether a plant is a tree based on the assumption that it is tall, has a trunk, and has leaves (even though the person making the evaluation might never have seen that particular type of tree before). stereotypes, as first described by journalist walter lippmann in his book public opinion ( ), are the pictures we have in our heads that are built around experiences as well as what we are told about the world.[ ][ ] artificial intelligence[edit] a heuristic can be used in artificial intelligence systems while searching a solution space. the heuristic is derived by using some function that is put into the system by the designer, or by adjusting the weight of branches based on how likely each branch is to lead to a goal node. critiques and controversies[edit] the concept of heuristics has critiques and controversies. the "we cannot be that dumb" critique argues that the average person has low ability to make sound and effective judgments.[ ] see also[edit] 		look up heuristic in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikibooks has more on the topic of: heuristic 	algorithm 	behavioral economics 	erudition 	failure mode and effects analysis 	heuristics in judgment and decision-making 	list of biases in judgment and decision making 	neuroheuristics 	priority heuristic 	social heuristics references[edit] 	^ myers, david g. ( ). social psychology (tenth ed.). new york, ny. isbn  . oclc  . 	^ a b "heuristics - explanation and examples". conceptually. retrieved - - . 	^ pearl, judea ( ). heuristics: intelligent search strategies for computer problem solving. new york, addison-wesley, p. vii. isbn  - - - - 	^ emiliano, ippoliti ( ). heuristic reasoning: studies in applied philosophy, epistemology and rational ethics. switzerland: springer international publishing. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ "the definitive glossary of higher mathematical jargon — heuristics". math vault. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ pólya, george ( ) how to solve it: a new aspect of mathematical method, princeton, nj: princeton university press. isbn  - - -   isbn  - - - 	^ gigerenzer, gerd ( ). "how to make cognitive illusions disappear: beyond "heuristics and biases"" (pdf). european review of social psychology. : – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . retrieved october . 	^ kahneman, daniel, amos tversky, and paul slovic, eds. . judgment under uncertainty: heuristics & biases. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. isbn  - - - . 	^ heuristics and heuristic evaluation. interaction-design.org. retrieved - - . 	^ groner, rudolf, marina groner, and walter f. bischof. . methods of heuristics. hillsdale, nj: lawrence erlbaum. 	^ groner, rudolf, and marina groner. . "heuristische versus algorithmische orientierung als dimension des individuellen kognitiven stils." in Über die richtige art, psychologie zu betreiben, edited by k. grawe, n. semmer, and r. hänni. göttingen: hogrefe. 	^ gigerenzer, gerd, peter m. todd, and the abc research group. . simple heuristics that make us smart. oxford, uk: oxford university press. isbn  - - - 	^ gigerenzer, gerd, and reinhard selten, eds. . bounded rationality: the adaptive toolbox. cambridge, ma, mit press. isbn  - . 	^ gigerenzer, gerd; hertwig, ralph; pachur, thorsten ( - - ). heuristics: the foundations of adaptive behavior. oxford university press. doi: . /acprof:oso/ . . . hdl: / - m- - -f - . isbn  . 	^ gigerenzer, gerd; gaissmaier, wolfgang (january ). "heuristic decision making". annual review of psychology. : – . doi: . /annurev-psych- - . hdl: / - m- - -f d- . pmid  . ssrn  . 	^ de neys, wim ( - - ). "cognitive experiential self theory - psychlopedia". perspectives on psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ epstein, s.; pacini, r.; denes-raj, v.; heier, h. ( ). "individual differences in intuitive-experiential and analytical-rational thinking styles". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ a b kahneman, daniel; shane frederick ( ). "representativeness revisited: attribute substitution in intuitive judgment". in thomas gilovich; dale griffin; daniel kahneman (eds.). heuristics and biases: the psychology of intuitive judgment. cambridge: cambridge university press. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . oclc  . 	^ kahneman, daniel (december ). "maps of bounded rationality: psychology for behavioral economics" (pdf). american economic review. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . issn  - . archived from the original (pdf) on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ cioffi, jane ( ). "heuristics, servants to intuition, in clinical decision making". journal of advanced nursing. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . 	^ slovic, paul; finucane, melissa l.; peters, ellen; macgregor, donald g. (march ). "the affect heuristic". european journal of operational research. ( ): – . doi: . /j.ejor. . . . issn  - . 	^ smith, h. ( ). "use of the anchoring and adjustment heuristic by children". current psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . s cid  . 	^ a b harvey, n ( ). "use of heuristics: insights from forecasting research". thinking & reasoning. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ rozin, paul; nemeroff, carol ( - - ), "sympathetic magical thinking: the contagion and similarity "heuristics"", heuristics and biases, cambridge university press, pp.  – , doi: . /cbo . , isbn  - - - - 	^ park, c. whan; lessig, v. parker (september ). "familiarity and its impact on consumer decision biases and heuristics". journal of consumer research. ( ): . doi: . / . hdl: / . issn  - . 	^ kahneman, daniel; slovic, paul; tversky, amos, eds. ( - - ). judgment under uncertainty. doi: . /cbo . isbn  . 	^ lynn, michael (march ). "the psychology of unavailability: explaining scarcity and cost effects on value". basic and applied social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /s basp _ . hdl: / . issn  - . 	^ kahneman, daniel; tversky, amos ( - - ). "variants of uncertainty". cognition. fort belvoir, va. ( ): – . doi: . /ada . pmid  . 	^ cialdini, robert b.; wosinska, wilhelmina; barrett, daniel w.; butner, jonathan; gornik-durose, malgorzata (october ). "compliance with a request in two cultures: the differential influence of social proof and commitment/consistency on collectivists and individualists". personality and social psychology bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ mcnaughton, bruce l.; battaglia, francesco p.; jensen, ole; moser, edvard i; moser, may-britt (august ). "path integration and the neural basis of the 'cognitive map'". nature reviews neuroscience. ( ): – . doi: . /nrn . issn  - x. pmid  . s cid  . 	^ sternberg, robert j.; karin sternberg ( ). cognitive psychology ( th ed.). belmont, ca: wadsworth, cengage learning. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ jaszczolt, k. m. . "defaults in semantics and pragmatics." stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. issn  - . 	^ frigg, roman, and stephan hartmann. . "models in science." stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. issn  - . 	^ kiss, olga ( ). "heuristic, methodology or logic of discovery? lakatos on patterns of thinking". perspectives on science. ( ): – . doi: . /posc. . . . . s cid  . 	^ gigerenzer, gerd, and christoph engel, eds. . heuristics and the law. cambridge, ma: mit press. isbn  - - - - . 	^ johnson, eric e. ( ). "calibrating patent lifetimes" (pdf). santa clara computer & high technology law journal. : – . 	^ bodenhausen, galen v.; et al. ( ). "on the dialectics of discrimination: dual processes in social stereotyping", in dual-process theories in social psychology edited by shelly chaiken and yaacov trope. ny: guilford press. pp.  – . isbn  - . retrieved march . 	^ kleg, milton ( ). hate prejudice and racism. albany: state university of new york press. p.  . isbn  - . retrieved march . 	^ gökçen, sinan. "pictures in our heads". european roma rights centre. retrieved march . 	^ gilovich, thomas; griffin, dale; kahnemann, daniel, eds. ( ). heuristics and biases: the psychology of intuitive judgment. cambridge university press. pp.  – . further reading[edit] 	how to solve it: modern heuristics, zbigniew michalewicz and david b. fogel, springer verlag, . isbn  - - - 	russell, stuart j.; norvig, peter ( ), artificial intelligence: a modern approach ( nd ed.), upper saddle river, new jersey: prentice hall, isbn  - - - 	the problem of thinking too much, - - , persi diaconis 	authority control 	 	gnd: - retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=heuristic&oldid= " 		categories: 	heuristics 	problem solving methods hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	articles containing ancient greek (to )-language text 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			afrikaans 	العربية 	azərbaycanca 	banjar 	Български 	bosanski 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	eesti 	español 	esperanto 	euskara 	فارسی 	français 	gaeilge 	galego 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	hrvatski 	ido 	bahasa indonesia 	italiano 	עברית 	Қазақша 	Кыргызча 	magyar 	Македонски 	nederlands 	日本語 	norsk bokmål 	norsk nynorsk 	occitan 	oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча 	polski 	português 	Русский 	shqip 	simple english 	slovenščina 	Српски / srpski 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	suomi 	svenska 	tagalog 	தமிழ் 	ไทย 	türkçe 	Українська 	tiếng việt 	winaray 	粵語 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 euphoria - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	euphoria 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 this is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on december . 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		intense feelings of well-being not to be confused with euphorbia. "euphoric" redirects here. for the tv show, see euphoria (american tv series). for other uses, see euphoria (disambiguation) and euphoric (disambiguation). playing can induce an intense state of happiness and contentment, like this young girl playing in the snow. euphoria ( /juːˈfɔːriə/ (listen)) is the experience (or affect) of pleasure or excitement and intense feelings of well-being and happiness.[ ][ ] certain natural rewards and social activities, such as aerobic exercise, laughter, listening to or making music, and dancing, can induce a state of euphoria.[ ][ ] euphoria is also a symptom of certain neurological or neuropsychiatric disorders, such as mania.[ ] romantic love and components of the human sexual response cycle are also associated with the induction of euphoria.[ ][ ][ ] certain drugs, many of which are addictive, can cause euphoria, which at least partially motivates their recreational use.[ ] hedonic hotspots – i.e., the pleasure centers of the brain – are functionally linked. activation of one hotspot results in the recruitment of the others. inhibition of one hotspot results in the blunting of the effects of activating another hotspot.[ ][ ] therefore, the simultaneous activation of every hedonic hotspot within the reward system is believed to be necessary for generating the sensation of an intense euphoria.[ ] contents 	 history of the term 	 neural substrates 	 types 	 . exercise-induced 	 . music-induced 	 . copulation-induced 	 . drug-induced 	 . . psychedelics 	 . . stimulants 	 . . depressants 	 . . opioids 	 . . cannabinoids 	 . . inhalants 	 . . glucocorticoids 	 . fasting–induced 	 . neuropsychiatric 	 . . mania 	 . . epilepsy 	 . . migraine 	 . . multiple sclerosis 	 see also 	 references 	 external links history of the term [edit] 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e the word "euphoria" is derived from the ancient greek terms εὐφορία: εὖ eu meaning "well" and φέρω pherō meaning "to bear".[ ][ ] it is semantically opposite to dysphoria. a english dictionary defines euphoria as "the well bearing of the operation of a medicine, i.e., when the patient finds himself eas'd or reliev'd by it".[ ] in the s, the english physician thomas laycock described euphoria as the feeling of bodily well-being and hopefulness; he noted its misplaced presentation in the final stage of some terminal illnesses and attributed such euphoria to neurological dysfunction.[ ] sigmund freud's monograph Über coca described (his own) consumption of cocaine producing "the normal euphoria of a healthy person",[ ] while about the german neuropsychiatrist carl wernicke lectured about the "abnormal euphoria" in patients with mania.[ ] a article in the boston daily globe refers to euphoria as "pleasant excitement" and "the sense of ease and well-being".[ ] in popular science magazine described euphoria as "a high sounding name" meaning "feeling fit": normally making life worth living, motivating drug use, and ill formed in certain mental illnesses.[ ] robert s. woodworth's textbook psychology: a study of mental life, describes euphoria as an organic state which is the opposite of fatigue, and "means about the same as feeling good."[ ] in , the journal of psychology defined euphoria as a "state of general well being ... and pleasantly toned feeling."[ ] a decade later, finding ordinary feelings of well being difficult to evaluate, american addiction researcher harris isbell redefined euphoria as behavioral changes and objective signs typical of morphine.[ ] however, in british pharmacologist d. a. cahal did not regard opioid euphoria as medically undesirable but an effect which "enhance[s] the value of a major analgesic."[ ] the edition of a concise encyclopaedia of psychiatry called euphoria "a mood of contentment and well-being," with pathologic associations when used in a psychiatric context. as a sign of cerebral disease, it was described as bland and out of context, representing an inability to experience negative emotion.[ ] in the st century, euphoria is generally defined as a state of great happiness, well-being and excitement, which may be normal, or abnormal and inappropriate when associated with psychoactive drugs, manic states, or brain disease or injury.[ ] neural substrates[edit] main article: reward system § pleasure centers hedonic hotspots – i.e., the pleasure centers of the brain – are functionally linked. activation of one hotspot results in the recruitment of the others. inhibition of one hotspot results in the blunting of the effects of activating another hotspot.[ ][ ] therefore, the simultaneous activation of every hedonic hotspot within the reward system is believed to be necessary for generating the sensation of euphoria.[ ] types[edit] many different types of stimuli can induce euphoria, including psychoactive drugs, natural rewards, and social activities.[ ][ ][ ][ ] affective disorders such as unipolar mania or bipolar disorder can involve euphoria as a symptom.[ ] exercise-induced[edit] runners can experience a euphoric state often called a "runner's high". main section: neurobiological effects of physical exercise § euphoria continuous physical exercise, particularly aerobic exercise, can induce a state of euphoria; for example, distance running is often associated with a "runner's high", which is a pronounced state of exercise-induced euphoria.[ ] exercise is known to affect dopamine signaling in the nucleus accumbens, producing euphoria as a result, through increased biosynthesis of three particular neurochemicals: anandamide (an endocannabinoid),[ ] β-endorphin (an endogenous opioid),[ ] and phenethylamine (a trace amine and amphetamine analog).[ ][ ][ ] music-induced [edit] further information: frisson euphoria can occur as a result of dancing to music, music-making, and listening to emotionally arousing music.[ ][ ][ ] neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that the reward system plays a central role in mediating music-induced pleasure.[ ][ ] pleasurable emotionally arousing music strongly increases dopamine neurotransmission in the dopaminergic pathways that project to the striatum (i.e., the mesolimbic pathway and nigrostriatal pathway).[ ][ ][ ] approximately  % of the population experiences a phenomenon termed "musical anhedonia", in which individuals do not experience pleasure from listening to emotionally arousing music despite having the ability to perceive the intended emotion that is conveyed in passages of music.[ ] a clinical study from january that assessed the effect of a dopamine precursor (levodopa), dopamine antagonist (risperidone), and a placebo on reward responses to music – including the degree of pleasure experienced during musical chills, as measured by changes in electrodermal activity as well as subjective ratings – found that the manipulation of dopamine neurotransmission bidirectionally regulates pleasure cognition (specifically, the hedonic impact of music) in human subjects.[ ][ ] this research suggests that increased dopamine neurotransmission acts as a sine qua non condition for pleasurable hedonic reactions to music in humans.[ ][ ] copulation-induced[edit] the various stages of copulation may also be described as inducing euphoria in some people. various analysts have described either the entire act of copulation, the moments leading to orgasm, or the orgasm itself as the pinnacle of human pleasure or euphoria.[ ] drug-induced[edit] a large dose of methamphetamine causes a drug-induced euphoria.[ ] "euphoriant" redirects here. a euphoriant is a type of psychoactive drug which tends to induce euphoria.[ ][ ] most euphoriants are addictive drugs due to their reinforcing properties and ability to activate the brain's reward system.[ ] psychedelics[edit] prominent psychedelic drugs, such as lsd and psilocybin are capable of inducing euphoria. the global drug survey has revealed that out of , participants mdma, lsd, and (psilocybin) mushrooms were ranked most positive on the net pleasure index than all other recreational drugs incuded in the study.[ ] stimulants[edit] dopaminergic stimulants like amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine, mdma, and methylphenidate are euphoriants.[ ][ ] nicotine is a parasympathetic stimulant that acts as a mild euphoriant in some people.[ ] chewing areca nut (seeds from the areca catechu palm) with slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) – a common practice in south- and southeast asia – produces stimulant effects and euphoria.[ ][ ][ ] the major psychoactive ingredients – arecoline (a muscarinic receptor partial agonist)[ ][ ] and arecaidine (a gaba reuptake inhibitor)[ ][ ] – are responsible for the euphoric effect.[ ][ ] depressants[edit] certain depressants can produce euphoria; some of the euphoriant drugs in this class include alcohol in moderate doses,[ ][ ] γ-hydroxybutyric acid,[ ][ ] and ketamine.[ ] some barbiturates and benzodiazepines may cause euphoria. euphoriant effects are determined by the drug's speed of onset,[ ] increasing dose,[ ] and with intravenous administration.[ ] barbiturates more likely to cause euphoria include amobarbital, secobarbital and pentobarbital.[ ][ ] benzodiazepines more likely to cause euphoria are flunitrazepam, alprazolam and clonazepam.[ ][ ][ ] benzodiazepines also tend to enhance opioid-induced euphoria.[ ] pregabalin induces dose-dependent euphoria.[ ][ ] occurring in a small percentage of individuals at recommended doses, euphoria is increasingly frequent at supratherapeutic doses (or with intravenous- or nasal administration).[ ][ ][ ] at doses five times the maximum recommended, intense euphoria is reported.[ ] another gaba analogue, gabapentin, may induce euphoria.[ ] characterized as opioid-like but less intense, it may occur at supratherapeutic doses, or in combination with other drugs, such as opioids or alcohol.[ ] ethosuximide and perampanel can also produce euphoria at therapeutic doses.[ ][ ] opioids[edit] µ-opioid receptor agonists are a set of euphoriants[ ] that include drugs such as heroin, morphine, codeine, oxycodone, and fentanyl. by contrast, κ-opioid receptor agonists, like the endogenous neuropeptide dynorphin, are known to cause dysphoria,[ ] a mood state opposite to euphoria that involves feelings of profound discontent. cannabinoids[edit] cannabinoid receptor agonists are a group of euphoriants that includes certain plant-based cannabinoids (e.g., thc from the cannabis plant), endogenous cannabinoids (e.g., anandamide), and synthetic cannabinoids.[ ] inhalants[edit] certain gases, like nitrous oxide (n o, aka "laughing gas"), can induce euphoria when inhaled.[ ][ ] glucocorticoids[edit] acute exogenous glucocorticoid administration is known to produce euphoria, but this effect is not observed with long-term exposure.[ ] fasting–induced[edit] fasting has been associated with improved mood, well-being, and sometimes euphoria. various mechanisms have been proposed and possible applications in treating depression considered.[ ] neuropsychiatric[edit] mania[edit] euphoria is also strongly associated with both hypomania and mania, mental states characterized by a pathological heightening of mood, which may be either euphoric or irritable, in addition to other symptoms, such as pressured speech, flight of ideas, and grandiosity.[ ][ ] although hypomania and mania are syndromes with multiple etiologies (that is, ones that may arise from any number of conditions), they are most commonly seen in bipolar disorder, a psychiatric illness characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression.[ ][ ] epilepsy[edit] euphoria may occur during auras of seizures[ ][ ] typically originating in the temporal lobe, but affecting the anterior insular cortex. this euphoria is symptomatic of a rare syndrome called ecstatic seizures,[ ][ ] often also involving mystical experiences.[ ] euphoria (or more commonly dysphoria) may also occur in periods between epileptic seizures. this condition, interictal dysphoric disorder, is considered an atypical affective disorder.[ ][ ] persons who experience feelings of depression or anxiety between or before seizures occasionally experience euphoria afterwards.[ ] migraine[edit] some persons experience euphoria in the prodrome – hours to days before the onset – of a migraine headache.[ ][ ][ ] similarly, a euphoric state occurs in some persons following the migraine episode.[ ][ ] multiple sclerosis[edit] euphoria sometimes occurs in persons with multiple sclerosis as the illness progresses. this euphoria is part of a syndrome originally called euphoria sclerotica, which typically includes disinhibition and other symptoms of cognitive and behavioral dysfunction.[ ][ ] see also[edit] 	 	psychological 	dysphoria 	euthymia 	hyperthymia 	sense of wonder 	 	pharmacological 	anxiolytic 	designer drug 	recreational drug use references[edit] 	^ a b c d e bearn j, o'brien m ( ). "addicted to euphoria": the history, clinical presentation, and management of party drug misuse. int. rev. neurobiol. international review of neurobiology. . pp.  – . doi: . /bs.irn. . . . isbn  . pmid  . eating, drinking, sexual activity, and parenting invoke pleasure, an emotion that promotes repetition of these behaviors, are essential for survival. euphoria, a feeling or state of intense excitement and happiness, is an amplification of pleasure, aspired to one's essential biological needs that are satisfied. people use party drugs as a shortcut to euphoria. ecstasy ( , -methylenedioxymethamphetamine), γ-hydroxybutyric acid, and ketamine fall under the umbrella of the term "party drugs," each with differing neuropharmacological and physiological actions. 	^ alcaro a, panksepp j ( ). "the seeking mind: primal neuro-affective substrates for appetitive incentive states and their pathological dynamics in addictions and depression". neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews. ( ): – . doi: . /j.neubiorev. . . . pmid  . s cid  . recent human data have demonstrated that the seeking brain circuitry, as predicted, is involved in the emergence of a characteristic appetitive affective state, which may be described as “enthusiastic positive excitement” or “euphoria” (drevets et al., ; volkow and swanson, ) and that do not resemble any kind of sensory pleasure (heath, ; panksepp et al., ) ... however, in our view, cognitive processes, are only one “slice of the pie”, and gamma oscillations may be more globally viewed as the overall emotional–motivational neurodynamics through which the seeking disposition is expressed, accompanied by a feeling of excitement/eurphoria (not ‘pleasure’) that is evolutionarily designed to achieve a diversity of useful outcomes 	^ "key dsm-iv mental status exam phrases". gateway psychiatric services. mood and affect. archived from the original on november . retrieved february . 	^ a b c cohen ee, ejsmond-frey r, knight n, dunbar ri ( ). "rowers' high: behavioural synchrony is correlated with elevated pain thresholds". biol. lett. ( ): – . doi: . /rsbl. . . pmc  . pmid  . this heightened effect from synchronized activity may explain the sense of euphoria experienced during other social activities (such as laughter, music-making and dancing) that are involved in social bonding in humans and possibly other vertebrates. 	^ a b c d e f g h i j k malenka rc, nestler ej, hyman se ( ). sydor a, brown ry (eds.). molecular neuropharmacology: a foundation for clinical neuroscience ( nd ed.). new york: mcgraw-hill medical. pp.  , – , – , – . isbn  . changes in appetite and energy may reflect abnormalities in various hypothalamic nuclei. depressed mood and anhedonia (lack of interest in pleasurable activities) in depressed individuals, and euphoria and increased involvement in goal-directed activities in patients, who experience mania, may reflect opposing abnormalities in the nucleus accumbens, medial prefrontal cortex, amygdala, or other structures. ... although short-term administration of glucocorticoids often produces euphoria and increased energy, the impact of long-lasting increases in endogenous glucocorticoids produced during depression can involve complex adaptations such as those that occur in cushing syndrome (chapter ). ... exposure to addictive chemicals not only produces extreme euphoric states that may initially motivate drug use, but also causes equally extreme adaptations in reinforcement mechanisms and motivated behavior that eventually lead to compulsive use. accordingly, the evolutionary design of human and animal brains that has helped to promote our survival also has made us vulnerable to addiction. 	^ georgiadis jr, kringelbach ml (july ). "the human sexual response cycle: brain imaging evidence linking sex to other pleasures" (pdf). prog. neurobiol. ( ): – . doi: . /j.pneurobio. . . . pmid  . s cid  . archived (pdf) from the original on august . retrieved november . strong feelings of pleasure and euphoria, as well as marked alterations in cognitive processing, self-referential thought, and physiological arousal are defining features of sexual consummation, especially during orgasm (mah and binik, ). 	^ blum k, werner t, carnes s, carnes p, bowirrat a, giordano j, oscar-berman m, gold m (march ). "sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll: hypothesizing common mesolimbic activation as a function of reward gene polymorphisms". journal of psychoactive drugs. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . pmc  . pmid  . early-stage romantic love can induce euphoria, is a cross-cultural phenomenon, and is possibly a developed form of a mammalian drive to pursue preferred mates. ... under normal conditions, it is not surprising that sexual activity is physiologically regulated by the reward circuitry of the brain, specifically by dopaminergic pathways (see figure ). moreover, the early stages of a new, romantic relationship can be a powerful and absorbing experience. individuals in new romantic relationships report feeling euphoric and energetic. they also become emotionally dependent on, desire closeness with, and have highly focused attention on their partner (reynaud et al. ; young ). human neuroimaging studies have shown that feelings experienced during the early stages of a romantic relationship are associated with neural activations in several reward-system and affect-processing regions of the brain (young ; aron et al. ; bartels & zeki ; mashek, aron & fisher ). 	^ jankowiak, william; paladino, thomas ( ). "chapter . desiring sex, longing for love: a tripartite conundrum". in jankowiak, william r. (ed.). intimacies: love and sex across cultures. columbia university press. p.  . isbn  . these emotional states may also be manifested behaviorally as "labile psychophysical responses to the loved person, including exhilaration, euphoria, buoyancy, spiritual feelings, increased energy, sleeplessness, loss of appetite, shyness, awkwardness ... in the presence of the loved person" (fisher : ). the presence of similar neurological mechanisms and brain patterns may account for the ability to readily identify when someone is romantically involved or erotically excited (fisher : ; fisher ). 	^ johnson ba ( ). addiction medicine: science and practice. springer science & business media. p.  . isbn  . it has been observed that drugs of abuse as diverse as alcohol, barbiturates, opiates, and psychomotor stimulants all share a profile of psychoactive effects characterized as euphoria. it is generally accepted that euphoria is at least a partial explanation why these drugs are abused. 	^ a b berridge kc, kringelbach ml (may ). "pleasure systems in the brain". neuron. ( ): – . doi: . /j.neuron. . . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b castro, dc; berridge, kc ( october ). "opioid and orexin hedonic hotspots in rat orbitofrontal cortex and insula". proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america. ( ): e –e . doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b kringelbach ml, berridge kc ( ). "the joyful mind" (pdf). scientific american. ( ): – . bibcode: sciam. b.. k. doi: . /scientificamerican - . pmid  . archived from the original (pdf) on march . retrieved january . so it makes sense that the real pleasure centers in the brain – those directly responsible for generating pleasurable sensations – turn out to lie within some of the structures previously identified as part of the reward circuit. one of these so-called hedonic hotspots lies in a subregion of the nucleus accumbens called the medial shell. a second is found within the ventral pallidum, a deep-seated structure near the base of the forebrain that receives most of its signals from the nucleus accumbens. ...      on the other hand, intense euphoria is harder to come by than everyday pleasures. the reason may be that strong enhancement of pleasure – like the chemically induced pleasure bump we produced in lab animals – seems to require activation of the entire network at once. defection of any single component dampens the high.      whether the pleasure circuit – and in particular, the ventral pallidum – works the same way in humans is unclear. 	^ euphoria, henry george liddell, robert scott, a greek-english lexicon, at perseus 	^ "online etymology dictionary". archived from the original on december . retrieved may . 	^ kersey j, phillips e ( ). the new world of words: or, universal english dictionary. london: printed for j. phillips. pp. eu. 	^ laycock t ( january ). the medical times & gazette. london: john churchill. pp.  . not unfrequently, indeed, the appearance of the patient is more diagnostic than his feelings. this is the case in some very grave diseases, in which that portion of the nervous system which subserves to the feeling of bodily well-being,—termed, in psychological phrase, euphoria—is morbidly modified as to function.  • laycock t ( may ). the medical times & gazette. london: john churchill. pp.  . the morbid hopefulness of phthisis, physiologically termed euphoria, is seen more particularly in this class of patients. i have often called attention to it at the bedside, and shown that it ushers in the last stage. it is really a disease of the nervous system of a low type, a sort of insanity, and is of the worst significance. 	^ freud s ( ). Über coca. , cited in, nida research monograph # siegel rk ( ). "chapter vi cocaine: recreational use and intoxication" (pdf). in petersen rc, stillman rc (eds.). nida research monograph # . u.s. government printing office. p.  . the psychic effect (of cocaine) consists of exhilaration and lasting euphoria, which does not differ in any way from the normal euphoria of a healthy person.... one senses an increase of self-control and feels more vigorous and more capable of work; on the other hand, if one works, one misses the heightening of the mental powers which alcohol, tea, or coffee induce. one is simply normal, and soon finds it difficult to believe that one is under the influence of any drug at all. 	^ miller r, dennison j ( ). "lecture ". an outline of psychiatry in clinical lectures: the lectures of carl wernicke. springer. p.  . isbn  – via google books. [r]ational judgment of actual ability is lost, and a feeling of increased capacity arises, … it induces feelings of happiness, to the point of abnormal euphoria; but here too, assuming that some degree of psychic ability prevails, self-awareness of the change in personality may be enabled—an autopsychic paraesthesia in the above sense. consequently, the affective state of abnormal euphoria which determines the clinical picture often shows up as transitions to autopsychic disarray. 	^ "paris doctors say that scorching is like effects of drugs". paris herald. . reprinted in the boston daily globe, may . p. 	^ "have you euphoria?". popular science. ( ): . december – via google books. it takes a doctor to give a high-sounding name to a well known phenomenon. "euphoria" means "feeling fit." it is as much a physiological fact as scarlet fever.      nature makes it worth while to be alive simply through euphoria. the joy of making a good tennis stroke, the delight that a woodsman gets in the open air, the artist’s rhapsody—all are due to euphoria. why do we drink alcohol—when we can get it or smoke tobacco? to affect euphoria. when a lunatic thinks that he is napoleon and demands the homage due an emperor; he has euphoria in its worst form.      too little is known about euphoria. since it can be affected by drugs and chemicals, who knows but it may have its seat in some gland? 	^ woodworth, rs ( ). "chapter vii: emotion: various organic states, and the conscious states that go with them". psychology, a study of mental life. new york: henry holt and company. pp.  – . retrieved april – via internet archive. something was said before about "organic states", under the general head of tendencies to reaction. fatigue was an example. now we could include fatigue under the term, "stirred-up state of the organism"; at least, if not precisely "stirred-up", it is uneasy. it is a deviation from the normal or neutral state. also, it is often a conscious state, as when we speak of the "tired feeling"; not a purely cognitive state, either not simply a recognition of the fact that we are fatigued but a state of disinclination to work any longer. though fatigue is thus so much like an emotion that it fits under our definition, it is not called an emotion, but a sensation or complex of sensations....      many other organic states are akin to emotion in the same way. the opposite of fatigue, the "warmed-up" condition, brought on by a certain amount of activity after rest, is a case in point. it is a deviation from the average or neutral condition, in the direction of greater readiness for activity. the warmed-up person feels ready for business, full of "ginger" or "pep" in short, full of life. the name "euphoria", which means about the same as "feeling good", is given to this condition. drowsiness is another of these emotion-like states; but hunger and thirst are as typical examples as any. 	^ bousfield wa ( ). "the relation of the euphoric attitude to the quality of sleep". the journal of psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . euphoria is a term aptly denoting the state of general well being, and while it involves a relatively enduring and pleasantly toned feeling, its psychological significance derives primarily from its being a semi-emotional attitude of considerable determining power. 	^ keats as, beecher hk ( ). "analgesic activity and toxic effects of acetylmethadol isomers in man". the journal of pharmacology and experimental therapeutics. ( ): – . issn  - . pmid  . archived from the original on september . retrieved september . [footnote ] since matters of some interest hang upon the definition of 'euphoria', direct enquiry of dr. isbell brought the following comment (letter of november , ). 'i think it would be wise to exercise a certain degree of care in our use of the term "euphoria". we use it here in the sense of a train of effects similar to those seen after the administration of morphine. these effects include changes in behavior and objective signs, such as constriction of the pupil, depression of the respiratory rate and volume, drop in rectal temperature, etc. we do not use it in the sense of "feeling of well-being", as this is something that i have been utterly unable to evaluate.' the present authors prefer to limit the definition of euphoria to 'a sense of well-being'.  • isbell h, vogel vh ( ). "the addiction liability of methadon (amidone, dolophine, ) and its use in the treatment of the morphine abstinence syndrome". the american journal of psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . /ajp. . . . issn  - x. pmid  .  • jaffe jh, jaffe fk ( ). " . historical perspectives on the use of subjective effects measures in assessing the abuse potential of drugs". in fischman mw, mello nk (eds.). testing for abuse liability of drugs in humans. national institute on drug abuse research monograph series. . rockville, md: national institute on drug abuse. 	^ cahal da ( ). "analgesic activity of dipipanone hydrochloride in student volunteers". british journal of pharmacology and chemotherapy. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . not all of these effects can be regarded as undesirable. drowsiness, euphoria, sleep, and 'detachment,' for instance, are effects which enhance the value of a major analgesic. 	^ leigh d, pare cm, marks j ( ). a concise encyclopaedia of psychiatry. springer science & business media. p.  . isbn  – via google books. a mood of contentment and wellbeing. euphoria in psychiatric terms always has a pathological connotation and is often an important early sign of organic cerebral disease. it differs from elation in subtle but important ways. it has no infectious quality and no element of gaiety, for its bland contentment is based on lack of awareness and inability to experience sadness or anxiety rather than on anything positive.      it may be seen in any condition involving extensive cerebral damage, particularly if the frontal lobes are involved. it occurs sooner or later in senile and arteriosclerotic dementias (q.v.), in disseminated sclerosis and in huntington’s chorea (q.v.) and is often seen also after severe head injury and old-fashioned forms of leucotomy (q.v.). euphoria is sometimes seen in addison's disease (q.v.). 	^ "definition of euphoria in english". oxford dictionaries. archived from the original on july . retrieved december . a feeling or state of intense excitement and happiness  • "definition of euphoria". dictionary.com. archived from the original on december . retrieved december . a state of intense happiness and self-confidence      (psychology) a feeling of happiness, confidence, or well-being sometimes exaggerated in pathological states as mania  • sadock b, sadock v ( ). kaplan and sadock's comprehensive textbook of psychiatry ( th ed.). pp.  – , . refers to a persistent and unrealistic sense of well-being, without the increased mental or motor rate of mania.      exaggerated feeling of well-being that is inappropriate to real events. can occur with drugs such as opiates, amphetamines, and alcohol.  • mosby's medical dictionary ( th ed.). . archived from the original on july . retrieved december . . a feeling or state of well-being or elation.       . an exaggerated or abnormal sense of physical and emotional well-being not based on reality or truth, disproportionate to its cause, and inappropriate to the situation, as commonly seen in the manic stage of bipolar disorder, some forms of schizophrenia, organic mental disorders, and toxic and drug-induced states 	^ schultz w ( ). "neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data". physiological reviews. ( ): – . doi: . /physrev. . . pmc  . pmid  . the feeling of high that is experienced by sports people during running or swimming, the lust evoked by encountering a ready mating partner, a sexual orgasm, the euphoria reported by drug users, and the parental affection to babies constitute different forms (qualities) rather than degrees of pleasure (quantities). 	^ a b szabo a, billett e, turner j ( ). "phenylethylamine, a possible link to the antidepressant effects of exercise?". br j sports med. ( ): – . doi: . /bjsm. . . . pmc  . pmid  . the hour mean urinary concentration of phenylacetic acid was increased by % after exercise. ... these results show substantial increases in urinary phenylacetic acid levels hours after moderate to high intensity aerobic exercise. as phenylacetic acid reflects phenylethylamine levels , and the latter has antidepressant effects, the antidepressant effects of exercise appear to be linked to increased phenylethylamine concentrations. furthermore, considering the structural and pharmacological analogy between amphetamines and phenylethylamine, it is conceivable that phenylethylamine plays a role in the commonly reported "runners high" thought to be linked to cerebral β-endorphin activity. the substantial increase in phenylacetic acid excretion in this study implies that phenylethylamine levels are affected by exercise. ... a minute bout of moderate to high intensity aerobic exercise increases phenylacetic acid levels in healthy regularly exercising men. the findings may be linked to the antidepressant effects of exercise. 	^ tantimonaco m, ceci r, sabatini s, catani mv, rossi a, gasperi v, maccarrone m ( ). "physical activity and the endocannabinoid system: an overview". cell. mol. life sci. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . pmid  . s cid  . the traditional view that pa engages the monoaminergic and endorphinergic systems has been challenged by the discovery of the endocannabinoid system (ecs), composed of endogenous lipids, their target receptors, and metabolic enzymes. indeed, direct and indirect evidence suggests that the ecs might mediate some of the pa-triggered effects throughout the body. ... the evidence that pa induces some of the psychotropic effects elicited by the cannabis sativa active ingredient Δ -tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ -thc, fig. ), like bliss, euphoria, and peacefulness, strengthened the hypothesis that endocannabinoids (ecbs) might mediate, at least in part, the central and peripheral effects of exercise [ ]. ... to our knowledge, the first experimental study aimed at investigating the influence of pa on ecs in humans was carried out in by sparling and coworkers [ ], who showed increased plasma aea content after min of moderate intensity exercise on a treadmill or cycle ergometer. since then, other human studies have shown increased blood concentrations of aea ... a dependence of the increase of aea concentration on exercise intensity has also been documented. plasma levels of aea significantly increased upon min of moderate exercise (heart rate of and  %), but not at lower and significantly higher exercise intensities, where the age-adjusted maximal heart rate was and  %, respectively ... several experimental data support the hypothesis that ecs might, at least in part, explain pa effects on brain functions, because: ( ) cb is the most abundant gpcr in the brain participating in neuronal plasticity [ ]; ( ) ecbs are involved in several brain responses that greatly overlap with the positive effects of exercise; ( ) ecbs are able to cross the blood–brain barrier [ ]; and ( ) exercise increases ecb plasma levels [ – ]. 	^ dinas pc, koutedakis y, flouris ad ( ). "effects of exercise and physical activity on depression". ir j med sci. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . pmid  . s cid  . according to the 'endorphins hypothesis', exercise augments the secretion of endogenous opioid peptides in the brain, reducing pain and causing general euphoria. ... based upon a large effect size, the results confirmed the endorphins hypothesis demonstrating that exercise leads to an increased secretion of endorphins which, in turn, improved mood states. β-endorphin, an endogenous μ-opioid receptor selective ligand, has received much attention in the literature linking endorphins and depression or mood states. ... exercise of sufficient intensity and duration can increase circulating β-endorphin levels. ... moreover, a recent study demonstrated that exercise and physical activity increased β-endorphin levels in plasma with positive effects on mood. the researchers reported that, independently of sex and age, dynamic anaerobic exercises increased β-endorphin, while resistance and aerobic exercises seem to only have small effects on β-endorphins. ... the results showed that mood tends to be higher in a day an individual exercises as well as that daily activity and exercise overall are strongly linked with mood states. in line with these findings, a recent study showed that exercise significantly improved mood states in non-exercises, recreational exercisers, as well as marathon runners. more importantly, the effects of exercise on mood were twofold in recreational exercisers and marathon runners. 	^ lindemann l, hoener mc ( ). "a renaissance in trace amines inspired by a novel gpcr family". trends pharmacol. sci. ( ): – . doi: . /j.tips. . . . pmid  . the pharmacology of tas might also contribute to a molecular understanding of the well-recognized antidepressant effect of physical exercise [ ]. in addition to the various beneficial effects for brain function mainly attributed to an upregulation of peptide growth factors [ , ], exercise induces a rapidly enhanced excretion of the main β-pea metabolite β-phenylacetic acid (b-paa) by on average %, compared with resting control subjects [ ], which mirrors increased β-pea synthesis in view of its limited endogenous pool half-life of ~ s [ , ]. 	^ berry md ( ). "the potential of trace amines and their receptors for treating neurological and psychiatric diseases". rev recent clin trials. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . pmid  . it has also been suggested that the antidepressant effects of exercise are due to an exercise-induced elevation of [phenethylamine] [ ]. 	^ a b salimpoor vn, benovoy m, larcher k, dagher a, zatorre rj ( ). "anatomically distinct dopamine release during anticipation and experience of peak emotion to music". nat. neurosci. ( ): – . doi: . /nn. . pmid  . s cid  . music, an abstract stimulus, can arouse feelings of euphoria and craving, similar to tangible rewards that involve the striatal dopaminergic system. ... the caudate was more involved during the anticipation and the nucleus accumbens was more involved during the experience of peak emotional responses to music. ... notably, the anticipation of an abstract reward can result in dopamine release in an anatomical pathway distinct from that associated with the peak pleasure itself. 	^ a b c mavridis in (march ). "music and the nucleus accumbens". surg radiol anat. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . pmid  . s cid  . the functional connectivity between brain regions mediating reward, autonomic and cognitive processing provides insight into understanding why listening to music is one of the most rewarding and pleasurable human experiences. musical stimuli can significantly increase extracellular da levels in the na. na da and serotonin were found significantly higher in animals exposed to music. finally, passive listening to unfamiliar although liked music showed activations in the na. ... music can arouse feelings of euphoria and craving, similar to tangible rewards that involve the striatal daergic system [ ]. reward value for music can be coded by activity levels in the na, whose functional connectivity with auditory and frontal areas increases as a function of increasing musical reward [ ]. ... listening to pleasant music induces a strong response and significant activation of the vta-mediated interaction of the na with the hypothalamus, insula and orbitofrontal cortex [ ]. conclusions listening to music strongly modulates activity in a network of mesolimbic structures involved in reward processing including the na. music, acting as a positive pleasant emotion, increases na daergic activity. specifically the na is more involved during the experience of peak emotional responses to music. reward value of music can be predicted by increased functional connectivity of auditory cortices, amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal regions with the na. further research is needed to improve our understanding of the na role in the influence of music in our lives. 	^ a b c zatorre rj (march ). "musical pleasure and reward: mechanisms and dysfunction". ann. n. y. acad. sci. ( ): – . bibcode: nyasa .. z. doi: . /nyas. . pmid  . s cid  . most people derive pleasure from music. neuroimaging studies show that the reward system of the human brain is central to this experience. specifically, the dorsal and ventral striatum release dopamine when listening to pleasurable music, and activity in these structures also codes the reward value of musical excerpts. moreover, the striatum interacts with cortical mechanisms involved in perception and valuation of musical stimuli. ... development of a questionnaire for music reward experiences has allowed the identification of separable factors associated with musical pleasure, described as music-seeking, emotion-evocation, mood regulation, sensorimotor, and social factors. applying this questionnaire to a large sample uncovered approximately % of the population with low sensitivity to musical reward in the absence of generalized anhedonia or depression. further study of this group revealed that there are individuals who respond normally both behaviorally and psychophysiologically to rewards other than music (e.g., monetary value) but do not experience pleasure from music despite normal music perception ability and preserved ability to identify intended emotions in musical passages. 	^ a b ferreri l, mas-herrero e, zatorre rj, ripollés p, gomez-andres a, alicart h, olivé g, marco-pallarés j, antonijoan rm, valle m, riba j, rodriguez-fornells a (january ). "dopamine modulates the reward experiences elicited by music". proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america. ( ): – . doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . lay summary – neuroscience news ( january ). listening to pleasurable music is often accompanied by measurable bodily reactions such as goose bumps or shivers down the spine, commonly called “chills” or “frissons.” ... overall, our results straightforwardly revealed that pharmacological interventions bidirectionally modulated the reward responses elicited by music. in particular, we found that risperidone impaired participants’ ability to experience musical pleasure, whereas levodopa enhanced it. ... here, in contrast, studying responses to abstract rewards in human subjects, we show that manipulation of dopaminergic transmission affects both the pleasure (i.e., amount of time reporting chills and emotional arousal measured by eda) and the motivational components of musical reward (money willing to spend). these findings suggest that dopaminergic signaling is a sine qua non condition not only for motivational responses, as has been shown with primary and secondary rewards, but also for hedonic reactions to music. this result supports recent findings showing that dopamine also mediates the perceived pleasantness attained by other types of abstract rewards ( ) and challenges previous findings in animal models on primary rewards, such as food ( , ). 	^ a b goupil l, aucouturier jj (february ). "musical pleasure and musical emotions". proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america. ( ): – . doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . in a pharmacological study published in pnas, ferreri et al. ( ) present evidence that enhancing or inhibiting dopamine signaling using levodopa or risperidone modulates the pleasure experienced while listening to music. ... in a final salvo to establish not only the correlational but also the causal implication of dopamine in musical pleasure, the authors have turned to directly manipulating dopaminergic signaling in the striatum, first by applying excitatory and inhibitory transcranial magnetic stimulation over their participants’ left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, a region known to modulate striatal function ( ), and finally, in the current study, by administrating pharmaceutical agents able to alter dopamine synaptic availability ( ), both of which influenced perceived pleasure, physiological measures of arousal, and the monetary value assigned to music in the predicted direction. ... while the question of the musical expression of emotion has a long history of investigation, including in pnas ( ), and the s psychophysiological strand of research had already established that musical pleasure could activate the autonomic nervous system ( ), the authors’ demonstration of the implication of the reward system in musical emotions was taken as inaugural proof that these were veridical emotions whose study has full legitimacy to inform the neurobiology of our everyday cognitive, social, and affective functions ( ). incidentally, this line of work, culminating in the article by ferreri et al. ( ), has plausibly done more to attract research funding for the field of music sciences than any other in this community. the evidence of ferreri et al. ( ) provides the latest support for a compelling neurobiological model in which musical pleasure arises from the interaction of ancient reward/valuation systems (striatal–limbic–paralimbic) with more phylogenetically advanced perception/predictions systems (temporofrontal). 	^ goldstein a, hansteen rw ( ). "evidence against involvement of endorphins in sexual arousal and orgasm in man". archives of general psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . /archpsyc. . . pmid  . 	^ "methamphetamine | infofacts | the national institute on drug abuse (nida)". archived from the original on september . retrieved september . 	^ "merrian-webster definition". archived from the original on january . retrieved february . 	^ "euphoriant". memidex/wordnet dictionary. archived from the original on november . retrieved june . 	^ https://www.globaldrugsurvey.com/past-findings/the-net-pleasure-index-results/ 	^ cox s, ullah m, zoellner h ( ). "oral and systemic health effects of compulsive areca nut use". in preedy vr (ed.). neuropathology of drug addictions and substance misuse volume : general processes and mechanisms, prescription medications, caffeine and areca, polydrug misuse, emerging addictions and non-drug addictions. academic press. p.  . isbn  . the areca nut is the fourth most used drug after nicotine, alcohol, and caffeine. the effects are described as pleasurable and generally stimulating, inducing a sense of well-being, euphoria, heightened alertness, a warm sensation throughout the body, and an increased capacity to work. 	^ a b garg a, chaturvedi p, gupta pc (june ). "a review of the systemic adverse effects of areca nut or betel nut". indian journal of medical and paediatric oncology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . pmc  . pmid  . it is one of the most widely consumed addictive substances in the world after nicotine, ethanol and caffeine, and is consumed by approximately % of the world's population.... the users of areca nut believe that it is helpful for the digestive system and has mild euphoric effects. ...      the major parasympathetic and muscarinic effects of areca nut are due to arecoline. 	^ sharan rn, mehrotra r, choudhury y, asotra k (august ). "association of betel nut with carcinogenesis: revisit with a clinical perspective". plos one. ( ): e . bibcode: ploso... s. doi: . /journal.pone. . issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ riviere je, papich mg ( ). veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics. john wiley & sons. p.  . isbn  . pilocarpine, arecoline and muscarine are rather selective parasympathetic agents; i.e., their cholinomimetic activity is exerted primarily at muscarinic sites with minimal nicotinic effects. 	^ liu yj, peng w, hu mb, xu m, wu cj (november ). "the pharmacology, toxicology and potential applications of arecoline: a review". pharmaceutical biology. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . issn  - . pmid  . 	^ peng w, liu yj, wu n, sun t, he xy, gao yx, wu cj (april ). "areca catechu l. (arecaceae): a review of its traditional uses, botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology". journal of ethnopharmacology. : – . doi: . /j.jep. . . . issn  - . pmid  . previous investigations indicated that the arecaidine and guvacine isolated from the a. catechu are effective antagonists of gaba, with ic values μm and μm, respectively (johnston et al., ; lodge et al., ). 	^ arif a, westermeyer j ( ). manual of drug and alcohol abuse: guidelines for teaching in medical and health institutions. new york: springer science & business media. pp.  – . isbn  . 	^ aronson, j. k. ( ). meyler's side effects of herbal medicines. elsevier. p.  . isbn  . the lime in the betel quid [areca nut, lime and piper betle leaves] causes hydrolysis of arecoline to arecailide, a central nervous stimulant, which accounts, together with the essential oil of the betel pepper, for the eucphoric effects of chewing betel quid. 	^ gilman jm, ramchandani va, davis mb, bjork jm, hommer dw ( ). "why we like to drink: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of the rewarding and anxiolytic effects of alcohol". j. neurosci. ( ): – . doi: . /jneurosci. - . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ morgan cj, badawy aa ( ). "alcohol-induced euphoria: exclusion of serotonin". alcohol and alcoholism. ( ): – . doi: . /alcalc/ . . . pmid  . 	^ busardò fp, jones aw ( ). "ghb pharmacology and toxicology: acute intoxication, concentrations in blood and urine in forensic cases and treatment of the withdrawal syndrome". current neuropharmacology. ( ): – . doi: . / x . issn  - x. pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b mack ah, brady kt, miller si, frances rj ( ). clinical textbook of addictive disorders, fourth edition. guilford publications. p.  . isbn  . 	^ mccuistion le, kee jl, hayes er ( ). pharmacology: a patient-centered nursing process approach. elsevier health sciences. p.  . isbn  . 	^ doweiko he ( ). concepts of chemical dependency. cengage learning. p.  . isbn  . 	^ galizio m, maisto sa ( ). determinants of substance abuse: biological, psychological, and environmental factors. springer science & business media. p.  . isbn  . 	^ psychotropic agents: part iii: alcohol and psychotomimetics, psychotropic effects of central acting drugs. springer science & business media. . p.  . isbn  . 	^ mccrady, barbara s.; epstein, elizabeth e. ( ). addictions: a comprehensive guidebook. oup usa. p.  . isbn  . 	^ ruiz p, strain ec ( ). lowinson and ruiz's substance abuse: a comprehensive textbook. lippincott williams & wilkins. p.  . isbn  . 	^ staats ps, silverman sm ( ). controlled substance management in chronic pain: a balanced approach. springer. p.  . isbn  . 	^ a b c martinotti g, papazisis g, santacroce r, kouvelas d, cinosi e, lupi m, di giannantonio m ( ). "pregabalin abuse and addiction". in preedy vr (ed.). neuropathology of drug addictions and substance misuse volume : general processes and mechanisms, prescription medications, caffeine and areca, polydrug misuse, emerging addictions and non-drug addictions. london: academic press. pp.  – . isbn  . exceeding the therapeutic doses, pregabalin is described as an 'ideal psychotropic drug' for recreational purposes, including alcohol/ghb/benzodiazepine-like effects, euphoria, entactogenic feelings, and dissociation. ...      up to mg ... euphoria ... over mg ... intense euphoria 	^ a b schjerning o, rosenzweig m, pottegård a, damkier p, nielsen j (january ). "abuse potential of pregabalin: a systematic review" (pdf). cns drugs. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . issn  - . pmid  . s cid  . archived (pdf) from the original on august . retrieved april . pregabalin is, in some cases, used for recreational purposes and it has incurred attention among drug abusers for causing euphoric and dissociative effects when taken in doses exceeding normal therapeutic dosages or used by alternative routes of administration, such as nasal insufflation or venous injection. 	^ "lyrica". drugs.com. archived from the original on august . retrieved august . 	^ a b smith rv, havens jr, walsh sl ( ). "gabapentin misuse, abuse, and diversion: a systematic review". addiction. ( ): – . doi: . /add. . pmc  . pmid  . several case studies mentioned experiencing euphoria after gabapentin misuse that was reminiscent of, but not as strong as, opioids. this feeling was achieved in combination with other drugs (e.g., buprenorphine/naloxone, methadone, baclofen, quetiapine, alcohol) as well as by using gabapentin alone, in dosages ranging from – mg, though only three articles give actual amounts misused. 	^ rossi, s, ed. (july ). "ethosuximide". australian medicines handbook. adelaide, australia: australian medicines handbook pty ltd. retrieved august . 	^ rossi, s, ed. (july ). "perampanel". australian medicines handbook. adelaide, australia: australian medicines handbook pty ltd. retrieved august . 	^ huang c, johnson n ( ). "nitrous oxide, from the operating room to the emergency department". current emergency and hospital medicine reports. : . doi: . /s - - - . issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . the term 'laughing gas' is a common layman’s term for nitrous oxide, given its ability to create a sense of euphoria in the user. in addition, as noted earlier, it has an opioid-like effect, which accounts for its analgesic properties. 	^ fond g, macgregor a, leboyer m, michalsen a ( ). "fasting in mood disorders: neurobiology and effectiveness. a review of the literature" (pdf). psychiatry research. ( ): – . doi: . /j.psychres. . . . pmid  . s cid  . archived (pdf) from the original on july . retrieved november . 	^ a b "bipolar and related disorders". diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (dsm- ) ( th ed.). american psychiatric association. . isbn  . 	^ a b ruggero cj, kotov r, watson d, kilmer jn, perlman g, liu k (june ). "beyond a single index of mania symptoms: structure and validity of subdimensions". j. affect. disord. : – . doi: . /j.jad. . . . pmid  . 	^ dahl j, lundgren tl ( ). "conditioning mechanisms, behavior technology, and contextual behavior therapy". in holmes gl, schachter sc, kasteleijn-nolst trenite dga (eds.). behavioral aspects of epilepsy: principles and practice. demos medical publishing. p.  . isbn  . [s]eizures themselves may be stimulating or may induce euphoria. dostoyevsky describes his seizure experience as follows 'the air was filled with a big noise and i tried to move. i felt the heaven was going down upon the earth and that it had engulfed me. i have really touched god. he came into me myself. yes, god exists. i cried, and i don't remember anything else. you all, healthy people ... can't imagine the happiness we epileptics feel during the second before our fit ... i don't know if this felicity lasts for seconds, hours, or months but believe me, for all the joys that life may bring, i would not exchange this one'. [emphasis added] 	^ kanner am ( ). "peri-ictal psychiatric phenomena". in trimble mr, schmitz b (eds.). the neuropsychiatry of epilepsy. cambridge university press. p.  . isbn  . the classic expression of an ictal psychiatric symptom is an "aura," presenting as feelings of fear, sadness, or euphoria. 	^ gschwind m, picard f (january ). "ecstatic epileptic seizures: a glimpse into the multiple roles of the insula". frontiers in behavioral neuroscience. : . doi: . /fnbeh. . . pmc  . pmid  . in a table listing cases of ecstatic seizures reported in the literature, descriptions include: "euphoric and talkative", "calm euphoria", "pleasant feeling, euphoria", "pleasant feeling, and feels euphoria", "short euphoric states"; others are within the definition of euphoria: "sudden feeling of extreme well-being", "ineffable joy. intense pleasure without match in reality (perhaps music)", "extreme happiness", "intense (non-sexual) pleasure", "intense happy feeling", "sudden indescribably pleasant and joyous feeling", "sensation of intense well-being", "intense pleasant feeling", "intense feelings of bliss and well-being". 	^ picard f, friston k (september ). "predictions, perception, and a sense of self". neurology. ( ): – . doi: . /wnl. . issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ devinsky o, lai g (may ). "spirituality and religion in epilepsy". epilepsy & behavior. ( ): – . doi: . /j.yebeh. . . . issn  - . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ levenson jl, ed. ( ). "neurology and neurosurgery". the american psychiatric publishing textbook of psychosomatic medicine: psychiatric care of the medically ill. american psychiatric publishing. p.  . isbn  . 	^ mulu m ( ). "the interictal dsyphoric disorder of epilepsy". in miyoshi k, morimura y, maeda k (eds.). neuropsychiatric disorders. springer science & business media. pp.  – . isbn  . 	^ engel j ( ). seizures and epilepsy. oxford university press. pp.  , . isbn  . archived from the original on april . retrieved april . patients who are aware of increased depression or tension prior to generalized tonic-clonic or limbic seizures occasionally report a feeling of euphoria or release during the postictal period....      [p]atients with interictal or preictal depression can report relief or euphoria postictally, which is consistent with the well-known beneficial effect of electroconvulsive shock therapy (ect). postictal hypomania can occur, particularly after repeated limbic seizures. 	^ a b dodick dw, silberstein sd ( ). migraine ( rd ed.). oxford university press. pp.  , . isbn  . more than % of migraineurs experience premonitory phenomena hours to days before headache onset. psychological symptoms include anxiety, depression, euphoria, irritability, restlessness, mental slowness, hyperactivity, fatigue, and drowsiness.      following the headache, the patient may have impaired concentration or feel tired, washed out, irritable, and listless. some people, however, feel unusually refreshed or euphoric after an attack. [emphasis added] 	^ green mw, colman r ( ). " . complicated migraine". in diamond s (ed.). headache and migraine biology and management. academic press. p.  . isbn  . [p]remonitory symptoms can occur hours to a day or more prior to a migraine attack (with or without aura). prodromal symptoms include various combinations of fatigue, stiff neck, sensitivity to light or sounds, difficulty in concentrating, depression or euphoria, cold hands and feet, blurred vision, yawning, nausea and pallor. [emphasis added] 	^ a b walling ad ( ). " . headache". in taylor rb (ed.). family medicine: principles and practice ( th ed.). springer science & business media. p.  . isbn  . patients in the 'classic' subgroup (approximately % of all migrainers) experience a characteristic aura before the onset of migraine head pain.... a much larger proportion of patients describe prodromal symptoms, which may be visceral, such as diarrhea or nausea, but are more commonly alterations in mood or behavior. food cravings, mild euphoria (conversely, yawning), and heightened sensory perception, particularly of smell, are surprisingly common....      the attack often terminates with sleep.... many patients report a 'hangover' on waking after a migraine, but others report complete freedom from symptoms and a sense of euphoria. [emphasis added] 	^ haussleiter is, brüne m, juckel g (january ). "psychopathology in multiple sclerosis: diagnosis, prevalence and treatment". ther. adv. neurol. disord. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ romano s, nocentini u ( ). "euphoria, pathalogical laughing and crying". in nocentini u, caltagirone c, tedeschi g (eds.). neuropsychiatric dysfunction in multiple sclerosis. springer science & business media. isbn  . external links[edit] 	 the dictionary definition of euphoria at wiktionary 	 	v 	t 	e recreational drug use 	major recreational drugs	 	depressants	 	barbiturates 	benzodiazepines 	carbamates 	ethanol (alcohol) 	alcoholic drinks 	beer 	wine 	gabapentinoids 	ghb 	inhalants 	medical 	nitrous oxide 	hazardous solvents 	contact adhesives 	gasoline 	nail polish remover 	paint thinner 	other 	freon 	kava 	nonbenzodiazepines 	quinazolinones 	opioids	 	buprenorphine 	suboxone 	subutex 	codeine 	desomorphine 	krokodil 	dextropropoxyphene 	darvocet 	darvon 	fentanyl 	diamorphine 	heroin 	hydrocodone 	hydromorphone 	dilaudid 	methadone 	mitragyna speciosa 	kratom 	morphine 	opium 	oxycodone 	/paracetamol 	tramadol 	stimulants	 	amphetamine 	arecoline 	areca 	betel 	caffeine 	coffee 	energy drinks 	tea 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( ) 		 		 		 		 		 	   	 	 	 		 		 				 		 	 article title technology, humanness, and trust: rethinking trust in technology authors nancy k. lankton, marshall universityfollow d. harrison mcknight, michigan state universityfollow john tripp, baylor universityfollow abstract information systems (is) research has demonstrated that humans can and do trust technology. the current trust in technology literature employs two different types of trust in technology constructs. some researchers use human-like trust constructs (e.g., benevolence, integrity, and ability), while other researchers use system-like trust constructs (e.g., helpfulness, reliability, and functionality). interestingly, past research shows that both sets of measures influence important dependent variables, but the literature does not explain when one type should be used instead of the other type. in this paper, we use trust, social presence, and affordance theories to shed light on this research problem. we report on two studies. in study , we argue first that technologies vary in their perceived “humanness”. second, we argue that, because users perceive two technologies to differ in humanness, they will develop trust in each technology differently (i.e., along more human-like criteria or more system-like criteria). we study two technologies that vary in humanness to explore these differences theoretically and empirically. we demonstrate that, when the trust construct used aligns well with how human the technology is, it produces stronger effects on selected outcome variables than does a misaligned trust construct. in study , we assess whether these technologies differ in humanness based on social presence, social affordances, and affordances for sociality. we find that these factors do distinguish whether technology is more human-like or system-like. we provide implications for trust-in-technology research. recommended citation lankton, nancy k.; mcknight, d. harrison; and tripp, john ( ) "technology, humanness, and trust: rethinking trust in technology," journal of the association for information systems: vol. : iss. , article . doi: . / jais. available at: https://aisel.aisnet.org/jais/vol /iss / doi . / jais. 	 	 download 	 downloads since october , 	 share 	 		 		 		 		 		 	 	 	 coins   						 	  	  				 					 						 	 		follow 	 	journal home 	about this journal 	information for authors 	jais policy 	editorial board 	forthcoming papers 	awards and honors 	special issues 	submit an author-video here 	most popular papers 	browse by volume select an issue: all issues vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss. vol. , iss.   enter search terms: select context to search: in this journal in this repository across all repositories advanced search   issn: -   							  					 			 			 				 	 	 	 	digital commons 		 			 					home 			 | 			 					about 			 | 			 					faq 			 | 			editor login | 			 					accessibility statement 			 		 				 			 privacy 			 			 copyright 				 		 		 	 					 		 	 wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 	 	 	 	 	main page 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 welcome to wikipedia, the free encyclopedia that anyone can edit. , , articles in english 	the arts 	biography 	geography 	history 	mathematics 	science 	society 	technology 	all portals 	 from today's featured article the emperor's new school is an american animated television series created by mark dindal that aired on disney channel for two seasons between january  and november  . based on the film the emperor's new groove, the series centers on kuzco, who must graduate from kuzco academy to become emperor of the inca empire, with the help of the villager pacha and fellow student malina. the series combines physical comedy with a self-aware tone. j. p. manoux replaced david spade as the voice actor for kuzco. new school used traditional d animation to preserve elements of the film's distinctive art style. the high-school setting provided storylines based on the everyday challenges of adolescence. new school received mixed reviews from critics; 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additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 nash equilibrium - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	nash equilibrium 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		solution concept of a non-cooperative game involving two or more players for given conditions 	nash equilibrium 	a solution concept in game theory 	relationship 	subset of	rationalizability, epsilon-equilibrium, correlated equilibrium 	superset of	evolutionarily stable strategy, subgame perfect equilibrium, perfect bayesian equilibrium, trembling hand perfect equilibrium, stable nash equilibrium, strong nash equilibrium, cournot equilibrium 	significance 	proposed by	john forbes nash jr. 	used for	all non-cooperative games in game theory, the nash equilibrium, named after the mathematician john forbes nash jr., is a proposed solution of a non-cooperative game involving two or more players in which each player is assumed to know the equilibrium strategies of the other players, and no player has anything to gain by changing only their own strategy.[ ] the utilization of nash equilibriums, and its principles date data back to the time of cournot, a prominent philosopher and mathematician who pioneered the understanding of economic equilibria. [ ] if each player has chosen a strategy—an action plan choosing its own action based on what it has seen happen so far in the game—and no player can increase its own expected payoff by changing its strategy while the other players keep theirs unchanged, then the current set of strategy choices constitutes a nash equilibrium. if two players alice and bob choose strategies a and b, (a, b) is a nash equilibrium if alice has no other strategy available that does better than a at maximizing her payoff in response to bob choosing b, and bob has no other strategy available that does better than b at maximizing his payoff in response to alice choosing a. in a game in which carol and dan are also players, (a, b, c, d) is a nash equilibrium if a is alice's best response to (b, c, d), b is bob's best response to (a, c, d), and so forth. nash showed that there is a nash equilibrium for every finite game: see further the article on strategy. contents 	 applications 	 history 	 definitions 	 . nash equilibrium 	 . strict/weak equilibrium 	 . nash's existence theorem 	 examples 	 . coordination game 	 . prisoner's dilemma 	 . network traffic 	 . competition game 	 . nash equilibria in a payoff matrix 	 stability 	 occurrence 	 . where the conditions are not met 	 . where the conditions are met 	 ne and non-credible threats 	 proof of existence 	 . proof using the kakutani fixed-point theorem 	 . alternate proof using the brouwer fixed-point theorem 	 computing nash equilibria 	 . examples 	 see also 	 notes 	 references 	 . game theory textbooks 	 . original nash papers 	 . other references 	 external links applications[edit] game theorists use nash equilibrium to analyze the outcome of the strategic interaction of several decision makers. in a strategic interaction, the outcome for each decision-maker depends on the decisions of the others as well as their own. the simple insight underlying nash's idea is that one cannot predict the choices of multiple decision makers if one analyzes those decisions in isolation. instead, one must ask what each player would do taking into account what she/he expects the others to do. nash equilibrium requires that their choices be consistent: no player wishes to undo their decision given what the others are deciding. the concept has been used to analyze hostile situations like wars and arms races[ ] (see prisoner's dilemma), and also how conflict may be mitigated by repeated interaction (see tit-for-tat). it has also been used to study to what extent people with different preferences can cooperate (see battle of the sexes), and whether they will take risks to achieve a cooperative outcome (see stag hunt). it has been used to study the adoption of technical standards,[citation needed] and also the occurrence of bank runs and currency crises (see coordination game). other applications include traffic flow (see wardrop's principle), how to organize auctions (see auction theory), the outcome of efforts exerted by multiple parties in the education process,[ ] regulatory legislation such as environmental regulations (see tragedy of the commons),[ ] natural resource management,[ ] analysing strategies in marketing,[ ] even penalty kicks in football (see matching pennies),[ ] energy systems, transportation systems, evacuation problems[ ] and wireless communications.[ ] history[edit] nash equilibrium is named after american mathematician john forbes nash, jr. the same idea was used in a particular application in by antoine augustin cournot in his theory of oligopoly.[ ] in cournot's theory, each of several firms choose how much output to produce to maximize its profit. the best output for one firm depends on the outputs of the others. a cournot equilibrium occurs when each firm's output maximizes its profits given the output of the other firms, which is a pure-strategy nash equilibrium. cournot also introduced the concept of best response dynamics in his analysis of the stability of equilibrium. cournot did not use the idea in any other applications, however, or define it generally. the modern game-theoretic concept of nash equilibrium is instead defined in terms of mixed strategies, where players choose a probability distribution over possible actions (rather than choosing a deterministic action to be played with certainty). the concept of a mixed-strategy equilibrium was introduced by john von neumann and oskar morgenstern in their book the theory of games and economic behavior. however, their analysis was restricted to the special case of zero-sum games. they showed that a mixed-strategy nash equilibrium will exist for any zero-sum game with a finite set of actions.[ ] the contribution of nash in his article "non-cooperative games" was to define a mixed-strategy nash equilibrium for any game with a finite set of actions and prove that at least one (mixed-strategy) nash equilibrium must exist in such a game. the key to nash's ability to prove existence far more generally than von neumann lay in his definition of equilibrium. according to nash, "an equilibrium point is an n-tuple such that each player's mixed strategy maximizes his payoff if the strategies of the others are held fixed. thus each player's strategy is optimal against those of the others." just putting the problem in this framework allowed nash to employ the kakutani fixed-point theorem in his paper, and a variant upon it in his paper used the brouwer fixed-point theorem to prove that there had to exist at least one mixed strategy profile that mapped back into itself for finite-player (not necessarily zero-sum) games; namely, a strategy profile that did not call for a shift in strategies that could improve payoffs.[ ] since the development of the nash equilibrium concept, game theorists have discovered that it makes misleading predictions (or fails to make a unique prediction) in certain circumstances. they have proposed many related solution concepts (also called 'refinements' of nash equilibria) designed to overcome perceived flaws in the nash concept. one particularly important issue is that some nash equilibria may be based on threats that are not 'credible'. in reinhard selten proposed subgame perfect equilibrium as a refinement that eliminates equilibria which depend on non-credible threats. other extensions of the nash equilibrium concept have addressed what happens if a game is repeated, or what happens if a game is played in the absence of complete information. however, subsequent refinements and extensions of nash equilibrium share the main insight on which nash's concept rests: the equilibrium is a set of strategies such that each player's strategy is optimal given the choices of the others. definitions[edit] nash equilibrium[edit] informally, a strategy profile is a nash equilibrium if no player can do better by unilaterally changing their strategy. to see what this means, imagine that each player is told the strategies of the others. suppose then that each player asks themselves: "knowing the strategies of the other players, and treating the strategies of the other players as set in stone, can i benefit by changing my strategy?" if any player could answer "yes", then that set of strategies is not a nash equilibrium. but if every player prefers not to switch (or is indifferent between switching and not) then the strategy profile is a nash equilibrium. thus, each strategy in a nash equilibrium is a best response to all other strategies in that equilibrium.[ ] the nash equilibrium may sometimes appear non-rational in a third-person perspective. this is because a nash equilibrium is not necessarily pareto optimal. the nash equilibrium may also have non-rational consequences in sequential games because players may "threaten" each other with non-rational moves. for such games the subgame perfect nash equilibrium may be more meaningful as a tool of analysis. strict/weak equilibrium[edit] suppose that in the nash equilibrium, each player asks themselves: "knowing the strategies of the other players, and treating the strategies of the other players as set in stone, would i suffer a loss by changing my strategy?" if every player's answer is "yes", then the equilibrium is classified as a strict nash equilibrium.[ ] if instead, for some player, there is exact equality between the strategy in nash equilibrium and some other strategy that gives exactly the same payout (i.e. this player is indifferent between switching and not), then the equilibrium is classified as a weak nash equilibrium. a game can have a pure-strategy or a mixed-strategy nash equilibrium. (in the latter a pure strategy is chosen stochastically with a fixed probability). nash's existence theorem[edit] nash proved that if mixed strategies (where a player chooses probabilities of using various pure strategies) are allowed, then every game with a finite number of players in which each player can choose from finitely many pure strategies has at least one nash equilibrium, which might be a pure strategy for each player or might be a probability distribution over strategies for each player. nash equilibria need not exist if the set of choices is infinite and non-compact. an example is a game where two players simultaneously name a number and the player naming the larger number wins. another example is where each of two players chooses a real number strictly less than and the winner is whoever has the biggest number; no biggest number strictly less than exists (if the number could equal , the nash equilibrium would have both players choosing and tying the game). however, a nash equilibrium exists if the set of choices is compact with each player's payoff continuous in the strategies of all the players.[ ] examples[edit] coordination game[edit] main article: coordination game a sample coordination game showing relative payoff for player (row) / player (column) with each combination 	player player 	player adopts strategy a 	player adopts strategy b 	player adopts strategy a 	 	 	player adopts strategy b 	 	 the coordination game is a classic (symmetric) two player, two strategy game, with an example payoff matrix shown to the right. the players should thus coordinate, both adopting strategy a, to receive the highest payoff; i.e., . if both players chose strategy b though, there is still a nash equilibrium. although each player is awarded less than optimal payoff, neither player has incentive to change strategy due to a reduction in the immediate payoff (from to ). a famous example of this type of game was called the stag hunt; in the game two players may choose to hunt a stag or a rabbit, the former providing more meat ( utility units) than the latter ( utility unit). the caveat is that the stag must be cooperatively hunted, so if one player attempts to hunt the stag, while the other hunts the rabbit, she/he will fail in hunting ( utility units), whereas if they both hunt it they will split the payoff ( , ). the game hence exhibits two equilibria at (stag, stag) and (rabbit, rabbit) and hence the players' optimal strategy depend on their expectation on what the other player may do. if one hunter trusts that the other will hunt the stag, they should hunt the stag; however if they suspect that the other will hunt the rabbit, they should hunt the rabbit. this game was used as an analogy for social cooperation, since much of the benefit that people gain in society depends upon people cooperating and implicitly trusting one another to act in a manner corresponding with cooperation. another example of a coordination game is the setting where two technologies are available to two firms with comparable products, and they have to elect a strategy to become the market standard. if both firms agree on the chosen technology, high sales are expected for both firms. if the firms do not agree on the standard technology, few sales result. both strategies are nash equilibria of the game. driving on a road against an oncoming car, and having to choose either to swerve on the left or to swerve on the right of the road, is also a coordination game. for example, with payoffs meaning no crash and meaning a crash, the coordination game can be defined with the following payoff matrix: the driving game 	 driver driver 	drive on the left 	drive on the right 	drive on the left 	 	 	drive on the right 	 	 in this case there are two pure-strategy nash equilibria, when both choose to either drive on the left or on the right. if we admit mixed strategies (where a pure strategy is chosen at random, subject to some fixed probability), then there are three nash equilibria for the same case: two we have seen from the pure-strategy form, where the probabilities are ( %, %) for player one, ( %, %) for player two; and ( %, %) for player one, ( %, %) for player two respectively. we add another where the probabilities for each player are ( %, %). prisoner's dilemma[edit] main article: prisoner's dilemma example pd payoff matrix 	 prisoner prisoner 	cooperate (with other) 	defect (betray other) 	cooperate (with other) 	− , − 	− , 	defect (betray other) 	 , − 	− , − imagine two prisoners held in separate cells, interrogated simultaneously, and offered deals (lighter jail sentences) for betraying their fellow criminal. they can "cooperate" (with the other prisoner) by not snitching, or "defect" by betraying the other. however, there is a catch; if both players defect, then they both serve a longer sentence than if neither said anything. lower jail sentences are interpreted as higher payoffs (shown in the table). the prisoner's dilemma has a similar matrix as depicted for the coordination game, but the maximum reward for each player (in this case, a minimum loss of ) is obtained only when the players' decisions are different. each player improves their own situation by switching from "cooperating" to "defecting", given knowledge that the other player's best decision is to "defect". the prisoner's dilemma thus has a single nash equilibrium: both players choosing to defect. what has long made this an interesting case to study is the fact that this scenario is globally inferior to "both cooperating". that is, both players would be better off if they both chose to "cooperate" instead of both choosing to defect. however, each player could improve their own situation by breaking the mutual cooperation, no matter how the other player possibly (or certainly) changes their decision. network traffic[edit] see also: braess's paradox sample network graph. values on edges are the travel time experienced by a 'car' traveling down that edge. x is the number of cars traveling via that edge. an application of nash equilibria is in determining the expected flow of traffic in a network. consider the graph on the right. if we assume that there are x "cars" traveling from a to d, what is the expected distribution of traffic in the network? this situation can be modeled as a "game" where every traveler has a choice of strategies, where each strategy is a route from a to d (either abd, abcd, or acd). the "payoff" of each strategy is the travel time of each route. in the graph on the right, a car travelling via abd experiences travel time of ( +x/ )+ , where x is the number of cars traveling on edge ab. thus, payoffs for any given strategy depend on the choices of the other players, as is usual. however, the goal, in this case, is to minimize travel time, not maximize it. equilibrium will occur when the time on all paths is exactly the same. when that happens, no single driver has any incentive to switch routes, since it can only add to their travel time. for the graph on the right, if, for example, cars are travelling from a to d, then equilibrium will occur when drivers travel via abd, via abcd, and via acd. every driver now has a total travel time of . (to see this, note that a total of cars take the ab edge, and likewise, cars take the cd edge). notice that this distribution is not, actually, socially optimal. if the cars agreed that travel via abd and the other through acd, then travel time for any single car would actually be . , which is less than . . this is also the nash equilibrium if the path between b and c is removed, which means that adding another possible route can decrease the efficiency of the system, a phenomenon known as braess's paradox. competition game[edit] a competition game 	player player 	choose ' ' 	choose ' ' 	choose ' ' 	choose ' ' 	choose ' ' 	 , 	 , − 	 , − 	 , − 	choose ' ' 	− , 	 , 	 , − 	 , − 	choose ' ' 	− , 	− , 	 , 	 , 	choose ' ' 	− , 	− , 	 , 	 , this can be illustrated by a two-player game in which both players simultaneously choose an integer from to and they both win the smaller of the two numbers in points. in addition, if one player chooses a larger number than the other, then they have to give up two points to the other. this game has a unique pure-strategy nash equilibrium: both players choosing (highlighted in light red). any other strategy can be improved by a player switching their number to one less than that of the other player. in the adjacent table, if the game begins at the green square, it is in player 's interest to move to the purple square and it is in player 's interest to move to the blue square. although it would not fit the definition of a competition game, if the game is modified so that the two players win the named amount if they both choose the same number, and otherwise win nothing, then there are nash equilibria: ( , ), ( , ), ( , ), and ( , ). nash equilibria in a payoff matrix[edit] there is an easy numerical way to identify nash equilibria on a payoff matrix. it is especially helpful in two-person games where players have more than two strategies. in this case formal analysis may become too long. this rule does not apply to the case where mixed (stochastic) strategies are of interest. the rule goes as follows: if the first payoff number, in the payoff pair of the cell, is the maximum of the column of the cell and if the second number is the maximum of the row of the cell - then the cell represents a nash equilibrium. a payoff matrix – nash equilibria in bold 	player player 	option a 	option b 	option c 	option a 	 , 	 , 	 , 	option b 	 , 	 , 	 , 	option c 	 , 	 , 	 , we can apply this rule to a × matrix: using the rule, we can very quickly (much faster than with formal analysis) see that the nash equilibria cells are (b,a), (a,b), and (c,c). indeed, for cell (b,a) is the maximum of the first column and is the maximum of the second row. for (a,b) is the maximum of the second column and is the maximum of the first row. same for cell (c,c). for other cells, either one or both of the duplet members are not the maximum of the corresponding rows and columns. this said, the actual mechanics of finding equilibrium cells is obvious: find the maximum of a column and check if the second member of the pair is the maximum of the row. if these conditions are met, the cell represents a nash equilibrium. check all columns this way to find all ne cells. an n×n matrix may have between and n×n pure-strategy nash equilibria. stability[edit] the concept of stability, useful in the analysis of many kinds of equilibria, can also be applied to nash equilibria. a nash equilibrium for a mixed-strategy game is stable if a small change (specifically, an infinitesimal change) in probabilities for one player leads to a situation where two conditions hold: 	the player who did not change has no better strategy in the new circumstance 	the player who did change is now playing with a strictly worse strategy. if these cases are both met, then a player with the small change in their mixed strategy will return immediately to the nash equilibrium. the equilibrium is said to be stable. if condition one does not hold then the equilibrium is unstable. if only condition one holds then there are likely to be an infinite number of optimal strategies for the player who changed. in the "driving game" example above there are both stable and unstable equilibria. the equilibria involving mixed strategies with % probabilities are stable. if either player changes their probabilities slightly, they will be both at a disadvantage, and their opponent will have no reason to change their strategy in turn. the ( %, %) equilibrium is unstable. if either player changes their probabilities (which would neither benefit or damage the expectation of the player who did the change, if the other player's mixed strategy is still ( %, %)), then the other player immediately has a better strategy at either ( %, %) or ( %, %). stability is crucial in practical applications of nash equilibria, since the mixed strategy of each player is not perfectly known, but has to be inferred from statistical distribution of their actions in the game. in this case unstable equilibria are very unlikely to arise in practice, since any minute change in the proportions of each strategy seen will lead to a change in strategy and the breakdown of the equilibrium. the nash equilibrium defines stability only in terms of unilateral deviations. in cooperative games such a concept is not convincing enough. strong nash equilibrium allows for deviations by every conceivable coalition.[ ] formally, a strong nash equilibrium is a nash equilibrium in which no coalition, taking the actions of its complements as given, can cooperatively deviate in a way that benefits all of its members.[ ] however, the strong nash concept is sometimes perceived as too "strong" in that the environment allows for unlimited private communication. in fact, strong nash equilibrium has to be pareto efficient. as a result of these requirements, strong nash is too rare to be useful in many branches of game theory. however, in games such as elections with many more players than possible outcomes, it can be more common than a stable equilibrium. a refined nash equilibrium known as coalition-proof nash equilibrium (cpne)[ ] occurs when players cannot do better even if they are allowed to communicate and make "self-enforcing" agreement to deviate. every correlated strategy supported by iterated strict dominance and on the pareto frontier is a cpne.[ ] further, it is possible for a game to have a nash equilibrium that is resilient against coalitions less than a specified size, k. cpne is related to the theory of the core. finally in the eighties, building with great depth on such ideas mertens-stable equilibria were introduced as a solution concept. mertens stable equilibria satisfy both forward induction and backward induction. in a game theory context stable equilibria now usually refer to mertens stable equilibria. occurrence[edit] if a game has a unique nash equilibrium and is played among players under certain conditions, then the ne strategy set will be adopted. sufficient conditions to guarantee that the nash equilibrium is played are: 	the players all will do their utmost to maximize their expected payoff as described by the game. 	the players are flawless in execution. 	the players have sufficient intelligence to deduce the solution. 	the players know the planned equilibrium strategy of all of the other players. 	the players believe that a deviation in their own strategy will not cause deviations by any other players. 	there is common knowledge that all players meet these conditions, including this one. so, not only must each player know the other players meet the conditions, but also they must know that they all know that they meet them, and know that they know that they know that they meet them, and so on. where the conditions are not met[edit] examples of game theory problems in which these conditions are not met: 	the first condition is not met if the game does not correctly describe the quantities a player wishes to maximize. in this case there is no particular reason for that player to adopt an equilibrium strategy. for instance, the prisoner's dilemma is not a dilemma if either player is happy to be jailed indefinitely. 	intentional or accidental imperfection in execution. for example, a computer capable of flawless logical play facing a second flawless computer will result in equilibrium. introduction of imperfection will lead to its disruption either through loss to the player who makes the mistake, or through negation of the common knowledge criterion leading to possible victory for the player. (an example would be a player suddenly putting the car into reverse in the game of chicken, ensuring a no-loss no-win scenario). 	in many cases, the third condition is not met because, even though the equilibrium must exist, it is unknown due to the complexity of the game, for instance in chinese chess.[ ] or, if known, it may not be known to all players, as when playing tic-tac-toe with a small child who desperately wants to win (meeting the other criteria). 	the criterion of common knowledge may not be met even if all players do, in fact, meet all the other criteria. players wrongly distrusting each other's rationality may adopt counter-strategies to expected irrational play on their opponents’ behalf. this is a major consideration in "chicken" or an arms race, for example. where the conditions are met[edit] in his ph.d. dissertation, john nash proposed two interpretations of his equilibrium concept, with the objective of showing how equilibrium points can be connected with observable phenomenon. (...) one interpretation is rationalistic: if we assume that players are rational, know the full structure of the game, the game is played just once, and there is just one nash equilibrium, then players will play according to that equilibrium. this idea was formalized by aumann, r. and a. brandenburger, , epistemic conditions for nash equilibrium, econometrica, , - who interpreted each player's mixed strategy as a conjecture about the behaviour of other players and have shown that if the game and the rationality of players is mutually known and these conjectures are commonly know, then the conjectures must be a nash equilibrium (a common prior assumption is needed for this result in general, but not in the case of two players. in this case, the conjectures need only be mutually known). a second interpretation, that nash referred to by the mass action interpretation, is less demanding on players: [i]t is unnecessary to assume that the participants have full knowledge of the total structure of the game, or the ability and inclination to go through any complex reasoning processes. what is assumed is that there is a population of participants for each position in the game, which will be played throughout time by participants drawn at random from the different populations. if there is a stable average frequency with which each pure strategy is employed by the average member of the appropriate population, then this stable average frequency constitutes a mixed strategy nash equilibrium. for a formal result along these lines, see kuhn, h. and et al., , "the work of john nash in game theory," journal of economic theory, , – . due to the limited conditions in which ne can actually be observed, they are rarely treated as a guide to day-to-day behaviour, or observed in practice in human negotiations. however, as a theoretical concept in economics and evolutionary biology, the ne has explanatory power. the payoff in economics is utility (or sometimes money), and in evolutionary biology is gene transmission; both are the fundamental bottom line of survival. researchers who apply games theory in these fields claim that strategies failing to maximize these for whatever reason will be competed out of the market or environment, which are ascribed the ability to test all strategies. this conclusion is drawn from the "stability" theory above. in these situations the assumption that the strategy observed is actually a ne has often been borne out by research.[ ] ne and non-credible threats[edit] extensive and normal form illustrations that show the difference between spne and other ne. the blue equilibrium is not subgame perfect because player two makes a non-credible threat at ( ) to be unkind (u). the nash equilibrium is a superset of the subgame perfect nash equilibrium. the subgame perfect equilibrium in addition to the nash equilibrium requires that the strategy also is a nash equilibrium in every subgame of that game. this eliminates all non-credible threats, that is, strategies that contain non-rational moves in order to make the counter-player change their strategy. the image to the right shows a simple sequential game that illustrates the issue with subgame imperfect nash equilibria. in this game player one chooses left(l) or right(r), which is followed by player two being called upon to be kind (k) or unkind (u) to player one, however, player two only stands to gain from being unkind if player one goes left. if player one goes right the rational player two would de facto be kind to her/him in that subgame. however, the non-credible threat of being unkind at ( ) is still part of the blue (l, (u,u)) nash equilibrium. therefore, if rational behavior can be expected by both parties the subgame perfect nash equilibrium may be a more meaningful solution concept when such dynamic inconsistencies arise. proof of existence[edit] proof using the kakutani fixed-point theorem[edit] nash's original proof (in his thesis) used brouwer's fixed-point theorem (e.g., see below for a variant). we give a simpler proof via the kakutani fixed-point theorem, following nash's paper (he credits david gale with the observation that such a simplification is possible). to prove the existence of a nash equilibrium, let r i ( σ − i ) {\displaystyle r_{i}(\sigma _{-i})} be the best response of player i to the strategies of all other players. 	 r i ( σ − i ) = a r g m a x σ i ⁡ u i ( σ i , σ − i ) {\displaystyle r_{i}(\sigma _{-i})=\mathop {\underset {\sigma _{i}}{\operatorname {arg\,max} }} u_{i}(\sigma _{i},\sigma _{-i})} here, σ ∈ Σ {\displaystyle \sigma \in \sigma } , where Σ = Σ i × Σ − i {\displaystyle \sigma =\sigma _{i}\times \sigma _{-i}} , is a mixed-strategy profile in the set of all mixed strategies and u i {\displaystyle u_{i}} is the payoff function for player i. define a set-valued function r : Σ → Σ {\displaystyle r\colon \sigma \rightarrow ^{\sigma }} such that r = r i ( σ − i ) × r − i ( σ i ) {\displaystyle r=r_{i}(\sigma _{-i})\times r_{-i}(\sigma _{i})} . the existence of a nash equilibrium is equivalent to r {\displaystyle r} having a fixed point. kakutani's fixed point theorem guarantees the existence of a fixed point if the following four conditions are satisfied. 	 Σ {\displaystyle \sigma } is compact, convex, and nonempty. 	 r ( σ ) {\displaystyle r(\sigma )} is nonempty. 	 r ( σ ) {\displaystyle r(\sigma )} is upper hemicontinuous 	 r ( σ ) {\displaystyle r(\sigma )} is convex. condition . is satisfied from the fact that Σ {\displaystyle \sigma } is a simplex and thus compact. convexity follows from players' ability to mix strategies. Σ {\displaystyle \sigma } is nonempty as long as players have strategies. condition . and . are satisfied by way of berge's maximum theorem. because u i {\displaystyle u_{i}} is continuous and compact, r ( σ i ) {\displaystyle r(\sigma _{i})} is non-empty and upper hemicontinuous. condition . is satisfied as a result of mixed strategies. suppose σ i , σ i ′ ∈ r ( σ − i ) {\displaystyle \sigma _{i},\sigma '_{i}\in r(\sigma _{-i})} , then λ σ i + ( − λ ) σ i ′ ∈ r ( σ − i ) {\displaystyle \lambda \sigma _{i}+( -\lambda )\sigma '_{i}\in r(\sigma _{-i})} . i.e. if two strategies maximize payoffs, then a mix between the two strategies will yield the same payoff. therefore, there exists a fixed point in r {\displaystyle r} and a nash equilibrium.[ ] when nash made this point to john von neumann in , von neumann famously dismissed it with the words, "that's trivial, you know. that's just a fixed-point theorem." (see nasar, , p.  .) alternate proof using the brouwer fixed-point theorem[edit] we have a game g = ( n , a , u ) {\displaystyle g=(n,a,u)} where n {\displaystyle n} is the number of players and a = a × ⋯ × a n {\displaystyle a=a_{ }\times \cdots \times a_{n}} is the action set for the players. all of the action sets a i {\displaystyle a_{i}} are finite. let Δ = Δ × ⋯ × Δ n {\displaystyle \delta =\delta _{ }\times \cdots \times \delta _{n}} denote the set of mixed strategies for the players. the finiteness of the a i {\displaystyle a_{i}} s ensures the compactness of Δ {\displaystyle \delta } . we can now define the gain functions. for a mixed strategy σ ∈ Δ {\displaystyle \sigma \in \delta } , we let the gain for player i {\displaystyle i} on action a ∈ a i {\displaystyle a\in a_{i}} be 	 gain i ( σ , a ) = max { , u i ( a , σ − i ) − u i ( σ i , σ − i ) } . {\displaystyle {\text{gain}}_{i}(\sigma ,a)=\max\{ ,u_{i}(a,\sigma _{-i})-u_{i}(\sigma _{i},\sigma _{-i})\}.} the gain function represents the benefit a player gets by unilaterally changing their strategy. we now define g = ( g , … , g n ) {\displaystyle g=(g_{ },\dotsc ,g_{n})} where 	 g i ( σ ) ( a ) = σ i ( a ) + gain i ( σ , a ) {\displaystyle g_{i}(\sigma )(a)=\sigma _{i}(a)+{\text{gain}}_{i}(\sigma ,a)} for σ ∈ Δ , a ∈ a i {\displaystyle \sigma \in \delta ,a\in a_{i}} . we see that 	 ∑ a ∈ a i g i ( σ ) ( a ) = ∑ a ∈ a i σ i ( a ) + gain i ( σ , a ) = + ∑ a ∈ a i gain i ( σ , a ) > . {\displaystyle \sum _{a\in a_{i}}g_{i}(\sigma )(a)=\sum _{a\in a_{i}}\sigma _{i}(a)+{\text{gain}}_{i}(\sigma ,a)= +\sum _{a\in a_{i}}{\text{gain}}_{i}(\sigma ,a)> .} next we define: 	 { f = ( f , ⋯ , f n ) : Δ → Δ f i ( σ ) ( a ) = g i ( σ ) ( a ) ∑ b ∈ a i g i ( σ ) ( b ) a ∈ a i {\displaystyle {\begin{cases}f=(f_{ },\cdots ,f_{n}):\delta \to \delta \\f_{i}(\sigma )(a)={\frac {g_{i}(\sigma )(a)}{\sum _{b\in a_{i}}g_{i}(\sigma )(b)}}&a\in a_{i}\end{cases}}} it is easy to see that each f i {\displaystyle f_{i}} is a valid mixed strategy in Δ i {\displaystyle \delta _{i}} . it is also easy to check that each f i {\displaystyle f_{i}} is a continuous function of σ {\displaystyle \sigma } , and hence f {\displaystyle f} is a continuous function. as the cross product of a finite number of compact convex sets, Δ {\displaystyle \delta } is also compact and convex. applying the brouwer fixed point theorem to f {\displaystyle f} and Δ {\displaystyle \delta } we conclude that f {\displaystyle f} has a fixed point in Δ {\displaystyle \delta } , call it σ ∗ {\displaystyle \sigma ^{*}} . we claim that σ ∗ {\displaystyle \sigma ^{*}} is a nash equilibrium in g {\displaystyle g} . for this purpose, it suffices to show that 	 ∀ i ∈ { , ⋯ , n } , ∀ a ∈ a i : gain i ( σ ∗ , a ) = . {\displaystyle \forall i\in \{ ,\cdots ,n\},\forall a\in a_{i}:\quad {\text{gain}}_{i}(\sigma ^{*},a)= .} this simply states that each player gains no benefit by unilaterally changing their strategy, which is exactly the necessary condition for a nash equilibrium. now assume that the gains are not all zero. therefore, ∃ i ∈ { , ⋯ , n } , {\displaystyle \exists i\in \{ ,\cdots ,n\},} and a ∈ a i {\displaystyle a\in a_{i}} such that gain i ( σ ∗ , a ) > {\displaystyle {\text{gain}}_{i}(\sigma ^{*},a)> } . note then that 	 ∑ a ∈ a i g i ( σ ∗ , a ) = + ∑ a ∈ a i gain i ( σ ∗ , a ) > . {\displaystyle \sum _{a\in a_{i}}g_{i}(\sigma ^{*},a)= +\sum _{a\in a_{i}}{\text{gain}}_{i}(\sigma ^{*},a)> .} so let 	 c = ∑ a ∈ a i g i ( σ ∗ , a ) . {\displaystyle c=\sum _{a\in a_{i}}g_{i}(\sigma ^{*},a).} also we shall denote gain ( i , ⋅ ) {\displaystyle {\text{gain}}(i,\cdot )} as the gain vector indexed by actions in a i {\displaystyle a_{i}} . since σ ∗ {\displaystyle \sigma ^{*}} is the fixed point we have: 	 σ ∗ = f ( σ ∗ ) ⇒ σ i ∗ = f i ( σ ∗ ) ⇒ σ i ∗ = g i ( σ ∗ ) ∑ a ∈ a i g i ( σ ∗ ) ( a ) ⇒ σ i ∗ = c ( σ i ∗ + gain i ( σ ∗ , ⋅ ) ) ⇒ c σ i ∗ = σ i ∗ + gain i ( σ ∗ , ⋅ ) ⇒ ( c − ) σ i ∗ = gain i ( σ ∗ , ⋅ ) ⇒ σ i ∗ = ( c − ) gain i ( σ ∗ , ⋅ ) . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sigma ^{*}=f(\sigma ^{*})&\rightarrow \sigma _{i}^{*}=f_{i}(\sigma ^{*})\\&\rightarrow \sigma _{i}^{*}={\frac {g_{i}(\sigma ^{*})}{\sum _{a\in a_{i}}g_{i}(\sigma ^{*})(a)}}\\[ pt]&\rightarrow \sigma _{i}^{*}={\frac { }{c}}\left(\sigma _{i}^{*}+{\text{gain}}_{i}(\sigma ^{*},\cdot )\right)\\[ pt]&\rightarrow c\sigma _{i}^{*}=\sigma _{i}^{*}+{\text{gain}}_{i}(\sigma ^{*},\cdot )\\&\rightarrow \left(c- \right)\sigma _{i}^{*}={\text{gain}}_{i}(\sigma ^{*},\cdot )\\&\rightarrow \sigma _{i}^{*}=\left({\frac { }{c- }}\right){\text{gain}}_{i}(\sigma ^{*},\cdot ).\end{aligned}}} since c > {\displaystyle c> } we have that σ i ∗ {\displaystyle \sigma _{i}^{*}} is some positive scaling of the vector gain i ( σ ∗ , ⋅ ) {\displaystyle {\text{gain}}_{i}(\sigma ^{*},\cdot )} . now we claim that 	 ∀ a ∈ a i : σ i ∗ ( a ) ( u i ( a i , σ − i ∗ ) − u i ( σ i ∗ , σ − i ∗ ) ) = σ i ∗ ( a ) gain i ( σ ∗ , a ) {\displaystyle \forall a\in a_{i}:\quad \sigma _{i}^{*}(a)(u_{i}(a_{i},\sigma _{-i}^{*})-u_{i}(\sigma _{i}^{*},\sigma _{-i}^{*}))=\sigma _{i}^{*}(a){\text{gain}}_{i}(\sigma ^{*},a)} to see this, we first note that if gain i ( σ ∗ , a ) > {\displaystyle {\text{gain}}_{i}(\sigma ^{*},a)> } then this is true by definition of the gain function. now assume that gain i ( σ ∗ , a ) = {\displaystyle {\text{gain}}_{i}(\sigma ^{*},a)= } . by our previous statements we have that 	 σ i ∗ ( a ) = ( c − ) gain i ( σ ∗ , a ) = {\displaystyle \sigma _{i}^{*}(a)=\left({\frac { }{c- }}\right){\text{gain}}_{i}(\sigma ^{*},a)= } and so the left term is zero, giving us that the entire expression is {\displaystyle } as needed. so we finally have that 	 = u i ( σ i ∗ , σ − i ∗ ) − u i ( σ i ∗ , σ − i ∗ ) = ( ∑ a ∈ a i σ i ∗ ( a ) u i ( a i , σ − i ∗ ) ) − u i ( σ i ∗ , σ − i ∗ ) = ∑ a ∈ a i σ i ∗ ( a ) ( u i ( a i , σ − i ∗ ) − u i ( σ i ∗ , σ − i ∗ ) ) = ∑ a ∈ a i σ i ∗ ( a ) gain i ( σ ∗ , a )  by the previous statements  = ∑ a ∈ a i ( c − ) σ i ∗ ( a ) > {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned} &=u_{i}(\sigma _{i}^{*},\sigma _{-i}^{*})-u_{i}(\sigma _{i}^{*},\sigma _{-i}^{*})\\&=\left(\sum _{a\in a_{i}}\sigma _{i}^{*}(a)u_{i}(a_{i},\sigma _{-i}^{*})\right)-u_{i}(\sigma _{i}^{*},\sigma _{-i}^{*})\\&=\sum _{a\in a_{i}}\sigma _{i}^{*}(a)(u_{i}(a_{i},\sigma _{-i}^{*})-u_{i}(\sigma _{i}^{*},\sigma _{-i}^{*}))\\&=\sum _{a\in a_{i}}\sigma _{i}^{*}(a){\text{gain}}_{i}(\sigma ^{*},a)&&{\text{ by the previous statements }}\\&=\sum _{a\in a_{i}}\left(c- \right)\sigma _{i}^{*}(a)^{ }> \end{aligned}}} where the last inequality follows since σ i ∗ {\displaystyle \sigma _{i}^{*}} is a non-zero vector. but this is a clear contradiction, so all the gains must indeed be zero. therefore, σ ∗ {\displaystyle \sigma ^{*}} is a nash equilibrium for g {\displaystyle g} as needed. computing nash equilibria[edit] if a player a has a dominant strategy s a {\displaystyle s_{a}} then there exists a nash equilibrium in which a plays s a {\displaystyle s_{a}} . in the case of two players a and b, there exists a nash equilibrium in which a plays s a {\displaystyle s_{a}} and b plays a best response to s a {\displaystyle s_{a}} . if s a {\displaystyle s_{a}} is a strictly dominant strategy, a plays s a {\displaystyle s_{a}} in all nash equilibria. if both a and b have strictly dominant strategies, there exists a unique nash equilibrium in which each plays their strictly dominant strategy. in games with mixed-strategy nash equilibria, the probability of a player choosing any particular (so pure) strategy can be computed by assigning a variable to each strategy that represents a fixed probability for choosing that strategy. in order for a player to be willing to randomize, their expected payoff for each (pure) strategy should be the same. in addition, the sum of the probabilities for each strategy of a particular player should be . this creates a system of equations from which the probabilities of choosing each strategy can be derived.[ ] examples[edit] matching pennies 	player b player a 	player b plays h 	player b plays t 	player a plays h 	− , + 	+ , − 	player a plays t 	+ , − 	− , + in the matching pennies game, player a loses a point to b if a and b play the same strategy and wins a point from b if they play different strategies. to compute the mixed-strategy nash equilibrium, assign a the probability p of playing h and ( −p) of playing t, and assign b the probability q of playing h and ( −q) of playing t. 	e[payoff for a playing h] = (− )q + (+ )( −q) = − q 	e[payoff for a playing t] = (+ )q + (− )( −q) = q− 	e[payoff for a playing h] = e[payoff for a playing t] ⇒ − q = q− ⇒ q = / 	e[payoff for b playing h] = (+ )p + (− )( −p) = p− 	e[payoff for b playing t] = (− )p + (+ )( −p) = − p 	e[payoff for b playing h] = e[payoff for b playing t] ⇒ p− = − p ⇒ p = / thus a mixed-strategy nash equilibrium, in this game, is for each player to randomly choose h or t with p = / and q = / . see also[edit] 	adjusted winner procedure 	complementarity theory 	conflict resolution research 	cooperation 	equilibrium selection 	evolutionarily stable strategy – strategy which, if adopted by a population in a given environment, cannot be invaded by any alternative strategy that is initially rare 	glossary of game theory – list of definitions of terms and concepts used in game theory 	hotelling's law 	manipulated nash equilibrium 	mexican standoff 	minimax theorem – gives conditions that guarantee the max–min inequality is also an equality 	mutual assured destruction – doctrine of military strategy 	extended mathematical programming for equilibrium problems 	optimum contract and par contract 	self-confirming equilibrium 	solution concept 	stackelberg competition – economic model 	wardrop's principle notes[edit] 	^ osborne, martin j.; rubinstein, ariel ( jul ). a course in game theory. cambridge, ma: mit. p.  . isbn  . 	^ kreps d.m. ( ) nash equilibrium. in: palgrave macmillan (eds) the new palgrave dictionary of economics. palgrave macmillan, london. 	^ schelling, thomas, the strategy of conflict, copyright , , harvard university press, isbn  - - - . 	^ de fraja, g.; oliveira, t.; zanchi, l. ( ). "must try harder: evaluating the role of effort in educational attainment". review of economics and statistics. ( ): . doi: . /rest_a_ . 	^ ward, h. ( ). "game theory and the politics of global warming: the state of play and beyond". political studies. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. , 	^ thorpe, robert b.; jennings, simon; dolder, paul j. ( ). "risks and benefits of catching pretty good yield in multispecies mixed fisheries". ices journal of marine science. ( ): – . doi: . /icesjms/fsx . , 	^ "marketing lessons from dr. nash - andrew frank". - - . retrieved - - . 	^ chiappori, p. -a.; levitt, s.; groseclose, t. ( ). "testing mixed-strategy equilibria when players are heterogeneous: the case of penalty kicks in soccer" (pdf). american economic review. ( ): . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . 	^ djehiche, b.; tcheukam, a.; tembine, h. ( ). "a mean-field game of evacuation in multilevel building". ieee transactions on automatic control. ( ): – . doi: . /tac. . . issn  - . 	^ djehiche, boualem; tcheukam, alain; tembine, hamidou ( - - ). "mean-field-type games in engineering". aims electronics and electrical engineering. : – . arxiv: . . doi: . /electreng. . . . 	^ cournot a. ( ) researches on the mathematical principles of the theory of wealth 	^ j. von neumann, o. morgenstern, theory of games and economic behavior, copyright , , princeton university press 	^ carmona, guilherme; podczeck, konrad ( ). "on the existence of pure strategy nash equilibria in large games" (pdf). journal of economic theory. ( ): – . doi: . /j.jet. . . . ssrn  . 	^ a b von ahn, luis. "preliminaries of game theory" (pdf). archived from the original (pdf) on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "nash equilibria". hoylab.cornell.edu. retrieved - - . 	^ mit opencourseware. . : game theory with engineering applications, spring . lecture : continuous and discontinuous games. 	^ a b b. d. bernheim; b. peleg; m. d. whinston ( ), "coalition-proof equilibria i. concepts", journal of economic theory, ( ): – , doi: . / - ( ) - . 	^ aumann, r. ( ). "acceptable points in general cooperative n-person games". contributions to the theory of games. iv. princeton, n.j.: princeton university press. isbn  - - - - . 	^ d. moreno; j. wooders ( ), "coalition-proof equilibrium" (pdf), games and economic behavior, ( ): – , doi: . /game. . , hdl: / . 	^ t. l. turocy, b. von stengel, game theory, copyright , texas a&m university, london school of economics, pages - . nash proved that a perfect ne exists for this type of finite extensive form game[citation needed] – it can be represented as a strategy complying with his original conditions for a game with a ne. such games may not have unique ne, but at least one of the many equilibrium strategies would be played by hypothetical players having perfect knowledge of all game trees[citation needed]. 	^ j. c. cox, m. walker, learning to play cournot duoploy strategies archived - - at the wayback machine, copyright , texas a&m university, university of arizona, pages - 	^ fudenburg, drew; tirole, jean ( ). game theory. mit press. isbn  - - - - . references[edit] game theory textbooks[edit] 	dixit, avinash, susan skeath and david reiley. games of strategy. w.w. norton & company. (third edition in ) 	dutta, prajit k. ( ), strategies and games: theory and practice, mit press, isbn  - - - - . suitable for undergraduate and business students. 	fudenberg, drew and jean tirole ( ) game theory mit press. 	leyton-brown, kevin; shoham, yoav ( ), essentials of game theory: a concise, multidisciplinary introduction, san rafael, ca: morgan & claypool publishers, isbn  - - - - . an -page mathematical introduction; see chapter . free online at many universities. 	morgenstern, oskar and john von neumann ( ) the theory of games and economic behavior princeton university press 	myerson, roger b. ( ), game theory: analysis of conflict, harvard university press, isbn  - - - - 	papayoanou, paul ( ), game theory for business: a primer in strategic gaming, probabilistic publishing, isbn  - 	rubinstein, ariel; osborne, martin j. ( ), a course in game theory, mit press, isbn  - - - - . a modern introduction at the graduate level. 	shoham, yoav; leyton-brown, kevin ( ), multiagent systems: algorithmic, game-theoretic, and logical foundations, new york: cambridge university press, isbn  - - - - . a comprehensive reference from a computational perspective; see chapter . downloadable free online. 	gibbons, robert ( ), game theory for applied economists, princeton university press (july , ), isbn  - - - - . lucid and detailed introduction to game theory in an explicitly economic context. 	osborne, martin ( ), an introduction to game theory, oxford university press, isbn  - - - - . introduction to nash equilibrium. 	binmore, ken ( ), playing for real: a text on game theory, oxford university press, isbn  - . original nash papers[edit] 	nash, john ( ) "equilibrium points in n-person games" proceedings of the national academy of sciences ( ): - . 	nash, john ( ) "non-cooperative games" the annals of mathematics ( ): - . other references[edit] 	mehlmann, a. ( ) the game's afoot! game theory in myth and paradox, american mathematical society. 	nasar, sylvia ( ), a beautiful mind, simon & schuster. external links[edit] 	"nash theorem (in game theory)", encyclopedia of mathematics, ems press, [ ] 	complete proof of existence of nash equilibria 	simplified form and related results 		v 	t 	e topics in game theory 	definitions	 	cooperative game 	determinacy 	escalation of commitment 	extensive-form game 	first-player and second-player win 	game complexity 	graphical game 	hierarchy of beliefs 	information set 	normal-form game 	preference 	sequential game 	simultaneous game 	simultaneous action selection 	solved game 	succinct game 	equilibrium concepts	 	nash equilibrium 	subgame perfection 	mertens-stable equilibrium 	bayesian nash equilibrium 	perfect bayesian equilibrium 	trembling hand 	proper equilibrium 	epsilon-equilibrium 	correlated equilibrium 	sequential equilibrium 	quasi-perfect equilibrium 	evolutionarily stable strategy 	risk 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	occupation	professor, author, consultant 	 	academic background 	education	 	phd, michigan state university, 	b. science (mechanical engineering) ohio university, 	alma mater	michigan state university 	academic work 	discipline	marketing 	institutions	university of wisconsin-madison, michigan state university 	notable works	a general theory of competition: resources, competences, productivity, economic growth,' 	notable ideas	grounding marketing concepts in ra theory 	 shelby d. hunt (born ) is an american organizational theorist, the jerry s. rawls and p. w. horn professor of marketing at the texas tech university, and a highly cited marketing researcher.[ ][ ][ ] his is noted for his contributions to competition theory and the resource-advantage view. contents 	 education and career 	 recognition and awards 	 publications 	 references 	 external links education and career[edit] hunt originally studied mechanical engineering at the university of ohio, graduating with a bachelor of science in . he received his phd from michigan state university in . after working as a technical sales representative for hercules plastics inc, he began his academic career at the university of wisconsin-madison in . he chaired the marketing department from to . in , he took up an academic position in the graduate school of the texas tech university and is currently the jerry s. rawls and p. w. horn professor of marketing at the texas tech university. he was the editor of the journal of marketing from to .[ ] his research interests are in the fields of "competition, strategy, marketing theory, ethics, macromarketing, and philosophy of science." he has authored dozens of books and more than articles and is one of the most cited authors in business and economics.[ ] he and his work are the subject of the publication, legends in marketing: shelby d. hunt, edited by jagdish n. sheth and published in .[ ] recognition and awards[edit] hunt is the recipient of multiple awards for his scholarship and services to education, including:[ ] 	 the harold h. maynard award for the “best article on marketing theory” for “the nature and scope of marketing” published in the journal of marketing 	 the harold h. maynard award for the “best article on marketing theory” for “general theories and fundamental explananda of marketing” published in the journal of marketing 	 the paul d. converse award from the american marketing association for his contributions to marketing scholarship 	 the charles c. slater award for “reification and realism in marketing: in defense of reason,” published in the journal of macromarketing 	 the outstanding marketing educator award from the academy of marketing science 	 the distinguished marketing educator award from the american marketing association/richard d. irwin 	 (with co-author, robert m. morgan) recipient of the harold h. maynard award for the “best article on marketing theory” for “the comparative advantage theory of competition” published in the journal of marketing 	 (with co-author, lawrence b. chonko) recipient of the elsevier science exceptional quality and high scholarly impact award for “ethics and marketing management,” journal of business research 	 the distinguished scholar award from the society for marketing advances/elsevier science 	 named as a “marketing legend” by the american marketing association [ ] publications[edit] books 	 , with urban b. ozanne, the economic effects of franchising, washington: united states senate, u.s. government printing office 	 , marketing theory: conceptual foundations of research in marketing, columbus: grid publishing, inc. 	 , with ronald bush, marketing theory: philosophy of science perspectives, chicago: american marketing association. 	 , marketing theory: the philosophy of marketing science, homewood, illinois: richard d. irwin, inc. 	 , modern marketing theory: critical issues in the philosophy of marketing science, cincinnati: southwestern publishing co. 	 , a general theory of competition: resources, competences, productivity, economic growth. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications 	 , foundations of marketing theory: toward a general theory of marketing, armonk, ny: m.e. sharpe, inc. 	 , controversy in marketing theory: for reason, realism, truth, and objectivity, armonk, ny: m.e. sharpe, inc. 	 , marketing theory: foundations, controversy, strategy, resource-advantage theory, armonk, ny: m.e. sharpe, inc. articles/ chapters 	 , "the commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing," journal of marketing, vol. , pp – 	 , [co-authored with r.m. morgan], “the comparative advantage theory of competition,” journal of marketing, vol. , april, pp – 	 , [co-authored with r.m. morgan], “the resource-advantage theory of competition: dynamics, path dependencies, and evolutionary dimensions,” journal of marketing, vol. , october, pp – 	 , "competing through relationships: grounding relationship marketing in resource-advantage theory," journal of marketing management, vol. , pp – 	 , “the strategic imperative and sustainable competitive advantage: public policy and resource advantage theory,” journal of academy of marketing science, vol. , no. , pp – 	 , “the competence-based, resource-advantage, and neoclassical theories of competition: toward a synthesis”, in sanchez, r. and heene, a. (eds), competence-based strategic management: theory and research, jai press, greenwich, ct, pp – 	 , “a general theory of competition: issues, answers, and an invitation”, european journal of marketing, vol. , nos / , pp – 	 , [co-authored with r.e. morgan] “determining marketing strategy: a cybernetic systems approach to scenario planning,” european journal of marketing, vol. no. , pp – 	 , [co-authored with dennis b.arnett] "resource-advantage theory and embeddedness: explaining r-a theory’s explanatory success," journal of marketing theory and practice, vol. , no. , pp – 	 , [co-authored with dennis b.arnett] "market segmentation strategy, competitive advantage, and public policy: grounding segmentation strategy in resource-advantage theory," australasian journal of marketing, vol. , no. , , pp – 	 , [co-authored with donna f. davis], "grounding supply chain management in resource-advantage theory," volume , no. , , pp – 	 , "sustainable marketing, equity, and economic growth: a esource-advantage, economic freedom approach," journal of the academy of marketing science, vol. , pp – 	 , "developing successful theories in marketing: insights from resource-advantage theory," ams review, vol. , no. 	 , [co-authored with sreedhar madhavaram],"managerial action and resource advantage theory: conceptual frameworks emanating from a positive theory of competition," journal of business & industry marketing, vol. , no. , pp – 	 , "the evolution of resource‐advantage theory: six events, six realizations, six contributions", journal of historical research in marketing, vol. , no. , pp.  – references[edit] 	^ texas tech university :: office of communications & marketing :: news release archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ isi highly cited researchers version . archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ shelby d. hunt google scholar profile. 	^ dr. shelby d. hunt's web page, 	^ "shelby d. hunt's work to be published in the "legends of marketing," rawls college news, february, , <online: http://www.depts.ttu.edu/rawlsbusiness/news/posts/ / /shelby-d-hunts-work-to-be-published-in-the-legends-of-marketing-series.php> 	^ sheth, j.n. (series editor), legends in marketing: shelby d. hunt, sage, , [ volumes] note: the set includes of hunt’s articles with commentaries on his work by distinguished scholars compiled into the ten volumes. each volume has its own academic editor, who has written an introduction and to academics who have added on the articles, and interviewed hunt on the volume's content. 	^ hunt, shelby d; arnett, dennis b ( ). "market segmentation strategy, competitive advantage, and public policy: grounding segmentation strategy in resource-advantage theory". australasian marketing journal (amj). : . doi: . /s - ( ) -x. 	^ american marketing association, "marketing legends," <online: ama.marketing/legends> external links[edit] 	dr. shelby d. hunt's web page 	authority control 	 	bnf: cb g (data) 	gnd: 	isni: 	lccn: n 	nta: 	sudoc: 	viaf: 	 worldcat identities: lccn-n retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=shelby_d._hunt&oldid= " 		categories: 	 births 	living people 	american business theorists 	marketing theorists 	marketing people 	american marketing people 	michigan state university alumni 	university of wisconsin–madison faculty 	texas tech university faculty 	fellows of the american marketing association hidden categories: 	webarchive template wayback links 	articles with hcards 	wikipedia articles with bnf identifiers 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	wikipedia articles 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	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	français 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on june , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 skepticism - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	skepticism 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for the philosophical view, see philosophical skepticism. for denial of uncomfortable truths, see denialism. for other uses, see skepticism (band) and skeptic (disambiguation). questioning attitude or doubt towards one or more items of putative knowledge or belief uriel d'acosta instructing the young spinoza, by samuel hirszenberg ( ). skepticism (american and canadian english) or scepticism (british, irish, and australian english) is generally a questioning attitude or doubt towards one or more putative instances of knowledge which are asserted to be mere belief or dogma.[ ][ ] formally, skepticism is a topic of interest in philosophy, particularly epistemology. more informally, skepticism as an expression of questioning or doubt can be applied to any topic, such as politics, religion, or pseudoscience. it is often applied within restricted domains, such as morality (moral skepticism), theism (skepticism about the existence of god), or the supernatural.[ ] philosophical skepticism comes in various forms. radical forms of philosophical skepticism deny that knowledge or rational belief is possible and urge us to suspend judgment on many or all controversial matters. more moderate forms of philosophical skepticism claim only that nothing can be known with certainty, or that we can know little or nothing about nonempirical matters, such as whether god exists, whether human beings have free will, or whether there is an afterlife. skepticism has also inspired a number of contemporary social movements. religious skepticism advocates for doubt concerning basic religious principles, such as immortality, providence, and revelation.[ ] scientific skepticism advocates for testing beliefs for reliability, by subjecting them to systematic investigation using the scientific method, to discover empirical evidence for them. contents 	 definition 	 philosophy 	 religion 	 science 	 auditing 	 see also 	 notes 	 sources 	 further reading 	 external links definition[edit] in ordinary usage, skepticism (us) or scepticism (uk) (greek: 'σκέπτομαι' skeptomai, to search, to think about or look for; see also spelling differences) can refer to: 	an attitude of doubt or a disposition to incredulity either in general or toward a particular object; 	the doctrine that true knowledge or some particular knowledge is uncertain; 	the method of suspended judgment, systematic doubt, or criticism that is characteristic of skeptics (merriam–webster). in philosophy, skepticism can refer to: 	a mode of inquiry that emphasizes critical scrutiny, caution, and intellectual rigor; 	a method of obtaining knowledge through systematic doubt and continual testing; 	a set of claims about the limitations of human knowledge and the proper response to such limitations. philosophy[edit] 	part of a series on 	pyrrhonism 	 	 precursors 	heraclitus 	democritus 	buddha 	anaxarchus 	xenophanes 	 philosophy 	acatalepsy 	adiaphora 	aporia 	ataraxia 	astathmēta 	impermanence 	dependent origination 	dogma 	epoché 	agrippa's trilemma 	phantasiai 	problem of induction 	problem of the criterion 	reductio ad absurdum 	regress argument 	relativism 	circular reasoning 	dissent 	ten modes of aenesidemus 	five modes of agrippa 	 pyrrhonists 	pyrrho 	aenesidemus 	agrippa the skeptic 	arcesilaus 	michel de montaigne 	sextus empiricus 	timon of phlius 	 similar philosophies 	academic skepticism 	madhyamaka buddhism 	empiric school 	cyrenaicism 	cynicism 	 contrary philosophies 	stoicism 	aristotelianism 	epicureanism 	  philosophy portal 		v 	t 	e main article: philosophical skepticism as a philosophical school or movement, skepticism arose both in ancient greece and india. in india the ajñana school of philosophy espoused skepticism. it was a major early rival of buddhism and jainism, and a possibly major influence on buddhism. two of the foremost disciples of the buddha, sariputta and moggallāna, were initially the students of the ajñana philosopher sanjaya belatthiputta, and a strong element of skepticism is found in early buddhism, most particularly in the aṭṭhakavagga sutra, but it is inconclusive the total effect these philosophies had on each other. since skepticism is a philosophical attitude and a style of philosophizing rather than a position, the ajñanins may have influenced other skeptical thinkers of india such as nagarjuna, jayarāśi bhaṭṭa, and shriharsha.[ ] in greece philosophers as early as xenophanes (c. – c. bc) expressed skeptical views, as did democritus[ ] and a number of sophists. gorgias, for example, reputedly argued that nothing exists, that even if there were something we could not know it, and that even if we could know it we could not communicate it.[ ] the heraclitean philosopher cratylus refused to discuss anything and would merely wriggle his finger, claiming that communication is impossible since meanings are constantly changing.[ ] socrates also had skeptical tendencies, claiming to know nothing worthwhile.[ ] there were two major schools of skepticism in the ancient greek and roman world. the first was pyrrhonism, founded by pyrrho of elis (c. – bce). the second was academic skepticism, so-called because its two leading defenders, arcesilaus (c. – bce) who initiated the philosophy, and carneades (c. – bce), the philosophy's most famous proponent, were heads of plato's academy. pyrrhonism's aims are psychological. it urges suspension of judgment (epoche) to achieve mental tranquility (ataraxia). the academic skeptics denied that knowledge is possible (acatalepsy). the academic skeptics claimed that some beliefs are more reasonable or probable than others, whereas pyrrhonian skeptics argue that equally compelling arguments can be given for or against any disputed view.[ ] nearly all the writings of the ancient skeptics are now lost. most of what we know about ancient skepticism is from sextus empiricus, a pyrrhonian skeptic who lived in the second or third century ce. his works contain a lucid summary of stock skeptical arguments. ancient skepticism faded out during the late roman empire, particularly after augustine ( – ce) attacked the skeptics in his work against the academics ( ce). there was little knowledge of, or interest in, ancient skepticism in christian europe during the middle ages. interest revived during the renaissance and reformation, particularly after the complete writings of sextus empiricus were translated into latin in . a number of catholic writers, including francisco sanches (c. – ), michel de montaigne ( – ), pierre gassendi ( – ), and marin mersenne ( – ) deployed ancient skeptical arguments to defend moderate forms of skepticism and to argue that faith, rather than reason, must be the primary guide to truth. similar arguments were offered later (perhaps ironically) by the protestant thinker pierre bayle in his influential historical and critical dictionary ( – ).[ ] the growing popularity of skeptical views created an intellectual crisis in seventeenth-century europe. one major response was offered by the french philosopher and mathematician rené descartes ( – ). in his classic work, meditations of first philosophy ( ), descartes sought to refute skepticism, but only after he had formulated the case for skepticism as powerfully as possible. descartes argued that no matter what radical skeptical possibilities we imagine there are certain truths (e.g., that thinking is occurring, or that i exist) that are absolutely certain. thus, the ancient skeptics were wrong to claim that knowledge is impossible. descartes also attempted to refute skeptical doubts about the reliability of our senses, our memory, and other cognitive faculties. to do this, descartes tried to prove that god exists and that god would not allow us to be systematically deceived about the nature of reality. many contemporary philosophers question whether this second stage of descartes' critique of skepticism is successful.[ ] in the eighteenth century a powerful new case for skepticism was offered by the scottish philosopher david hume ( – ). hume was an empiricist, claiming that all genuine ideas can be traced back to original impressions of sensation or introspective consciousness. hume argued forcefully that on empiricist grounds there are no sound reasons for belief in god, an enduring self or soul, an external world, causal necessity, objective morality, or inductive reasoning. in fact, he argued that "philosophy would render us entirely pyrrhonian, were not nature too strong for it."[ ] as hume saw it, the real basis of human belief is not reason, but custom or habit. we are hard-wired by nature to trust, say, our memories or inductive reasoning, and no skeptical arguments, however powerful, can dislodge those beliefs. in this way, hume embraced what he called a "mitigated" skepticism, while rejecting an "excessive" pyrrhonian skepticism that he saw as both impractical and psychologically impossible. hume's skepticism provoked a number of important responses. hume's scottish contemporary, thomas reid ( – ), challenged hume's strict empiricism and argued that it is rational to accept "common-sense" beliefs such as the basic reliability of our senses, our reason, our memories, and inductive reasoning, even though none of these things can be proved. in reid's view, such common-sense beliefs are foundational and require no proof in order to be rationally justified.[ ] not long after hume's death, the great german philosopher immanuel kant ( – ) argued that human moral awareness makes no sense unless we reject hume's skeptical conclusions about the existence of god, the soul, free will, and an afterlife. according to kant, while hume was right to claim that we cannot strictly know any of these things, our moral experience entitles us to believe in them.[ ] today, skepticism continues to be a topic of lively debate among philosophers.[ ] religion[edit] main article: religious skepticism religious skepticism generally refers to doubting given religious beliefs or claims. historically, religious skepticism can be traced back to xenophanes, who doubted many religious claims of his time. modern religious skepticism typically emphasizes scientific and historical methods or evidence, with michael shermer writing that skepticism is a process for discovering the truth rather than general non-acceptance.[clarification needed] for example, a religious skeptic might believe that jesus existed while questioning claims that he was the messiah or performed miracles (see historicity of jesus). religious skepticism is not the same as atheism or agnosticism, though these often do involve skeptical attitudes toward religion and philosophical theology (for example, towards divine omnipotence). religious people are generally skeptical about claims of other religions, at least when the two denominations conflict concerning some stated belief. additionally, they may also be skeptical of the claims made by atheists.[ ] the historian will durant writes that plato was "as skeptical of atheism as of any other dogma". the baháʼí faith also encourages scepticism, mainly centred around self investigation of truth.[ ] science[edit] main article: skeptical movement § scientific skepticism a scientific or empirical skeptic is one who questions beliefs on the basis of scientific understanding and empirical evidence. scientific skepticism may discard beliefs pertaining to purported phenomena not subject to reliable observation and thus not systematic or testable empirically. most scientists, being scientific skeptics, test the reliability of certain kinds of claims by subjecting them to a systematic investigation using some type of the scientific method.[ ] as a result, a number of claims are considered as "pseudoscience", if they are found to improperly apply or ignore the fundamental aspects of the scientific method. auditing[edit] professional skepticism is an important concept in auditing. it requires an auditor to have a "questioning mind", to make a critical assessment of evidence, and to consider the sufficiency of the evidence.[ ] see also[edit] 	a brief history of disbelief – -part pbs series ( ) 	critical thinking 	debunker (one who exposes claims as being false) 	denialism 	doubt 	richard popkin 	pseudoskepticism 	scientific skepticism 	scientism 	trivialism (opposite of skepticism) 	transactionalism 	list of topics characterized as pseudoscience 	the skeptic (uk magazine), founded by wendy m. grossman, examines secularism and the paranormal 	committee for skeptical inquiry, a non-profit organization to encourage the investigation of paranormal and fringe-science 	skeptical inquirer, magazine published by the committee for skeptical inquiry 	the skeptics society, a nonprofit organization devoted to resisting the spread of pseudoscience, superstition, and irrational beliefs 	skeptic (u.s. magazine), magazine of the skeptics society 	skepticality, a biweekly podcast of the us skeptics society's skeptic magazine 	the skeptic's dictionary, a collection of essays by robert todd carroll 	skeptical movement, a movement based on scientific skepticism, a term introduced by carl sagan 	skeptics in the pub, a social meet-up group 	the amaz!ng meeting, an annual conference on science, skepticism, and critical thinking 	climate change denial is often mislabeled as skepticism notes[edit] 	^ popkin, r. h. "the history of skepticism from erasmus to descartes (rev. ed. ); c. l. stough, greek skepticism ( ); m. burnyeat, ed., the skeptical tradition ( ); b. stroud, the significance of philosophical skepticism ( )". encyclopedia .thefreedictionary.com. 	^ "philosophical views are typically classed as skeptical when they involve advancing some degree of doubt regarding claims that are elsewhere taken for granted." utm.edu 	^ greco, john ( ). the oxford handbook of skepticism. oxford university press, us. isbn  . 	^ "definition of skepticism". www.merriam-webster.com. retrieved february . 	^ matilal , pp.  – . sfn error: no target: citerefmatilal (help) 	^ diogenes laërtius (tr. hicks, ), ix. . see also bakalis ( , p. ) 	^ w. t. jones, a history of western philosophy. new york: harcourt, brace, , p. n. . 	^ richard h. popkin, "skepticism", in paul edwards, ed., the encyclopedia of philosophy, vol. . new york: macmillan, , p. . 	^ allan hazlett, a critical introduction to skepticism. london: bloomsbury, , p. - . 	^ popkin, "skepticism", p. . 	^ richard h. popkin, the history of skepticism from erasmus to spinoza, rev. ed. berkeley: university of california press, , chaps and . 	^ see, e.g., popkin, the history of skepticism, p. . 	^ quoted in popkin, "skepticism", p. . 	^ popkin, "skepticism", p. . 	^ popkin, "skepticism", p. . 	^ see, e.g., john greco, ed., the oxford handbook of skepticism. new york: oxford university press, . 	^ mann, daniel. "skeptical of atheism". apologetics for today. retrieved december . 	^ smith, peter ( ). a concise encyclopedia of the baháʼí faith. oxford, uk: oneworld publications. pp.  – . isbn  - - - . 	^ "scientific skepticism, csicop, and the local groups – csi". www.csicop.org. retrieved july . 	^ "au due professional care in the performance of work". pcaobus.org. retrieved april . sources[edit] 	a greek-english lexicon, henry george liddell and robert scott, revised and augmented throughout by sir henry stuart jones, with the assistance of roderick mckenzie, clarendon press, oxford, uk, . online, perseus.tufts.edu. 	butchvarov, panayot, skepticism about the external world (oxford university press, ). 	daniels, m.d., d.; price, phd, v. ( ), the essential enneagram, new york: harpercollins 	richard hönigswald, die skepsis in philosophie und wissenschaft, , new edition (ed. and introduction by christian benne and thomas schirren), göttingen: edition ruprecht, , isbn  - - - - 	keeton, morris t., "skepticism", pp.  – in dagobert d. runes (ed.), dictionary of philosophy, littlefield, adams, and company, totowa, nj, . 	le morvan, p. (march ). "healthy skepticism and practical wisdom" (pdf). logos & episteme. institute for economic and social research. ( ): – . doi: . /logos-episteme . issn  - . archived (pdf) from the original on september . 	webster's new international dictionary of the english language, second edition, unabridged, w.a. neilson, t.a. knott, p.w. carhart (eds.), g. & c. merriam company, springfield, ma, . further reading[edit] 	wilson, richard ( ). don't get fooled again: a sceptic's handbook. icon. isbn  . 	popkin, richard h. ( ). the history of scepticism : from savonarola to bayle. oxford university press, us. isbn  . 	bury, robert gregg ( ). sextus empiricus: outlines of pyrrhonism. harvard university press. isbn  . 	empiricus, sextus; annas, julia; barnes, jonathan ( july ). sextus empiricus: outlines of scepticism. cambridge university press. isbn  . 	burnyeat, myles ( ). the skeptical tradition. university of california press. isbn  . 	rosa l; rosa e; sarner l; barrett s ( april ). "a close look at therapeutic touch". jama. ( ): – . doi: . /jama. . . . issn  - . pmid  . 	novella, steven ( ). the skeptics' guide to the universe: how to know what's really real in a world increasingly full of fake. hodder & stoughton. isbn  . external links[edit] 		look up skepticism in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: skepticism 		wikimedia commons has media related to skepticism. 	skepticism at philpapers 	skepticism at the indiana philosophy ontology project 	klein, peter. "skepticism". in zalta, edward n. (ed.). stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. 	vogt, katja. "ancient greek skepticism". in zalta, edward n. (ed.). stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. 	thorsrud, harald. "ancient greek skepticism". internet encyclopedia of philosophy. 	bolyard, charles. "medieval skepticism". in zalta, edward n. (ed.). stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. 	pritchard, duncan. "contemporary skepticism". internet encyclopedia of philosophy. 	skeptical inquiry at curlie 	"most scientific papers are probably wrong", new scientist, august 	classical skepticism by peter suber 	"outstanding skeptics of the th century" – skeptical inquirer magazine 	links to related articles 	 	 	v 	t 	e analytic philosophy 	related articles	 	areas of focus	 	epistemology 	language 	mathematics 	science 	turns	 	aretaic 	linguistic 	logic	 	classical 	mathematical 	non-classical 	philosophical 	theories	 	anti-realism 	australian realism 	descriptivist theory of names 	emotivism 	functionalism 	analytical feminism 	logical atomism 	logical positivism 	analytical marxism 	neopragmatism 	neurophilosophy 	ordinary language 	quietism 	scientific structuralism 	sense data 	concepts	 	analysis (paradox of analysis) 	analytic–synthetic distinction 	counterfactual 	natural kind 	reflective equilibrium 	supervenience 	modality	 	actualism 	necessity 	possibility 	possible world 	realism 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trust) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		loyalty placed where it is not respected or to an unworthy cause 	 	this article is written like a personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay that states a wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic. please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (december ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) misplaced loyalty (or mistaken loyalty, misguided loyalty or misplaced trust) is loyalty placed in other persons or organisations where that loyalty is not acknowledged or respected; is betrayed or taken advantage of. it can also mean loyalty to a malignant or misguided cause. social psychology provides a partial explanation for the phenomenon in the way "[t]he norm of social commitment directs us to honor our agreements. [...] people usually stick to the deal even though it has changed for the worse".[ ] humanists[who?] point out that "[m]an inherits the capacity for loyalty, but not the use to which he shall put it [...] may unselfishly devote himself to what is petty or vile, as he may to what is generous and noble".[ ] contents 	 in the family 	 institutional 	 in analytic controversy 	 historical 	 literary 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links in the family[edit] part of the conventional therapeutic wisdom is 'that those of us who were unlucky enough to be raised by bad parents also get to be burdened as adults by their demands...we maintain a sense of misguided loyalty'.[ ] under the rubric - 'misplaced loyalty: the codependency factor'[ ] - the self-help movement would strongly challenge such loyalty: 'in either individual therapy or self-help groups, the goal is to seek out and replace our misguided loyalty and attachment to our failed parents with attachment to healthier peers'.[ ] psychoanalysis would highlight the accompanying paradox that 'the child, it should be remembered, always defends the bad parent more ferociously than the good'.[ ] the paradox may help account for what have been called 'trauma bonds...the misplaced loyalties found in exploitive cults, incest families, or hostage and kidnapping situations, or codependents who live with alcoholics, compulsive gamblers or sex addicts'.[ ] institutional[edit] 'institutions develop powerful instruments of defence for their protection and perpetuation...develop misguided loyalty to committee and boards. to criticize forcibly rather than to cover up is to rock the boat'.[ ][ ] similarly, there are 'examples where misguided loyalty on the part of a business owner or manager has led to a decline in a business's performance'.[ ] sometimes, however, institutions are torn by conflicting codes of loyalty. thus in the police, in-force loyalty, which 'has sometimes caused officers to lie and cheat on behalf of others...is now regarded as misplaced loyalty': in partial palliation, 'it must be understood that this "looking after one's mates" is a critical element of loyalty for those who face combat'.[ ] in analytic controversy[edit] the charge of misplaced loyalty is often used as a weapon in analytic disputes. lacan for example criticised ernest kris for the way 'he accredits this interpretation to "ego psychology" à la hartmann, whom he believed he was under some obligation to support'.[ ] similarly, neville symington's 'criticism of melanie klein is that...she maintained the concept of the death instinct in order to remain loyal to freud's instinct theory, but it only muddles her otherwise clear formulations'.[ ] historical[edit] 	'the spartans' behaviour at thermopylae' might be seen as misplaced loyalty, or at least as 'an overriding commitment and loyalty to the good and the absolutely overriding dictates of the state'[ ] — as an instance when 'unreasoning obedience to a noble but narrow ideal received its logical reward'.[ ] 	it has been suggested that part of the military problems of the confederacy came from the way the president, jefferson davis, 'had a propensity for meddling with commands and a strong but misplaced confidence in lesser men like...braxton bragg and beauregard'.[ ] literary[edit] 	"when my love swears that she is made of truth i do believe her, though i know she lies" shakespeare's sonnet .[ ] 	c. s. lewis in his wartime novel that hideous strength had the following exchange: '"there's such a thing as loyalty", said jane. mcphee...suddenly looked up with a hundred covenanters in his eyes. "there is, ma'am", he said. "as you get older you will learn that it is a virtue too important to be lavished on individual personalities"'.[ ] 	on his last day in the c.i.d., john rebus reflects guiltily that from his first day in the c.i.d. he had learnt that '"there's only two teams - us and them ... you covered for mates who'd had too many whiskies with lunch...or gone a bit too far on an arrest...prisoners falling downstairs or stumbling into walls...you covered for everybody on your team'.[ ] see also[edit] 	authority bias 	code of silence 	omertà – southern italian code of honor and silence 	perceived organizational support 	perceived psychological contract violation – belief that one's employer has broken promises 	trust 	whistleblower – person who tells the public or someone in authority about alleged dishonest or illegal activities 	stockholm syndrome – psychological condition references[edit] 	^ e. r. smith/d. m. mackie, social psychology ( ) p. 	^ arthur james balfour, theism and humanism ( ) p. 	^ marcia sirota, "misguided loyalty toward hurtful parents" 	^ j. middleton-moz/l. dwinnell, after the tears ( ) p. 	^ david p celaric, leaving home ( ) p. 	^ adam phillips, on flirtation (london ) p. 	^ patrick carnes, the betrayal bond ( ) p. 	^ gittins, diana ( ), "the corridor of power - the s: russell barton", in gittins, diana (ed.), madness in its place: narratives of severalls hospital, - , london new york: routledge, pp.  – , isbn  	^ wilmshurst, peter. "dishonesty in medical research" (pdf). pmid  . archived from the original (pdf) on - - . cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ michael h. shenkman, the strategic heart ( ) p. xiii 	^ roger f. peters, police under pressure ( ) p. 	^ jacques lacan, ecrits: a selection (london ) p. 	^ neville symington, narcissism: a new theory (london ) p. 	^ paul cartledge, thermopylae ( ) p. 	^ e. b. castle, ancient education and today ( ) p. 	^ r. b. nye/j. e. morpurgo, a history of the united states vol (penguin ) p. 	^ w. g. ingram/t redpath eds, shakespeare's sonnets (london ) p. 	^ c. s. lewis, that hideous strength (london [ ]) p. 	^ ian rankin, exit music (london ) p. further reading[edit] 	ashe j misplaced loyalty ( ) 	fancher mp misplaced loyalty: why us-born africans don't believe they are africans anymore ( ) 	frost g loyalty misplaced misdirected virtue and social disintegration ( ) 	frost g dangerous attachments: the social costs of misplaced loyalty 	hamlet - misplaced loyalty discussion on the misplaced loyalty of hamlet regarding guildenstern/rosencrantz, the monarchy and claudius. 	long ml misplaced loyalty ( ) 	winslow d misplaced loyalties: the role of military culture in the breakdown of discipline in two peace operations external links[edit] 	'misplaced' loyalty to banks is bad for economy retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=misplaced_loyalty&oldid= " 		categories: 	ethical principles 	interpersonal relationships hidden categories: 	cs errors: missing periodical 	articles with short description 	short description with empty wikidata description 	wikipedia articles with style issues from december 	all articles with style issues 	all articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases 	articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from january 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 social actions - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	social actions 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from social action) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		"social action" redirects here. for the italian political party, see social action party. not to be confused with action theory (sociology). in sociology,[ ] social action, also known as weberian social action, is an act which takes into account the actions and reactions of individuals (or 'agents'). according to max weber, "an action is 'social' if the acting individual takes account of the behavior of others and is thereby oriented in its course". contents 	 max weber 	 types 	 see also 	 further reading 	 references max weber[edit] the basic concept was primarily developed in the non-positivist theory of max weber to observe how human behaviors relate to cause and effect in the social realm. for weber, sociology is the study of society and behavior and must therefore look at the heart of interaction. the theory of social action, more than structural functionalist positions, accepts and assumes that humans vary their actions according to social contexts and how it will affect other people; when a potential reaction is not desirable, the action is modified accordingly. action can mean either a basic action (one that has a meaning) or an advanced social action, which not only has a meaning but is directed at other actors and causes action (or, perhaps, inaction). [sociology is] ... the science whose object is to interpret the meaning of social action and thereby give a causal explanation of the way in which the action proceeds and the effects which it produces. by 'action' in this definition is meant the human behavior when and to the extent that the agent or agents see it as subjectively meaningful ... the meaning to which we refer may be either (a) the meaning actually intended either by an individual agent on a particular historical occasion or by a number of agents on an approximate average in a given set of cases, or (b) the meaning attributed to the agent or agents, as types, in a pure type constructed in the abstract. in neither case is the 'meaning' to be thought of as somehow objectively 'correct' or 'true' by some metaphysical criterion. this is the difference between the empirical sciences of action, such as sociology and history, and any kind of priori discipline, such as jurisprudence, logic, ethics, or aesthetics whose aim is to extract from their subject-matter 'correct' or 'valid' meaning. — max weber the nature of social action , [ ] the term is more practical and encompassing than florian znaniecki's "social phenomena", since the individual performing social action is not passive, but rather active and reactive. although weber himself used the word 'agency', in modern social science this term is often appropriated with a given acceptance of weberian conceptions of social action, unless a work intends to make the direct allusion. similarly, 'reflexivity' is commonly used as a shorthand to refer to the circular relationship of cause and effect between structure and agency which weber was integral in hypothesising. types[edit] 	rational actions (also known as value-rational actions, wertrational): actions which are taken because it leads to a valued goal, but with no thought of its consequences and often without consideration of the appropriateness of the means chosen to achieve it ('the end justifies the means'). value rational or instrumentally rational social action is divided into two groups: rational consideration and rational orientation. rational consideration is when secondary results are taken into account rationally. this is also considered alternative means when secondary consequences have ended. determining this mean of action is quite hard and even incompatible. rational orientation is being able to recognize and understand certain mediums under common conditions. according to weber, heterogeneous actors and groups that are competing, find it hard to settle on a certain medium and understand the common social action; 	instrumental action (also known as value relation, instrumentally rational, goal-instrumental ones, zweckrational): actions which are planned and taken after evaluating the goal in relation to other goals, and after thorough consideration of various means (and consequences) to achieve it. an example would be a high school student preparing for life as a lawyer. the student knows that in order to get into college, they must take the appropriate tests and fill out the proper forms to get into college and then do well in college in order to get into law school and ultimately realize their goal of becoming a lawyer. if the student chooses not to do well in college, they know that it will be difficult to get into law school and ultimately achieve the goal of being a lawyer. thus the student must take the appropriate steps to reach the ultimate goal. another example would be most economic transactions. value relation is divided into the subgroups commands and demands. according to the law, people are given commands and must use the whole system of private laws to break down the central government or domination in the legal rights in which a citizen possess. demands can be based on justice or human dignity just for morality. these demands have posed several problems even legal formalism has been put to the test. these demands seem to weigh on the society and at times can make them feel immoral.[ ] the rational choice approach to religion draws a close analogy between religion and the market economy. religious firms compete against one another to offer religious products and services to consumers, who choose between the firms. to the extent that there are many religious firms competing against each other, they will tend to specialize and cater to the particular needs of some segments of religious consumers. this specialization and catering in turn increase the number of religious consumers actively engaged in the religious economy. this proposition has been confirmed in a number of empirical studies. it is well known that strict churches are strong and growing in the contemporary united states, whereas liberal ones are declining. for iannaccone's religious experience is a jointly produced collective good. thus members of a church face a collective action problem. strict churches, which often impose costly and esoteric requirements on their members, are able to solve this problem by weeding out potential free riders, since only the very committed would join the church in the face of such requirements. consistent with the notion that religious experience is a collective good, iannaccone et al. show that churches that extract more resources from their members (in the form of time and money) tend to grow in membership. 	affectual action (also known as emotional actions): actions which are taken due to 'one's emotions, to express personal feelings. for examples, cheering after a victory, crying at a funeral would be affective actions. affective is divided into two subgroups: uncontrolled reaction and emotional tension. in uncontrolled reaction there is no restraint and there is lack of discretion. a person with an uncontrolled reaction becomes less inclined to consider other peoples’ feelings as much as their own. emotional tension comes from a basic belief that a person is unworthy or powerless to obtain their deepest aspirations. when aspirations are not fulfilled there is internal unrest. it is often difficult to be productive in society because of the unfulfilled life. emotion is often neglected because of concepts at the core of exchange theory. a common example is behavioral and rational choice assumptions. from the behavioral view, emotions are often inseparable from punishments. emotion: emotions are one's feelings in response to a certain situation. there are six types of emotion: social emotions, counterfactual emotions, emotions generated by what may happen (often manifested as anxiety), emotions generated by joy and grief (examples found in responses typically seen when a student gets a good grade, and when a person is at a funeral, respectively), thought-triggered emotions (sometimes manifested as flashbacks), and finally emotions of love and disgust. all of these emotions are considered to be unresolved. there are six features that are used to define emotions: intentional objects, valence, cognitive antecedents, physiological arousal, action tendencies, and lastly physiological expressions. these six concepts were identified by aristotle and are still the topic of several talks. macro institutional theory of economic order: nicole biggart and thomas beamish have a slightly different approach to human habit then max weber. whereas weber believed economic organization is based on structures of material interest and ideas, institutional sociologist like biggart and beamish stress macro-institutional sources of arrangements of market capitalism. micrological theories of economy consider acts of a group of individuals. economic theory is based on the assumption that when the highest bidder succeeds the market clears. microeconomics theories believes that individuals are going to find the cheapest way to buy the things they need. by doing this it causes providers to be competitive and therefore creates order in the economy. 	rational choice theorists, on the other hand, believe that all social action is rationally motivated. rationality means that the actions taken are analyzed and calculated for the greatest amount of (self)-gain and efficiency. rational choice theory although increasingly colonized by economist, it does differ from microeconomic conceptions. yet rational choice theory can be similar to microeconomic arguments. rational choice assumes individuals to be egoistic and hyperrational although theorist mitigate these assumptions by adding variables to their models. 	traditional actions: actions which are carried out due to tradition, because they are always carried out in a particular manner for certain situations. an example would be putting on clothes or relaxing on sundays. some traditional actions can become a cultural artifact traditional is divided into two subgroups: customs and habit. a custom is a practice that rests among familiarity. it is continually perpetuated and is ingrained in a culture. customs usually last for generations. a habit is a series of steps learned gradually and sometimes without conscious awareness. as the old cliché goes, "old habits are hard to break" and new habits are difficult to form. 	social action models help explain social outcomes because of basic sociological ideas such as the looking glass self. the idea of cooley's looking glass self is that our sense of self develops as we observe and reflect upon others and what they may think of our actions. additionally, impression formation processes allow us to interpret the significance of others' actions. 	social actions and institutions model: an 'institution' consists of specialized roles and settings that are linked together semantically,[ ] with the complex typically being devoted to serving some function within society. in sociological hierarchy, social action is more advanced than behavior, action and social behavior, and is in turn followed by more advanced social contact, social interaction and social relation.[citation needed] see also[edit] 	society portal 	action theory (sociology) 	affectional action 	communicative action 	dramaturgy (sociology) 	group action (sociology) 	instrumental and value-rational action 	interpersonal relationship 	symbolic interactionism 	theory of structuration 	verstehen further reading[edit] 	secher, h. p. ( ), basic concepts in sociology. contributors: max weber, new york: citadel press, archived from the original on - - 	weber, max ( ), "the nature of social action.", runciman, w.g. 'weber: selections in translation', cambridge university press 	stark, rodney ( ), sociology, usa: thomson wadsworth, isbn  - - - - 	sciulli, david ( ), theory of societal constitutionalism: foundations of a non-marxist critical theory., cambridge university press, isbn  - - - - 	weber, max ( ), economy and society: an outline of interpretive sociology., usa: university of california press, isbn  - - - - 	gecas, viktor; schwalbe, m. l. ( ), "beyond the looking glass self: social structure and efficacy-based self-esteem", the scholarly journal archive, ( ): – , jstor  , pmid  	hedström, peter. “experimental macro sociology: predicting the next best seller” science/aaas. feb. . oct. 	society for organizational learning. personal mastery october 	habits october http://serendipstudio.org/bb/neuro/neuro /web /mmcgovern.html 	homans gc. . social behavior: its elementary forms. new york: harcourt brace oct. . 	frijda, nico h. the emotions. cambridge, cambridge university press. oct. 	stark r, bainbridge ws. . a theory of religion. new york: peter lang 	iannaccone lr. . sacrifice and stigma: reducing free-riding in cults, communes, and other collectivities. j. polit. econ. : – 	iannaccone lr. . why strict churches are strong. am. j. sociol. : – 	giddens, anthony. central problems in social theory: action, structure, and contradiction in social analysis 	atkinson, j. maxwell. liberalism and social action by john dewey, structures of social action (studies in emotion and social interaction) 	parsons, talcott ( ), the structure of social action: a study in social theory with special reference to a group of recent european writers, new york: free press references[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: social actions 	^ a b fadul, j. and estoque, r. a textbook for an introductory course in sociology. lulu press, . 	^ weber, max the nature of social action in runciman, w.g. 'weber: selections in translation' cambridge university press, . p. . 	^ mackinnon, neil j. and david r. heise. self, identity, and social institutions (palgrave, ), chapter retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=social_actions&oldid= " 		categories: 	sociological terminology 	max weber 	symbolic interactionism hidden categories: 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from september 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Български 	català 	deutsch 	español 	esperanto 	euskara 	فارسی 	français 	galego 	ગુજરાતી 	Հայերեն 	bahasa indonesia 	italiano 	日本語 	ਪੰਜਾਬੀ 	polski 	português 	Русский 	Српски / srpski 	Українська 	tiếng việt 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 social complexity - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	social complexity 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		in sociology, social complexity is a conceptual framework used in the analysis of society. contemporary definitions of complexity in the sciences are found in relation to systems theory, in which a phenomenon under study has many parts and many possible arrangements of the relationships between those parts. at the same time, what is complex and what is simple is relative and may change with time.[ ] current usage of the term "complexity" in the field of sociology typically refers specifically to theories of society as a complex adaptive system. however, social complexity and its emergent properties are central recurring themes throughout the historical development of social thought and the study of social change.[ ] the early founders of sociological theory, such as ferdinand tönnies, Émile durkheim, max weber, vilfredo pareto, and georg simmel, all examined the exponential growth and increasing interrelatedness of social encounters and exchanges. this emphasis on interconnectivity in social relationships and the emergence of new properties within society is found in theoretical thinking in multiple areas of sociology.[ ] as a theoretical tool, social complexity theory serves as a basis for the connection of micro- and macro-level social phenomena, providing a meso-level or middle-range theoretical platform for hypothesis formation.[ ][ ] methodologically, the concept of social complexity is theory-neutral, meaning that it accommodates both local (micro) and global (macro) phenomena in sociological research.[ ] contents 	 theoretical background 	 methodologies 	 . complex social network analysis 	 . computational sociology 	 . sociocybernetics 	 areas of application 	 see also 	 . social science 	 . general 	 references 	 further reading theoretical background[edit] illustration of complexity (penrose tiling fractal) the american sociologist talcott parsons carried on the work of the early founders mentioned above in his early ( ) work on action theory.[ ] by , parsons places these earlier ideas firmly into the realm of formal systems theory in the social system.[ ] for the next several decades, this synergy between general systems thinking and the further development of social system theories is carried forward by parson's student, robert k. merton, and a long line of others, in discussions of theories of the middle-range and social structure and agency. during part of this same period, from the late s through the early s, discussion ensues in any number of other research areas about the properties of systems in which strong correlation of sub-parts leads to observed behaviors variously described as autopoetic, self-organizing, dynamical, turbulent, and chaotic. all of these are forms of system behavior arising from mathematical complexity. by the early s, the work of social theorists such as niklas luhmann[ ] began reflecting these themes of complex behavior. one of the earliest usages of the term "complexity", in the social and behavioral sciences, to refer specifically to a complex system is found in the study of modern organizations and management studies.[ ] however, particularly in management studies, the term often has been used in a metaphorical rather than in a qualitative or quantitative theoretical manner.[ ] by the mid- s, the "complexity turn"[ ] in social sciences begins as some of the same tools generally used in complexity science are incorporated into the social sciences. by , the international, electronic periodical, journal of artificial societies and social simulation, had been created. in the last several years, many publications have presented overviews of complexity theory within the field of sociology. within this body of work, connections also are drawn to yet other theoretical traditions, including constructivist epistemology and the philosophical positions of phenomenology, postmodernism and critical realism. methodologies[edit] methodologically, social complexity is theory-neutral, meaning that it accommodates both local and global approaches to sociological research.[ ] the very idea of social complexity arises out of the historical-comparative methods of early sociologists; obviously, this method is important in developing, defining, and refining the theoretical construct of social complexity. as complex social systems have many parts and there are many possible relationships between those parts, appropriate methodologies are typically determined to some degree by the research level of analysis differentiated[ ] by the researcher according to the level of description or explanation demanded by the research hypotheses. at the most localized level of analysis, ethnographic, participant- or non-participant observation, content analysis and other qualitative research methods may be appropriate. more recently, highly sophisticated quantitative research methodologies are being developed and used in sociology at both local and global levels of analysis. such methods include (but are not limited to) bifurcation diagrams, network analysis, non-linear modeling, and computational models including cellular automata programming, sociocybernetics and other methods of social simulation. complex social network analysis[edit] main article: dynamic network analysis complex social network analysis is used to study the dynamics of large, complex social networks. dynamic network analysis brings together traditional social network analysis, link analysis and multi-agent systems within network science and network theory.[ ] through the use of key concepts and methods in social network analysis, agent-based modeling, theoretical physics, and modern mathematics (particularly graph theory and fractal geometry), this method of inquiry brought insights into the dynamics and structure of social systems. new computational methods of localized social network analysis are coming out of the work of duncan watts, albert-lászló barabási, nicholas a. christakis, kathleen carley and others. new methods of global network analysis are emerging from the work of john urry and the sociological study of globalization, linked to the work of manuel castells and the later work of immanuel wallerstein. since the late s, wallerstein increasingly makes use of complexity theory, particularly the work of ilya prigogine.[ ][ ][ ] dynamic social network analysis is linked to a variety of methodological traditions, above and beyond systems thinking, including graph theory, traditional social network analysis in sociology, and mathematical sociology. it also links to mathematical chaos and complex dynamics through the work of duncan watts and steven strogatz, as well as fractal geometry through albert-lászló barabási and his work on scale-free networks. computational sociology[edit] main article: computational sociology the development of computational sociology involves such scholars as nigel gilbert, klaus g. troitzsch, joshua m. epstein, and others. the foci of methods in this field include social simulation and data-mining, both of which are sub-areas of computational sociology. social simulation uses computers to create an artificial laboratory for the study of complex social systems; data-mining uses machine intelligence to search for non-trivial patterns of relations in large, complex, real-world databases. the emerging methods of socionics are a variant of computational sociology.[ ][ ] computational sociology is influenced by a number of micro-sociological areas as well as the macro-level traditions of systems science and systems thinking. the micro-level influences of symbolic interaction, exchange, and rational choice, along with the micro-level focus of computational political scientists, such as robert axelrod, helped to develop computational sociology's bottom-up, agent-based approach to modeling complex systems. this is what joshua m. epstein calls generative science.[ ] other important areas of influence include statistics, mathematical modeling and computer simulation. sociocybernetics[edit] main article: sociocybernetics sociocybernetics integrates sociology with second-order cybernetics and the work of niklas luhmann, along with the latest advances in complexity science. in terms of scholarly work, the focus of sociocybernetics has been primarily conceptual and only slightly methodological or empirical.[ ] sociocybernetics is directly tied to systems thought inside and outside of sociology, specifically in the area of second-order cybernetics. areas of application[edit] in the first decade of the st century, the diversity of areas of application has grown[ ] as more sophisticated methods have developed. social complexity theory is applied in studies of social cooperation and public goods;[ ] altruism;[ ] voting behavior;[ ][ ] education;[ ] global civil society [ ] and global civil unrest;[ ] collective action and social movements;[ ][ ] social inequality;[ ] workforce and unemployment;[ ][ ] economic geography and economic sociology;[ ] policy analysis;[ ][ ] health care systems;[ ] and innovation and social change,[ ][ ] to name a few. a current international scientific research project, the seshat: global history databank, was explicitly designed to analyze changes in social complexity from the neolithic revolution until the industrial revolution. as a middle-range theoretical platform, social complexity can be applied to any research in which social interaction or the outcomes of such interactions can be observed, but particularly where they can be measured and expressed as continuous or discrete data points. one common criticism often cited regarding the usefulness of complexity science in sociology is the difficulty of obtaining adequate data.[ ] nonetheless, application of the concept of social complexity and the analysis of such complexity has begun and continues to be an ongoing field of inquiry in sociology. from childhood friendships and teen pregnancy[ ] to criminology[ ] and counter-terrorism,[ ] theories of social complexity are being applied in almost all areas of sociological research. in the area of communications research and informetrics, the concept of self-organizing systems appears in mid- s research related to scientific communications.[ ] scientometrics and bibliometrics are areas of research in which discrete data are available, as are several other areas of social communications research such as sociolinguistics.[ ] social complexity is also a concept used in semiotics.[ ] see also[edit] 	 social science[edit] 	complex society 	complexity economics 	complexity theory and organizations 	differentiation (sociology) 	econophysics 	engaged theory 	network analysis and ethnographic problems 	personal information management 	 	society portal 	systems science portal general[edit] 	aggregate data 	artificial neural network 	cognitive complexity 	computational complexity theory 	dual-phase evolution 	evolutionary programming 	game theory 	generic-case complexity 	multi-agent system 	systemography references[edit] 	^ waldrop, m. mitchell ( .) complexity: the emerging science at the edge of order and chaos. new york, ny: simon & schuster. 	^ a b c d e f eve, raymond, sara horsfall and mary e. lee (eds.) ( ). chaos, complexity and sociology: myths, models, and theories. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. 	^ giddens, anthony ( ). central problems in social theory: action, structure and contradiction in social analysis. london: macmillan. 	^ freese, lee ( ). "formal theorizing." annual review of sociology, : – (august ). 	^ cohen, b. p. ( ). developing sociological knowledge: theory and method ( nd ed.). chicago: nelson–hall. 	^ parsons, talcott ([ ] ). the structure of social action: a study in social theory with special reference to a group of european writers. new york, ny: the free press. 	^ parsons, talcott ( ). the social system. new york, ny: the free press 	^ luhmann, niklas ( .) essays on self-reference, new york: columbia university press. 	^ kiel, l. douglas ( ). managing chaos and complexity in government: a new paradigm for managing change, innovation and organizational renewal. jossey-bass: san francisco. 	^ urry, john ( ). "the complexity turn." theory, culture and society, ( ): – . 	^ luhmann, niklas ( ). the differentiation of society. new york, ny: columbia university press. 	^ carley, kathleen m. ( ), "dynamic network analysis." dynamic social network modeling and analysis: workshop summary and papers, ronald breiger, kathleen carley, and philippa pattison (eds.), national research council (committee on human factors): washington, d.c.: – . 	^ barabási, albert-lászló ( ). linked: the new science of networks. cambridge, ma: perseus publishing. 	^ freeman, linton c. ( ). the development of social network analysis: a study in the sociology of science. vancouver canada: empirical press. 	^ watts, duncan j. ( ). "the new science of networks." annual review of sociology, : – . 	^ gilbert, nigel and klaus g. troitzsch ( ). simulation for social scientists, nd edition. new york, ny: open university press. 	^ a b epstein, joshua m. ( ). generative social science: studies in agent-based computational modeling. princeton, nj: princeton university press. 	^ geyer, felix and johannes van der zouwen ( ). "sociocybernetics." handbook of cybernetics, c.v. negoita (ed.): – . new york: marcel dekker. 	^ saberi, mohammad karim, alireza isfandyari-moghaddam and sedigheh mohamadesmaeil ( ). "web citations analysis of the jasss: the first ten years." journal of artificial societies and social simulation, :( ), . 	^ nowak, martin and roger highfield ( ). super cooperators: altruism, evolution, and why we need each other to succeed. new york, ny: free press. 	^ hang, ye, fei tan, mei ding, yongmin jia and yefeng chen ( ). "sympathy and punishment: evolution of cooperation in public goods game." journal of artificial societies and social simulation, ( ): . 	^ braha, d., & de aguiar, m. a. ( ). voting contagion. arxiv preprint arxiv: . . 	^ braha, d., & de aguiar, m. a. ( ). voting contagion: modeling and analysis of a century of u.s. presidential elections. plos one ( ): e . https://doi.org/ . /journal.pone. 	^ mason, mark ( ). complexity theory and the philosophy of education. hoboken, nj: wiley-blackwell (educational philosophy and theory special issues). 	^ castellani, brian. ( ). "the defiance of global commitment: a complex social psychology. routledge complexity in social science series." doi: . / . 	^ braha, dan. ( ). "global civil unrest: contagion, self-organization, and prediction." plos one ( ): e . doi: . /journal.pone . . 	^ lohmann susanne ( ). "dynamics of informational cascades: the monday demonstrations in leipzig, east germany, – ," world politics, : – . 	^ chesters, graeme and ian welsh ( ). complexity and social movements: protest at the edge of chaos." london: routledge (international library of sociology). 	^ castellani, brian et al. ( ). "addressing the u.s. financial/housing crisis: pareto, schelling and social mobility."working paper. 	^ hedström, peter and yvonne Åberg ( ). "social interaction and youth unemployment." analytical sociology and social mechanisms, pierre demeulenaere (ed.). cambridge: cambridge university press. 	^ yilmaz, levent ( ). "toward multi-level, multi-theoretical model portfolios for scientific enterprise workforce dynamics." journal of artificial societies and social simulation, ( ): . 	^ dan braha, blake stacey and yaneer bar-yam. ( ). "corporate competition: a self-organizing network." social networks, ( ): - . 	^ jervis, robert ( ). system effects: complexity in political and social life. princeton, nj: princeton university press. 	^ elliott, euel and l. douglas kiel (eds.) ( ). nonlinear dynamics, complexity and public policy. hauppauge ny: nova science publishers. 	^ brian castellani, rajeev rajaram, j. galen buckwalter, michael ball and frederic hafferty ( ). "place and health as complex systems: a case study and empirical test". springerbriefs in public health. 	^ leydesdorff, loet ( ). the knowledge-based economy modeled, measured, simulated. boca raton, fl: universal-publishers . 	^ lane, d.; pumain, d.; leeuw, s.e. van der; west, g. (eds.) ( ). complexity perspectives in innovation and social change. new york, ny: springer (methodos series, vol. ). 	^ stewart, peter ( ). "complexity theories, social theory, and the question of social complexity." philosophy of the social sciences, ( ): – . 	^ lee, ju-sung. ( ). "evolving drug networks." carnegie mellon center for computational analysis of social and organizational systems (casos) conference presentation (unpublished). 	^ carley, kathleen ( ). "destabilizing terrorist networks." proceedings of the th international command and control research and technology symposium. conference held at the national defense war college: washington d.c., evidence based research, track . (electronic publication). archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ leydesdorff, loet ( ). the challenge of scientometrics: the development, measurement, and self-organization of scientific communications. leiden: dswo press, leiden university. 	^ dimitrov, vladimir and robert woog ( ). "studying social complexity: from soft to virtual systems methodology." complex systems, :( ). further reading[edit] 	byrne, david ( ). complexity theory and the social sciences. london: routledge. 	byrne, d., & callaghan, g. ( ). complexity theory and the social sciences: the state of the art. routledge. 	castellani, brian and frederic william hafferty ( ). sociology and complexity science: a new area of inquiry (series: understanding complex systems xv). berlin, heidelberg: springer-verlag. 	eve, raymond, sara horsfall and mary e. lee ( ). chaos, complexity and sociology: myths, models, and theories. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. 	jenks, chris and john smith ( ). qualitative complexity: ecology, cognitive processes and the re-emergence of structures in post-humanist social theory. new york, ny: routledge. 	kiel, l. douglas (ed.) ( ). knowledge management, organizational intelligence, learning and complexity. unesco (eolss): paris, france. 	kiel, l. douglas and euel elliott (eds.) ( ). chaos theory in the social sciences: foundations and applications. the university of michigan press: ann arbor, mi. 	leydesdorff, loet ( ). a sociological theory of communication: the self-organization of the knowledge-based society. parkland, fl: universal publishers. 	urry, john ( ). "the complexity turn." theory, culture and society, ( ): – . retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=social_complexity&oldid= " 		categories: 	complex systems theory 	self-organization 	nonlinear systems 	sociological theories 	sociological terminology hidden categories: 	webarchive template wayback links 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			español 	Русский 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 social constructionism - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	social constructionism 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from social constructs) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		theory that shared understandings of the world create shared assumptions about reality not to be confused with social constructivism. 	part of a series on 	sociology 	 	 	history 	outline 	index 	 theories 	conflict theory 	structural functionalism 	symbolic interactionism 	critical theory 	positivism 	social change 	social constructionism 	social movement theory 	 methods 	quantitative 	qualitative 	comparative 	computational 	ethnographic 	conversation analysis 	historical 	interview 	mathematical 	network analysis 	survey 	 subfields 	criminology 	culture 	demography 	development 	deviance 	economic 	education 	environmental 	family 	feminist 	gender 	health 	immigration 	industrial 	knowledge 	law 	literature 	medical 	military 	organizational 	political 	race and ethnicity 	religion 	rural 	science 	social anthropology 	social psychology in sociology 	sociolinguistics 	stratification 	technology 	terrorism 	urban 	 people 	Émile durkheim 	herbert spencer 	max weber 	friedrich engels 	auguste comte 	george herbert mead 	georg simmel 	w.e.b. du bois 	roland barthes 	ernest burgess 	michel foucault 	erving goffman 	antonio gramsci 	jürgen habermas 	thorstein veblen 	ferdinand tönnies 	william graham sumner 	 lists 	bibliography 	terminology 	journals 	organizations 	people 	timeline 	by country 	 	 society portal 		v 	t 	e social constructionism is a theory of knowledge in sociology and communication theory that examines the development of jointly-constructed understandings of the world that form the basis for shared assumptions about reality. the theory centers on the notion that meanings are developed in coordination with others rather than separately within each individual.[ ] social constructs can be different based on the society and the events surrounding the time period in which they exist.[ ] an example of a social construct is money or the concept of currency, as people in society have agreed to give it importance/value.[ ][ ] another example of a social construction is the concept of self/self-identity.[ ] charles cooley stated based on his looking-glass self theory: "i am not who you think i am; i am not who i think i am; i am who i think you think i am."[ ] this demonstrates how people in society construct ideas or concepts that may not exist without the existence of people or language to validate those concepts.[ ][ ] there are weak and strong social constructs.[ ] weak social constructs rely on brute facts (which are fundamental facts that are difficult to explain or understand, such as quarks) or institutional facts (which are formed from social conventions).[ ][ ] strong social constructs rely on the human perspective and knowledge that does not just exist, but is rather constructed by society.[ ] contents 	 definition 	 origins 	 applications 	 . personal construct psychology 	 . educational psychology 	 . systemic therapy 	 . crime 	 . communication studies 	 history and development 	 . berger and luckmann 	 . narrative turn 	 . postmodernism 	 criticisms 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 . books 	 . articles 	 external links definition[edit] a social construct or construction concerns the meaning, notion, or connotation placed on an object or event by a society, and adopted by the inhabitants of that society with respect to how they view or deal with the object or event.[ ] in that respect, a social construct as an idea would be widely accepted as natural by the society. a major focus of social constructionism is to uncover the ways in which individuals and groups participate in the construction of their perceived social reality. it involves looking at the ways social phenomena are developed, institutionalized, known, and made into tradition by humans. origins[edit] each person creates their own "constructed reality" that drives their behaviors. in or , friedrich nietzsche wrote that, "facts do not exist, only interpretations." in his book public opinion, walter lippmann said, "the real environment is altogether too big, too complex, and too fleeting for direct acquaintance" between people and their environment. each person constructs a pseudo-environment that is a subjective, biased, and necessarily abridged mental image of the world, and to a degree, everyone's pseudo-environment is a fiction. people "live in the same world, but they think and feel in different ones."[ ] lippman's "environment" might be called "reality", and his "pseudo-environment" seems equivalent to what today is called "constructed reality". social constructionism has more recently been rooted in "symbolic interactionism" and "phenomenology".[ ][ ] with berger and luckmann's the social construction of reality published in , this concept found its hold. more than four decades later, much theory and research pledged itself to the basic tenet that people "make their social and cultural worlds at the same time these worlds make them."[ ] it is a viewpoint that uproots social processes "simultaneously playful and serious, by which reality is both revealed and concealed, created and destroyed by our activities."[ ] it provides a substitute to the "western intellectual tradition" where the researcher "earnestly seeks certainty in a representation of reality by means of propositions."[ ] in social constructionist terms, "taken-for-granted realities" are cultivated from "interactions between and among social agents;" furthermore, reality is not some objective truth "waiting to be uncovered through positivist scientific inquiry."[ ] rather, there can be "multiple realities that compete for truth and legitimacy."[ ] social constructionism understands the "fundamental role of language and communication" and this understanding has "contributed to the linguistic turn" and more recently the "turn to discourse theory."[ ][ ] the majority of social constructionists abide by the belief that "language does not mirror reality; rather, it constitutes [creates] it."[ ] a broad definition of social constructionism has its supporters and critics in the organizational sciences.[ ] a constructionist approach to various organizational and managerial phenomena appear to be more commonplace and on the rise.[ ] andy lock and tomj strong trace some of the fundamental tenets of social constructionism back to the work of the th-century italian political philosopher, rhetorician, historian, and jurist giambattista vico.[ ] berger and luckmann give credit to max scheler as a large influence as he created the idea of sociology of knowledge which influenced social construction theory.[ ] according to lock and strong, other influential thinkers whose work has affected the development of social constructionism are: edmund husserl, alfred schutz, maurice merleau-ponty, martin heidegger, hans-georg gadamer, paul ricoeur, jürgen habermas, emmanuel levinas, mikhail bakhtin, valentin volosinov, lev vygotsky, george herbert mead, ludwig wittgenstein, gregory bateson, harold garfinkel, erving goffman, anthony giddens, michel foucault, ken gergen, mary gergen, rom harre, and john shotter.[ ] applications[edit] personal construct psychology[edit] since its appearance in the s, personal construct psychology (pcp) has mainly developed as a constructivist theory of personality and a system of transforming individual meaning-making processes, largely in therapeutic contexts.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] it was based around the notion of persons as scientists who form and test theories about their worlds. therefore, it represented one of the first attempts to appreciate the constructive nature of experience and the meaning persons give to their experience.[ ] social constructionism (sc), on the other hand, mainly developed as a form of a critique,[ ] aimed to transform the oppressing effects of the social meaning-making processes. over the years, it has grown into a cluster of different approaches,[ ] with no single sc position.[ ] however, different approaches under the generic term of sc are loosely linked by some shared assumptions about language, knowledge, and reality.[ ] a usual way of thinking about the relationship between pcp and sc is treating them as two separate entities that are similar in some aspects, but also very different in others. this way of conceptualizing this relationship is a logical result of the circumstantial differences of their emergence. in subsequent analyses these differences between pcp and sc were framed around several points of tension, formulated as binary oppositions: personal/social; individualist/relational; agency/structure; constructivist/constructionist.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] although some of the most important issues in contemporary psychology are elaborated in these contributions, the polarized positioning also sustained the idea of a separation between pcp and sc, paving the way for only limited opportunities for dialogue between them.[ ][ ] reframing the relationship between pcp and sc may be of use in both the pcp and the sc communities. on one hand, it extends and enriches sc theory and points to benefits of applying the pcp "toolkit" in constructionist therapy and research. on the other hand, the reframing contributes to pcp theory and points to new ways of addressing social construction in therapeutic conversations.[ ] educational psychology[edit] like social constructionism, social constructivism states that people work together to construct artifacts. while social constructionism focuses on the artifacts that are created through the social interactions of a group, social constructivism focuses on an individual's learning that takes place because of his or her interactions in a group. social constructivism has been studied by many educational psychologists, who are concerned with its implications for teaching and learning. for more on the psychological dimensions of social constructivism, see the work of ernst von glasersfeld and a. sullivan palincsar.[ ] systemic therapy[edit] systemic therapy is a form of psychotherapy which seeks to address people as people in relationship, dealing with the interactions of groups and their interactional patterns and dynamics.[citation needed] crime[edit] potter and kappeler ( ), in their introduction to constructing crime: perspective on making news and social problems wrote, "public opinion and crime facts demonstrate no congruence. the reality of crime in the united states has been subverted to a constructed reality as ephemeral as swamp gas."[ ] communication studies[edit] a bibliographic review of social constructionism as used within communication studies was published in . it features a good overview of resources from that disciplinary perspective[ ] the collection of essays published in galanes and leeds-hurwitz ( ) should also be useful to anyone interested in how social construction actually works during communication.[ ] this collection was the result of a conference held in , sponsored by the national communication association as a summer institute, entitled "catching ourselves in the act: a collaboration to enrich our discipline through social constructionist approaches." [ ] briefly, the basic assumption of the group was that "individuals jointly construct (create) their understandings of the world and the meanings they give to encounters with others, or various products others create. at the heart of the matter is the assumption that such meanings are constructed jointly, that is, in coordination with others, rather than individually. thus the term of choice most often is social construction."[ ] at that event, john stewart in his keynote presentation, suggested it was time to choose a single term among the set then common (social constructionist, social constructivism, social constructivist), and proposed using the simper form: social construction. those present at the conference agreed to that use, and so that is the term most often used in this book, and by communication scholars since then.[ ] during discussion at the conference, participants developed a common list of principles: 	 . communication is the process through which we construct and reconstruct social worlds. 	 . communication is constitutive; communication makes things. 	 . every action is consequential. 	 . we make things together. we construct the social worlds we share with others as relational beings. 	 . we perceive many social worlds existing simultaneously, and we continue to shape them. other people's social worlds may be different from ours. what we inherit is not our identity. 	 . no behavior conveys meaning in and of itself. contexts afford and constrain meanings. 	 . ethical implications and consequences derive from principles - .[ ] a survey of publications in communication relating to social construction in found that the major topics covered were: identity, language, narratives, organizations, conflict, and media. [ ] history and development[edit] berger and luckmann[edit] constructionism became prominent in the u.s. with peter l. berger and thomas luckmann's book, the social construction of reality. berger and luckmann argue that all knowledge, including the most basic, taken-for-granted common sense knowledge of everyday reality, is derived from and maintained by social interactions. when people interact, they do so with the understanding that their respective perceptions of reality are related, and as they act upon this understanding their common knowledge of reality becomes reinforced. since this common sense knowledge is negotiated by people, human typifications, significations and institutions come to be presented as part of an objective reality, particularly for future generations who were not involved in the original process of negotiation. for example, as parents negotiate rules for their children to follow, those rules confront the children as externally produced "givens" that they cannot change. berger and luckmann's social constructionism has its roots in phenomenology. it links to heidegger and edmund husserl through the teaching of alfred schutz, who was also berger's phd adviser.[citation needed] narrative turn[edit] during the s and s, social constructionist theory underwent a transformation as constructionist sociologists engaged with the work of michel foucault and others as a narrative turn in the social sciences was worked out in practice. this particularly affected the emergent sociology of science and the growing field of science and technology studies. in particular, karin knorr-cetina, bruno latour, barry barnes, steve woolgar, and others used social constructionism to relate what science has typically characterized as objective facts to the processes of social construction, with the goal of showing that human subjectivity imposes itself on those facts we take to be objective, not solely the other way around. a particularly provocative title in this line of thought is andrew pickering's constructing quarks: a sociological history of particle physics. at the same time, social constructionism shaped studies of technology – the sofield, especially on the social construction of technology, or scot, and authors as wiebe bijker, trevor pinch, maarten van wesel, etc.[ ][ ] despite its common perception as objective, mathematics is not immune to social constructionist accounts. sociologists such as sal restivo and randall collins, mathematicians including reuben hersh and philip j. davis, and philosophers including paul ernest have published social constructionist treatments of mathematics.[citation needed] postmodernism[edit] social constructionism can be seen[by whom?] as a source of the postmodern movement, and has been influential in the field of cultural studies. some[who?] have gone so far as to attribute the rise of cultural studies (the cultural turn) to social constructionism. within the social constructionist strand of postmodernism, the concept of socially constructed reality stresses the ongoing mass-building of worldviews by individuals in dialectical interaction with society at a time. the numerous realities so formed comprise, according to this view, the imagined worlds of human social existence and activity, gradually crystallized by habit into institutions propped up by language conventions, given ongoing legitimacy by mythology, religion and philosophy, maintained by therapies and socialization, and subjectively internalized by upbringing and education to become part of the identity of social citizens. in the book the reality of social construction, the british sociologist dave elder-vass places the development of social constructionism as one outcome of the legacy of postmodernism. he writes "perhaps the most widespread and influential product of this process [coming to terms with the legacy of postmodernism] is social constructionism, which has been booming [within the domain of social theory] since the s."[ ] criticisms[edit] critics have argued that social constructionism generally ignores the contribution made by physical and biological sciences. it equally denies or downplays to a significant extent the role that meaning and language have for each individual, seeking to configure language as an overall structure rather than an historical instrument used by individuals to communicate their personal experiences of the world. this is particularly the case with cultural studies, where personal and pre-linguistic experiences are disregarded as irrelevant or seen as completely situated and constructed by the socio-economical superstructure. as a theory, social constructionism particularly denies the influences of biology on behaviour and culture, or suggests that they are unimportant to achieve an understanding of human behaviour.[ ] the scientific consensus is that behaviour is a complex outcome of both biological and cultural influences.[ ][ ] in , to illustrate what he believed to be the intellectual weaknesses of social constructionism and postmodernism, physics professor alan sokal submitted an article to the academic journal social text deliberately written to be incomprehensible but including phrases and jargon typical of the articles published by the journal. the submission, which was published, was an experiment to see if the journal would "publish an article liberally salted with nonsense if (a) it sounded good and (b) it flattered the editors' ideological preconceptions."[ ] in , sokal, with coauthor jean bricmont published the book fashionable nonsense, which criticized postmodernism and social constructionism. philosopher paul boghossian has also written against social constructionism. he follows ian hacking's argument that many adopt social constructionism because of its potentially liberating stance: if things are the way that they are only because of our social conventions, as opposed to being so naturally, then it should be possible to change them into how we would rather have them be. he then states that social constructionists argue that we should refrain from making absolute judgements about what is true and instead state that something is true in the light of this or that theory. countering this, he states: but it is hard to see how we might coherently follow this advice. given that the propositions which make up epistemic systems are just very general propositions about what absolutely justifies what, it makes no sense to insist that we abandon making absolute particular judgements about what justifies what while allowing us to accept absolute general judgements about what justifies what. but in effect this is what the epistemic relativist is recommending.[ ] woolgar and pawluch[ ] argue that constructionists tend to 'ontologically gerrymander' social conditions in and out of their analysis. social constructionism has been criticized for having an overly narrow focus on society and culture as a causal factor in human behavior, excluding the influence of innate biological tendencies, by psychologists such as steven pinker in the blank slate[ ] as well as by asian studies scholar edward slingerland in what science offers the humanities.[ ] john tooby and leda cosmides used the term "standard social science model" to refer to social-science philosophies that they argue fail to take into account the evolved properties of the brain.[ ] see also[edit] 	society portal 	consensus reality 	construct (philosophy) 	constructivism (international relations) 	constructivist epistemology 	critical theory 	epochalism 	nominalism 	parametric determinism 	phenomenology (psychology) 	social construction of technology 	social epistemology references[edit] 	^ leeds-hurwitz, wendy ( ). 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"the situation of social constructionism: its imprisonment within the ritual of theory-criticism-and-debate". theory & psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ harré, r ( ). "public sources of the personal mind: social constructionism in context". theory & psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ stam, h.j. ( ). "introduction: social constructionism and its critiques". theory & psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ burr, v. ( ), an introduction to social constructionism. london, uk: routledge 	^ botella, l. ( ). personal construct psychology, constructivism and postmodern thought. in r.a. neimeyer & g.j. neimeyer (eds.), advances in personal construct psychology (vol. , pp. – ). greenwich, ct: jai press. 	^ burkitt, i ( ). "social and personal constructs: a division left unresolved". theory & psychology. : – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ burr, v. ( ). construing relationships: some thoughts on pcp and discourse. in a. thompson & p. cummins (eds.), european perspectives in personal construct psychology: selected papers from the inaugural conference of the epca (pp. – ). lincoln, uk: epca. 	^ butt, t.w. ( ). "social action and personal constructs". theory & psychology. : – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ mancuso, j ( ). "can an avowed adherent of personal-construct psychology be counted as a social constructions?". journal of constructivist psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ raskin, j.d. ( ). "constructivism in psychology: personal construct psychology, radical constructivism, and social constructionism". american communication journal. ( ): – . 	^ jelena pavlović ( may ). "personal construct psychology and social constructionism are not incompatible: implications of a reframing". theory & psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ a b pavlović, jelena ( may ). 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"social construction: moving from theory to research (and back again)". in galanes, gloria j.; leeds-hurwitz, wendy (eds.). socially constructing communication. cresskill, nj: hampton press. pp.  – . 	^ pinch, t. j. ( ). "the social construction of technology: a review". in fox, robert (ed.). technological change: methods and themes in the history of technology. psychology press. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ van wesel, maarten ( ). why we do not always get what we want: the power imbalance in the social shaping of technology (thesis). s cid  . 	^ dave elder-vass. .the reality of social construction. cambridge university press, 	^ sokal, a., & bricmont, j. ( ). fashionable nonsense: postmodern intellectuals' abuse of science. ny: picador.[page needed] 	^ "beyond nature vs. nurture". the scientist magazine. 	^ ridly, m. ( ). the agile gene: how nature turns on nurture. ny: harper.[page needed] 	^ sokal, alan d. (may ). "a physicist experiments with cultural studies". lingua franca. retrieved april . 	^ paul boghossian, fear of knowledge: against relativism and conmstructivism, oxford university press, , pp, hb/pb, isbn  - - -x.[page needed] 	^ woolgar, steve; pawluch, dorothy (february ). "ontological gerrymandering: the anatomy of social problems explanations". social problems. ( ): – . doi: . /sp. . . . a . 	^ pinker, steven ( ). the blank slate: the modern denial of human nature. penguin books. isbn  . 	^ slingerland, edward ( ). what science offers the humanities. cambridge university press. isbn  . [page needed] 	^ barkow, j., cosmides, l. & tooby, j. . the adapted mind: evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture. oxford: oxford university press.[page needed] further reading[edit] books[edit] 	boghossian, p. fear of knowledge: against relativism and constructivism. oxford university press, . online review: http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/ /?id= 	berger, p. l. and luckmann, t., the social construction of reality : a treatise in the sociology of knowledge (anchor, ; isbn  - - - ). 	best, j. images of issues: typifying contemporary social problems, new york: gruyter, 	burr, v. social constructionism, nd ed. routledge . 	ellul, j. propaganda: the formation of men's attitudes. trans. konrad kellen & jean lerner. new york: knopf, . new york: random house/ vintage 	ernst, p., ( ), social constructivism as a philosophy of mathematics; albany, new york: state university of new york press 	galanes, g. j., & leeds-hurwitz, w. (eds.). socially constructing communication. cresskill, nj: hampton press, . 	gergen, k., an invitation to social construction. los angeles: sage, ( d edition, first ). 	glasersfeld, e. von, radical constructivism: a way of knowing and learning. london: routledgefalmer, .* hacking, i., the social construction of what? cambridge: harvard university press, ; isbn  - - -x 	hibberd, f. j., unfolding social constructionism. new york: springer, . isbn  - - - 	kukla, a., social constructivism and the philosophy of science, london: routledge, . isbn  - - - , isbn  - - - - 	lowenthal, p., & muth, r. constructivism. in e. f. provenzo, jr. (ed.), encyclopedia of the social and cultural foundations of education (pp.  – ). thousand oaks, ca: sage, . 	mcnamee, s. and gergen, k. (eds.). therapy as social construction. london: sage, isbn  - - - . 	mcnamee, s. and gergen, k. relational responsibility: resources for sustainable dialogue. thousand oaks, california: sage, . isbn  - - - . 	penman, r. reconstructing communicating. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum, . 	poerksen, b. the certainty of uncertainty: dialogues introducing constructivism. exeter: imprint-academic, . 	restivo, s. and croissant, j., "social constructionism in science and technology studies" (handbook of constructionist research, ed. j.a. holstein & j.f. gubrium) guilford, ny , – ; isbn  - - - - 	schmidt, s. j., histories and discourses: rewriting constructivism. exeter: imprint-academic, . 	searle, j., the construction of social reality. new york: free press, ; isbn  - - - . 	shotter, j. conversational realities: constructing life through language. thousand oaks, ca: sage, . 	stewart, j., zediker, k. e., & witteborn, s. together: communicating interpersonally – a social construction approach ( th ed). los angeles, ca: roxbury, . 	weinberg, d. contemporary social constructionism: key themes. philadelphia, pa: temple university press, . 	willard, c. a., liberalism and the problem of knowledge: a new rhetoric for modern democracy chicago: university of chicago press, ; isbn  - - - . 	wilson, d. s. ( ), "evolutionary social constructivism". in j. gottshcall and d. s. wilson, (eds.), the literary animal: evolution and the nature of narrative. evanston, il, northwestern university press; isbn  - - - . full text articles[edit] 	drost, alexander. "borders. a narrative turn – reflections on concepts, practices and their communication", in: olivier mentz and tracey mckay (eds.), unity in diversity. european perspectives on borders and memories, berlin , pp.  – . 	kitsuse, john i.; spector, malcolm (april ). "toward a sociology of social problems: social conditions, value-judgments, and social problems". social problems. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	mallon, r, "naturalistic approaches to social construction", the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, edward n. zalta (ed.). 	metzner-szigeth, andreas ( ). "constructions of environmental issues in scientific and public discourse". figshare. doi: . /m .figshare. . cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	shotter, j., & gergen, k. j., social construction: knowledge, self, others, and continuing the conversation. in s. a. deetz (ed.), communication yearbook, (pp. - ). thousand oaks, ca: sage, . external links[edit] 	library resources about social constructionism 	 	resources in your library 	resources in other libraries 		look up social constructionism in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: social constructionism 	 	v 	t 	e social and political philosophy 	ancient philosophers	 	aristotle 	chanakya 	cicero 	confucius 	han fei 	lactantius 	laozi 	mencius 	mozi 	origen 	plato 	polybius 	shang 	socrates 	sun tzu 	tertullian 	thucydides 	valluvar 	xenophon 	xunzi 	medieval philosophers	 	alpharabius 	augustine 	averroes 	baldus 	bartolus 	bruni 	dante 	gelasius 	al-ghazali 	giles 	hostiensis 	ibn khaldun 	john 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	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			afrikaans 	العربية 	bân-lâm-gú 	català 	cymraeg 	dansk 	eesti 	español 	galego 	한국어 	italiano 	עברית 	Македонски 	日本語 	português 	română 	Русский 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 social identity theory - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	social identity theory 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		portion of an individual's self-concept social identity is the portion of an individual's self-concept derived from perceived membership in a relevant social group.[ ] as originally formulated by social psychologists henri tajfel and john turner in the s and the s,[ ] social identity theory introduced the concept of a social identity as a way in which to explain intergroup behaviour.[ ][ ][ ] social identity theory is described as a theory that predicts certain intergroup behaviours on the basis of perceived group status differences, the perceived legitimacy and stability of those status differences, and the perceived ability to move from one group to another.[ ][ ] this contrasts with occasions where the term "social identity theory" is used to refer to general theorizing about human social selves.[ ] moreover, and although some researchers have treated it as such,[ ][ ] social identity theory was never intended to be a general theory of social categorization.[ ] it was awareness of the limited scope of social identity theory that led john turner and colleagues to develop a cousin theory in the form of self-categorization theory,[ ][ ][ ] which built on the insights of social identity theory to produce a more general account of self and group processes.[ ][ ] the term social identity approach, or social identity perspective, is suggested for describing the joint contributions of both social identity theory and self-categorization theory.[ ][ ][ ] social identity theory suggests that an organization can change individual behaviors if it can modify their self-identity or part of their self-concept that derives from the knowledge of, and emotional attachment to the group.[ ] contents 	 development 	 . historical background 	 aspects 	 . the interpersonal-intergroup continuum 	 . positive distinctiveness 	 . positive distinctiveness strategies 	 . . individual mobility 	 . . social creativity 	 . . social competition 	 implications 	 . ingroup favoritism 	 . prosocial behaviors 	 . reluctance to bet against identity-relevant outcomes 	 controversies 	 . self-esteem hypothesis 	 . positive-negative asymmetry 	 . intergroup similarity 	 . predictive power 	 . sit-lite 	 see also 	 references 	 external links development[edit] social scientist william graham sumner social psychologist henri tajfel historical background[edit] the term 'social identity theory' achieved academic currency only in the late s, but the basic underlying concepts associated with it had emerged by the early twentieth century. william g. sumner, writing in , captures the primary dynamics in this excerpt from his influential work folkways: a study of the sociological importance of usages, manners, customs, mores, and morals: 	"loyalty to the group, sacrifice for it, hatred and contempt for outsiders, brotherhood within, warlikeness without,—all grow together, common products of the same situation. ... men of an others-group are outsiders with whose ancestors the ancestors of the we-group waged war. ... each group nourishes its own pride and vanity, boasts itself superior, exalts its own divinities, and looks with contempt on outsiders. each group thinks its own folkways the only right ones, and if it observes that other groups have other folkways, these excite its scorn."[ ] by the late s the collectivist perspective had all but disappeared from mainstream social psychology.[ ] over fifty years later, around the time of the first formal use of the term 'social identity theory', tajfel wrote this on the state of social psychology: 	"thus, social categorization is still conceived as a haphazardly floating 'independent variable' which strikes at random as the spirit moves it. no links are made or attempted, between the conditions determining its presence and mode of operation, and its outcomes in widely diffused commonalities of social behaviour. why, when and how is social categorisation salient or not salient? what kind of shared constructions of social reality, mediated through social categorization, lead to a social climate in which large masses of people feel they are in long-term conflict with other masses? what, for example, are the psychological transitions from a stable to an unstable social system?" (original emphasis, p. )[ ] thus, social identity theory in part reflects a desire to reestablish a more collectivist approach to social psychology of the self and social groups.[ ] aspects[edit] henri tajfel suggests that soldiers of opposing armies, fighting outside of view, is an illustrative example of behaviour at the extreme intergroup end of the intergroup-interpersonal continuum.[ ] the interpersonal-intergroup continuum[edit] social identity theory states that social behavior will want a person to change his/her behavior while in a group. it varies along a continuum between interpersonal behavior and intergroup behaviour. completely interpersonal behaviour would be behaviour determined solely by the individual characteristics and interpersonal relationships that exists between only two people. completely intergroup behaviour would be behaviour determined solely by the social category memberships that apply to more than two people.[ ] the authors of social identity theory state that purely interpersonal or purely intergroup behaviour is unlikely to be found in realistic social situations. rather, behaviour is expected to be driven by a compromise between the two extremes.[ ][ ] the cognitive nature of personal vs. social identities, and the relationship between them, is more fully developed in self-categorization theory.[ ][ ][ ][ ] social identity theory instead focuses on the social structural factors that will predict which end of the spectrum will most influence an individual's behaviour, along with the forms that that behavior may take.[ ][ ][ ] positive distinctiveness[edit] a key assumption in social identity theory is that individuals are intrinsically motivated to achieve positive distinctiveness. that is, individuals "strive for a positive self-concept".[ ][ ] as individuals to varying degrees may be defined and informed by their respective social identities (as per the interpersonal-intergroup continuum) it is further derived in social identity theory that "individuals strive to achieve or to maintain positive social identity".[ ] the precise nature of this strive for positive self-concept is a matter of debate (see the self-esteem hypothesis).[ ][ ][ ][ ] both the interpersonal-intergroup continuum and the assumption of positive distinctiveness motivation arose as outcomes of the findings of minimal group studies.[ ] in particular, it was found that under certain conditions individuals would endorse resource distributions that would maximize the positive distinctiveness of an ingroup in contrast to an outgroup at the expense of personal self-interest.[ ] the "black is beautiful" movement and the associated african american embrace of african hairdos (like afros), culture, traditions, and music was provided by tajfel and colleagues as an example of the cognitive creativity of low-status groups in the face of stable intergroup relations.[ ][ ][ ][ ] positive distinctiveness strategies[edit] building on the above components, social identity theory details a variety of strategies that may be invoked in order to achieve positive distinctiveness. the individual's choice of behaviour is posited to be dictated largely by the perceived intergroup relationship. in particular the choice of strategy is an outcome of the perceived permeability of group boundaries (e.g., whether a group member may pass from a low status group into a high status group), as well as the perceived stability and legitimacy of the intergroup status hierarchy.[ ][ ] the self-enhancing strategies detailed in social identity theory are detailed below. importantly, although these are viewed from the perspective of a low status group member, comparable behaviours may also be adopted by high status group members.[ ] individual mobility[edit] it is predicted that under conditions where the group boundaries are considered permeable individuals are more likely to engage in individual mobility strategies.[ ][ ] that is, individuals "disassociate from the group and pursue individual goals designed to improve their personal lot rather than that of their ingroup".[ ] social creativity[edit] where group boundaries are considered impermeable, and where status relations are considered reasonably stable, individuals are predicted to engage in social creativity behaviours. here, low-status ingroup members are still able to increase their positive distinctiveness without necessarily changing the objective resources of the ingroup or the outgroup. this may be achieved by comparing the ingroup to the outgroup on some new dimension, changing the values assigned to the attributes of the group, and choosing an alternative outgroup by which to compare the ingroup.[ ][ ] social competition[edit] here an ingroup seeks positive distinctiveness and requires positive differentiation via direct competition with the outgroup in the form of ingroup favoritism.[ ] it is considered competitive in that in this case favoritism for the ingroup occurs on a value dimension that is shared by all relevant social groups (in contrast to social creativity scenarios). social competition is predicted to occur when group boundaries are considered impermeable, and when status relations are considered to be reasonably unstable.[ ][ ] although not privileged in the theory, it is this positive distinctiveness strategy that has received the greatest amount of attention.[ ][ ] implications[edit] ingroup favoritism[edit] main article: in-group favoritism in-group favoritism (also known as "ingroup bias", despite turner's objections to the term[ ]) is an effect where people give preferential treatment to others when they are perceived to be in the same ingroup. social identity attributes the cause of ingroup favoritism to a psychological need for positive distinctiveness and describes the situations where ingroup favoritism is likely to occur (as a function of perceived group status, legitimacy, stability, and permeability).[ ][ ] it has been shown via the minimal group studies that ingroup favoritism may occur for both arbitrary ingroups (e.g. a coin toss may split participants into a 'heads' group and a 'tails' group) as well as non-arbitrary ingroups (e.g. ingroups based on cultures, genders, sexual orientation, and first languages).[ ][ ] continued study into the relationship between social categorization and ingroup favoritism has explored the relative prevalences of the ingroup favoritism vs. outgroup discrimination,[ ] explored different manifestations of ingroup favoritism,[ ][ ] and has explored the relationship between ingroup favoritism and other psychological constraints (e.g., existential threat).[ ] prosocial behaviors[edit] social identification can lead individuals to engage in prosocial behaviors towards others [ ]. examples include contexts such as food drives [ ] or even shared purchasing patterns, as might occur for motorcycle riders [ ]. interestingly, consumers may have sub-identities that are nested into a larger identity. as a result, "[w]hen consumers identify with the overall community, they assist other consumers. however, consumers are less likely to help consumers in the overall community when identifying with a subgroup"[ ]. reluctance to bet against identity-relevant outcomes[edit] social identities are a valued aspect of the self, and people will sacrifice their pecuniary self-interest to maintain the self-perception that they belong to a given social group. political partisans and fans of sports teams (e.g., republicans and democrats, or mlb, nfl, ncaa fans) are reluctant to bet against the success of their party or team because of the diagnostic cost such a bet would incur to their identification with it. as a result, partisans and fans will reject even very favorable bets against identity-relevant desired outcomes. more than % of n.c.a.a. basketball and hockey fans, for example, turned down a free, real chance to earn $ if their team lost its upcoming game.[ ] controversies[edit] self-esteem hypothesis[edit] social identity theory proposes that people are motivated to achieve and maintain positive concepts of themselves. some researchers, including michael hogg and dominic abrams, thus propose a fairly direct relationship between positive social identity and self-esteem. in what has become known as the "self-esteem hypothesis", self-esteem is predicted to relate to in-group bias in two ways. firstly, successful intergroup discrimination elevates self-esteem. secondly, depressed or threatened self-esteem promotes intergroup discrimination.[ ][ ] empirical support for these predictions has been mixed.[ ][ ] some social identity theorists, including john turner, consider the self-esteem hypothesis as not canonical to social identity theory.[ ][ ] in fact, the self-esteem hypothesis is argued to be conflictual with the tenets of the theory.[ ][ ][ ] it is argued that the self-esteem hypothesis misunderstands the distinction between a social identity and a personal identity. along those lines, john turner and penny oakes argue against an interpretation of positive distinctiveness as a straightforward need for self-esteem or "quasi-biological drive toward prejudice".[ ] they instead favour a somewhat more complex conception of positive self-concept as a reflection of the ideologies and social values of the perceiver. additionally, it is argued that the self-esteem hypothesis neglects the alternative strategies to maintaining a positive self-concept that are articulated in social identity theory (i.e., individual mobility and social creativity).[ ][ ][ ] positive-negative asymmetry[edit] in what has been dubbed the positive-negative asymmetry phenomenon, researchers have shown that punishing the out-group benefits self-esteem less than rewarding the in-group.[ ] from this finding it has been extrapolated that social identity theory is therefore unable to deal with bias on negative dimensions. social identity theorists, however, point out that for ingroup favouritism to occur a social identity "must be psychologically salient", and that negative dimensions may be experienced as a "less fitting basis for self-definition".[ ] this important qualification is subtly present in social identity theory, but is further developed in self-categorization theory. empirical support for this perspective exist. it has been shown that when experiment participants can self-select negative dimensions that define the ingroup no positive–negative asymmetry is found.[ ] intergroup similarity[edit] it has been posited that social identity theory suggests that similar groups should have an increased motivation to differentiate themselves from each other.[ ][ ] subsequently, empirical findings where similar groups are shown to possess increased levels of intergroup attraction and decreased levels of in-group bias have been interpreted as problematic for the theory.[ ] elsewhere it has been suggested that this apparent inconsistency may be resolved by attending to social identity theory's emphasis on the importance of the perceived stability and legitimacy of the intergroup status hierarchy.[ ] predictive power[edit] social identity theory has been criticised for having far greater explanatory power than predictive power.[ ][ ][ ] that is, while the relationship between independent variables and the resulting intergroup behaviour may be consistent with the theory in retrospect, that particular outcome is often not that which was predicted at the outset. a rebuttal to this charge is that the theory was never advertised as the definitive answer to understanding intergroup relationships. instead it is stated that social identity theory must go hand in hand with sufficient understanding of the specific social context under consideration.[ ][ ][ ] the latter argument is consistent with the explicit importance that the authors of social identity theory placed on the role of "objective" factors, stating that in any particular situation "the effects of [social identity theory] variables are powerfully determined by the previous social, economic, and political processes".[ ] sit-lite[edit] some researchers interpret social identity theory as drawing a direct link between identification with a social group and ingroup favoritism.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] for example, charles stangor and john jost state that "a main premise of social identity theory is that ingroup members will favour their own group over other groups".[ ] this interpretation is rejected by other researchers.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] for example, alex haslam states that "although vulgarized versions of social identity theory argue that 'social identification leads automatically to discrimination and bias', in fact…discrimination and conflict are anticipated only in a limited set of circumstances".[ ] the likening of social identity theory with social competition and ingroup favouritism is partly attributable to the fact that early statements of the theory included empirical examples of ingroup favouritism, while alternative positive distinctiveness strategies (e.g., social creativity) were at that stage theoretical assertions.[ ] regardless, in some circles the prediction of a straightforward identification-bias correlation has earned the pejorative title "social identity theory-lite".[ ] see also[edit] 	other (philosophy) references[edit] 	^ a b turner, john; oakes, penny ( ). "the significance of the social identity concept for social psychology with reference to individualism, interactionism and social influence". british journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	^ a b c d e turner, j. c.; reynolds, k. j. ( ). "the story of social identity". in t. postmes; n. branscombe (eds.). rediscovering social identity: core sources. psychology press. 	^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n tajfel, h.; turner, j. c. ( ). "an integrative theory of intergroup conflict". in w. g. austin; s. worchel (eds.). the social psychology of intergroup relations. monterey, ca: brooks/cole. pp.  – . 	^ tajfel, h.; turner, j. c. ( ). "the social identity theory of intergroup behaviour". in s. worchel; w. g. austin (eds.). psychology of intergroup relations. chicago, il: nelson-hall. pp.  – . 	^ a b c d e f g h i j k turner, j. c. ( ). ellemers, n.; spears, r.; doosje, b. (eds.). "some current issues in research on social identity and self-categorization theories". social identity. oxford: blackwell: – . 	^ a b haslam, s. a.; ellemers, n.; reicher, s. d.; reynolds, k. j.; schmitt, m. t. ( ). postmes, t.; branscombe, n. r. (eds.). "the social identity perspective today: an overview of its defining ideas". rediscovering social identity. psychology press: – . 	^ brown, r. j.; zagefka, h. ( ). "choice of comparisons in intergroup settings: the role of temporal information and comparison motives". european journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /ejsp. . 	^ ashmore, r. d.; deaux, k.; mclaughlin-volpe, t. ( ). "an organizing framework for collective identity: articulation and significance of multidimensionality". psychological bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ a b c d e f g h i j haslam, a. s. ( ). psychology in organizations. london, sage publications. p - 	^ postmes, t. & branscombe, n. ( ). "sources of social identity". in t. postmes & n. branscombe (eds). rediscovering social identity: core sources. psychology press. 	^ sumner, w. g. folkways: a study of the sociological importance of usages, manners, customs, mores, and morals. new york: ginn, . p. . 	^ a b c hogg, michael a.; williams, kipling d. ( january ). "from i to we: social identity and the collective self". group dynamics: theory, research, and practice. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . 	^ tajfel, h. ( ). "individuals and groups in social psychology". british journal of social and clinical psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	^ a b tajfel, h. ( ). tajfel, h. (ed.). "interindividual and intergroup behaviour". differentiation between groups: studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations. london: academic press: – . 	^ oakes, penny; haslam, alex; turner, john ( ). stereotyping and social reality. blackwell: oxford. 	^ a b c d e f g h i turner, j. c.; reynolds, k. h. ( ). "the social identity perspective in intergroup relations: theories, themes, and controversies". in brown, s. l.; gaertner (eds.). blackwell handbook of social psychology: intergroup processes. . pp.  – . doi: . / .ch . 	^ haslam, s. alexander; reicher, stephen d.; platow, michael j. ( ). the new psychology of leadership: identity, influence and power. new york, ny: psychology press. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b c long, k.; spears, r. ( ). spears, r.; oakes, p. j.; ellemers, n; et al. (eds.). "the self-esteem hypothesis revisited: differentiation and the disaffected". the social psychology of stereotyping and group life. oxford: blackwell: – . 	^ rubin, m.; badea, c.; jetten, j. ( ). "low status groups show in-group favoritism to compensate for their low status and to compete for higher status". group processes and intergroup relations. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ turner, j. c. ( ). h, tajfel (ed.). "social categorization and social discrimination in the minimal group paradigm". differentiation between social groups: studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations. london: academic press: – . 	^ tajfel, h. ( ). tajfel, h. (ed.). "the achievement of group differentiation". differentiation between groups: studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations. london: academic press: – . 	^ tajfel, h. ( ). "social identity and intergroup behavior". social science information. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ a b miller, d. ( ). children and race. sage publications. 	^ haslam, a. s. ( ). psychology in organizations. london, sage publications. p. 	^ tajfel, henri; billig, m. g.; bundy, r. p.; flament, claude ( ). "social categorization and intergroup behaviour". european journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /ejsp. . 	^ ouwerkerk, j. w.; ellemers, n.; de gilder, d. ( ). ellemers, n.; spears, r.; doosje, b. (eds.). 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( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	^ ahmed, ali m. ( june ). "group identity, social distance and intergroup bias". journal of economic psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /j.joep. . . . 	^ krumm, angela j.; corning, alexandra f. ( december ). "who believes us when we try to conceal our prejudices? the effectiveness of moral credentials with in-groups versus out-groups". the journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /socp. . . - . pmid  . 	^ giannakakis, andrew erik; fritsche, immo ( january ). "social identities, group norms, and threat: on the malleability of ingroup bias". personality and social psychology bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ hackel; zaki; bavel. ( ). "social identity shapes social valuation: evidence from prosocial behavior and vicarious reward". soc cogn affect neurosci. ( ): – . doi: . /scan/nsx . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ shipley ( ). "social comparison and prosocial behavior: an applied study of social identity theory in community food drives". psychological reports. 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( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ a b brown, r. j. ( ). tajfel, h. (ed.). the role of similarity in intergroup relations. the social dimension. . cambridge: university press. pp.  – . doi: . /cbo . . isbn  . 	^ duckitt, john ( ). " ". the social psychology of prejudice. london: praeger publishers. pp.  – . 	^ tajfel, h. ( ). tajfel, h. (ed.). intergroup relations, social myths and social justice in social psychology. the social dimension. . cambridge: university press. pp.  – . doi: . /cbo . . isbn  . 	^ stangor, c.; jost, j. t. ( ). spears, r.; oakes, p. j.; ellemers, n; et al. (eds.). "commentary: individual, group and system levels of analysis and their relevance for stereotyping and intergroup relations". the social psychology of stereotyping and group life. oxford: blackwell: – . 	^ smith, e.r.; smith, e. r. ( ). "reconceptualizing social identity: a new framework and evidence for the impact of different dimensions". personality and social psychology bulletin. : – . doi: . / . 	^ operanio, d.; fiske, s. t. ( ). "stereotypes: content, structures, processes and context". in brown, r.; geartner, s. (eds.). blackwell handbook of social psychology: intergroup processes. oxford: blackwell. pp.  – . 	^ triandis, h.c.; trafimow, d. ( ). "culture and its implications for intergroup behavior". in brown, s. l.; gaertner (eds.). blackwell handbook of social psychology: intergroup processes. . pp.  – . doi: . / .ch . 	^ brewer, m. b.; gaertner, s. l. ( ). "toward reduction of prejudice: intergroup contact and social categorization". in brown, s. l.; gaertner (eds.). blackwell handbook of social psychology: intergroup processes. . pp.  – . doi: . / .ch . 	^ stangor, c.; jost, j. t. ( ). spears, r.; oakes, p. j.; ellemers, n; et al. (eds.). "commentary: individual, group and system levels of analysis and their relevance for stereotyping and intergroup relations". the social psychology of stereotyping and group life. oxford: blackwell: . 	^ spears, r.; doosje, b.; ellemers, n. ( ). ellemers, n.; spears, r.; doosje, b. (eds.). "commitment and the context of social perception". social identity. oxford: blackwell: – . 	^ a b mcgarty, c ( ). "social identity theory does not maintain that identification produces bias, and self-categorization theory does not maintain that salience is identification: two comments on mummendey, klink and brown". british journal of social psychology. (pt ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ rubin, m.; hewstone, m. ( ). "social identity, system justification, and social dominance: commentary on reicher, jost et al., and sidanius et al". political psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. 	^ haslam, a. s. 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	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 social rejection - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	social rejection 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		deliberate exclusion of an individual from social relationship or social interaction this scene of the admonitions scroll shows an emperor turning away from his consort, his hand raised in a gesture of rejection and with a look of disdain on his face.[ ] 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e social rejection occurs when an individual is deliberately excluded from a social relationship or social interaction. the topic includes interpersonal rejection (or peer rejection), romantic rejection and familial estrangement. a person can be rejected by individuals or an entire group of people. furthermore, rejection can be either active, by bullying, teasing, or ridiculing, or passive, by ignoring a person, or giving the "silent treatment". the experience of being rejected is subjective for the recipient, and it can be perceived when it is not actually present. the word ostracism is often used for the process (in ancient greece ostracism was voting into temporary exile).[failed verification][ ] although humans are social beings, some level of rejection is an inevitable part of life. nevertheless, rejection can become a problem when it is prolonged or consistent, when the relationship is important, or when the individual is highly sensitive to rejection. rejection by an entire group of people can have especially negative effects, particularly when it results in social isolation.[ ] the experience of rejection can lead to a number of adverse psychological consequences such as loneliness, low self-esteem, aggression, and depression.[ ] it can also lead to feelings of insecurity and a heightened sensitivity to future rejection.[ ][citation needed] contents 	 need for acceptance 	 in childhood 	 in the laboratory 	 . ball toss / cyberball experiments 	 psychology of ostracism 	 . popularity resurgence 	 romantic 	 rejection sensitivity 	 health 	 in fiction, film and art 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links need for acceptance[edit] rejection may be emotionally painful because of the social nature of human beings and the need of social interaction between other humans is essential. abraham maslow and other theorists have suggested that the need for love and belongingness is a fundamental human motivation.[ ] according to maslow, all humans, even introverts, need to be able to give and receive affection to be psychologically healthy. psychologists believe that simple contact or social interaction with others is not enough to fulfill this need. instead, people have a strong motivational drive to form and maintain caring interpersonal relationships. people need both stable relationships and satisfying interactions with the people in those relationships. if either of these two ingredients is missing, people will begin to feel lonely and unhappy.[ ] thus, rejection is a significant threat. in fact, the majority of human anxieties appear to reflect concerns over social exclusion.[ ] being a member of a group is also important for social identity, which is a key component of the self-concept. mark leary of duke university has suggested that the main purpose of self-esteem is to monitor social relations and detect social rejection. in this view, self-esteem is a sociometer which activates negative emotions when signs of exclusion appear.[ ] social psychological research confirms the motivational basis of the need for acceptance. specifically, fear of rejection leads to conformity to peer pressure (sometimes called normative influence), and compliance to the demands of others. our need for affiliation and social interaction appears to be particularly strong when we are under stress.[citation needed] in childhood[edit] peer rejection has been measured using sociometry and other rating methods. studies typically show that some children are popular, receiving generally high ratings, many children are in the middle, with moderate ratings, and a minority of children are rejected, showing generally low ratings. one measure of rejection asks children to list peers they like and dislike. rejected children receive few "like" nominations and many "dislike" nominations. children classified as neglected receive few nominations of either type.[citation needed] according to karen bierman of pennsylvania state university, most children who are rejected by their peers display one or more of the following behavior patterns: 	low rates of prosocial behavior, e.g. taking turns, sharing. 	high rates of aggressive or disruptive behavior. 	high rates of inattentive, immature, or impulsive behavior. 	high rates of social anxiety. bierman states that well-liked children show social savvy and know when and how to join play groups. children who are at risk for rejection are more likely to barge in disruptively, or hang back without joining at all. aggressive children who are athletic or have good social skills are likely to be accepted by peers, and they may become ringleaders in the harassment of less skilled children. minority children, children with disabilities, or children who have unusual characteristics or behavior may face greater risks of rejection. depending on the norms of the peer group, sometimes even minor differences among children lead to rejection or neglect. children who are less outgoing or simply prefer solitary play are less likely to be rejected than children who are socially inhibited and show signs of insecurity or anxiety.[ ] rejected children are more likely to be bullied at school and on playgrounds.[citation needed] peer rejection, once established, tends to be stable over time, and thus difficult for a child to overcome.[ ] researchers have found that active rejection is more stable, more harmful, and more likely to persist after a child transfers to another school, than simple neglect.[ ] one reason for this is that peer groups establish reputational biases that act as stereotypes and influence subsequent social interaction.[ ] thus, even when rejected and popular children show similar behavior and accomplishments, popular children are treated much more favorably. rejected children are likely to have lower self-esteem, and to be at greater risk for internalizing problems like depression.[ ] some rejected children display externalizing behavior and show aggression rather than depression. the research is largely correlational, but there is evidence of reciprocal effects. this means that children with problems are more likely to be rejected, and this rejection then leads to even greater problems for them. chronic peer rejection may lead to a negative developmental cycle that worsens with time.[ ] rejected children are more likely to be bullied and to have fewer friends than popular children, but these conditions are not always present. for example, some popular children do not have close friends, whereas some rejected children do. peer rejection is believed to be less damaging for children with at least one close friend.[citation needed] an analysis of school shootings between and found that peer rejection was present in all but two of the cases ( %). the documented rejection experiences included both acute and chronic rejection and frequently took the form of ostracism, bullying, and romantic rejection. the authors stated that although it is likely that the rejection experiences contributed to the school shootings, other factors were also present, such as depression, poor impulse control, and other psychopathology.[ ] there are programs available for helping children who suffer from social rejection. one large scale review of controlled studies found that social skills training is very effective (r = . effect size), with a % success rate, compared to % success in control groups. there was a decline in effectiveness over time, however, with follow-up studies showing a somewhat smaller effect size (r = . ).[ ] in the laboratory[edit] laboratory research has found that even short-term rejection from strangers can have powerful (if temporary) effects on an individual. in several social psychology experiments, people chosen at random to receive messages of social exclusion become more aggressive, more willing to cheat, less willing to help others, and more likely to pursue short-term over long-term goals. rejection appears to lead very rapidly to self-defeating and antisocial behavior.[ ] researchers have also investigated how the brain responds to social rejection. one study found that the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex is active when people are experiencing both physical pain and "social pain," in response to social rejection.[ ] a subsequent experiment, also using fmri neuroimaging, found that three regions become active when people are exposed to images depicting rejection themes. these areas are the posterior cingulate, the parahippocampal gyrus, and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex. furthermore, individuals who are high in rejection sensitivity (see below) show less activity in the left prefrontal cortex and the right dorsal superior frontal gyrus, which may indicate less ability to regulate emotional responses to rejection.[ ] an experiment performed in at the university of california at berkeley found that individuals with a combination of low self-esteem and low attentional control are more likely to exhibit eye-blink startle responses while viewing rejection themed images.[ ] these findings indicate that people who feel bad about themselves are especially vulnerable to rejection, but that people can also control and regulate their emotional reactions. a study at miami university indicated that individuals who recently experienced social rejection were better than both accepted and control participants in their ability to discriminate between real and fake smiles. though both accepted and control participants were better than chance (they did not differ from each other), rejected participants were much better at this task, nearing % accuracy.[ ] this study is noteworthy in that it is one of the few cases of a positive or adaptive consequence of social rejection. ball toss / cyberball experiments[edit] a common experimental technique is the "ball toss" paradigm, which was developed by kip williams and his colleagues at purdue university.[ ] this procedure involves a group of three people tossing a ball back and forth. unbeknownst to the actual participant, two members of the group are working for the experimenter and following a pre-arranged script. in a typical experiment, half of the subjects will be excluded from the activity after a few tosses and never get the ball again. only a few minutes of this treatment are sufficient to produce negative emotions in the target, including anger and sadness. this effect occurs regardless of self-esteem and other personality differences. gender differences have been found in these experiments. in one study, women showed greater nonverbal engagement whereas men disengaged faster and showed face-saving techniques, such as pretending to be uninterested. the researchers concluded that women seek to regain a sense of belonging whereas men are more interested in regaining self-esteem.[ ] a computerized version of the task known as "cyberball" has also been developed and leads to similar results.[ ] cyberball is a virtual ball toss game where the participant is led to believe they are playing with two other participants sitting at computers elsewhere who can toss the ball to either player. the participant is included in the game for the first few minutes, but then excluded by the other players for the remaining three minutes. this simple and short time period of ostracism has been found to produce significant increases to self-reported levels of anger and sadness, as well as lowering levels of the four needs. these effects have been found even when the participant is ostracised by out-group members,[ ][ ] when the out-group member is identified as a despised person such as someone in the ku klux klan,[ ] when they know the source of the ostracism is just a computer,[ ] and even when being ostracised means they will be financially rewarded and being included would incur a financial cost.[ ] people feel rejected even when they know they are playing only against the computer. a recent set of experiments using cyberball demonstrated that rejection impairs will power or self-regulation. specifically, people who are rejected are more likely to eat cookies and less likely to drink an unpleasant tasting beverage that they are told is good for them. these experiments also showed that the negative effects of rejection last longer in individuals who are high in social anxiety.[ ][ ] psychology of ostracism[edit] most of the research on the psychology of ostracism has been conducted by the social psychologist kip williams. he and his colleagues have devised a model of ostracism which provides a framework to show the complexity in the varieties of ostracism and the processes of its effects. there he theorises that ostracism can potentially be so harmful that we have evolved an efficient warning system to immediately detect and respond to it.[ ][ ] in the animal kingdom as well as in primitive human societies, ostracism can lead to death due to the lack of protection benefits and access to sufficient food resources from the group.[ ] living apart from the whole of society also means not having a mate, so being able to detect ostracism would be a highly adaptive response to ensure survival and continuation of the genetic line. it is proposed that ostracism uniquely poses a threat to four fundamental human needs; the need to belong, the need for control in social situations, the need to maintain high levels of self-esteem, and the need to have a sense of a meaningful existence.[ ] a threat to these needs produces psychological distress and pain. thus, people are motivated to remove this pain with behaviours aimed at reducing the likelihood of others ostracising them any further and increasing their inclusionary status. popularity resurgence[edit] there has been recent research into the function of popularity on development, specifically how a transition from ostracization to popularity can potentially reverse the deleterious effects of being socially ostracized. while various theories have been put forth regarding what skills or attributes confer an advantage at obtaining popularity, it appears that individuals who were once popular and subsequently experienced a transient ostracization are often able to employ the same skills that led to their initial popularity to bring about a popularity resurgence.[ ] romantic[edit] in contrast to the study of childhood rejection, which primarily examines rejection by a group of peers, some researchers focus on the phenomenon of a single individual rejecting another in the context of a romantic relationship. in both teenagers and adults, romantic rejection occurs when a person refuses the romantic advances of another, ignores/avoids or is repulsed by someone who is romantically interested in them, or unilaterally ends an existing relationship. the state of unrequited love is a common experience in youth, but mutual love becomes more typical as people get older.[ ] romantic rejection is a painful, emotional experience that appears to trigger a response in the caudate nucleus of the brain, and associated dopamine and cortisol activity.[ ] subjectively, rejected individuals experience a range of negative emotions, including frustration, intense anger, jealousy, hate, and eventually, resignation, despair, and possible long-term depression. however, there have been cases where individuals go back and forth between depression and anger. rejection sensitivity[edit] see also: borderline personality disorder karen horney was the first theorist to discuss the phenomenon of rejection sensitivity.[ ] she suggested that it is a component of the neurotic personality, and that it is a tendency to feel deep anxiety and humiliation at the slightest rebuff. simply being made to wait, for example, could be viewed as a rejection and met with extreme anger and hostility.[ ] albert mehrabian developed an early questionnaire measure of rejection sensitivity.[ ] mehrabian suggested that sensitive individuals are reluctant to express opinions, tend to avoid arguments or controversial discussions, are reluctant to make requests or impose on others, are easily hurt by negative feedback from others, and tend to rely too much on familiar others and situations so as to avoid rejection. a more recent ( ) definition of rejection sensitivity is the tendency to "anxiously expect, readily perceive, and overreact" to social rejection.[ ] people differ in their readiness to perceive and react to rejection.[ ] the causes of individual differences in rejection sensitivity are not well understood. because of the association between rejection sensitivity and neuroticism, there is a likely genetic predisposition.[ ] others posit that rejection sensitivity stems from early attachment relationships and parental rejection;[ ] also peer rejection is thought to play a role.[ ][ ] bullying, an extreme form of peer rejection, is likely connected to later rejection sensitivity.[ ] however, there is no conclusive evidence for any of these theories.[ ] health[edit] social rejection has a large effect on a person's health. baumeister and leary originally suggested that an unsatisfied need to belong would inevitably lead to problems in behavior as well as mental and physical health.[ ] corroboration of these assumptions about behavior deficits were seen by john bowlby in his research.[ ] numerous studies have found that being socially rejected leads to an increase in levels of anxiety.[ ][ ][ ][ ] additionally, the level of depression a person feels as well as the amount they care about their social relationships is directly proportional to the level of rejection they perceive.[ ] rejection affects the emotional health and well being of a person as well. overall, experiments show that those who have been rejected will suffer from more negative emotions and have fewer positive emotions than those who have been accepted or those who were in neutral or control conditions.[ ] in addition to the emotional response to rejection, there is a large effect on physical health as well. having poor relationships and being more frequently rejected is predictive of mortality.[ ] also, as long as a decade after the marriage ends, divorced women have higher rates of illness than their non-married or currently married counterparts.[ ] in the case of a family estrangement, a core part of the mother's identity may be betrayed by the rejection of an adult child.[ ] the chance for reconciliation, however slight, results in an inability to attain closure.[ ] the resulting emotional state and societal stigma from the estrangement may harm psychological and physical health of the parent through end of life.[ ][ ][ ] the immune system tends to be harmed when a person experiences social rejection.[ ][ ] this can cause severe problems for those with diseases such as hiv. one study by cole, kemeny, and taylor investigated the differences in the disease progression of hiv positive gay men who were sensitive to rejection compared to those who were not considered rejection sensitive.[ ] the study, which took place over nine years, indicated significantly faster rate of low t helper cells, therefore leading to an earlier aids diagnosis. they also found that those patients who were more sensitive to rejection died from the disease an average of years earlier than their non-rejection sensitive counterparts.[ ] other aspects of health are also affected by rejection. both systolic and diastolic blood pressure increase upon imagining a rejection scenario.[ ] those who are socially rejected have an increased likelihood of suffering from tuberculosis, as well as dying by suicide.[ ] rejection and isolation were found to affect levels of pain following an operation[ ] as well as other physical forms of pain.[ ] social rejection may cause a reduction in intelligence.[ ] macdonald and leary theorize that rejection and exclusion cause physical pain because that pain is a warning sign to help us survive. as we developed into social creatures, social interactions and relationships became necessary to our survival, and the physical pain systems already existed within our bodies.[ ] in fiction, film and art[edit] artistic depictions of rejection occur in a variety of art forms. one genre of film that most frequently depicts rejection is romantic comedies. in the film he's just not that into you, the main characters deal with the challenges of reading and misreading human behavior. this presents a fear of rejection in romantic relationships as reflected in this quote by the character mary, "and now you have to go around checking all these different portals just to get rejected by seven different technologies. it's exhausting."[ ] social rejection is also depicted in theatrical plays and musicals. for example, the film hairspray shares the story of tracy turnblad, an overweight -year-old dancer set in the s. tracy and her mother are faced with overcoming society's expectations regarding weight and physical appearances. see also[edit] 	blacklisting 	bullying 	conformity 	criminalization 	family estrangement 	hedgehog's dilemma 	isolation to facilitate abuse 	labelling 	loneliness 	marginalization 	ostracism 	outcast 	parental alienation 	psychological trauma 	shunning 	scapegoating 	social anxiety 	social defeat 	social exclusion 	social influence 	social stigma 	sociometry references[edit] 	^ mccausland, shane ( ), first masterpiece of chinese painting: the admonitions scroll, british museum press, p.  , isbn  - - - - 	^ ostracize. dictionary.com. dictionary.com unabridged. random house, inc. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ostracize (accessed: november , ). 	^ williams, kipling d.; joseph p. forgas; william von hippel ( ). the social outcast: ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying. psychology press. p.  pages. isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b mcdougall, p., hymel, s., vaillancourt, t., & mercer, l. ( ). the consequences of childhood rejection. in m. r. leary (ed.), interpersonal rejection. (pp. - ). new york, ny: oxford university press. 	^ richman, laura smart; leary, mark r. (april ). "reactions to discrimination, stigmatization, ostracism, and other forms of interpersonal rejection". psychological review. ( ): – . doi: . /a . hdl: / . issn  - x. pmc  . pmid  . 	^ maslow, a. h. ( ). motivation and personality. new york, ny: harper. 	^ a b baumeister rf, leary mr ( ). "the need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation". psychol bull. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ baumeister, r. f.; tice, d. m. ( ). "anxiety and social exclusion". journal of social and clinical psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /jscp. . . . . 	^ leary, m. r., downs, d. l., ( ). interpersonal functions of the self-esteem motive: the self-esteem system as a sociometer. in m. h. kernis, efficacy, agency, and self-esteem. new york, ny: plenum press, pp. - . 	^ a b bierman, k. l. ( ). peer rejection: developmental processes and intervention strategies. new york: the guilford press. 	^ cillessen, a., bukowski, w. m., & haselager, g. ( ). stability of sociometric categories. san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. 	^ hymel, s., wagner, e., & butler, l. j. ( ). reputational bias: view from the peer group. in s. r. asher, & j. d. coie, (eds.). peer rejection in childhood. cambridge university press. 	^ coie, j. d. ( ). toward a theory of peer rejection. in s. r. asher & j. d. coie (eds). peer rejection in childhood (pp. - ). cambridge, england: cambridge university press. 	^ leary, m. r.; kowalski, r. m.; smith, l. ( ). "teasing, rejection, and violence: case studies of the school shootings". aggressive behavior. ( ): – . doi: . /ab. . 	^ schneider, b. h. ( ). "didactic methods for enhancing children's peer relations: a quantitative review". clinical psychology review. ( ): – . doi: . / - ( ) -u. 	^ twenge jm, catanese kr, baumeister rf ( ). "social exclusion causes self-defeating behavior". j pers soc psychol. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ eisenberger ni, lieberman md, williams kd ( ). "does rejection hurt? an fmri study of social exclusion". science. ( ): – . bibcode: sci... .. e. doi: . /science. . pmid  . 	^ kross e, egner t, ochsner k, hirsch j, downey g ( ). "neural dynamics of rejection sensitivity". j cogn neurosci. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /jocn. . . . . pmid  . 	^ gyurak a, ayduk o ( ). "defensive physiological reactions to rejection: the effect of self-esteem and attentional control on startle responses". psychol sci. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmc  . pmid  . 	^ bernstein mj, young sg, brown cm, sacco df, claypool hm ( ). "adaptive responses to social exclusion: social rejection improves detection of real and fake smiles". psychol sci. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . 	^ williams, k. d.; sommer, k. l. ( ). "social ostracism by one's coworkers: does rejection lead to loafing or compensation?". personality and social psychology bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ williams, k. d. & zadro, l. ( ). ostracism. in m. r. leary (ed.), interpersonal rejection. (pp. - ). new york, ny: oxford university press. 	^ zadro, lisa; williams, kipling d; richardson, rick ( june ). "how low can you go? ostracism by a computer is sufficient to lower self-reported levels of belonging, control, self-esteem, and meaningful existence". journal of experimental social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /j.jesp. . . . 	^ smith, a; williams, k ( ). "r u there? effects of ostracism by cell phone messages". group dynamics: theory, research, and practice. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / - . . . . 	^ williams, kipling; cheung, c.; choi, w. ( ). "cyberostracism: effects of being ignored over the internet". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . 	^ gonsalkorale, k; williams, k ( ). "the kkk won't let play: ostracism even by a despised outgroup hurts". european journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /ejsp. . 	^ zadro, lisa; williams, k; richardson, r ( ). "how low can you go? ostracism by a computer is sufficient to lower self-reported levels of belonging, control, self-esteem and meaningful existence". journal of experimental social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /j.jesp. . . . 	^ van beest, ilja; williams, k ( ). "when inclusion costs and ostracism pays, ostracism still hurts". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /j.jesp. . . . 	^ oaten, m.; williams, k. d.; jones, a.; zadro, l. ( ). "the effects of ostracism on self-regulation in the socially anxious". journal of social and clinical psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /jscp. . . . . 	^ heeren a, dricot l, billieux j, philippot p, grynberg d, de timary p, maurage, p ( ). "correlates of social exclusion in social anxiety disorder: an fmri study". scientific reports. : . doi: . /s - - - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b williams, kipling d. ( ). ostracism : the power of silence. new york: guilford. isbn  - - - - . 	^ leary, edited by mark r. ( ). interpersonal rejection. new york: oxford university press. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - .cs maint: extra text: authors list (link) 	^ gruter, m; masters, r ( ). "ostracism as a social and biological phenomenon: an introduction". ethology and sociobiology. ( – ): – . doi: . / - ( ) - . 	^ {https://www.coursera.org/lecture/popularity/what-social-behaviors-make-people-popular-so-quickly-l ddb}[dead link] 	^ baumeister, r. f. & dhavale, d. ( ). two sides of romantic rejection. in m. r. leary (ed.), interpersonal rejection. (pp. - ). new york, ny: oxford university press. 	^ fisher, h. ( ) lost love: the nature of romantic rejection, in cut loose: (mostly) midlife and older women on the end of (mostly) long-term relationships. nan bauer-maglin (ed.) new jersey: rutgers university press. 	^ downey, g. ( ). the disregulating effect of social threat in people with borderline personality disorder. paper presented at the annual meeting of the society for personality and social psychology, feb. - , . 	^ horney, k. ( ). the neurotic personality of our time. new york: w. w. norton and company. 	^ mehrabian, a ( ). "questionnaire measures of affiliative tendency and sensitivity to rejection". psychological reports. : – . doi: . /pr . . . . . 	^ a b downey g, feldman si ( ). "implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships" (pdf). j pers soc psychol. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . archived from the original (pdf) on july , . 	^ a b c d e butler, j. c.; doherty, m. s.; potter, r. m. ( ). "social antecedents and consequences of interpersonal rejection sensitivity" (pdf). personality and individual differences. ( ): – . doi: . /j.paid. . . . archived from the original (pdf) on - - . 	^ london, b.; downey, g.; bonica, c.; paltin, i. ( ). "social causes and consequences of rejection sensitivity". journal of research on adolescence. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. 	^ bowlby, j. ( ). attachment and loss: vol. . attachment. new york:basic books. 	^ barden. r. c, garber, j., leiman, b., ford, m. e., & masters, j. c. ( ). factors governing the effective remediation of negative affect and its cognitive and behavioral consequences. ‘’journal of personality and social psychology, ,’’ - .. 	^ baumeister, r. f.; tice, d. m. ( ). "point-counterpoints: anxiety and social exclusion". journal of social and clinical psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /jscp. . . . . 	^ a b besser, a.; priel, b. ( ). "emotional responses to a romantic partner's imaginary rejection: the roles of attachment anxiety, covert narcissism, and self-evaluation". journal of personality. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . 	^ a b tambor, e. s., & leary, m. r. ( ). perceived exclusion as a common factor in social anxiety, loneliness, jealousy, depression, and low self-esteem. unpublished manuscript. winston-salem, nc: wake forest university. 	^ blackhart, g. c.; nelson, b. c.; knowles, m. l.; baumeister, r. f. ( ). "rejection elicits emotional reactions but neither causes immediate distress nor lowers self-esteem: a meta-analytic review of studies on social exclusion". personality and social psychology review. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ orth-gomer, k.; johnson, j. v. ( ). "social network interaction and mortality: a six year follow-up study of a random sample of the swedish population". journal of chronic diseases. ( ): – . doi: . / - ( ) - . pmid  . 	^ lorenz, f. o.; wickrama, k. a. s.; conger, r. d.; elder, g. h. ( ). "the short-term and decade-long effects of divorce on women's midlife health". journal of health and social behavior. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ agllias, k. ( a). every family: intergenerational estrangement between older parents and their adult-children. (doctoral dissertation, school of humanities and social sciences, university of newcastle, callaghan). 	^ agllias, kylie. (sep ). family estrangement. encyclopedia of social work. subject: couples and families, aging and older adults, children and adolescents. doi: . /acrefore/ . . 	^ bowling, a.; gabriel, z. ( ). "lay theories of quality of life in older age". ageing and society. ( ): – . doi: . /s x . 	^ gabriel, z.; bowling, a. ( ). "quality of life from the perspectives of older people". ageing and society. ( ): – . doi: . /s x . 	^ macdonald, m ( ). "social support for centenarians' health, psychological well-being, and longevity". annual review of gerontology and geriatrics. : – . 	^ dickerson, s. s.; gruenewald, t. l.; kemeny, m. e. ( ). "when the social self is threatened: shame, physiology, and health". journal of personality. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . 	^ a b c cole, s. w.; kemeny, m. e.; taylor, s. e. ( ). "social identity and physical health: accelerated hiv progression in rejection-sensitive gay men". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . 	^ sommer, k. l.; kirkland, k. l.; newman, s. r.; estrella, p.; andreassi, j. l. ( ). "narcissism and cardiovascular reactivity to rejection imagery". journal of applied social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. 	^ cassel, j ( ). "the contribution of the social environment to host resistance". american journal of epidemiology. ( ): – . doi: . /oxfordjournals.aje.a . pmid  . 	^ lidderdale, j. m.; walsh, j. j. ( ). "the effects of social support on cardiovascular reactivity and perinatal outcome". psychology and health. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ hilary scarlett ( february ). neuroscience for organizational change. kogan page. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ macdonald, g.; leary, m. r. ( ). "why does social exclusion hurt? the relationship between social and physical pain". psychological bulletin. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ he's just not that into you on imdb further reading[edit] 	asher, s. r., & coie, j. d. ( ). peer rejection in childhood. cambridge university press. 	bierman, k. l. ( ). peer rejection: developmental processes and intervention strategies. new york: the guilford press. 	leary, m. ( ). interpersonal rejection. new york, ny: oxford university press. 	savage, e. ( ). don't take it personally: the art of dealing with rejection. oakland, ca: new harbinger publications. 	williams, k. d., forgás, j. p., & von hippel, w. ( ). the social outcast: ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying. new york: psychology press. external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: social rejection 	cbs news story on rejection and the brain 	ostracism laboratory 	psychology today article on self-esteem and social rejection 	self, emotion, and behavior lab 	social relations laboratory 	 	v 	t 	e bullying 	types	 	abusive supervision 	cyberbullying 	disability bullying 	doxing 	gay bashing 	hazing 	military bullying 	mobbing 	parental bullying of children 	passive aggression 	peer victimization 	prison bullying 	rankism 	relational aggression 	school bullying 	higher education 	sexual bullying 	workplace bullying (academia 	information technology 	legal aspects 	legal profession 	medicine 	nursing 	teaching 	toxic leader) 	elements	 	betrayal 	blacklisting 	bullying and emotional intelligence 	character assassination 	control 	coercion 	climate of fear 	defamation 	destabilisation 	discrediting 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(november ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) this article is about the psychological study of how people's thoughts, feelings and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others. for the sociological study of such, see social psychology (sociology). not to be confused with social experiment. for the journal, see social psychology (journal). 	part of a series on 	psychology 	 	 	outline 	history 	subfields 	 basic types 	abnormal 	behavioral genetics 	biological 	cognitive/cognitivism 	comparative 	cross-cultural 	cultural 	differential 	developmental 	evolutionary 	experimental 	mathematical 	neuropsychology 	personality 	positive 	quantitative 	social 	 applied psychology 	applied behavior analysis 	clinical 	community 	consumer 	counseling 	critical 	educational 	environmental 	ergonomics 	forensic 	health 	humanistic 	industrial and organizational 	legal 	medical 	military 	music 	occupational health 	political 	religion 	school 	sport 	traffic 	 lists 	disciplines 	organizations 	psychologists 	psychotherapies 	publications 	research methods 	theories 	timeline 	topics 	 	 psychology portal 		v 	t 	e social psychology is the scientific study of how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, and implied presence of others. in this definition, scientific refers to empirical investigation using the scientific method, while the terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors refer to the psychological variables that can be measured in humans. imagined and implied presences refer to the internalized social norms that humans are influenced by even when alone.[ ] social psychologists typically explain human behavior as a result of the relationship between mental state and social situation, studying the conditions under which thoughts, feelings, and behaviors occur and how these variables influence social interactions. social psychology has bridged the gap between psychology and sociology to an extent, but a divide still exists between the two fields. nevertheless, sociological approaches to psychology remain an important counterpart to conventional psychological research.[ ] in addition to the split between psychology and sociology, there is difference in emphasis between american and european social psychologists, as the former traditionally have focused more on the individual, whereas the latter have generally paid more attention to group-level phenomena.[ ] contents 	 history 	 . early th century 	 . late th century and modernity 	 intrapersonal phenomena 	 . attitudes 	 . persuasion 	 . social cognition 	 . . heuristics 	 . . schemas 	 . self-concept 	 interpersonal phenomena 	 . social influence 	 . group dynamics 	 . interpersonal attraction 	 research 	 . methods 	 . famous experiments 	 . . asch conformity experiments 	 . . festinger (cognitive dissonance) 	 . . milgram experiment 	 . . stanford prison experiment 	 . . others 	 . ethics 	 . adolescents 	 . replication crisis 	 . academic journals 	 see also 	 notes 	 references 	 external links history[edit] although older writings regarding social psychology exist—such as those by the islamic philosopher al-farabi, the discipline of social psychology, by its modern definition, began in the united states at the beginning of the th century.[citation needed] by this time, however, the discipline already had a significant philosophical foundation.[ ] in the th century, those in the emerging field of social psychology were concerned with developing concrete explanations for the different aspects of human nature. they attempted to discover concrete cause-and-effect relationships that explain the social interactions. in order to do so, they applied the scientific method to human behavior.[ ] early th century[edit] the first published study in the field was an experiment in by norman triplett, on the phenomenon of social facilitation.[ ] during the s, many gestalt psychologists, most notably kurt lewin, fled to the united states from nazi germany. they were instrumental in developing the field as an area separate from the dominant behavioral and psychoanalytic schools during that time. attitudes and small group phenomena were the most commonly studied topics in this era.[citation needed] during world war ii, social psychologists were primarily engaged with studies of persuasion and propaganda for the u.s. military (see also psychological warfare). following the war, researchers would become interested in a variety of social problems, including issues of gender and racial prejudice. most notable, revealing, and contentious of these were the shock experiments on obedience to authority conducted by stanley milgram. during the years immediately following world war ii, there was frequent collaboration between psychologists and sociologists. the two disciplines, however, have become increasingly specialized and isolated from each other in recent years, with sociologists generally focusing on more macro features whereas psychologists generally focusing on more micro features.[ ] late th century and modernity[edit] in the s, there was growing interest in topics such as cognitive dissonance, bystander intervention, and aggression. by the s, however, social psychology in america had reached a crisis, as heated debates would emerge over issues such as ethical concerns about laboratory experimentation, whether attitude could actually predict behavior, and how much science could really be done in a cultural context.[ ] this was also the time when a radical situationist approach came to challenge the relevance of self and personality in psychology.[ ] throughout the s and s, social psychology reached a more mature level, especially in regard to theory and methodology.[ ] now, careful ethical standards regulate research, and pluralistic and multicultural perspectives have emerged. modern researchers are interested in many phenomena, though attribution, social cognition, and the self-concept are perhaps the greatest areas of growth in recent years.[ ] social psychologists have also maintained their applied interests with contributions in the social psychology of health, education, law, and the workplace.[ ] intrapersonal phenomena[edit] attitudes[edit] main article: attitude (psychology) in social psychology, attitude is defined as learned, global evaluations (e.g. of people or issues) that influence thought and action.[ ][page needed] attitudes are basic expressions of approval and disapproval, or as bem ( ) suggests, likes and dislikes (e.g. enjoying chocolate ice cream, or endorsing the values of a particular political party).[ ] because people are influenced by situations, general attitudes are not always good predictors of specific behavior. for example, a person may value the environment but may not recycle a plastic bottle on a particular day. research on attitudes has examined the distinction between traditional self-reported attitude measures and implicit, unconscious attitudes. experiments using the implicit-association test, for instance, have found that people often demonstrate implicit bias against other races, even when their explicit responses reveal equal mindedness.[ ] likewise, one study found that in interracial interactions, explicit attitudes correlate with verbal behavior while implicit attitudes correlate with nonverbal behavior.[ ] one hypothesis on how attitudes are formed, first proposed in by abraham tesser, is that strong likes and dislikes are ingrained in our genetic make-up. tesser speculates that individuals are disposed to hold certain strong attitudes as a result of inborn personality traits and physical, sensory, and cognitive skills. attitudes are also formed as a result of exposure to different experiences and environments. attitudes are also formed through the process of learning. numerous studies have shown that people can form strong attitudes toward neutral objects that are in some way linked to emotionally charged stimuli.[ ]: – attitudes are also involved in several other areas of the discipline, such as conformity, interpersonal attraction, social perception, and prejudice.[citation needed] persuasion[edit] main article: persuasion persuasion is an active method of influence that attempts to guide people toward the adoption of an attitude, idea, or behavior by rational or emotive means. persuasion relies on appeals rather than strong pressure or coercion. the process of persuasion has been found to be influenced by numerous variables that generally fall into one of five major categories:[ ] 	communicator: includes credibility, expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness. 	message: includes varying degrees of reason, emotion (e.g. fear), one-sided or two sided arguments, and other types of informational content. 	audience: includes a variety of demographics, personality traits, and preferences. 	channel/medium: includes printed word, radio, television, the internet, or face-to-face interactions. 	context: includes environment, group dynamics, and preliminary information to that of the message (category # ). dual-process theories of persuasion (such as the elaboration likelihood model) maintain that persuasion is mediated by two separate routes: central and peripheral. the central route of persuasion is more fact-based and results in longer lasting change, but requires motivation to process. the peripheral route is more superficial and results in shorter lasting change, but does not require as much motivation to process. an example of peripheral persuasion is a politician using a flag lapel pin, smiling, and wearing a crisp, clean shirt. this does not require motivation to be persuasive, but should not last as long as central persuasion. if that politician were to outline what they believes and their previous voting record, he would be centrally persuasive, resulting in longer lasting change at the expense of greater motivation required for processing.[ ] social cognition[edit] main article: social cognition social cognition studies how people perceive, think about, and remember information about others.[ ] much research rests on the assertion that people think about other people differently from non-social targets.[ ] this assertion is supported by the social cognitive deficits exhibited by people with williams syndrome and autism.[ ] person perception is the study of how people form impressions of others. the study of how people form beliefs about each other while interacting is interpersonal perception. a major research topic in social cognition is attribution.[ ] attributions are the explanations we make for people's behavior, either our own behavior or the behavior of others. one element of attribution ascribes the cause of a behavior to internal and external factors. an internal, or dispositional, attribution reasons that behavior is caused by inner traits such as personality, disposition, character and ability. an external, or situational, attribution reasons that behaviour is caused by situational elements such as the weather.[ ]: a second element of attribution ascribes the cause of behavior to stable and unstable factors (i.e. whether the behavior will be repeated or changed under similar circumstances). individuals also attribute causes of behavior to controllable and uncontrollable factors (i.e. how much control one has over the situation at hand). numerous biases in the attribution process have been discovered. for instance, the fundamental attribution error is the tendency to make dispositional attributions for behavior, overestimating the influence of personality and underestimating the influence of situations.[ ]: the actor-observer difference is a refinement of this bias, the tendency to make dispositional attributions for other people's behavior and situational attributions for our own.[ ]: the self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute dispositional causes for successes, and situational causes for failure, particularly when self-esteem is threatened. this leads to assuming one's successes are from innate traits, and one's failures are due to situations.[ ]: other ways people protect their self-esteem are by believing in a just world, blaming victims for their suffering, and making defensive attributions that explain our behavior in ways that defend us from feelings of vulnerability and mortality.[ ]: researchers have found that mildly depressed individuals often lack this bias and actually have more realistic perceptions of reality (as measured by the opinions of others).[ ] heuristics[edit] heuristics are cognitive shortcuts. instead of weighing all the evidence when making a decision, people rely on heuristics to save time and energy. the availability heuristic occurs when people estimate the probability of an outcome based on how easy that outcome is to imagine. as such, vivid or highly memorable possibilities will be perceived as more likely than those that are harder to picture or are difficult to understand, resulting in a corresponding cognitive bias.[contradictory] the representativeness heuristic is a shortcut people use to categorize something based on how similar it is to a prototype they know of.[ ]: numerous other biases have been found by social cognition researchers. the hindsight bias is a false memory of having predicted events, or an exaggeration of actual predictions, after becoming aware of the outcome. the confirmation bias is a type of bias leading to the tendency to search for, or interpret information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.[ ] schemas[edit] another key concept in social cognition is the assumption that reality is too complex to easily discern. as a result, we tend to see the world according to simplified schemas or images of reality. schemas are generalized mental representations that organize knowledge and guide information processing. schemas often operate automatically and unintentionally, and can lead to biases in perception and memory. expectations from schemas may lead us to see something that is not there. one experiment found that people are more likely to misperceive a weapon in the hands of a black man than a white man.[ ] this type of schema is a stereotype, a generalized set of beliefs about a particular group of people (when incorrect, an ultimate attribution error). stereotypes are often related to negative or preferential attitudes (prejudice) and behavior (discrimination). schemas for behaviors (e.g., going to a restaurant, doing laundry) are known as scripts.[ ] self-concept[edit] main article: self-concept 	 	this section may require copy editing. (october ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) self-concept is the whole sum of beliefs that people have about themselves. the self-concept is made up of cognitive molecules called self-schemas—beliefs that people have about themselves that guide the processing of self-reliant information.[ ] for example, an athlete at a university would have multiple selves that would process different information pertinent to each self: the student would be one self, who would process information pertinent to a student (taking notes in class, completing a homework assignment, etc.); the athlete would be the self who processes information about things related to being an athlete (recognizing an incoming pass, aiming a shot, etc.). these selves are part of one's identity and the self-reliant information is the information that relies on the proper self to process and react on it. if a self is not part of one's identity, then it is much more difficult for one to react. for example, a civilian may not know how to handle a hostile threat as a trained marine would. the marine contains a self that would enable him/her to process the information about the hostile threat and react accordingly, whereas a civilian may not contain that self, disabling them from properly processing the information from the hostile threat and, furthermore, debilitating them from acting accordingly. the self-concept comprises multiple self-schemas. for example, people whose body image is a significant self-concept aspect are considered schematics with respect to weight. in contrast, people who do not regard their weight as an important part of their lives are aschematic on that attribute. for individuals, a range of otherwise mundane events—grocery shopping, new clothes, eating out, or going to the beach—can trigger thoughts about the self.[ ] the self is a special object of our attention. whether one is mentally focused on a memory, a conversation, a foul smell, the song that is stuck in one's head, or this sentence, consciousness is like a spotlight. this spotlight can shine on only one object at a time, but it can switch rapidly from one object to another and process the information out of awareness.[clarification needed] in this spotlight the self is front and center: things relating to the self have the spotlight more often.[ ] the abcs of self are:[ ]: 	affect (i.e. emotion): how do people evaluate themselves, enhance their self-image, and maintain a secure sense of identity? 	behavior: how do people regulate their own actions and present themselves to others according to interpersonal demands? 	cognition: how do individuals become themselves, build a self-concept, and uphold a stable sense of identity? affective forecasting is the process of predicting how one would feel in response to future emotional events. studies done in by timothy wilson and daniel gilbert have shown that people overestimate the strength of reaction to anticipated positive and negative life events that they actually feel when the event does occur.[ ] there are many theories on the perception of our own behavior. daryl bem's ( ) self-perception theory claims that when internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain self-insight by observing their own behavior.[ ] leon festinger's ( ) social comparison theory is that people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others when they are uncertain of their own ability or opinions.[ ] there is also the facial feedback hypothesis: changes in facial expression can lead to corresponding changes in emotion.[ ]: the self-concept is often divided into a cognitive component, known as the self-schema, and an evaluative component, the self-esteem. the need to maintain a healthy self-esteem is recognized as a central human motivation in the field of social psychology.[ ] self-efficacy beliefs are associated with the self-schema. these are expectations that performance on some task will be effective and successful. social psychologists also study such self-related processes as self-control and self-presentation.[ ] people develop their self-concepts by varied means, including introspection, feedback from others, self-perception, and social comparison. by comparing themselves to relevant others, people gain information about themselves, and they make inferences that are relevant to self-esteem. social comparisons can be either upward or downward, that is, comparisons to people who are either higher in status or ability, or lower in status or ability.[ ] downward comparisons are often made in order to elevate self-esteem.[ ] self-perception is a specialized form of attribution that involves making inferences about oneself after observing one's own behavior. psychologists have found that too many extrinsic rewards (e.g. money) tend to reduce intrinsic motivation through the self-perception process, a phenomenon known as overjustification. people's attention is directed to the reward and they lose interest in the task when the reward is no longer offered.[ ] this is an important exception to reinforcement theory. interpersonal phenomena[edit] social influence[edit] main article: social influence social influence is an overarching term given to describe the persuasive effects people have on each other. it is seen as a fundamental value in social psychology and overlaps considerably with research on attitudes and persuasion. the three main areas of social influence include: conformity, compliance, and obedience. social influence is also closely related to the study of group dynamics, as most principles of influence are strongest when they take place in social groups. the first major area of social influence is conformity. conformity is defined as the tendency to act or think like other members of a group. the identity of members within a group, i.e. status, similarity, expertise, as well as cohesion, prior commitment, and accountability to the group help to determine the level of conformity of an individual. individual variation among group members plays a key role in the dynamic of how willing people will be to conform.[ ]: conformity is usually viewed as a negative tendency in american culture, but a certain amount of conformity is adaptive in some situations, as is nonconformity in other situations.[ ]: which line matches the first line, a, b, or c? in the asch conformity experiments, people frequently followed the majority judgment, even when the majority was (objectively) wrong. the second major area of social influence research is compliance. compliance refers to any change in behavior that is due to a request or suggestion from another person. the foot-in-the-door technique is a compliance method in which the persuader requests a small favor and then follows up with requesting a larger favor, e.g., asking for the time and then asking for ten dollars. a related trick is the bait and switch.[ ] the third major form of social influence is obedience; this is a change in behavior that is the result of a direct order or command from another person. obedience as a form of compliance was dramatically highlighted by the milgram study, wherein people were ready to administer shocks to a person in distress on a researcher's command.[ ]: an unusual kind of social influence is the self-fulfilling prophecy. this is a prediction that, in being made, causes itself to become true. for example, in the stock market, if it is widely believed that a crash is imminent, investors may lose confidence, sell most of their stock, and thus cause the crash. similarly, people may expect hostility in others and induce this hostility by their own behavior.[ ]: psychologists have spent decades studying the power of social influence, and the way in which it manipulates people's opinions and behavior. specifically, social influence refers to the way in which individuals change their ideas and actions to meet the demands of a social group, received authority, social role or a minority within a group wielding influence over the majority. no matter if you are student, teacher, doctor, lawyer or entrepreneur, you will encounter some type of social influence.[ ] group dynamics[edit] main article: group dynamics a group can be defined as two or more individuals that are connected to each another by social relationships.[ ] groups tend to interact, influence each other, and share a common identity. they have a number of emergent qualities that distinguish them from aggregates:[ ] 	norms: implicit rules and expectations for group members to follow (e.g. saying thank you, shaking hands). 	roles: implicit rules and expectations for specific members within the group (e.g. the oldest sibling, who may have additional responsibilities in the family). 	relations: patterns of liking within the group, and also differences in prestige or status (e.g. leaders, popular people). temporary groups and aggregates share few or none of these features, and do not qualify as true social groups. people waiting in line to get on a bus, for example, do not constitute a group.[citation needed] groups are important not only because they offer social support, resources, and a feeling of belonging, but because they supplement an individual's self-concept. to a large extent, humans define themselves by the group memberships which form their social identity. the shared social identity of individuals within a group influences intergroup behavior, the way in which groups behave towards and perceive each other. these perceptions and behaviors in turn define the social identity of individuals within the interacting groups. the tendency to define oneself by membership in a group may lead to intergroup discrimination, which involves favorable perceptions and behaviors directed towards the in-group, but negative perceptions and behaviors directed towards the out-group.[ ] on the other hand, such discrimination and segregation may sometimes exist partly to facilitate a diversity that strengthens society.[ ] intergroup discrimination leads to prejudice and stereotyping, while the processes of social facilitation and group polarization encourage extreme behaviors towards the out-group. groups often moderate and improve decision making,[citation needed] and are frequently relied upon for these benefits, such as in committees and juries. a number of group biases, however, can interfere with effective decision making. for example, group polarization, formerly known as the risky shift, occurs when people polarize their views in a more extreme direction after group discussion. more problematic is the phenomenon of groupthink. this is a collective thinking defect that is characterized by a premature consensus or an incorrect assumption of consensus, caused by members of a group failing to promote views that are not consistent with the views of other members. groupthink occurs in a variety of situations, including isolation of a group and the presence of a highly directive leader. janis offered the bay of pigs invasion as a historical case of groupthink.[ ] groups also affect performance and productivity. social facilitation, for example, is a tendency to work harder and faster in the presence of others. social facilitation increases the dominant response's likelihood, which tends to improve performance on simple tasks and reduce it on complex tasks.[citation needed] in contrast, social loafing is the tendency of individuals to slack off when working in a group. social loafing is common when the task is considered unimportant and individual contributions are not easy to see.[ ] social psychologists study group-related (collective) phenomena such as the behavior of crowds. an important concept in this area is deindividuation, a reduced state of self-awareness that can be caused by feelings of anonymity. deindividuation is associated with uninhibited and sometimes dangerous behavior. it is common in crowds and mobs, but it can also be caused by a disguise, a uniform, alcohol, dark environments, or online anonymity.[ ][ ] social psychologists study interactions within groups, and between both groups and individuals. interpersonal attraction[edit] main article: interpersonal attraction a major area in the study of people's relations to each other is interpersonal attraction. this refers to all forces that lead people to like each other, establish relationships, and (in some cases) fall in love. several general principles of attraction have been discovered by social psychologists, but many still continue to experiment and do research to find out more. one of the most important factors in interpersonal attraction is how similar two particular people are. the more similar two people are in general attitudes, backgrounds, environments, worldviews, and other traits, the more probable an attraction is possible.[ ][i] physical attractiveness is an important element of romantic relationships, particularly in the early stages characterized by high levels of passion. later on, similarity and other compatibility factors become more important, and the type of love people experience shifts from passionate to companionate. robert sternberg ( ) has suggested that there are actually three components of love: intimacy, passion, and commitment.[ ] when two (or more) people experience all three, they are said to be in a state of consummate love. according to social exchange theory, relationships are based on rational choice and cost-benefit analysis. if one partner's costs begin to outweigh their benefits, that person may leave the relationship, especially if there are good alternatives available. this theory is similar to the minimax principle proposed by mathematicians and economists (despite the fact that human relationships are not zero-sum games). with time, long-term relationships tend to become communal rather than simply based on exchange.[ ] research[edit] methods[edit] social psychology is an empirical science that attempts to answer questions about human behavior by testing hypotheses, both in the laboratory and in the field. careful attention to sampling, research design, and statistical analysis is important; results are published in peer reviewed journals such as the journal of experimental social psychology, personality and social psychology bulletin and the journal of personality and social psychology. social psychology studies also appear in general science journals such as psychological science and science. experimental methods involve the researcher altering a variable in the environment and measuring the effect on another variable. an example would be allowing two groups of children to play violent or nonviolent videogames, and then observing their subsequent level of aggression during free-play period. a valid experiment is controlled and uses random assignment. correlational methods examine the statistical association between two naturally occurring variables. for example, one could correlate the amount of violent television children watch at home with the number of violent incidents the children participate in at school. note that this study would not prove that violent tv causes aggression in children: it is quite possible that aggressive children choose to watch more violent tv. observational methods are purely descriptive and include naturalistic observation, contrived observation, participant observation, and archival analysis. these are less common in social psychology but are sometimes used when first investigating a phenomenon. an example would be to unobtrusively observe children on a playground (with a videocamera, perhaps) and record the number and types of aggressive actions displayed. whenever possible, social psychologists rely on controlled experimentation. controlled experiments require the manipulation of one or more independent variables in order to examine the effect on a dependent variable. experiments are useful in social psychology because they are high in internal validity, meaning that they are free from the influence of confounding or extraneous variables, and so are more likely to accurately indicate a causal relationship. however, the small samples used in controlled experiments are typically low in external validity, or the degree to which the results can be generalized to the larger population. there is usually a trade-off between experimental control (internal validity) and being able to generalize to the population (external validity). because it is usually impossible to test everyone, research tends to be conducted on a sample of persons from the wider population. social psychologists frequently use survey research when they are interested in results that are high in external validity. surveys use various forms of random sampling to obtain a sample of respondents that are representative of a population. this type of research is usually descriptive or correlational because there is no experimental control over variables. some psychologists have raised concerns about social psychological research for relying too heavily on studies conducted on university undergraduates in academic settings,[ ][ ] or participants from crowdsourcing labor markets such as amazon mechanical turk.[ ][ ] in a study by david o. sears ( ),[ ] over % of experiments used north american undergraduates as subjects, a subset of the population that are unrepresentative of the population as a whole.[ ] regardless of which method has been chosen to be used, the results are of high importance. results need to be used to evaluate the hypothesis of the research that is done. these results should either confirm or reject the original hypothesis that was predicted. there are two different types of testing social psychologists use in order to test their results. statistics and probability testing define a significant finding that can be as low as % or less, likely to be due to chance.[ ] replications are important, to ensure that the result is valid and not due to chance, or some feature of a particular sample. false positive conclusions, often resulting from the pressure to publish or the author's own confirmation bias, are a hazard in the field.[ ] famous experiments[edit] asch conformity experiments[edit] main articles: asch conformity experiments and solomon asch the asch conformity experiments demonstrated the power of conformity in small groups with a line length estimation task that was designed to be extremely easy.[ ] in well over a third of the trials, participants conformed to the majority, who had been instructed to provide incorrect answers, even though the majority judgment was clearly wrong. seventy-five percent of the participants conformed at least once during the experiment. additional manipulations to the experiment showed participant conformity decreased when at least one other individual failed to conform, but increased when the individual began conforming or withdrew from the experiment.[ ] also, participant conformity increased substantially as the number of incorrect individuals increased from one to three, and remained high as the incorrect majority grew. participants with three incorrect opponents made mistakes . % of the time, while those with one or two incorrect opponents made mistakes only . % and . % of the time, respectively.[ ] festinger (cognitive dissonance)[edit] main article: leon festinger § cognitive dissonance in leon festinger's cognitive dissonance experiment, participants were asked to perform a boring task. they were divided into two groups and given two different pay scales. at the study's end, some participants were paid $ to say that they enjoyed the task and another group of participants was paid $ to say the same lie. the first group ($ ) later reported liking the task better than the second group ($ ). festinger's explanation was that for people in the first group being paid only $ is not sufficient incentive for lying and those who were paid $ experienced dissonance. they could only overcome that dissonance by justifying their lies by changing their previously unfavorable attitudes about the task. being paid $ provides a reason for doing the boring task resulting in no dissonance.[ ][ ] the milgram experiment: the experimenter (e) persuades the participant (t) to give what the participant believes are painful electric shocks to another participant (l), who is actually an actor. many participants continued to give shocks despite pleas for mercy from the actor. milgram experiment[edit] main articles: milgram experiment, obedience to authority, and stanley milgram the milgram experiment was designed to study how far people would go to obey an authority figure. following the events of the holocaust in world war ii, the experiment showed that normal american citizens were capable of following orders from an authority even when they believed they were causing an innocent person to suffer.[ ] stanford prison experiment[edit] main articles: stanford prison experiment and philip zimbardo in the stanford prison study, by philip zimbardo, a simulated exercise between student prisoners and guards showed how far people would follow an adopted role. in just a few days, the guards became brutal and cruel, and the prisoners became miserable and compliant. this was initially argued to be an important demonstration of the power of the immediate social situation and its capacity to overwhelm normal personality traits.[ ][ ] subsequent research has found the initial conclusions of the study to be contentious. for example, it has been pointed out that participant self-selection may have affected the participants' behavior,[ ] and that the participants' personalities influenced their reactions in a variety of ways, including how long they chose to remain in the study. the bbc prison study, designed to replicate the conditions in the stanford study, produced conclusions that were drastically different from the initial findings.[ ] others[edit] muzafer sherif's robbers' cave study divided boys into two competing groups to explore how much hostility and aggression would emerge. sherif's explanation of the results became known as realistic group conflict theory, because the intergroup conflict was induced through competition over resources.[ ] inducing cooperation and superordinate goals later reversed this effect. albert bandura's bobo doll experiment demonstrated how aggression is learned by imitation.[ ] this set of studies fueled debates regarding media violence, a topic that continues to be debated among scholars. ethics[edit] the goal of social psychology is to understand cognition and behavior as they naturally occur in a social context, but the very act of observing people can influence and alter their behavior. for this reason, many social psychology experiments utilize deception to conceal or distort certain aspects of the study. deception may include false cover stories, false participants (known as confederates or stooges), false feedback given to the participants, and so on.[clarification needed] the practice of deception has been challenged by some psychologists who maintain that deception under any circumstances is unethical, and that other research strategies (e.g., role-playing) should be used instead. unfortunately, research has shown that role-playing studies do not produce the same results as deception studies and this has cast doubt on their validity.[citation needed] in addition to deception, experimenters have at times put people into potentially uncomfortable or embarrassing situations (e.g., the milgram experiment and stanford prison experiment), and this has also been criticized for ethical reasons. to protect the rights and well-being of research participants, and at the same time discover meaningful results and insights into human behavior, virtually all social psychology research must pass an ethical review process. at most colleges and universities, this is conducted by an ethics committee or institutional review board. this group examines the proposed research to make sure that no harm is likely to be done to the participants, and that the study's benefits outweigh any possible risks or discomforts to people taking part in the study. furthermore, a process of informed consent is often used to make sure that volunteers know what will happen in the experiment[clarification needed] and understand that they are allowed to quit the experiment at any time. a debriefing is typically done at the experiment's conclusion in order to reveal any deceptions used and generally make sure that the participants are unharmed by the procedures.[clarification needed] today, most research in social psychology involves no more risk of harm than can be expected from routine psychological testing or normal daily activities.[ ] adolescents[edit] social psychology plays a key role in a child's development. during this time, teens are faced with many issues and decisions that can impact their social development. they are faced with self-esteem issues, peer pressure, drugs, alcohol, tobacco, sex, and social media.[ ] psychologists today are not fully aware of the effect of social media. social media is worldwide, so one can be influenced by something they will never encounter in real life. in , social media became the single most important activity in adolescents and even some older adults lives.[ ] replication crisis[edit] main article: replication crisis social psychology has found itself at the center of a replication crisis due to some research findings proving difficult to replicate.[ ] replication failures are not unique to social psychology and are found in all fields of science. however, several factors have combined to put social psychology at the center of the current controversy. firstly, questionable research practices have been identified as common in the field. such practices, while not necessarily intentionally fraudulent, involve converting undesired statistical outcomes into desired outcomes via the manipulation of statistical analyses, sample size or data management, typically to convert non-significant findings into significant ones.[ ] some studies have suggested that at least mild versions of these practices are highly prevalent.[ ] one of the critics of daryl bem in the feeling the future controversy has suggested that the evidence for precognition in this study could (at least in part) be attributed to these practices. secondly, social psychology has found itself at the center of several recent scandals involving outright fraudulent research. most notably the admitted data fabrication by diederik stapel[ ] as well as allegations against others. however, most scholars acknowledge that fraud is, perhaps, the lesser contribution to replication crises.[citation needed] third, several effects in social psychology have been found to be difficult to replicate even before the current replication crisis. for example, the scientific journal judgment and decision making has published several studies over the years that fail to provide support for the unconscious thought theory. replications appear particularly difficult when research trials are pre-registered and conducted by research groups not highly invested in the theory under questioning. these three elements together have resulted in renewed attention for replication supported by daniel kahneman. scrutiny of many effects have shown that several core beliefs are hard to replicate. a special edition of social psychology focused on replication studies and a number of previously held beliefs were found to be difficult to replicate.[ ] likewise, a special edition of perspectives on psychological science also focused on issues ranging from publication bias to null-aversion that contribute to the replication crises in psychology.[ ] it is important to note that this replication crisis does not mean that social psychology is unscientific.[ ] rather this process is a healthy if sometimes acrimonious part of the scientific process in which old ideas or those that cannot withstand careful scrutiny are pruned.[ ] the consequence is that some areas of social psychology once considered solid, such as social priming, have come under increased scrutiny due to failed replications.[ ] academic journals[edit] 	asian journal of social psychology 	basic and applied social psychology 	british journal of social psychology 	european journal of social psychology 	journal of applied social psychology 	journal of experimental social psychology 	journal of personality and social psychology 	journal of social psychology 	personality and social psychology bulletin 	personality and social psychology review 	social psychology see also[edit] 	psychology portal 	association of psychological and social studies 	crowd psychology 	intergroup relations 	european association of social psychology 	fuzzy-trace theory 	list of biases in judgment and decision making 	list of publications in social psychology 	list of social psychologists 	sociological approach to social psychology 	society for personality and social psychology 	society of experimental social psychology 	socionics notes[edit] 	^ "thus interpersonal attraction and attitude similarity have a direct correlation. more so than those with dissimilar attitudes and views, who tend to not be as successful in the attraction department." 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wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		this article is about the broad discipline of sociology. for other uses, see sociology (disambiguation). scientific study of human society and its origins, development, organizations, and institutions 	part of a series on 	sociology 	 	 	history 	outline 	index 	 theories 	conflict theory 	structural functionalism 	symbolic interactionism 	critical theory 	positivism 	social change 	social constructionism 	social movement theory 	 methods 	quantitative 	qualitative 	comparative 	computational 	ethnographic 	conversation analysis 	historical 	interview 	mathematical 	network analysis 	survey 	 subfields 	criminology 	culture 	demography 	development 	deviance 	economic 	education 	environmental 	family 	feminist 	gender 	health 	immigration 	industrial 	knowledge 	law 	literature 	medical 	military 	organizational 	political 	race and ethnicity 	religion 	rural 	science 	social anthropology 	social psychology in sociology 	sociolinguistics 	stratification 	technology 	terrorism 	urban 	 people 	Émile durkheim 	herbert spencer 	max weber 	friedrich engels 	auguste comte 	george herbert mead 	georg simmel 	w.e.b. du bois 	roland barthes 	ernest burgess 	michel foucault 	erving goffman 	antonio gramsci 	jürgen habermas 	thorstein veblen 	ferdinand tönnies 	william graham sumner 	 lists 	bibliography 	terminology 	journals 	organizations 	people 	timeline 	by country 	 	 society portal 		v 	t 	e sociology is the study of human behavior. sociology refers to social behavior, society, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture that surrounds everyday life.[ ][ ][ ] it is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis[ ]: – to develop a body of knowledge about social order and social change.[ ]: – sociology can also be defined as the general science of society. while some sociologists conduct research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, others focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes. subject matter can range from micro-level analyses of society (i.e., of individual interaction and agency) to macro-level analyses (i.e., of systems and the social structure).[ ] traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, sexuality, gender, and deviance. as all spheres of human activity are affected by the interplay between social structure and individual agency, sociology has gradually expanded its focus to other subjects and institutions, such as health and the institution of medicine; economy; military; punishment and systems of control; the internet; education; social capital; and the role of social activity in the development of scientific knowledge. the range of social scientific methods has also expanded, as social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques. the linguistic and cultural turns of the mid- th century, especially, have led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of society. conversely, the turn of the st century has seen the rise of new analytically, mathematically, and computationally rigorous techniques, such as agent-based modelling and social network analysis.[ ][ ] social research has influence throughout various industries and sectors of life, such as among politicians, policy makers, and legislators; educators; planners; administrators; developers; business magnates and managers; social workers; non-governmental organizations; and non-profit organizations, as well as individuals interested in resolving social issues in general. as such, there is often a great deal of crossover between social research, market research, and other statistical fields.[ ] contents 	 origins 	 . etymology 	 . . sieyès 	 . . comte 	 . . marx 	 . . spencer 	 . positivism and antipositivism 	 . . positivism 	 . . anti-positivism 	 . foundations of the academic discipline 	 . . further developments 	 theoretical traditions 	 . classical theory 	 . . functionalism 	 . . conflict theory 	 . . symbolic interactionism 	 . . utilitarianism 	 . th-century social theory 	 . . pax wisconsana 	 . . structuralism 	 . . post-structuralism 	 central theoretical problems 	 . subjectivity and objectivity 	 . structure and agency 	 . synchrony and diachrony 	 research methodology 	 . sampling 	 . methods 	 . computational sociology 	 subfields 	 . culture 	 . . art, music and literature 	 . criminality, deviance, law and punishment 	 . . sociology of law 	 . communications and information technologies 	 . . internet and digital media 	 . . media 	 . economic sociology 	 . . work, employment, and industry 	 . education 	 . environment 	 . . human ecology 	 . . social pre-wiring 	 . family, gender, and sexuality 	 . health, illness, and the body 	 . . death, dying, bereavement 	 . knowledge and science 	 . leisure 	 . peace, war, and conflict 	 . political sociology 	 . population and demography 	 . public sociology 	 . race and ethnic relations 	 . religion 	 . social change and development 	 . social networks 	 . social psychology 	 . stratification, poverty and inequality 	 . urban and rural sociology 	 . . community sociology 	 other academic disciplines 	 journals 	 see also 	 notes 	 references 	 . citations 	 . sources 	 external links origins[edit] main article: history of sociology further information: list of sociologists and timeline of sociology ibn khaldun statue in tunis, tunisia ( – ) sociological reasoning predates the foundation of the discipline itself. social analysis has origins in the common stock of western knowledge and philosophy, having been carried out from as far back as the time of old comic poetry which features social and political criticism,[ ] and ancient greek philosophers socrates, plato, and aristotle, if not earlier. for instance, the origin of the survey (i.e., the collection of information from a sample of individuals) can be traced back to at least the domesday book in ,[ ][ ] while ancient philosophers such as confucius wrote about the importance of social roles. there is evidence of early sociology in medieval arabic writings as well. some sources consider ibn khaldun, a th-century arab-islamic scholar from tunisia,[note ] to have been the father of sociology although there isn't reference to his work in the work of major founders of modern sociology.[ ][ ][ ][ ] khaldun's muqaddimah was perhaps the first work to advance social-scientific reasoning on social cohesion and social conflict.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] etymology[edit] the word sociology (or "sociologie") derives part of its name from the latin word socius ("companion"). the suffix -logy ("the study of'") come from that of the greek -λογία, derived from λόγος (lógos, "word" or "knowledge"). sieyès[edit] the term "sociology" was first coined in by the french essayist emmanuel-joseph sieyès in an unpublished manuscript.[ ][note ] comte[edit] "sociology" was later defined independently by french philosopher of science auguste comte in [ ] as a new way of looking at society.[ ]: comte had earlier used the term "social physics," but it had been subsequently appropriated by others, most notably the belgian statistician adolphe quetelet. comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology, and economics through the scientific understanding of social life. writing shortly after the malaise of the french revolution, he proposed that social ills could be remedied through sociological positivism, an epistemological approach outlined in the course in positive philosophy ( – ), later included in a general view of positivism ( ). comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era, after conjectural theological and metaphysical phases, in the progression of human understanding.[ ] in observing the circular dependence of theory and observation in science, and having classified the sciences, comte may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term.[ ][ ] auguste comte ( – ) comte gave a powerful impetus to the development of sociology, an impetus which bore fruit in the later decades of the nineteenth century. to say this is certainly not to claim that french sociologists such as durkheim were devoted disciples of the high priest of positivism. but by insisting on the irreducibility of each of his basic sciences to the particular science of sciences which it presupposed in the hierarchy and by emphasizing the nature of sociology as the scientific study of social phenomena comte put sociology on the map. to be sure, [its] beginnings can be traced back well beyond montesquieu, for example, and to condorcet, not to speak of saint-simon, comte's immediate predecessor. but comte's clear recognition of sociology as a particular science, with a character of its own, justified durkheim in regarding him as the father or founder of this science, in spite of the fact that durkheim did not accept the idea of the three states and criticized comte's approach to sociology. — frederick copleston, a history of philosophy: ix modern philosophy ( ), p. karl marx ( – ) marx[edit] both comte and karl marx set out to develop scientifically justified systems in the wake of european industrialization and secularization, informed by various key movements in the philosophies of history and science. marx rejected comtean positivism[ ] but in attempting to develop a "science of society" nevertheless came to be recognized as a founder of sociology as the word gained wider meaning. for isaiah berlin ( ), even though marx did not consider himself to be a sociologist, he may be regarded as the "true father" of modern sociology, "in so far as anyone can claim the title."[ ]: to have given clear and unified answers in familiar empirical terms to those theoretical questions which most occupied men's minds at the time, and to have deduced from them clear practical directives without creating obviously artificial links between the two, was the principal achievement of marx's theory. the sociological treatment of historical and moral problems, which comte and after him, spencer and taine, had discussed and mapped, became a precise and concrete study only when the attack of militant marxism made its conclusions a burning issue, and so made the search for evidence more zealous and the attention to method more intense.[ ]: – spencer[edit] herbert spencer ( – ) herbert spencer ( – ) was one of the most popular and influential th-century sociologists. it is estimated that he sold one million books in his lifetime, far more than any other sociologist at the time. so strong was his influence that many other th-century thinkers, including Émile durkheim, defined their ideas in relation to his. durkheim's division of labour in society is to a large extent an extended debate with spencer from whose sociology, many commentators now agree, durkheim borrowed extensively.[ ] also a notable biologist, spencer coined the term survival of the fittest. while marxian ideas defined one strand of sociology, spencer was a critic of socialism as well as strong advocate for a laissez-faire style of government. his ideas were closely observed by conservative political circles, especially in the united states and england.[ ] positivism and antipositivism[edit] positivism[edit] main article: positivism the overarching methodological principle of positivism is to conduct sociology in broadly the same manner as natural science. an emphasis on empiricism and the scientific method is sought to provide a tested foundation for sociological research based on the assumption that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge, and that such knowledge can only arrive by positive affirmation through scientific methodology. our main goal is to extend scientific rationalism to human conduct.... what has been called our positivism is but a consequence of this rationalism.[ ] — Émile durkheim, the rules of sociological method ( ) the term has long since ceased to carry this meaning; there are no fewer than twelve distinct epistemologies that are referred to as positivism.[ ][ ] many of these approaches do not self-identify as "positivist", some because they themselves arose in opposition to older forms of positivism, and some because the label has over time become a pejorative term[ ] by being mistakenly linked with a theoretical empiricism. the extent of antipositivist criticism has also diverged, with many rejecting the scientific method and others only seeking to amend it to reflect th-century developments in the philosophy of science. however, positivism (broadly understood as a scientific approach to the study of society) remains dominant in contemporary sociology, especially in the united states.[ ] loïc wacquant distinguishes three major strains of positivism: durkheimian, logical, and instrumental.[ ] none of these are the same as that set forth by comte, who was unique in advocating such a rigid (and perhaps optimistic) version.[ ][ ]: – , – while Émile durkheim rejected much of the detail of comte's philosophy, he retained and refined its method. durkheim maintained that the social sciences are a logical continuation of the natural ones into the realm of human activity, and insisted that they should retain the same objectivity, rationalism, and approach to causality.[ ] he developed the notion of objective sui generis "social facts" to serve as unique empirical objects for the science of sociology to study.[ ] the variety of positivism that remains dominant today is termed instrumental positivism. this approach eschews epistemological and metaphysical concerns (such as the nature of social facts) in favour of methodological clarity, replicability, reliability and validity.[ ] this positivism is more or less synonymous with quantitative research, and so only resembles older positivism in practice. since it carries no explicit philosophical commitment, its practitioners may not belong to any particular school of thought. modern sociology of this type is often credited to paul lazarsfeld,[ ] who pioneered large-scale survey studies and developed statistical techniques for analysing them. this approach lends itself to what robert k. merton called middle-range theory: abstract statements that generalize from segregated hypotheses and empirical regularities rather than starting with an abstract idea of a social whole.[ ] anti-positivism[edit] main article: anti-positivism reactions against social empiricism began when german philosopher hegel voiced opposition to both empiricism, which he rejected as uncritical, and determinism, which he viewed as overly mechanistic.[ ]: karl marx's methodology borrowed from hegelian dialecticism but also a rejection of positivism in favour of critical analysis, seeking to supplement the empirical acquisition of "facts" with the elimination of illusions.[ ]: – he maintained that appearances need to be critiqued rather than simply documented. early hermeneuticians such as wilhelm dilthey pioneered the distinction between natural and social science ('geisteswissenschaft'). various neo-kantian philosophers, phenomenologists and human scientists further theorized how the analysis of the social world differs to that of the natural world due to the irreducibly complex aspects of human society, culture, and being.[ ][ ] in the italian context of development of social sciences and of sociology in particular, there are oppositions to the first foundation of the discipline, sustained by speculative philosophy in accordance with the antiscientific tendencies matured by critique of positivism and evolutionism, so a tradition progressist struggles to establish itself.[ ] at the turn of the th century the first generation of german sociologists formally introduced methodological anti-positivism, proposing that research should concentrate on human cultural norms, values, symbols, and social processes viewed from a resolutely subjective perspective. max weber argued that sociology may be loosely described as a science as it is able to identify causal relationships of human "social action"—especially among "ideal types", or hypothetical simplifications of complex social phenomena.[ ]: – as a non-positivist, however, weber sought relationships that are not as "historical, invariant, or generalisable"[ ]: as those pursued by natural scientists. fellow german sociologist, ferdinand tönnies, theorised on two crucial abstract concepts with his work on "gemeinschaft and gesellschaft" (lit. 'community' and 'society'). tönnies marked a sharp line between the realm of concepts and the reality of social action: the first must be treated axiomatically and in a deductive way ("pure sociology"), whereas the second empirically and inductively ("applied sociology").[ ] max weber [sociology is] ... the science whose object is to interpret the meaning of social action and thereby give a causal explanation of the way in which the action proceeds and the effects which it produces. by 'action' in this definition is meant the human behaviour when and to the extent that the agent or agents see it as subjectively meaningful ... the meaning to which we refer may be either (a) the meaning actually intended either by an individual agent on a particular historical occasion or by a number of agents on an approximate average in a given set of cases, or (b) the meaning attributed to the agent or agents, as types, in a pure type constructed in the abstract. in neither case is the 'meaning' to be thought of as somehow objectively 'correct' or 'true' by some metaphysical criterion. this is the difference between the empirical sciences of action, such as sociology and history, and any kind of prior discipline, such as jurisprudence, logic, ethics, or aesthetics whose aim is to extract from their subject-matter 'correct' or 'valid' meaning.[ ] — max weber, the nature of social action ( ), p. both weber and georg simmel pioneered the "verstehen" (or 'interpretative') method in social science; a systematic process by which an outside observer attempts to relate to a particular cultural group, or indigenous people, on their own terms and from their own point of view.[ ] through the work of simmel, in particular, sociology acquired a possible character beyond positivist data-collection or grand, deterministic systems of structural law. relatively isolated from the sociological academy throughout his lifetime, simmel presented idiosyncratic analyses of modernity more reminiscent of the phenomenological and existential writers than of comte or durkheim, paying particular concern to the forms of, and possibilities for, social individuality.[ ] his sociology engaged in a neo-kantian inquiry into the limits of perception, asking 'what is society?' in a direct allusion to kant's question 'what is nature?'[ ] georg simmel the deepest problems of modern life flow from the attempt of the individual to maintain the independence and individuality of his existence against the sovereign powers of society, against the weight of the historical heritage and the external culture and technique of life. the antagonism represents the most modern form of the conflict which primitive man must carry on with nature for his own bodily existence. the eighteenth century may have called for liberation from all the ties which grew up historically in politics, in religion, in morality and in economics in order to permit the original natural virtue of man, which is equal in everyone, to develop without inhibition; the nineteenth century may have sought to promote, in addition to man's freedom, his individuality (which is connected with the division of labor) and his achievements which make him unique and indispensable but which at the same time make him so much the more dependent on the complementary activity of others; nietzsche may have seen the relentless struggle of the individual as the prerequisite for his full development, while socialism found the same thing in the suppression of all competition – but in each of these the same fundamental motive was at work, namely the resistance of the individual to being leveled, swallowed up in the social-technological mechanism.[ ] — georg simmel, the metropolis and mental life ( ) foundations of the academic discipline[edit] main articles: Émile durkheim and social facts Émile durkheim the first formal department of sociology in the world was established in by albion small—from the invitation of william rainey harper—at the university of chicago. the american journal of sociology was founded shortly thereafter in by small as well.[ ] the institutionalization of sociology as an academic discipline, however, was chiefly led by Émile durkheim, who developed positivism as a foundation for practical social research. while durkheim rejected much of the detail of comte's philosophy, he retained and refined its method, maintaining that the social sciences are a logical continuation of the natural ones into the realm of human activity, and insisting that they may retain the same objectivity, rationalism, and approach to causality.[ ] durkheim set up the first european department of sociology at the university of bordeaux in , publishing his rules of the sociological method ( ).[ ] for durkheim, sociology could be described as the "science of institutions, their genesis and their functioning."[ ] durkheim's monograph suicide ( ) is considered a seminal work in statistical analysis by contemporary sociologists. suicide is a case study of variations in suicide rates among catholic and protestant populations, and served to distinguish sociological analysis from psychology or philosophy. it also marked a major contribution to the theoretical concept of structural functionalism. by carefully examining suicide statistics in different police districts, he attempted to demonstrate that catholic communities have a lower suicide rate than that of protestants, something he attributed to social (as opposed to individual or psychological) causes. he developed the notion of objective sui generis, "social facts", to delineate a unique empirical object for the science of sociology to study.[ ] through such studies he posited that sociology would be able to determine whether any given society is 'healthy' or 'pathological', and seek social reform to negate organic breakdown or "social anomie". sociology quickly evolved as an academic response to the perceived challenges of modernity, such as industrialization, urbanization, secularization, and the process of "rationalization".[ ] the field predominated in continental europe, with british anthropology and statistics generally following on a separate trajectory. by the turn of the th century, however, many theorists were active in the english-speaking world. few early sociologists were confined strictly to the subject, interacting also with economics, jurisprudence, psychology and philosophy, with theories being appropriated in a variety of different fields. since its inception, sociological epistemology, methods, and frames of inquiry, have significantly expanded and diverged.[ ] durkheim, marx, and the german theorist max weber are typically cited as the three principal architects of sociology.[ ] herbert spencer, william graham sumner, lester f. ward, w.e.b. du bois, vilfredo pareto, alexis de tocqueville, werner sombart, thorstein veblen, ferdinand tönnies, georg simmel, jane addams and karl mannheim are often included on academic curricula as founding theorists. curricula also may include charlotte perkins gilman, marianne weber, and friedrich engels as founders of the feminist tradition in sociology. each key figure is associated with a particular theoretical perspective and orientation.[ ] marx and engels associated the emergence of modern society above all with the development of capitalism; for durkheim it was connected in particular with industrialization and the new social division of labor which this brought about; for weber it had to do with the emergence of a distinctive way of thinking, the rational calculation which he associated with the protestant ethic (more or less what marx and engels speak of in terms of those 'icy waves of egotistical calculation'). together the works of these great classical sociologists suggest what giddens has recently described as 'a multidimensional view of institutions of modernity' and which emphasises not only capitalism and industrialism as key institutions of modernity, but also 'surveillance' (meaning 'control of information and social supervision') and 'military power' (control of the means of violence in the context of the industrialisation of war).[ ] — john harriss, the second great transformation? capitalism at the end of the twentieth century ( ) further developments[edit] bust of ferdinand tönnies in husum, germany the first college course entitled "sociology" was taught in the united states at yale in by william graham sumner.[ ] in lester f. ward, who later became the first president of the american sociological association (asa), published dynamic sociology—or applied social science as based upon statical sociology and the less complex sciences, attacking the laissez-faire sociology of herbert spencer and sumner.[ ] ward's -page book was used as core material in many early american sociology courses. in , the oldest continuing american course in the modern tradition began at the university of kansas, lectured by frank w. blackmar.[ ] the department of sociology at the university of chicago was established in by albion small, who also published the first sociology textbook: an introduction to the study of society .[ ] george herbert mead and charles cooley, who had met at the university of michigan in (along with john dewey), moved to chicago in .[ ] their influence gave rise to social psychology and the symbolic interactionism of the modern chicago school.[ ] the american journal of sociology was founded in , followed by the asa in .[ ] the sociological "canon of classics" with durkheim and max weber at the top owes in part to talcott parsons, who is largely credited with introducing both to american audiences.[ ] parsons consolidated the sociological tradition and set the agenda for american sociology at the point of its fastest disciplinary growth. sociology in the united states was less historically influenced by marxism than its european counterpart, and to this day broadly remains more statistical in its approach.[ ] the first sociology department to be established in the united kingdom was at the london school of economics and political science (home of the british journal of sociology) in .[ ] leonard trelawny hobhouse and edvard westermarck became the lecturers in the discipline at the university of london in .[ ][ ] harriet martineau, an english translator of comte, has been cited as the first female sociologist.[ ] in the deutsche gesellschaft für soziologie (german sociological association) was founded by ferdinand tönnies and max weber, among others. weber established the first department in germany at the ludwig maximilian university of munich in , having presented an influential new antipositivist sociology.[ ] in , florian znaniecki set up the first department in poland. the institute for social research at the university of frankfurt (later to become the frankfurt school of critical theory) was founded in .[ ] international co-operation in sociology began in , when rené worms founded the institut international de sociologie, an institution later eclipsed by the much larger international sociological association (isa), founded in .[ ] theoretical traditions[edit] main article: sociological theory classical theory[edit] the contemporary discipline of sociology is theoretically multi-paradigmatic[ ] in line with the contentions of classical social theory. randall collins' well-cited survey of sociological theory[ ] retroactively labels various theorists as belonging to four theoretical traditions: functionalism, conflict, symbolic interactionism, and utilitarianism.[ ] accordingly, modern sociological theory predominantly descends from functionalist (durkheim) and conflict (marx and weber) approaches to social structure, as well as from symbolic-interactionist approaches to social interaction, such as micro-level structural (simmel) and pragmatist (mead, cooley) perspectives. utilitarianism (aka rational choice or social exchange), although often associated with economics, is an established tradition within sociological theory.[ ][ ] lastly, as argued by raewyn connell, a tradition that is often forgotten is that of social darwinism, which applies the logic of darwinian biological evolution to people and societies.[ ] this tradition often aligns with classical functionalism, and was once the dominant theoretical stance in american sociology, from c.   – c.  ,[ ] associated with several founders of sociology, primarily herbert spencer, lester f. ward, and william graham sumner. contemporary sociological theory retains traces of each of these traditions and they are by no means mutually exclusive. functionalism[edit] main article: structural functionalism a broad historical paradigm in both sociology and anthropology, functionalism addresses the social structure—referred to as "social organization" by the classical theorists—with respect to the whole as well as the necessary function of the whole's constituent elements. a common analogy (popularized by herbert spencer) is to regard norms and institutions as 'organs' that work towards the proper-functioning of the entire 'body' of society.[ ] the perspective was implicit in the original sociological positivism of comte but was theorized in full by durkheim, again with respect to observable, structural laws. functionalism also has an anthropological basis in the work of theorists such as marcel mauss, bronisław malinowski, and radcliffe-brown. it is in latter's specific usage that the prefix "structural" emerged.[ ] classical functionalist theory is generally united by its tendency towards biological analogy and notions of social evolutionism, in that the basic form of society would increase in complexity and those forms of social organization that promoted solidarity would eventually overcome social disorganization. as giddens states:[ ] functionalist thought, from comte onwards, has looked particularly towards biology as the science providing the closest and most compatible model for social science. biology has been taken to provide a guide to conceptualizing the structure and the function of social systems and to analyzing processes of evolution via mechanisms of adaptation. functionalism strongly emphasizes the pre-eminence of the social world over its individual parts (i.e. its constituent actors, human subjects). conflict theory[edit] main article: conflict theory functionalist theories emphasize "cohesive systems" and are often contrasted with "conflict theories", which critique the overarching socio-political system or emphasize the inequality between particular groups. the following quotes from durkheim[ ] and marx[ ] epitomize the political, as well as theoretical, disparities, between functionalist and conflict thought respectively: to aim for a civilization beyond that made possible by the nexus of the surrounding environment will result in unloosing sickness into the very society we live in. collective activity cannot be encouraged beyond the point set by the condition of the social organism without undermining health. — Émile durkheim, the division of labour in society ( ) the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes. — karl marx & friedrich engels, the communist manifesto ( ) symbolic interactionism[edit] main articles: symbolic interactionism, dramaturgy (sociology), interpretive sociology, and phenomenological sociology symbolic interaction—often associated with interactionism, phenomenology, dramaturgy, interpretivism—is a sociological approach that places emphasis on subjective meanings and the empirical unfolding of social processes, generally accessed through micro-analysis.[ ] this tradition emerged in the chicago school of the s and s, which, prior to world war ii, "had been the center of sociological research and graduate study."[ ] the approach focuses on creating a framework for building a theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals. society is nothing more than the shared reality that people construct as they interact with one another. this approach sees people interacting in countless settings using symbolic communications to accomplish the tasks at hand. therefore, society is a complex, ever-changing mosaic of subjective meanings.[ ]: some critics of this approach argue that it only looks at what is happening in a particular social situation, and disregards the effects that culture, race or gender (i.e. social-historical structures) may have in that situation.[ ] some important sociologists associated with this approach include max weber, george herbert mead, erving goffman, george homans, and peter blau. it is also in this tradition that the radical-empirical approach of ethnomethodology emerges from the work of harold garfinkel. utilitarianism[edit] main articles: utilitarianism, rational choice theory, and exchange theory utilitarianism is often referred to as exchange theory or rational choice theory in the context of sociology. this tradition tends to privilege the agency of individual rational actors and assumes that within interactions individuals always seek to maximize their own self-interest. as argued by josh whitford, rational actors are assumed to have four basic elements:[ ] 	"a knowledge of alternatives;" 	"a knowledge of, or beliefs about the consequences of the various alternatives;" 	"an ordering of preferences over outcomes;" and 	"a decision rule, to select among the possible alternatives" exchange theory is specifically attributed to the work of george c. homans, peter blau and richard emerson.[ ] organizational sociologists james g. march and herbert a. simon noted that an individual's rationality is bounded by the context or organizational setting. the utilitarian perspective in sociology was, most notably, revitalized in the late th century by the work of former asa president james coleman. th-century social theory[edit] following the decline of theories of sociocultural evolution in the united states, the interactionist thought of the chicago school dominated american sociology. as anselm strauss describes, "we didn't think symbolic interaction was a perspective in sociology; we thought it was sociology."[ ] after world war ii, mainstream sociology shifted to the survey-research of paul lazarsfeld at columbia university and the general theorizing of pitirim sorokin, followed by talcott parsons at harvard university. ultimately, "the failure of the chicago, columbia, and wisconsin [sociology] departments to produce a significant number of graduate students interested in and committed to general theory in the years – was to the advantage of the harvard department."[ ] as parsons began to dominate general theory, his work primarily referenced european sociology—almost entirely omitting citations of both the american tradition of sociocultural-evolution as well as pragmatism. in addition to parsons' revision of the sociological canon (which included marshall, pareto, weber and durkheim), the lack of theoretical challenges from other departments nurtured the rise of the parsonian structural-functionalist movement, which reached its crescendo in the s, but by the s was in rapid decline.[ ] by the s, most functionalist perspectives in europe had broadly been replaced by conflict-oriented approaches,[ ] and to many in the discipline, functionalism was considered "as dead as a dodo:"[ ] according to giddens:[ ] the orthodox consensus terminated in the late s and s as the middle ground shared by otherwise competing perspectives gave way and was replaced by a baffling variety of competing perspectives. this third 'generation' of social theory includes phenomenologically inspired approaches, critical theory, ethnomethodology, symbolic interactionism, structuralism, post-structuralism, and theories written in the tradition of hermeneutics and ordinary language philosophy. pax wisconsana[edit] while some conflict approaches also gained popularity in the united states, the mainstream of the discipline instead shifted to a variety of empirically oriented middle-range theories with no single overarching, or "grand," theoretical orientation. john levi martin refers to this "golden age of methodological unity and theoretical calm" as the pax wisconsana,[ ] as it reflected the composition of the sociology department at the university of wisconsin–madison: numerous scholars working on separate projects with little contention.[ ] omar lizardo describes the pax wisconsana as "a midwestern flavored, mertonian resolution of the theory/method wars in which [sociologists] all agreed on at least two working hypotheses: ( ) grand theory is a waste of time; [and] ( ) good theory has to be good to think with or goes in the trash bin."[ ] despite the aversion to grand theory in the latter half of the th century, several new traditions have emerged that propose various syntheses: structuralism, post-structuralism, cultural sociology and systems theory. anthony giddens structuralism[edit] the structuralist movement originated primarily from the work of durkheim as interpreted by two european scholars: anthony giddens, a sociologist, whose theory of structuration draws on the linguistic theory of ferdinand de saussure; and claude lévi-strauss, an anthropologist. in this context, 'structure' does not refer to 'social structure', but to the semiotic understanding of human culture as a system of signs. one may delineate four central tenets of structuralism:[ ] 	structure is what determines the structure of a whole. 	structuralists believe that every system has a structure. 	structuralists are interested in 'structural' laws that deal with coexistence rather than changes. 	structures are the 'real things' beneath the surface or the appearance of meaning. the second tradition of structuralist thought, contemporaneous with giddens, emerges from the american school of social network analysis in the s and s,[ ] spearheaded by the harvard department of social relations led by harrison white and his students. this tradition of structuralist thought argues that, rather than semiotics, social structure is networks of patterned social relations. and, rather than levi-strauss, this school of thought draws on the notions of structure as theorized by levi-strauss' contemporary anthropologist, radcliffe-brown.[ ] some[ ] refer to this as "network structuralism," and equate it to "british structuralism" as opposed to the "french structuralism" of levi-strauss. post-structuralism[edit] post-structuralist thought has tended to reject 'humanist' assumptions in the construction of social theory.[ ] michel foucault provides an important critique in his archaeology of the human sciences, though habermas ( ) and rorty ( ) have both argued that foucault merely replaces one such system of thought with another.[ ][ ] the dialogue between these intellectuals highlights a trend in recent years for certain schools of sociology and philosophy to intersect. the anti-humanist position has been associated with "postmodernism", a term used in specific contexts to describe an era or phenomena, but occasionally construed as a method. central theoretical problems[edit] overall, there is a strong consensus regarding the central problems of sociological theory, which are largely inherited from the classical theoretical traditions. this consensus is: how to link, transcend or cope with the following "big three" dichotomies:[ ] 	subjectivity and objectivity, which deal with knowledge; 	structure and agency, which deal with action; 	and synchrony and diachrony, which deal with time. lastly, sociological theory often grapples with the problem of integrating or transcending the divide between micro, meso, and macro-scale social phenomena, which is a subset of all three central problems. subjectivity and objectivity[edit] main articles: objectivity (science), objectivity (philosophy), and subjectivity the problem of subjectivity and objectivity can be divided into two parts: a concern over the general possibilities of social actions, and the specific problem of social scientific knowledge. in the former, the subjective is often equated (though not necessarily) with the individual, and the individual's intentions and interpretations of the objective. the objective is often considered any public or external action or outcome, on up to society writ large. a primary question for social theorists, then, is how knowledge reproduces along the chain of subjective-objective-subjective, that is to say: how is intersubjectivity achieved? while, historically, qualitative methods have attempted to tease out subjective interpretations, quantitative survey methods also attempt to capture individual subjectivities. also, some qualitative methods take a radical approach to objective description in situ. the latter concern with scientific knowledge results from the fact that a sociologist is part of the very object they seek to explain, as bourdieu explains: how can the sociologist effect in practice this radical doubting which is indispensable for bracketing all the presuppositions inherent in the fact that she is a social being, that she is therefore socialised and led to feel "like a fish in water" within that social world whose structures she has internalised? how can she prevent the social world itself from carrying out the construction of the object, in a sense, through her, through these unself-conscious operations or operations unaware of themselves of which she is the apparent subject — pierre bourdieu, "the problem of reflexive sociology", an invitation to reflexive sociology ( ), p. structure and agency[edit] main article: structure and agency structure and agency, sometimes referred to as determinism versus voluntarism,[ ] form an enduring ontological debate in social theory: "do social structures determine an individual's behaviour or does human agency?" in this context, agency refers to the capacity of individuals to act independently and make free choices, whereas structure relates to factors that limit or affect the choices and actions of individuals (e.g. social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, etc.). discussions over the primacy of either structure or agency relate to the core of sociological epistemology (i.e., "what is the social world made of?", "what is a cause in the social world, and what is an effect?").[ ] a perennial question within this debate is that of "social reproduction": how are structures (specifically, structures producing inequality) reproduced through the choices of individuals? synchrony and diachrony[edit] synchrony and diachrony (or statics and dynamics) within social theory are terms that refer to a distinction that emerged through the work of levi-strauss who inherited it from the linguistics of ferdinand de saussure.[ ] synchrony slices moments of time for analysis, thus it is an analysis of static social reality. diachrony, on the other hand, attempts to analyse dynamic sequences. following saussure, synchrony would refer to social phenomena as a static concept like a language, while diachrony would refer to unfolding processes like actual speech. in anthony giddens' introduction to central problems in social theory, he states that, "in order to show the interdependence of action and structure…we must grasp the time space relations inherent in the constitution of all social interaction." and like structure and agency, time is integral to discussion of social reproduction. in terms of sociology, historical sociology is often better positioned to analyse social life as diachronic, while survey research takes a snapshot of social life and is thus better equipped to understand social life as synchronized. some argue that the synchrony of social structure is a methodological perspective rather than an ontological claim.[ ] nonetheless, the problem for theory is how to integrate the two manners of recording and thinking about social data. research methodology[edit] main article: social research many people divide sociological research methods into two broad categories, although many others see research methods as a continuum:[ ] 	quantitative designs approach social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, and often rely on statistical analysis of many cases (or across intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to establish valid and reliable general claims. 	qualitative designs emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observation, communication with participants, or analysis of texts, and may stress contextual and subjective accuracy over generality. sociologists are often divided into camps of support for particular research techniques. these disputes relate to the epistemological debates at the historical core of social theory. while very different in many aspects, both qualitative and quantitative approaches involve a systematic interaction between theory and data.[ ] quantitative methodologies hold the dominant position in sociology, especially in the united states.[ ] in the discipline's two most cited journals, quantitative articles have historically outnumbered qualitative ones by a factor of two.[ ] (most articles published in the largest british journal, on the other hand, are qualitative.) most textbooks on the methodology of social research are written from the quantitative perspective,[ ] and the very term "methodology" is often used synonymously with "statistics." practically all sociology phd programmes in the united states require training in statistical methods. the work produced by quantitative researchers is also deemed more 'trustworthy' and 'unbiased' by the general public,[ ] though this judgment continues to be challenged by antipositivists.[ ] the choice of method often depends largely on what the researcher intends to investigate. for example, a researcher concerned with drawing a statistical generalization across an entire population may administer a survey questionnaire to a representative sample population. by contrast, a researcher who seeks full contextual understanding of an individual's social actions may choose ethnographic participant observation or open-ended interviews. studies will commonly combine, or 'triangulate', quantitative and qualitative methods as part of a 'multi-strategy' design. for instance, a quantitative study may be performed to obtain statistical patterns on a target sample, and then combined with a qualitative interview to determine the play of agency.[ ] sampling[edit] the bean machine, designed by early social research methodologist sir francis galton to demonstrate the normal distribution, which is important to much quantitative hypothesis testing. quantitative methods are often used to ask questions about a population that is very large, making a census or a complete enumeration of all the members in that population infeasible. a 'sample' then forms a manageable subset of a population. in quantitative research, statistics are used to draw inferences from this sample regarding the population as a whole. the process of selecting a sample is referred to as 'sampling'. while it is usually best to sample randomly, concern with differences between specific subpopulations sometimes calls for stratified sampling. conversely, the impossibility of random sampling sometimes necessitates nonprobability sampling, such as convenience sampling or snowball sampling.[ ] methods[edit] the following list of research methods is neither exclusive nor exhaustive: 	archival research (or the historical method): draws upon the secondary data located in historical archives and records, such as biographies, memoirs, journals, and so on. 	content analysis: the content of interviews and other texts is systematically analysed. often data is 'coded' as a part of the 'grounded theory' approach using qualitative data analysis (qda) software, such as atlas.ti, maxqda, nvivo,[ ] or qda miner. 	experimental research: the researcher isolates a single social process and reproduces it in a laboratory (for example, by creating a situation where unconscious sexist judgements are possible), seeking to determine whether or not certain social variables can cause, or depend upon, other variables (for instance, seeing if people's feelings about traditional gender roles can be manipulated by the activation of contrasting gender stereotypes).[ ] participants are randomly assigned to different groups that either serve as controls—acting as reference points because they are tested with regard to the dependent variable, albeit without having been exposed to any independent variables of interest—or receive one or more treatments. randomization allows the researcher to be sure that any resulting differences between groups are the result of the treatment. 	longitudinal study: an extensive examination of a specific person or group over a long period of time. 	observation: using data from the senses, the researcher records information about social phenomenon or behaviour. observation techniques may or may not feature participation. in participant observation, the researcher goes into the field (e.g. a community or a place of work), and participates in the activities of the field for a prolonged period of time in order to acquire a deep understanding of it.[ ]: data acquired through these techniques may be analysed either quantitatively or qualitatively. in the observation research, a sociologist might study global warming in some part of the world that is less populated. 	survey research: the researcher gathers data using interviews, questionnaires, or similar feedback from a set of people sampled from a particular population of interest. survey items from an interview or questionnaire may be open-ended or closed-ended.[ ]: data from surveys is usually analysed statistically on a computer. 	program evaluation is a systematic method for collecting, analyzing, and using information to answer questions about projects, policies and programs,[ ] particularly about their effectiveness and efficiency. in both the public and private sectors, stakeholders often want to know whether the programs they are funding, implementing, voting for, or objecting to are producing the intended effect. while program evaluation first focuses on this definition, important considerations often include how much the program costs per participant, how the program could be improved, whether the program is worthwhile, whether there are better alternatives, if there are unintended outcomes, and whether the program goals are appropriate and useful.[ ] computational sociology[edit] a social network diagram: individuals (or 'nodes') connected by relationships main article: computational sociology sociologists increasingly draw upon computationally intensive methods to analyse and model social phenomena.[ ] using computer simulations, artificial intelligence, text mining, complex statistical methods, and new analytic approaches like social network analysis and social sequence analysis, computational sociology develops and tests theories of complex social processes through bottom-up modelling of social interactions.[ ] although the subject matter and methodologies in social science differ from those in natural science or computer science, several of the approaches used in contemporary social simulation originated from fields such as physics and artificial intelligence.[ ][ ] by the same token, some of the approaches that originated in computational sociology have been imported into the natural sciences, such as measures of network centrality from the fields of social network analysis and network science. in relevant literature, computational sociology is often related to the study of social complexity.[ ] social complexity concepts such as complex systems, non-linear interconnection among macro and micro process, and emergence, have entered the vocabulary of computational sociology.[ ] a practical and well-known example is the construction of a computational model in the form of an "artificial society", by which researchers can analyse the structure of a social system.[ ][ ] subfields[edit] main article: outline of sociology culture[edit] max horkheimer (left, front), theodor adorno (right, front), and jürgen habermas (right, back) main articles: sociology of culture, cultural criminology, and cultural studies sociologists' approach to culture can be divided into "sociology of culture" and "cultural sociology"—terms which are similar, though not entirely interchangeable.[ ] sociology of culture is an older term, and considers some topics and objects as more or less "cultural" than others. conversely, cultural sociology sees all social phenomena as inherently cultural.[ ] sociology of culture often attempts to explain certain cultural phenomena as a product of social processes, while cultural sociology sees culture as a potential explanation of social phenomena.[ ] for simmel, culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history."[ ] while early theorists such as durkheim and mauss were influential in cultural anthropology, sociologists of culture are generally distinguished by their concern for modern (rather than primitive or ancient) society. cultural sociology often involves the hermeneutic analysis of words, artefacts and symbols, or ethnographic interviews. however, some sociologists employ historical-comparative or quantitative techniques in the analysis of culture, weber and bourdieu for instance. the subfield is sometimes allied with critical theory in the vein of theodor w. adorno, walter benjamin, and other members of the frankfurt school. loosely distinct from the sociology of culture is the field of cultural studies. birmingham school theorists such as richard hoggart and stuart hall questioned the division between "producers" and "consumers" evident in earlier theory, emphasizing the reciprocity in the production of texts. cultural studies aims to examine its subject matter in terms of cultural practices and their relation to power. for example, a study of a subculture (e.g. white working class youth in london) would consider the social practices of the group as they relate to the dominant class. the "cultural turn" of the s ultimately placed culture much higher on the sociological agenda. art, music and literature[edit] main articles: sociology of literature, sociology of art, sociology of film, and sociology of music sociology of literature, film, and art is a subset of the sociology of culture. this field studies the social production of artistic objects and its social implications. a notable example is pierre bourdieu's les règles de l'art: genèse et structure du champ littéraire ( ).[ ] none of the founding fathers of sociology produced a detailed study of art, but they did develop ideas that were subsequently applied to literature by others. marx's theory of ideology was directed at literature by pierre macherey, terry eagleton and fredric jameson. weber's theory of modernity as cultural rationalization, which he applied to music, was later applied to all the arts, literature included, by frankfurt school writers such as theodor adorno and jürgen habermas. durkheim's view of sociology as the study of externally defined social facts was redirected towards literature by robert escarpit. bourdieu's own work is clearly indebted to marx, weber and durkheim. criminality, deviance, law and punishment[edit] main articles: criminology, sociology of law, sociology of punishment, deviance, and social disorganization theory criminologists analyse the nature, causes, and control of criminal activity, drawing upon methods across sociology, psychology, and the behavioural sciences. the sociology of deviance focuses on actions or behaviours that violate norms, including both infringements of formally enacted rules (e.g., crime) and informal violations of cultural norms. it is the remit of sociologists to study why these norms exist; how they change over time; and how they are enforced. the concept of social disorganization is when the broader social systems leads to violations of norms. for instance, robert k. merton produced a typology of deviance, which includes both individual and system level causal explanations of deviance.[ ] sociology of law[edit] the study of law played a significant role in the formation of classical sociology. durkheim famously described law as the "visible symbol" of social solidarity.[ ] the sociology of law refers to both a sub-discipline of sociology and an approach within the field of legal studies. sociology of law is a diverse field of study that examines the interaction of law with other aspects of society, such as the development of legal institutions and the effect of laws on social change and vice versa. for example, an influential recent work in the field relies on statistical analyses to argue that the increase in incarceration in the us over the last years is due to changes in law and policing and not to an increase in crime; and that this increase has significantly contributed to the persistence of racial stratification.[ ] communications and information technologies[edit] the sociology of communications and information technologies includes "the social aspects of computing, the internet, new media, computer networks, and other communication and information technologies."[ ] internet and digital media[edit] main articles: sociology of the internet and digital sociology the internet is of interest to sociologists in various ways; most practically as a tool for research and as a discussion platform.[ ] the sociology of the internet in the broad sense concerns the analysis of online communities (e.g. newsgroups, social networking sites) and virtual worlds, meaning that there is often overlap with community sociology. online communities may be studied statistically through network analysis or interpreted qualitatively through virtual ethnography. moreover, organizational change is catalysed through new media, thereby influencing social change at-large, perhaps forming the framework for a transformation from an industrial to an informational society. one notable text is manuel castells' the internet galaxy—the title of which forms an inter-textual reference to marshall mcluhan's the gutenberg galaxy.[ ] closely related to the sociology of the internet is digital sociology, which expands the scope of study to address not only the internet but also the impact of the other digital media and devices that have emerged since the first decade of the twenty-first century. media[edit] main article: media studies as with cultural studies, media study is a distinct discipline that owes to the convergence of sociology and other social sciences and humanities, in particular, literary criticism and critical theory. though neither the production process nor the critique of aesthetic forms is in the remit of sociologists, analyses of socializing factors, such as ideological effects and audience reception, stem from sociological theory and method. thus the 'sociology of the media' is not a subdiscipline per se, but the media is a common and often indispensable topic. economic sociology[edit] main article: economic sociology the term "economic sociology" was first used by william stanley jevons in , later to be coined in the works of durkheim, weber, and simmel between and .[ ] economic sociology arose as a new approach to the analysis of economic phenomena, emphasizing class relations and modernity as a philosophical concept. the relationship between capitalism and modernity is a salient issue, perhaps best demonstrated in weber's the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism ( ) and simmel's the philosophy of money ( ). the contemporary period of economic sociology, also known as new economic sociology, was consolidated by the work of mark granovetter titled "economic action and social structure: the problem of embeddedness". this work elaborated the concept of embeddedness, which states that economic relations between individuals or firms take place within existing social relations (and are thus structured by these relations as well as the greater social structures of which those relations are a part). social network analysis has been the primary methodology for studying this phenomenon. granovetter's theory of the strength of weak ties and ronald burt's concept of structural holes are two of the best known theoretical contributions of this field. work, employment, and industry[edit] main articles: industrial sociology, sociology of work, and industrial relations the sociology of work, or industrial sociology, examines "the direction and implications of trends in technological change, globalization, labour markets, work organization, managerial practices and employment relations to the extent to which these trends are intimately related to changing patterns of inequality in modern societies and to the changing experiences of individuals and families the ways in which workers challenge, resist and make their own contributions to the patterning of work and shaping of work institutions."[ ] education[edit] main article: sociology of education the sociology of education is the study of how educational institutions determine social structures, experiences, and other outcomes. it is particularly concerned with the schooling systems of modern industrial societies.[ ] a classic study in this field by james coleman, known as the "coleman report", analysed the performance of over , students and found that student background and socioeconomic status are much more important in determining educational outcomes than are measured differences in school resources (i.e. per pupil spending).[ ] the controversy over "school effects" ignited by that study has continued to this day. the study also found that socially disadvantaged black students profited from schooling in racially mixed classrooms, and thus served as a catalyst for desegregation busing in american public schools. environment[edit] main articles: environmental sociology and sociology of disaster environmental sociology is the study of human interactions with the natural environment, typically emphasizing human dimensions of environmental problems, social impacts of those problems, and efforts to resolve them. as with other sub-fields of sociology, scholarship in environmental sociology may be at one or multiple levels of analysis, from global (e.g. world-systems) to local, societal to individual. attention is paid also to the processes by which environmental problems become defined and known to humans. as argued by notable environmental sociologist john bellamy foster, the predecessor to modern environmental sociology is marx's analysis of the metabolic rift, which influenced contemporary thought on sustainability. environmental sociology is often interdisciplinary and overlaps with the sociology of risk, rural sociology and the sociology of disaster. human ecology[edit] main articles: human ecology, architectural sociology, visual sociology, sociology of space, and urban sociology human ecology deals with interdisciplinary study of the relationship between humans and their natural, social, and built environments. in addition to environmental sociology, this field overlaps with architectural sociology, urban sociology, and to some extent visual sociology. in turn, visual sociology—which is concerned with all visual dimensions of social life—overlaps with media studies in that it uses photography, film and other technologies of media. social pre-wiring[edit] social pre-wiring deals with the study of fetal social behavior and social interactions in a multi-fetal environment. specifically, social pre-wiring refers to the ontogeny of social interaction. also informally referred to as, "wired to be social." the theory questions whether there is a propensity to socially oriented action already present before birth. research in the theory concludes that newborns are born into the world with a unique genetic wiring to be social.[ ] circumstantial evidence supporting the social pre-wiring hypothesis can be revealed when examining newborns' behavior. newborns, not even hours after birth, have been found to display a preparedness for social interaction. this preparedness is expressed in ways such as their imitation of facial gestures. this observed behavior cannot be contributed to any current form of socialization or social construction. rather, newborns most likely inherit to some extent social behavior and identity through genetics.[ ] principal evidence of this theory is uncovered by examining twin pregnancies. the main argument is, if there are social behaviors that are inherited and developed before birth, then one should expect twin foetuses to engage in some form of social interaction before they are born. thus, ten foetuses were analyzed over a period of time using ultrasound techniques. using kinematic analysis, the results of the experiment were that the twin foetuses would interact with each other for longer periods and more often as the pregnancies went on. researchers were able to conclude that the performance of movements between the co-twins were not accidental but specifically aimed.[ ] the social pre-wiring hypothesis was proved correct:[ ] the central advance of this study is the demonstration that 'social actions' are already performed in the second trimester of gestation. starting from the th week of gestation twin foetuses plan and execute movements specifically aimed at the co-twin. these findings force us to predate the emergence of social behavior: when the context enables it, as in the case of twin foetuses, other-directed actions are not only possible but predominant over self-directed actions. family, gender, and sexuality[edit] main articles: sociology of the family, sociology of childhood, sociology of gender, feminist sociology, feminist theory, and queer theory "rosie the riveter" was an iconic symbol of the american homefront and a departure from gender roles due to wartime necessity. family, gender and sexuality form a broad area of inquiry studied in many sub-fields of sociology. a family is a group of people who are related by kinship ties :- relations of blood / marriage / civil partnership or adoption. the family unit is one of the most important social institutions found in some form in nearly all known societies. it is the basic unit of social organization and plays a key role in socializing children into the culture of their society. the sociology of the family examines the family, as an institution and unit of socialization, with special concern for the comparatively modern historical emergence of the nuclear family and its distinct gender roles. the notion of "childhood" is also significant. as one of the more basic institutions to which one may apply sociological perspectives, the sociology of the family is a common component on introductory academic curricula. feminist sociology, on the other hand, is a normative sub-field that observes and critiques the cultural categories of gender and sexuality, particularly with respect to power and inequality. the primary concern of feminist theory is the patriarchy and the systematic oppression of women apparent in many societies, both at the level of small-scale interaction and in terms of the broader social structure. feminist sociology also analyses how gender interlocks with race and class to produce and perpetuate social inequalities.[ ] "how to account for the differences in definitions of femininity and masculinity and in sex role across different societies and historical periods" is also a concern.[ ] health, illness, and the body[edit] main articles: sociology of health and illness and medical sociology the sociology of health and illness focuses on the social effects of, and public attitudes toward, illnesses, diseases, mental health and disabilities. this sub-field also overlaps with gerontology and the study of the ageing process. medical sociology, by contrast, focuses on the inner-workings of medical organizations and clinical institutions. in britain, sociology was introduced into the medical curriculum following the goodenough report ( ).[ ] the sociology of the body and embodiment[ ] takes a broad perspective on the idea of "the body" and includes "a wide range of embodied dynamics including human and non-human bodies, morphology, human reproduction, anatomy, body fluids, biotechnology, genetics. this often intersects with health and illness, but also theories of bodies as political, social, cultural, economic and ideological productions.[ ] the isa maintains a research committee devoted to "the body in the social sciences."[ ] death, dying, bereavement[edit] a subfield of the sociology of health and illness that overlaps with cultural sociology is the study of death, dying and bereavement,[ ] sometimes referred to broadly as the sociology of death. this topic is exemplified by the work of douglas davies and michael c. kearl. knowledge and science[edit] main articles: sociology of knowledge, sociology of scientific knowledge, sociology of the history of science, and sociology of science the sociology of knowledge is the study of the relationship between human thought and the social context within which it arises, and of the effects prevailing ideas have on societies. the term first came into widespread use in the s, when a number of german-speaking theorists, most notably max scheler, and karl mannheim, wrote extensively on it. with the dominance of functionalism through the middle years of the th century, the sociology of knowledge tended to remain on the periphery of mainstream sociological thought. it was largely reinvented and applied much more closely to everyday life in the s, particularly by peter l. berger and thomas luckmann in the social construction of reality ( ) and is still central for methods dealing with qualitative understanding of human society (compare socially constructed reality). the "archaeological" and "genealogical" studies of michel foucault are of considerable contemporary influence. the sociology of science involves the study of science as a social activity, especially dealing "with the social conditions and effects of science, and with the social structures and processes of scientific activity."[ ] important theorists in the sociology of science include robert k. merton and bruno latour. these branches of sociology have contributed to the formation of science and technology studies. both the asa and the bsa have sections devoted to the subfield of science, knowledge and technology.[ ][ ] the isa maintains a research committee on science and technology.[ ] leisure[edit] main articles: sociology of leisure and sociology of sport sociology of leisure is the study of how humans organize their free time. leisure includes a broad array of activities, such as sport, tourism, and the playing of games. the sociology of leisure is closely tied to the sociology of work, as each explores a different side of the work–leisure relationship. more recent studies in the field move away from the work–leisure relationship and focus on the relation between leisure and culture. this area of sociology began with thorstein veblen's theory of the leisure class.[ ] peace, war, and conflict[edit] main articles: peace and conflict studies, military sociology, and sociology of terrorism this subfield of sociology studies, broadly, the dynamics of war, conflict resolution, peace movements, war refugees, conflict resolution and military institutions.[ ] as a subset of this subfield, military sociology aims towards the systematic study of the military as a social group rather than as an organization. it is a highly specialized sub-field which examines issues related to service personnel as a distinct group with coerced collective action based on shared interests linked to survival in vocation and combat, with purposes and values that are more defined and narrow than within civil society. military sociology also concerns civilian-military relations and interactions between other groups or governmental agencies. topics include the dominant assumptions held by those in the military, changes in military members' willingness to fight, military unionization, military professionalism, the increased utilization of women, the military industrial-academic complex, the military's dependence on research, and the institutional and organizational structure of military.[ ] political sociology[edit] main article: political sociology jürgen habermas historically, political sociology concerned the relations between political organization and society. a typical research question in this area might be: "why do so few american citizens choose to vote?"[ ] in this respect questions of political opinion formation brought about some of the pioneering uses of statistical survey research by paul lazarsfeld. a major subfield of political sociology developed in relation to such questions, which draws on comparative history to analyse socio-political trends. the field developed from the work of max weber and moisey ostrogorsky.[ ] contemporary political sociology includes these areas of research, but it has been opened up to wider questions of power and politics.[ ] today political sociologists are as likely to be concerned with how identities are formed that contribute to structural domination by one group over another; the politics of who knows how and with what authority; and questions of how power is contested in social interactions in such a way as to bring about widespread cultural and social change. such questions are more likely to be studied qualitatively. the study of social movements and their effects has been especially important in relation to these wider definitions of politics and power.[ ] political sociology has also moved beyond methodological nationalism and analysed the role of non-governmental organizations, the diffusion of the nation-state throughout the earth as a social construct, and the role of stateless entities in the modern world society. contemporary political sociologists also study inter-state interactions and human rights. population and demography[edit] main articles: demography, human ecology, and mobilities demographers or sociologists of population study the size, composition and change over time of a given population. demographers study how these characteristics impact, or are impacted by, various social, economic or political systems. the study of population is also closely related to human ecology and environmental sociology, which studies a populations relationship with the surrounding environment and often overlaps with urban or rural sociology. researchers in this field may study the movement of populations: transportation, migrations, diaspora, etc., which falls into the subfield known as mobilities studies and is closely related to human geography. demographers may also study spread of disease within a given population or epidemiology. public sociology[edit] main article: public sociology public sociology refers to an approach to the discipline which seeks to transcend the academy in order to engage with wider audiences. it is perhaps best understood as a style of sociology rather than a particular method, theory, or set of political values. this approach is primarily associated with michael burawoy who contrasted it with professional sociology, a form of academic sociology that is concerned primarily with addressing other professional sociologists. public sociology is also part of the broader field of science communication or science journalism. race and ethnic relations[edit] main articles: sociology of race and ethnic relations and sociology of immigration the sociology of race and of ethnic relations is the area of the discipline that studies the social, political, and economic relations between races and ethnicities at all levels of society. this area encompasses the study of racism, residential segregation, and other complex social processes between different racial and ethnic groups. this research frequently interacts with other areas of sociology such as stratification and social psychology, as well as with postcolonial theory. at the level of political policy, ethnic relations are discussed in terms of either assimilationism or multiculturalism.[ ] anti-racism forms another style of policy, particularly popular in the s and s. religion[edit] main article: sociology of religion the sociology of religion concerns the practices, historical backgrounds, developments, universal themes and roles of religion in society.[ ] there is particular emphasis on the recurring role of religion in all societies and throughout recorded history. the sociology of religion is distinguished from the philosophy of religion in that sociologists do not set out to assess the validity of religious truth-claims, instead assuming what peter l. berger has described as a position of "methodological atheism."[ ] it may be said that the modern formal discipline of sociology began with the analysis of religion in durkheim's study of suicide rates among roman catholic and protestant populations. max weber published four major texts on religion in a context of economic sociology and social stratification: the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism ( ), the religion of china: confucianism and taoism ( ), the religion of india: the sociology of hinduism and buddhism ( ), and ancient judaism ( ). contemporary debates often centre on topics such as secularization, civil religion, the intersection of religion and economics and the role of religion in a context of globalization and multiculturalism. social change and development[edit] main articles: social change, development studies, community development, and international development the sociology of change and development attempts to understand how societies develop and how they can be changed. this includes studying many different aspects of society, for example demographic trends,[ ] political or technological trends,[ ] or changes in culture. within this field, sociologists often use macrosociological methods or historical-comparative methods. in contemporary studies of social change, there are overlaps with international development or community development. however, most of the founders of sociology had theories of social change based on their study of history. for instance, marx contended that the material circumstances of society ultimately caused the ideal or cultural aspects of society, while weber argued that it was in fact the cultural mores of protestantism that ushered in a transformation of material circumstances. in contrast to both, durkheim argued that societies moved from simple to complex through a process of sociocultural evolution. sociologists in this field also study processes of globalization and imperialism. most notably, immanuel wallerstein extends marx's theoretical frame to include large spans of time and the entire globe in what is known as world systems theory. development sociology is also heavily influenced by post-colonialism. in recent years, raewyn connell issued a critique of the bias in sociological research towards countries in the global north. she argues that this bias blinds sociologists to the lived experiences of the global south, specifically, so-called, "northern theory" lacks an adequate theory of imperialism and colonialism. there are many organizations studying social change, including the fernand braudel center for the study of economies, historical systems, and civilizations, and the global social change research project. social networks[edit] harrison white main articles: social network, social network analysis, figurational sociology, relational sociology, and sociomapping a social network is a social structure composed of individuals (or organizations) called "nodes", which are tied (connected) by one or more specific types of interdependency, such as friendship, kinship, financial exchange, dislike, sexual relationships, or relationships of beliefs, knowledge or prestige. social networks operate on many levels, from families up to the level of nations, and play a critical role in determining the way problems are solved, organizations are run, and the degree to which individuals succeed in achieving their goals. an underlying theoretical assumption of social network analysis is that groups are not necessarily the building blocks of society: the approach is open to studying less-bounded social systems, from non-local communities to networks of exchange. drawing theoretically from relational sociology, social network analysis avoids treating individuals (persons, organizations, states) as discrete units of analysis, it focuses instead on how the structure of ties affects and constitutes individuals and their relationships. in contrast to analyses that assume that socialization into norms determines behaviour, network analysis looks to see the extent to which the structure and composition of ties affect norms. on the other hand, recent research by omar lizardo also demonstrates that network ties are shaped and created by previously existing cultural tastes.[ ] social network theory is usually defined in formal mathematics and may include integration of geographical data into sociomapping. social psychology[edit] main articles: social psychology (sociology) and psychoanalytic sociology sociological social psychology focuses on micro-scale social actions. this area may be described as adhering to "sociological miniaturism", examining whole societies through the study of individual thoughts and emotions as well as behaviour of small groups.[ ] of special concern to psychological sociologists is how to explain a variety of demographic, social, and cultural facts in terms of human social interaction. some of the major topics in this field are social inequality, group dynamics, prejudice, aggression, social perception, group behaviour, social change, non-verbal behaviour, socialization, conformity, leadership, and social identity. social psychology may be taught with psychological emphasis.[ ] in sociology, researchers in this field are the most prominent users of the experimental method (however, unlike their psychological counterparts, they also frequently employ other methodologies). social psychology looks at social influences, as well as social perception and social interaction.[ ] stratification, poverty and inequality[edit] main articles: social stratification, social inequality, social mobility, and social class social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of individuals into social classes, castes, and divisions within a society.[ ]: modern western societies stratification traditionally relates to cultural and economic classes arranged in three main layers: upper class, middle class, and lower class, but each class may be further subdivided into smaller classes (e.g. occupational).[ ] social stratification is interpreted in radically different ways within sociology. proponents of structural functionalism suggest that, since the stratification of classes and castes is evident in all societies, hierarchy must be beneficial in stabilizing their existence. conflict theorists, by contrast, critique the inaccessibility of resources and lack of social mobility in stratified societies. karl marx distinguished social classes by their connection to the means of production in the capitalist system: the bourgeoisie own the means, but this effectively includes the proletariat itself as the workers can only sell their own labour power (forming the material base of the cultural superstructure). max weber critiqued marxist economic determinism, arguing that social stratification is not based purely on economic inequalities, but on other status and power differentials (e.g. patriarchy). according to weber, stratification may occur among at least three complex variables: 	property (class): a person's economic position in a society, based on birth and individual achievement.[ ]: weber differs from marx in that he does not see this as the supreme factor in stratification. weber noted how managers of corporations or industries control firms they do not own; marx would have placed such a person in the proletariat. 	prestige (status): a person's prestige, or popularity in a society. this could be determined by the kind of job this person does or wealth. 	power (political party): a person's ability to get their way despite the resistance of others. for example, individuals in state jobs, such as an employee of the federal bureau of investigation, or a member of the united states congress, may hold little property or status but they still hold immense power.[ ] pierre bourdieu provides a modern example in the concepts of cultural and symbolic capital. theorists such as ralf dahrendorf have noted the tendency towards an enlarged middle-class in modern western societies, particularly in relation to the necessity of an educated work force in technological or service-based economies.[ ] perspectives concerning globalization, such as dependency theory, suggest this effect owes to the shift of workers to the developing countries.[ ] urban and rural sociology[edit] main articles: urban sociology and rural sociology urban sociology involves the analysis of social life and human interaction in metropolitan areas. it is a discipline seeking to provide advice for planning and policy making. after the industrial revolution, works such as georg simmel's the metropolis and mental life ( ) focused on urbanization and the effect it had on alienation and anonymity. in the s and s the chicago school produced a major body of theory on the nature of the city, important to both urban sociology and criminology, utilizing symbolic interactionism as a method of field research. contemporary research is commonly placed in a context of globalization, for instance, in saskia sassen's study of the "global city".[ ] rural sociology, by contrast, is the analysis of non-metropolitan areas. as agriculture and wilderness tend to be a more prominent social fact in rural regions, rural sociologists often overlap with environmental sociologists. community sociology[edit] often grouped with urban and rural sociology is that of community sociology or the sociology of community.[ ] taking various communities—including online communities—as the unit of analysis, community sociologists study the origin and effects of different associations of people. for instance, german sociologist ferdinand tönnies distinguished between two types of human association: gemeinschaft (usually translated as "community") and gesellschaft ("society" or "association"). in his work, gemeinschaft und gesellschaft, tönnies argued that gemeinschaft is perceived to be a tighter and more cohesive social entity, due to the presence of a "unity of will."[ ] the 'development' or 'health' of a community is also a central concern of community sociologists also engage in development sociology, exemplified by the literature surrounding the concept of social capital. other academic disciplines[edit] sociology overlaps with a variety of disciplines that study society, in particular anthropology, political science, economics, social work and social philosophy. many comparatively new fields such as communication studies, cultural studies, demography and literary theory, draw upon methods that originated in sociology. the terms "social science" and "social research" have both gained a degree of autonomy since their origination in classical sociology. the distinct field of social anthropology or anthroposociology is the dominant constituent of anthropology throughout the united kingdom and commonwealth and much of europe (france in particular),[ ] where it is distinguished from cultural anthropology.[ ] in the united states, social anthropology is commonly subsumed within cultural anthropology (or under the relatively new designation of sociocultural anthropology).[citation needed] sociology and applied sociology are connected to the professional and academic discipline of social work.[ ] both disciplines study social interactions, community and the effect of various systems (i.e. family, school, community, laws, political sphere) on the individual.[ ] however, social work is generally more focused on practical strategies to alleviate social dysfunctions; sociology in general provides a thorough examination of the root causes of these problems.[ ] for example, a sociologist might study why a community is plagued with poverty. the applied sociologist would be more focused on practical strategies on what needs to be done to alleviate this burden. the social worker would be focused on action; implementing theses strategies "directly" or "indirectly" by means of mental health therapy, counselling, advocacy, community organization or community mobilization.[ ] social anthropology is the branch of anthropology that studies how contemporary living human beings behave in social groups. practitioners of social anthropology, like sociologists, investigate various facets of social organization. traditionally, social anthropologists analysed non-industrial and non-western societies, whereas sociologists focused on industrialized societies in the western world. in recent years, however, social anthropology has expanded its focus to modern western societies, meaning that the two disciplines increasingly converge.[ ][ ] sociocultural anthropology, which include linguistic anthropology, is concerned with the problem of difference and similarity within and between human populations. the discipline arose concomitantly with the expansion of european colonial empires, and its practices and theories have been questioned and reformulated along with processes of decolonization. such issues have re-emerged as transnational processes have challenged the centrality of the nation-state to theorizations about culture and power. new challenges have emerged as public debates about multiculturalism, and the increasing use of the culture concept outside of the academy and among peoples studied by anthropology. these times are not "business-as-usual" in the academy, in anthropology, or in the world, if ever there were such times. irving louis horowitz, in his the decomposition of sociology ( ), has argued that the discipline, while arriving from a "distinguished lineage and tradition," is in decline due to deeply ideological theory and a lack of relevance to policy making: "the decomposition of sociology began when this great tradition became subject to ideological thinking, and an inferior tradition surfaced in the wake of totalitarian triumphs."[ ] furthermore: "a problem yet unmentioned is that sociology's malaise has left all the social sciences vulnerable to pure positivism—to an empiricism lacking any theoretical basis. talented individuals who might, in an earlier time, have gone into sociology are seeking intellectual stimulation in business, law, the natural sciences, and even creative writing; this drains sociology of much needed potential."[ ] horowitz cites the lack of a 'core discipline' as exacerbating the problem. randall collins, the dorothy swaine thomas professor in sociology at the university of pennsylvania and a member of the advisory editors council of the social evolution & history journal, has voiced similar sentiments: "we have lost all coherence as a discipline, we are breaking up into a conglomerate of specialities, each going on its own way and with none too high regard for each other."[ ] in , the times higher education guide published a list of 'the most cited authors of books in the humanities' (including philosophy and psychology). seven of the top ten are listed as sociologists: michel foucault ( ), pierre bourdieu ( ), anthony giddens ( ), erving goffman ( ), jürgen habermas ( ), max weber ( ), and bruno latour ( ).[ ] journals[edit] for a more comprehensive list, see list of sociology journals. the most highly ranked general journals which publish original research in the field of sociology are the american journal of sociology and the american sociological review.[ ] the annual review of sociology, which publishes original review essays, is also highly ranked.[ ] many other generalist and specialized journals exist. see also[edit] 	society portal 	bibliography of sociology 	engaged theory 	history of the social sciences 	outline of sociology notes[edit] 	^ see branches of the early islamic philosophy. 	^ see also fauré, christine, and jacques guilhaumou. . 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"the politics of american sociologists," american journal of sociology ( ) # pp.  – jstor  	macionis, john j ( ). sociology ( rd ed.). englewood cliffs, nj: prentice hall. isbn  - - - - . 	merton, robert k.. . social theory and social structure. toward the codification of theory and research (revised & enlarged ed.). glencoe, il. oclc  	mills, c. wright. . the sociological imagination oclc  	c. wright mills, intellectual craftsmanship advices how to work for young sociologist 	mitchell, geoffrey duncan ( ) [ ]. a hundred years of sociology: a concise history of the major figures, ideas, and schools of sociological thought. new brunswick, nj: transaction publishers. isbn  - - - - . oclc  . 	nisbet, robert a. . the sociological tradition, london, heinemann educational books. isbn  - - - oclc  	ritzer, george, and douglas j. goodman. . sociological theory ( th ed.). mcgraw-hill. isbn  - - - oclc  	scott, john, and gordon marshall, eds. . a dictionary of sociology ( rd ed.). oxford university press. isbn  - - - , oclc  	tausch, arno ( ). the political algebra of global value change. general models and implications for the muslim world. with almas heshmati and hichem karoui ( st ed.). nova science publishers, new york. isbn  - - - - . 	wallace, ruth a., and alison wolf. . contemporary sociological theory: continuing the classical tradition ( th ed.). prentice-hall. isbn  - - -x oclc  	white, harrison c.. . identity and control. how social formations emerge ( nd ed.). princeton: princeton university press. isbn  - - - - oclc  	willis, evan. . the sociological quest: an introduction to the study of social life. new brunswick, nj: rutgers university press. isbn  - - - oclc  external links[edit] at wikiversity, you can learn more and teach others about sociology at the school of sociology. 		wikiversity has learning resources about introduction to sociology 		wikimedia commons has media related to sociology. 	american sociological association (asa) 	australian 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		jump to search 		encompasses values and behaviours that contribute to the unique social and psychological environment of an organization "business culture" redirects here. for other uses, see culture. 	 	this article needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "organizational culture" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (january ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	business administration 	 management of a business 	 accounting 	management accounting 	financial accounting 	financial audit 	 business entities 	corporate group 	conglomerate (company) 	holding company 	cooperative 	corporation 	joint-stock company 	limited liability company 	partnership 	privately held company 	sole proprietorship 	state-owned enterprise 	 corporate governance 	annual general meeting 	board of directors 	supervisory board 	advisory board 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plan 	business judgment rule 	consumer behaviour 	business operations 	international business 	business model 	international trade 	business process 	business statistics 	 	 business and economics portal 		v 	t 	e historically there have been differences among investigators regarding the definition of organizational culture. edgar h. schein, a leading researcher in this field, defined organizational culture as comprising a number of features, including a shared "pattern of basic assumptions" group members have acquired over time as they learn to successfully cope with internal and external organizationally relevant problems.[ ] elliott jaques first introduced the concept of culture in the organizational context in his book the changing culture of a factory.[ ] the book was a published report of "a case study of developments in the social life of one industrial community between april, and november ".[ ] the "case" involved a publicly-held british company engaged principally in the manufacture, sale, and servicing of metal bearings. the study concerned itself with the description, analysis, and development of corporate group behaviours.[ ] ravasi and schultz ( ) characterise organizational culture as a set of shared assumptions that guide behaviors.[ ] it is also the pattern of such collective behaviors and assumptions that are taught to new organizational members as a way of perceiving and, even thinking and feeling.[ ] thus organizational culture affects the way people and groups interact with each other, with clients, and with stakeholders. in addition, organizational culture may affect how much employees identify with an organization.[ ] schein ( ), deal and kennedy ( ), and kotter ( ) advanced the idea that organizations often have very differing cultures as well as subcultures.[ ][ ][ ] although a company may have its "own unique culture," in larger organizations there are sometimes co-existing or conflicting subcultures because each subculture is linked to a different management team.[ ] flamholtz and randle ( ) suggest that one can view organizational culture as "corporate personality."[ ][ ] they define it as it consisting of the values, beliefs, and norms which influence the behavior of people as members of an organization.[ ] the organizational culture influences the way people interact, the context within which knowledge is created, the resistance they will have towards certain changes, and ultimately the way they share (or the way they do not share) knowledge. organizational culture represents the collective values, beliefs and principles of organizational members.[citation needed] it may also be influenced by factors such as history, type of product, market, technology, strategy, type of employees, management style, and national culture. culture includes the organization's vision, values, norms, systems, symbols, language, assumptions, environment, location, beliefs and habits.[citation needed]. contents 	 origins 	 usage 	 typology of cultural types 	 . strong and weak typology of organizational culture 	 . healthy 	 . management types of communication 	 . bullying culture type 	 . tribal type of culture 	 . personal culture 	 . national culture type 	 . . multiplicity 	 effects 	 change 	 . mergers and cultural leadership 	 corporate subcultures 	 legal aspects 	 research and models 	 . hofstede 	 . o'reilly, chatman, and caldwell 	 . daniel denison 	 . deal and kennedy 	 . edgar schein 	 . gerry johnson 	 . stanley g. harris 	 . charles handy 	 . kim cameron and robert quinn 	 . robert a. cooke 	 . . constructive cultures 	 . . passive/defensive cultures 	 . . aggressive/defensive cultures 	 . adam grant 	 . stephen mcguire 	 . . elements 	 . eric flamholtz 	 ethical frameworks and evaluations of corporate culture 	 critical views 	 see also 	 references 	 notes 	 further reading 	 external links origins[edit] according to jaques, "the culture of the factory is its customary and traditional way of thinking and doing of things, which is shared to a greater or lesser degree by all its members, and which new members must learn, and at least partially accept, in order to be accepted into service in the firm..."[ ] in simple terms, to the extent that people can share common wishes, desires and aspirations, they can commit themselves to work together. it is a matter of being able to care about the same things, and it applies to nations as well as to associations and organizations within nations.[citation needed] elaborating on the work in the changing culture of a factory, jaques in his concept of requisite organization established a list of valued entitlements or organizational values that can gain from people their full commitment.[ ][need quotation to verify] together they make an organizational culture or credo: these general values are reflected in a specific valuing of: 	work for everyone at a level consistent with their level of potential capability, values and interests. 	opportunity for everyone to progress as his or her potential capability matures, within the opportunities available in the organization. 	fair and just treatment for everyone, including fair pay based upon equitable pay differentials for level of work and merit recognition related to personal effectiveness appraisal. 	leadership interaction between managers and subordinates, including shared context, personal effectiveness appraisal, feedback and recognition, and coaching. 	clear articulation of accountability and authority to engender trust and confidence in all working relationships. 	articulation of long-term organizational vision through direct communication from the top. 	opportunity for everyone individually or through representatives to participate in policy development. the role of managerial leadership at every level [...] are the means of making these organizational values operationally real.[ ] usage[edit] organizational culture refers to culture in any type of organization including that of schools, universities, not-for-profit groups, government agencies, or business entities. in business, terms such as corporate culture and company culture are often used to refer to a similar concept. the term corporate culture became widely known in the business world in the late s and early s.[ ][ ] corporate culture was already used by managers, sociologists, and organizational theorists by the beginning of the s.[ ][ ] the related idea of organizational climate emerged in the s and s, and the terms are now somewhat overlapping.[ ][ ] if organizational culture is seen as something that characterizes an organization, it can be manipulated and altered depending on leadership and members.[ ] culture as root metaphor sees the organization as its culture, created through communication and symbols, or competing metaphors. culture is basic, with personal experience producing a variety of perspectives.[ ] the organizational communication perspective on culture views culture in three different ways: 	traditionalism: views culture through objective things such as stories, rituals, and symbols 	interpretivism: views culture through a network of shared meanings (organization members sharing subjective meanings) 	critical-interpretivism: views culture through a network of shared meanings as well as the power struggles created by a similar network of competing meanings. business executive bernard l. rosauer ( ) defines organizational culture as an emergence – an extremely complex incalculable state that results from the combination of a few ingredients. in "three bell curves: business culture decoded",[ ] rosauer outlines the three manageable ingredients which (he claims) guide business culture: 	employee (focus on engagement) 	the work (focus on eliminating waste increasing value) waste 	the customer (focus on likelihood of referral) rosauer writes that the three bell curves methodology aims to bring leadership, their employees, the work and the customer together for focus without distraction, leading to an improvement in culture and brand.[ ] he states: "if a methodology isn't memorable, it won't get used. the three bell curves methodology is simple (to remember) but execution requires strong leadership and diligence. culture can be guided by managing the ingredients." reliance of the research and findings of sirota survey intelligence,[ ] which has been gathering employee data worldwide since , the lean enterprise institute,[ ] cambridge, ma, and fred reichheld/bain/satmetrix research relating to netpromoterscore.[ ][clarification needed] ukrainian researcher oleksandr babych in his dissertation formulated the following definition: corporate culture is a certain background of activity of the organization, which contributes to the strengthening of the vector of effectiveness depending on the degree of controllability of the conscious values of the organization, which is especially evident in dynamic changes in the structure or type of activity. this background includes a set of collective basic beliefs of the participants of the organization (babych, )[ ]. typology of cultural types[edit] typology refers to the "study of or analysis or classification based on types or categories".[ ] organizational culture and climate may be erroneously used interchangeably. organizational culture has been described as an organization's ideals, vision, and mission, whereas climate is better defined as employees' shared meaning related to the company's policies and procedures and reward/consequence systems.[ ] many factors, ranging from depictions of relative strength to political and national issues, can contribute to the type or types of culture that can be observed in organizations and institutions of all sizes. below are examples of organizational culture types. strong and weak typology of organizational culture[edit] flamholtz and randle state that: "a strong culture is one that people clearly understand and can articulate. a weak culture is one that employees have difficulty defining, understanding, or explaining."[ ] strong culture is said to exist where staff respond to stimulus because of their alignment to organizational values. in such environments, strong cultures help firms operate like well-oiled machines, engaging in outstanding execution with only minor adjustments to existing procedures as needed. conversely, there is weak culture where there is little alignment with organizational values, and control must be exercised through extensive procedures and bureaucracy. research shows[citation needed] that organizations that foster strong cultures have clear values that give employees a reason to embrace the culture. a "strong" culture may be especially beneficial to firms operating in the service sector since members of these organizations are responsible for delivering the service and for evaluations important constituents make about firms. organizations may derive the following benefits from developing strong and productive cultures: 	better aligning the company towards achieving its vision, mission, and goals 	high employee motivation and loyalty 	increased team cohesiveness among the company's various departments and divisions 	promoting consistency and encouraging coordination and control within the company 	shaping employee behavior at work, enabling the organization to be more efficient irving janis defined groupthink as "a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action."[ ] this is a state in which even if group members have different ideas, they do not challenge organizational thinking. as a result, innovative thinking is stifled. groupthink can lead to lack of creativity and decisions made without critical evaluation.[ ] groupthink can occur, for example, when group members rely heavily on a central charismatic figure in the organization or where there is an "evangelical" belief in the organization's values. groupthink can also occur in groups characterized by a friendly climate conducive to conflict avoidance. healthy[edit] culture is the organization's immune system. – michael watkins what is organizational culture? and why should we care? – harvard business review organizations should strive for what is considered a "healthy" organizational culture in order to increase productivity, growth, efficiency and reduce counterproductive behavior and turnover of employees. a variety of characteristics describe a healthy culture, including: 	acceptance and appreciation for diversity 	regard for fair treatment of each employee as well as respect for each employee's contribution to the company 	employee pride and enthusiasm for the organization and the work performed 	equal opportunity for each employee to realize their full potential within the company 	strong communication with all employees regarding policies and company issues 	strong company leaders with a strong sense of direction and purpose 	ability to compete in industry innovation and customer service, as well as price 	lower than average turnover rates (perpetuated by a healthy culture) 	investment in learning, training, and employee knowledge additionally, performance oriented cultures have been shown to possess statistically better financial growth. such cultures possess high employee involvement, strong internal communications and an acceptance and encouragement of a healthy level of risk-taking in order to achieve innovation. additionally, organizational cultures that explicitly emphasize factors related to the demands placed on them by industry technology and growth will be better performers in their industries. according to kotter and heskett ( ),[ ] organizations with adaptive cultures perform much better than organizations with unadaptive cultures. an adaptive culture translates into organizational success; it is characterized by managers paying close attention to all of their constituencies, especially customers, initiating change when needed, and taking risks. an unadaptive culture can significantly reduce a firm's effectiveness, disabling the firm from pursuing all its competitive/operational options. healthy companies are able to deal with employees' concerns about the well-being of the organization internally, before the employees would even feel they needed to raise the issues externally. it is for this reason that whistleblowing, particularly when it results in serious damage to a company's reputation, is considered to be often a sign of a chronically dysfunctional corporate culture.[ ] another relevant concept is the notion of "cultural functionality". specifically, some organizations have "functional" cultures while others have "dysfunctional" cultures.[ ] a "functional" culture is a positive culture that contributes to an organization's performance and success. a "dysfunctional" culture is one that hampers or negatively affects an organization's performance and success. management types of communication[edit] there are many different types of communication that contribute in creating an organizational culture:[ ] 	metaphors such as comparing an organization to a machine or a family reveal employees' shared meanings of experiences at the organization. 	stories can provide examples for employees of how to or not to act in certain situations. 	rites and ceremonies combine stories, metaphors, and symbols into one. several different kinds of rites affect organizational culture: 	rites of passage: employees move into new roles 	rites of degradation: employees have power taken away from them 	rites of enhancement: public recognition for an employee's accomplishments 	rites of renewal: improve existing social structures 	rites of conflict reduction: resolve arguments between certain members or groups 	rites of integration: reawaken feelings of membership in the organization 	reflexive comments are explanations, justifications, and criticisms of our own actions. this includes: 	plans: comments about anticipated actions 	commentaries: comments about action in the present 	accounts: comments about an action or event that has already occurred 	such comments reveal interpretive meanings held by the speaker as well as the social rules they follow. 	fantasy themes are common creative interpretations of events that reflect beliefs, values, and goals of the organization. they lead to rhetorical visions, or views of the organization and its environment held by organization members.[ ] bullying culture type[edit] main articles: bullying culture and workplace bullying bullying is seen to be prevalent in organizations where employees and managers feel that they have the support, or at least implicitly the blessing, of senior managers to carry on their abusive and bullying behaviour. furthermore, new managers will quickly come to view this form of behaviour as acceptable and normal if they see others get away with it and are even rewarded for it.[ ] when bullying happens at the highest levels, the effects may be far reaching. that people may be bullied irrespective of their organisational status or rank, including senior managers, indicates the possibility of a negative ripple effect, where bullying may be cascaded downwards as the targeted supervisors might offload their own aggression on their subordinates. in such situations, a bullying scenario in the boardroom may actually threaten the productivity of the entire organisation.[ ] tribal type of culture[edit] david logan and coauthors have proposed in their book tribal leadership that organizational cultures change in stages, based on an analysis of human groups and tribal cultures. they identify five basic stages:[ ] 	life sucks (a subsystem severed from other functional systems like tribes, gangs and prison— percent of population); 	my life sucks (i am stuck in the dumb motor vehicle line and can't believe i have to spend my time in this lost triangle of ineffectiveness— percent of population); 	i'm great (and you're not, i am detached from you and will dominate you regardless of your intent— percent of population); 	we are great, but other groups suck (citing zappo's and an attitude of unification around more than individual competence— percent of population) and 	life is great (citing desmond tutu's hearing on truth and values as the basis of reconciliation— percent of population). this model of organizational culture provides a map and context for leading an organization through the five stages. personal culture[edit] 	main: personality psychology, identity (social science) organizational culture is taught to the person as culture is taught by his/her parents thus changing and modeling his/her personal culture.[ ] indeed, employees and people applying for a job are advised to match their "personality to a company's culture" and fit to it.[ ] some researchers even suggested and have made case studies research on personality changing.[ ] national culture type[edit] corporate culture is used to control, coordinate, and integrate company subsidiaries.[ ] however differences in national cultures exist contributing to differences in the views on management.[ ] differences between national cultures are deep rooted values of the respective cultures, and these cultural values can shape how people expect companies to be run, and how relationships between leaders and followers should be, resulting in differences between the employer and the employee regarding expectations. (geert hofstede, ) perhaps equally foundational; observing the vast differences in national copyright (and taxation, etc.) laws suggests deep rooted differences in cultural attitudes and assumptions about property rights and sometimes about the desired root function, place, or purpose of corporations relative to the population. multiplicity[edit] 	see also: biculturalism xibao zhang ( ) carried out an empirical study of culture emergence in the sino-western international cross-cultural management (sw-iccm) context in china. field data were collected by interviewing western expatriates and chinese professionals working in this context, supplemented by non-participant observation and documentary data. the data were then analyzed objectively to formulate theme-based substantive theories and a formal theory. the major finding of this study is that the human cognition contains three components, or three broad types of "cultural rules of behavior", namely, values, expectations, and ad hoc rules, each of which has a mutually conditioning relationship with behavior. the three cognitive components are different in terms of the scope and duration of their mutual shaping of behavior. values are universal and enduring rules of behavior; expectations, on the other hand, are context-specific behavioral rules; while ad hoc rules are improvised rules of behavior that the human mind devises contingent upon a particular occasion. furthermore, they need not be consistent, and frequently are not, among themselves. metaphorically, they can be compared to a multi-carriage train, which allows for the relative lateral movements by individual carriages so as to accommodate bumps and turns in the tracks. in fact, they provide a "shock-absorber mechanism", so to speak, which enables individuals in sw-iccm contexts to cope with conflicts in cultural practices and values, and to accommodate and adapt themselves to cultural contexts where people from different national cultural backgrounds work together over extended time. it also provides a powerful framework which explains how interactions by individuals in sw-iccm contexts give rise to emerging hybrid cultural practices characterized by both stability and change. one major theoretical contribution of this "multi-carriage train" perspective is its allowance for the existence of inconsistencies among the three cognitive components in their mutual conditioning of behavior. this internal inconsistency view is in stark contrast to the traditional internal consistency assumption explicitly or tacitly held by many culture scholars. the other major theoretical contribution, which follows logically from the first one, is to view culture as an overarching entity which is made of a multiplicity of values, expectations, and ad hoc rules. this notion of one (multiplicity) culture to an organization leads to the classification of culture along its path of emergence into nascent, adolescent, and mature types, each of which is distinct in terms of the pattern of the three cognitive components and behavior. effects[edit] research suggests that numerous outcomes have been associated either directly or indirectly with organizational culture. a healthy and robust organizational culture may provide various benefits, including the following: 	competitive edge derived from innovation and customer service 	consistent, efficient employee performance 	team cohesiveness 	high employee morale 	strong company alignment towards goal achievement although little empirical research exists to support the link between organizational culture and organizational performance, there is little doubt among experts that this relationship exists. organizational culture can be a factor in the survival or failure of an organization – although this is difficult to prove given that the necessary longitudinal analyses are hardly feasible. the sustained superior performance of firms like ibm, hewlett-packard, procter & gamble, and mcdonald's may be, at least partly, a reflection of their organizational cultures. a harvard business school study reported that culture has a significant effect on an organization's long-term economic performance. the study examined the management practices at organizations over ten years and found that culture can enhance performance or prove detrimental to performance. organizations with strong performance-oriented cultures witnessed far better financial growth. additionally, a corporate leadership council study found that cultural traits such as risk taking, internal communications, and flexibility are some of the most important drivers of performance, and may affect individual performance. furthermore, innovativeness, productivity through people, and the other cultural factors cited by peters and waterman ( ) also have positive economic consequences. denison, haaland, and goelzer ( ) found that culture contributes to the success of the organization, but not all dimensions contribute the same. it was found that the effects of these dimensions differ by global regions, which suggests that organizational culture is affected by national culture. additionally, clarke ( ) found that a safety climate is related to an organization's safety record. organizational culture is reflected in the way people perform tasks, set objectives, and administer the necessary resources to achieve objectives. culture affects the way individuals make decisions, feel, and act in response to the opportunities and threats affecting the organization. adkins and caldwell ( ) found that job satisfaction was positively associated with the degree to which employees fit into both the overall culture and subculture in which they worked. a perceived mismatch of the organization's culture and what employees felt the culture should be is related to a number of negative consequences including lower job satisfaction, higher job strain, general stress, and turnover intent. it has been proposed that organizational culture may affect the level of employee creativity, the strength of employee motivation, and the reporting of unethical behavior, but more research is needed to support these conclusions. organizational culture also affects recruitment and retention. individuals tend to be attracted to and remain engaged in organizations that they perceive to be compatible. additionally, high turnover may be a mediating factor in the relationship between culture and organizational performance. deteriorating company performance and an unhealthy work environment are signs of an overdue cultural assessment. moreover, organizational culture also has an effect on knowledge sharing. succeeding in knowledge transfer is highly dependent on an organizational culture that fosters, adopts and utilizes knowledge-transfer processes.[ ] change[edit] when an organization does not possess a healthy culture or requires some kind of organizational culture change, the change process can be daunting. organizational culture can hinder new change efforts, especially where employees know their expectations and the roles that they are supposed to play in the organization. this is corroborated by mar ( : ) who argues that % of all change efforts fail because of the culture of an organization's employees. one major reason why such change is difficult is that organizational cultures, and the organizational structures in which they are embedded, often reflect the "imprint" of earlier periods in a persistent way and exhibit remarkable levels of inertia.[ ] culture change may be necessary to reduce employee turnover, influence employee behavior, make improvements to the company, refocus the company objectives and/or rescale the organization, provide better customer service, and/or achieve specific company goals and results. culture change is affected by a number of elements, including the external environment and industry competitors, change in industry standards, technology changes, the size and nature of the workforce, and the organization's history and management. there are a number of methodologies specifically dedicated to organizational culture change such as peter senge's fifth discipline. there are also a variety of psychological approaches that have been developed into a system for specific outcomes such as the fifth discipline's "learning organization" or directive communication's "corporate culture evolution." ideas and strategies, on the other hand, seem to vary according to particular influences that affect culture. burman and evans ( ) argue that it is 'leadership' that affects culture rather than 'management', and describe the difference. when one wants to change an aspect of the culture of an organization one has to keep in consideration that this is a long-term project. corporate culture is something that is very hard to change and employees need time to get used to the new way of organizing. for companies with a very strong and specific culture it will be even harder to change. prior to a cultural change initiative, a needs assessment is needed to identify and understand the current organizational culture. this can be done through employee surveys, interviews, focus groups, observation, customer surveys where appropriate, and other internal research, to further identify areas that require change. the company must then assess and clearly identify the new, desired culture, and then design a change process. cummings & worley ( , p.  – ) give the following six guidelines for cultural change, these changes are in line with the eight distinct stages mentioned by kotter ( , p.  ): 	formulate a clear strategic vision (stage , , and ). in order to make a cultural change effective a clear vision of the firm's new strategy, shared values and behaviors is needed. this vision provides the intention and direction for the culture change (cummings & worley, , p.  ). 	display top-management commitment (stage ). it is very important to keep in mind that culture change must be managed from the top of the organization, as willingness to change of the senior management is an important indicator (cummings & worley, , page ). the top of the organization should be very much in favor of the change in order to actually implement the change in the rest of the organization. de caluwé & vermaak ( , p ) provide a framework with five different ways of thinking about change. 	model culture change at the highest level (stage ). in order to show that the management team is in favor of the change, the change has to be notable at first at this level. the behavior of the management needs to symbolize the kinds of values and behaviors that should be realized in the rest of the company. it is important that the management shows the strengths of the current culture as well; it must be made clear that the current organizational culture does not need radical changes, but just a few adjustments. (see for more: deal & kennedy, ;[ ] sathe, ; schall; ; weick, ; ditomaso, ). this process may also include creating committees, employee task forces, value managers, or similar. change agents are key in the process and key communicators of the new values. they should possess courage, flexibility, excellent interpersonal skills, knowledge of the company, and patience. as mccune (may ) puts it, these individuals should be catalysts, not dictators. 	the fourth step is to modify the organization to support organizational change. this includes identifying what current systems, policies, procedures and rules need to be changed in order to align with the new values and desired culture. this may include a change to accountability systems, compensation, benefits and reward structures, and recruitment and retention programs to better align with the new values and to send a clear message to employees that the old system and culture are in the past. 	select and socialize newcomers and terminate deviants (stage & of kotter, , p.  ). a way to implement a culture is to connect it to organizational membership, people can be selected and terminated in terms of their fit with the new culture (cummings & worley, , p.  ). encouraging employee motivation and loyalty to the company is key and will also result in a healthy culture. the company and change managers should be able to articulate the connections between the desired behavior and how it will affect and improve the company's success, to further encourage buy-in in the change process. training should be provided to all employees to understand the new processes, expectations and systems. 	develop ethical and legal sensitivity. changes in culture can lead to tensions between organizational and individual interests, which can result in ethical and legal problems for practitioners. this is particularly relevant for changes in employee integrity, control, equitable treatment and job security (cummings & worley, , p.  ). it is also beneficial, as part of the change process, to include an evaluation process, conducted periodically to monitor the change progress and identify areas that need further development. this step will also identify obstacles of change and resistant employees, and acknowledge and reward employee improvement, which will encourage continued change and evolvement. it may also be helpful and necessary to incorporate new change managers to refresh the process. outside consultants may also be useful in facilitating the change process and providing employee training. change of culture in organizations is very important and inevitable. cultural innovation[ ] is bound to be more difficult than cultural maintenance because it entails introducing something new and substantially different from what prevails in existing cultures. people often resist changes, hence it is the duty of management to convince people that likely gain will outweigh the losses. besides institutionalization, deification is another process that tends to occur in strongly developed organizational cultures. the organization itself may come to be regarded as precious in itself, as a source of pride, and in some sense unique. the organization's members begin to feel a strong bond with it that transcends material returns, and they begin to identify with it. the organization turns into a sort of clan. mergers and cultural leadership[edit] one of the biggest obstacles in the way of the merging of two organizations is organizational culture. each organization has its own unique culture and most often, when brought together, these cultures clash. when mergers fail employees point to issues such as identity, communication problems, human resources problems, ego clashes, and inter-group conflicts, which all fall under the category of "cultural differences". one way to combat such difficulties is through cultural leadership. organizational leaders must also be cultural leaders and help facilitate the change from the two old cultures into the one new culture. this is done through cultural innovation followed by cultural maintenance. 	cultural innovation includes: 	creating a new culture: recognizing past cultural differences and setting realistic expectations for change 	changing the culture: weakening and replacing the old cultures 	cultural maintenance includes: 	integrating the new culture: reconciling the differences between the old cultures and the new one 	embodying the new culture: establishing, affirming, and keeping the new culture corporate subcultures[edit] corporate culture is the total sum of the values, customs, traditions, and meanings that make a company unique. corporate culture is often called "the character of an organization", since it embodies the vision of the company's founders. the values of a corporate culture influence the ethical standards within a corporation, as well as managerial behavior.[ ] senior management may try to determine a corporate culture. they may wish to impose corporate values and standards of behavior that specifically reflect the objectives of the organization. in addition, there will also be an extant internal culture within the workforce. work-groups within the organization have their own behavioral quirks and interactions which, to an extent, affect the whole system. roger harrison's four-culture typology, adapted by charles handy, suggests that unlike organizational culture, corporate culture can be 'imported'. for example, computer technicians will have expertise, language and behaviors gained independently of the organization, but their presence can influence the culture of the organization as a whole. authors gerard egan and william tate speak of organizations having a "shadow side".[ ] in egan's work on the "shadow side" of organizations, he defined the shadow side as: all those things that substantially and consistently affect the productivity and quality of the working life of a business, for better or worse, but which are not found on organisation charts, in company manuals, or in the discussions that take place in formal meetings.[ ] tate describes the shadow side as the "often disagreeable, messy, crazy and opaque aspects of [an] organisation’s personality".[ ] legal aspects[edit] corporate culture can legally be found to be a cause of injuries and a reason for fining companies in the us, e.g., when the us department of labor mine safety and health administration levied a fine of more than . million us dollars on performance coal co. following the upper big branch mine disaster in april . this was the largest fine in the history of this u.s. government agency.[ ] research and models[edit] several methods have been used to classify organizational culture. while there is no single "type" of organizational culture and organizational cultures vary widely from one organization to the next, commonalities do exist and some researchers have developed models to describe different indicators of organizational cultures. some are described below: hofstede[edit] main article: hofstede's cultural dimensions theory hofstede ( ) looked for differences between over ibm employees in different countries and three regions of the world, in an attempt to find aspects of culture that might influence business behavior. he suggested things about cultural differences existing in regions and nations, and the importance of international awareness and multiculturalism for their own cultural introspection. cultural differences reflect differences in thinking and social action, and even in "mental programs", a term hofstede uses for predictable behavior. hofstede relates culture to ethnic and regional groups, but also organizations, professional, family, social and subcultural groups, national political systems and legislation, etc. hofstede suggests the need for changing "mental programs" with changing behavior first, which will lead to value change. though certain groups like jews and gypsies have maintained their identity through centuries, their values show adaptation to the dominant cultural environment. hofstede demonstrated that there are national and regional cultural groupings that affect the behavior of organizations and identified four dimensions of culture (later five[ ]) in his study of national cultures: 	power distance (mauk mulder, ) – different societies find different solutions regarding social inequality. although invisible, inside organizations power inequality of the "boss-subordinate relationships" is functional and according to hofstede reflects the way inequality is addressed in the society. "according to mulder's power distance reduction theory subordinates will try to reduce the power distance between themselves and their bosses and bosses will try to maintain or enlarge it", but there is also a degree to which a society expects there to be differences in the levels of power. a high score suggests that there is an expectation that some individuals wield larger amounts of power than others. a low score reflects the view that all people should have equal rights. 	uncertainty avoidance is the way of coping with uncertainty about the future. society copes with it with technology, law and religion (though different societies have different ways of addressing it), and according to hofstede organizations deal with it with technology, law and rituals, or in two ways – rational and non-rational, with rituals being the non-rational. hofstede listed some of the rituals as the memos and reports, some parts of the accounting system, a large part of the planning and control systems, and the nomination of experts. 	individualism vs. collectivism – disharmony of interests on personal and collective goals (parsons and shils, ). hofstede raises the idea that society's expectations of individualism/collectivism will be reflected by the employee inside the organization. collectivist societies will have more emotional dependence on members in their organizations; when in equilibrium an organization is expected to show responsibility to members. extreme individualism is seen in the us. in fact, collectivism in the us is seen as "bad". other cultures and societies than the us will therefore seek to resolve social and organizational problems in ways different from american ways. hofstede says that a capitalist market economy fosters individualism and competition, and depends on it, but individualism is also related to the development of the middle class. some people and cultures might have both high individualism and high collectivism. for example, someone who highly values duty to his or her group does not necessarily give a low priority to personal freedom and self-sufficiency. 	masculinity vs. femininity – reflects whether a certain society is predominantly male or female in terms of cultural values, gender roles and power relations. 	long- versus short-term orientation[ ] which he describes as "the long-term orientation dimension can be interpreted as dealing with society's search for virtue. societies with a short-term orientation generally have a strong concern with establishing the absolute truth. they are normative in their thinking. they exhibit great respect for traditions, a relatively small propensity to save for the future, and a focus on achieving quick results. in societies with a long-term orientation, people believe that truth depends very much on situation, context and time. they show an ability to adapt traditions to changed conditions, a strong propensity to save and invest, thriftiness, and perseverance in achieving results."[ ] these dimensions refer to the effect of national cultures on management, and can be used to adapt policies to local needs. in a follow up study, another model[ ] is suggested for organizational culture. o'reilly, chatman, and caldwell[edit] two common models and their associated measurement tools have been developed by o'reilly et al. and denison. o'reilly, chatman & caldwell ( ) developed a model based on the belief that cultures can be distinguished by values that are reinforced within organizations. their organizational cultural profile (ocp) is a self reporting tool which makes distinctions according eight categories – innovation, supportiveness, stability, respect for people, outcome orientation, attention to detail, team orientation, and aggressiveness. the model is also suited to measure how organizational culture affects organizational performance, as it measures most efficient persons suited to an organization[clarification needed] and as such organizations can be termed as having good organizational culture. employee values are measured against organizational values to predict employee intentions to stay, and turnover.[ ] this is done through an instrument like organizational culture profile (ocp) to measure employee commitment.[ ] daniel denison[edit] daniel denison's model ( ) asserts that organizational culture can be described by four general dimensions – mission, adaptability, involvement and consistency. each of these general dimensions is further described by the following three sub-dimensions: 	mission – strategic direction and intent, goals and objectives and vision 	adaptability – creating change, customer focus and organizational learning 	involvement – empowerment, team orientation and capability development 	consistency – core values, agreement, coordination/integration denison's model also allows cultures to be described broadly as externally or internally focused as well as flexible versus stable. the model has been typically used to diagnose cultural problems in organizations. deal and kennedy[edit] deal and kennedy ( )[ ] defined organizational culture as the way things get done around here. deal and kennedy created a model of culture that is based on different types of organizations. they each focus on how quickly the organization receives feedback, the way members are rewarded, and the level of risks taken:[ ] 	work-hard, play-hard culture: this has rapid feedback/reward and low risk resulting in: stress coming from quantity of work rather than uncertainty. high-speed action leading to high-speed recreation. examples: restaurants, software companies.[ ] 	tough-guy macho culture: this has rapid feedback/reward and high risk, resulting in the following: stress coming from high risk and potential loss/gain of reward. focus on the present rather than the longer-term future. examples: police, surgeons, sports.[ ] 	process culture: this has slow feedback/reward and low risk, resulting in the following: low stress, plodding work, comfort and security. stress that comes from internal politics and stupidity of the system. development of bureaucracies and other ways of maintaining the status quo. focus on security of the past and of the future. examples: banks, insurance companies.[ ][ ] 	bet-the-company culture: this has slow feedback/reward and high risk, resulting in the following: stress coming from high risk and delay before knowing if actions have paid off. the long view is taken, but then much work is put into making sure things happen as planned. examples: aircraft manufacturers, oil companies. edgar schein[edit] according to schein ( ),[ ] culture is the most difficult organizational attribute to change, outlasting organizational products, services, founders and leadership and all other physical attributes of the organization. his organizational model illuminates culture from the standpoint of the observer, described at three levels: artifacts, espoused values and basic underlying assumptions. at the first and most cursory level of schein's model is organizational attributes that can be seen, felt and heard by the uninitiated observer – collectively known as artifacts. included are the facilities, offices, furnishings, visible awards and recognition, the way that its members dress, how each person visibly interacts with each other and with organizational outsiders, and even company slogans, mission statements and other operational creeds. artifacts comprise the physical components of the organization that relay cultural meaning. daniel denison ( ) describes artifacts as the tangible aspects of culture shared by members of an organization. verbal, behavioral and physical artifacts are the surface manifestations of organizational culture. rituals, the collective interpersonal behavior and values as demonstrated by that behavior, constitute the fabric of an organization's culture. the contents of myths, stories, and sagas reveal the history of an organization and influence how people understand what their organization values and believes. language, stories, and myths are examples of verbal artifacts and are represented in rituals and ceremonies. technology and art exhibited by members of an organization are examples of physical artifacts. the next level deals with the professed culture of an organization's members – the values. shared values are individuals' preferences regarding certain aspects of the organization's culture (e.g. loyalty, customer service). at this level, local and personal values are widely expressed within the organization. basic beliefs and assumptions include individuals' impressions about the trustworthiness and supportiveness of an organization, and are often deeply ingrained within the organization's culture. organizational behavior at this level usually can be studied by interviewing the organization's membership and using questionnaires to gather attitudes about organizational membership. at the third and deepest level, the organization's tacit assumptions are found. these are the elements of culture that are unseen and not cognitively identified in everyday interactions between organizational members. additionally, these are the elements of culture which are often taboo to discuss inside the organization. many of these 'unspoken rules' exist without the conscious knowledge of the membership. those with sufficient experience to understand this deepest level of organizational culture usually become acclimatized to its attributes over time, thus reinforcing the invisibility of their existence. surveys and casual interviews with organizational members cannot draw out these attributes—rather much more in-depth means is required to first identify then understand organizational culture at this level. notably, culture at this level is the underlying and driving element often missed by organizational behaviorists. using schein's model, understanding paradoxical organizational behaviors becomes more apparent. for instance, an organization can profess highly aesthetic and moral standards at the second level of schein's model while simultaneously displaying curiously opposing behavior at the third and deepest level of culture. superficially, organizational rewards can imply one organizational norm but at the deepest level imply something completely different. this insight offers an understanding of the difficulty that organizational newcomers have in assimilating organizational culture and why it takes time to become acclimatized. it also explains why organizational change agents usually fail to achieve their goals: underlying tacit cultural norms are generally not understood before would-be change agents begin their actions. merely understanding culture at the deepest level may be insufficient to institute cultural change because the dynamics of interpersonal relationships (often under threatening conditions) are added to the dynamics of organizational culture while attempts are made to institute desired change. according to schein ( ),[ ] the two main reasons why cultures develop in organizations is due to external adaptation and internal integration. external adaptation reflects an evolutionary approach to organizational culture and suggests that cultures develop and persist because they help an organization to survive and flourish. if the culture is valuable, then it holds the potential for generating sustained competitive advantages. additionally, internal integration is an important function since social structures are required for organizations to exist. organizational practices are learned through socialization at the workplace. work environments reinforce culture on a daily basis by encouraging employees to exercise cultural values. organizational culture is shaped by multiple factors, including the following: 	external environment 	industry 	size and nature of the organization's workforce 	technologies the organization uses 	the organization's history and ownership gerry johnson[edit] gerry johnson ( ) described a cultural web, identifying a number of elements that can be used to describe or influence organizational culture: 	the paradigm: what the organization is about, what it does, its mission, its values. 	control systems: the processes in place to monitor what is going on. role cultures would have vast rule-books. there would be more reliance on individualism in a power culture. 	organizational structures: reporting lines, hierarchies, and the way that work flows through the business. 	power structures: who makes the decisions, how widely spread is power, and on what is power based? 	symbols: these include organizational logos and designs, but also extend to symbols of power such as parking spaces and executive washrooms. 	rituals and routines: management meetings, board reports and so on may become more habitual than necessary. 	stories and myths: build up about people and events, and convey a message about what is valued within the organization. these elements may overlap. power structures may depend on control systems, which may exploit the very rituals that generate stories which may not be true. 	 stanley g. harris[edit] schemata (plural of schema) are knowledge structures a person forms from past experiences, allowing the person to respond to similar events more efficiently in the future by guiding the processing of information. a person's schemata are created through interaction with others, and thus inherently involve communication. stanley g. harris ( ) argues that five categories of in-organization schemata are necessary for organizational culture: 	self-in-organization schemata: a person's concept of oneself within the context of the organization, including her/his personality, roles, and behavior. 	person-in-organization schemata: a person's memories, impressions, and expectations of other individuals within the organization. 	organization schemata: a subset of person schemata, a person's generalized perspective on others as a whole in the organization. 	object/concept-in-organization schemata: knowledge an individual has of organization aspects other than of other persons. 	event-in-organization schemata: a person's knowledge of social events within an organization. all of these categories together represent a person's knowledge of an organization. organizational culture is created when the schematas (schematic structures) of differing individuals across and within an organization come to resemble each other (when any one person's schemata come to resemble another person's schemata because of mutual organizational involvement), primarily done through organizational communication, as individuals directly or indirectly share knowledge and meanings. charles handy[edit] charles handy ( ), popularized roger harrison ( ) with linking organizational structure to organizational culture. the described four types of culture are:[ ] 	power culture: concentrates power among a small group or a central figure and its control is radiating from its center like a web. power cultures need only a few rules and little bureaucracy but swift in decisions can ensue. 	role culture: authorities are delegated as such within a highly defined structure. these organizations form hierarchical bureaucracies, where power derives from the personal position and rarely from an expert power. control is made by procedures (which are highly valued), strict roles descriptions and authority definitions. these organizations have consistent systems and are very predictable. this culture is often represented by a "roman building" having pillars. these pillars represent the functional departments. 	task culture: teams are formed to solve particular problems. power is derived from the team with the expertise to execute against a task. this culture uses a small team approach, where people are highly skilled and specialized in their own area of expertise. additionally, these cultures often feature the multiple reporting lines seen in a matrix structure. 	person culture: formed where all individuals believe themselves superior to the organization. it can become difficult for such organizations to continue to operate, since the concept of an organization suggests that a group of like-minded individuals pursue organizational goals. however some professional partnerships operate well as person cultures, because each partner brings a particular expertise and clientele to the firm. kim cameron and robert quinn[edit] see also: archetype kim cameron and robert quinn ( ) conducted research on organizational effectiveness and success. based on the competing values framework, they developed the organizational culture assessment instrument that distinguishes four culture types. competing values produce polarities like flexibility vs. stability and internal vs. external focus – these two polarities were found to be most important in defining organizational success. the polarities construct a quadrant with four types of culture: 	clan culture (internal focus and flexible) – a friendly workplace where leaders act like father figures. 	adhocracy culture (external focus and flexible) – a dynamic workplace with leaders that stimulate innovation. 	market culture (external focus and controlled) – a competitive workplace with leaders like hard drivers 	hierarchy culture (internal focus and controlled) – a structured and formalized workplace where leaders act like coordinators. cameron and quinn designated six characteristics of organizational culture that can be assessed with the organizational culture assessment instrument (ocai). clan cultures are most strongly associated with positive employee attitudes and product and service quality.[ ] market cultures are most strongly related with innovation and financial effectiveness criteria. the primary belief in market cultures that clear goals and contingent rewards motivate employees to aggressively perform and meet stakeholders' expectations; a core belief in clan cultures is that the organization's trust in and commitment to employees facilitates open communication and employee involvement. these differing results suggest that it is important for executive leaders to consider the match between strategic initiatives and organizational culture when determining how to embed a culture that produces competitive advantage. by assessing the current organizational culture as well as the preferred situation, the gap and direction to change can be made visible as a first step to changing organizational culture. robert a. cooke[edit] robert a. cooke defines culture as the behaviors that members believe are required to fit in and meet expectations within their organization. the organizational culture inventory measures twelve behavioral norms that are grouped into three general types of cultures: 	constructive cultures, in which members are encouraged to interact with people and approach tasks in ways that help them meet their higher-order satisfaction needs. 	passive/defensive cultures, in which members believe they must interact with people in ways that will not threaten their own security. 	aggressive/defensive cultures, in which members are expected to approach tasks in forceful ways to protect their status and security. constructive cultures[edit] in constructive cultures, people are encouraged to be in communication with their co-workers, and work as teams, rather than only as individuals. in positions where people do a complex job, rather than something simple like a mechanical task, this culture is efficient.[ ] 	achievement: completing a task successfully, typically by effort, courage, or skill (pursue a standard of excellence) (explore alternatives before acting) – based on the need to attain high-quality results on challenging projects, the belief that outcomes are linked to one's effort rather than chance and the tendency to personally set challenging yet realistic goals. people high in this style think ahead and plan, explore alternatives before acting and learn from their mistakes. 	self-actualizing: realization or fulfillment of one's talents and potentialities – considered as a drive or need present in everyone (think in unique and independent ways) (do even simple tasks well) – based on needs for personal growth, self-fulfillment and the realization of one's potential. people with this style demonstrate a strong desire to learn and experience things, creative yet realistic thinking and a balanced concern for people and tasks. 	humanistic-encouraging: help others to grow and develop (resolve conflicts constructively) – reflects an interest in the growth and development of people, a high positive regard for them and sensitivity to their needs. people high in this style devote energy to coaching and counselling others, are thoughtful and considerate and provide people with support and encouragement. 	affiliative: treat people as more valuable than things (cooperate with others) – reflects an interest in developing and sustaining pleasant relationships. people high in this style share their thoughts and feelings, are friendly and cooperative and make others feel a part of things. organizations with constructive cultures encourage members to work to their full potential, resulting in high levels of motivation, satisfaction, teamwork, service quality, and sales growth. constructive norms are evident in environments where quality is valued over quantity, creativity is valued over conformity, cooperation is believed to lead to better results than competition, and effectiveness is judged at the system level rather than the component level. these types of cultural norms are consistent with (and supportive of) the objectives behind empowerment, total quality management, transformational leadership, continuous improvement, re-engineering, and learning organizations.[ ][ ][ ] passive/defensive cultures[edit] norms that reflect expectations for members to interact with people in ways that will not threaten their own security are in the passive/defensive cluster. the four passive/defensive cultural norms are: 	approval 	conventional 	dependent 	avoidance in organizations with passive/defensive cultures, members feel pressured to think and behave in ways that are inconsistent with the way they believe they should in order to be effective. people are expected to please others (particularly superiors) and avoid interpersonal conflict. rules, procedures, and orders are more important than personal beliefs, ideas, and judgment. passive/defensive cultures experience a lot of unresolved conflict and turnover, and organizational members report lower levels of motivation and satisfaction. aggressive/defensive cultures[edit] this style is characterized with more emphasis on task than people. because of the very nature of this style, people tend to focus on their own individual needs at the expense of the success of the group. the aggressive/defensive style is very stressful, and people using this style tend to make decisions based on status as opposed to expertise.[ ] 	oppositional – this cultural norm is based on the idea that a need for security that takes the form of being very critical and cynical at times. people who use this style are more likely to question others work; however, asking those tough question often leads to a better product. nonetheless, those who use this style may be overly-critical toward others, using irrelevant or trivial flaws to put others down. 	power – this cultural norm is based on the idea that there is a need for prestige and influence. those who use this style often equate their own self-worth with controlling others. those who use this style have a tendency to dictate others opposing to guiding others' actions. 	competitive – this cultural norm is based on the idea of a need to protect one's status. those who use this style protect their own status by comparing themselves to other individuals and outperforming them. those who use this style are seekers of appraisal and recognition from others. 	perfectionistic – this cultural norm is based on the need to attain flawless results. those who often use this style equate their self-worth with the attainment of extremely high standards. those who often use this style are always focused on details and place excessive demands on themselves and others. organizations with aggressive/defensive cultures encourage or require members to appear competent, controlled, and superior. members who seek assistance, admit shortcomings, or concede their position are viewed as incompetent or weak. these organizations emphasize finding errors, weeding out "mistakes" and encouraging members to compete against each other rather than competitors. the short-term gains associated with these strategies are often at the expense of long-term growth.[ ] adam grant[edit] adam grant, author of the book give and take, distinguishes organizational cultures into giver, taker and matcher cultures according to their norms of reciprocity. in a giver culture, employees operate by "helping others, sharing knowledge, offering mentoring, and making connections without expecting anything in return", whereas in a taker culture "the norm is to get as much as possible from others while contributing less in return" and winners are those who take the most and are able to build their power at the expense of others. the majority of organizations are mid-way, with a matcher culture, in which the norm is to match giving with taking, and favours are mostly traded in closed loops.[ ] in a study by harvard researchers on units of the us intelligence system, a giver culture turned out to be the strongest predictor of group effectiveness.[ ] as grant points out, robert h. frank argues that "many organizations are essentially winner-take-all markets, dominated by zero-sum competitions for rewards and promotions". in particular, when leaders implement forced ranking systems to reward individual performance, the organisational culture tends to change, with a giver culture giving way to a taker or matcher culture. also awarding the highest-performing individual within each team encourages a taker culture.[ ] stephen mcguire[edit] stephen mcguire ( ) defined and validated a model of organizational culture that predicts revenue from new sources. an entrepreneurial organizational culture (eoc) is a system of shared values, beliefs and norms of members of an organization, including valuing creativity and tolerance of creative people, believing that innovating and seizing market opportunities are appropriate behaviors to deal with problems of survival and prosperity, environmental uncertainty, and competitors' threats, and expecting organizational members to behave accordingly. elements[edit] 	people and empowerment focused 	value creation through innovation and change 	attention to the basics 	hands-on management 	doing the right thing 	freedom to grow and to fail 	commitment and personal responsibility 	emphasis on the future[ ] eric flamholtz[edit] eric flamholtz ( ; ) has identified and validated a model of organizational culture components that drive financial results (flamholtz and randle, ). the model consist of five identified dimensions of corporate culture: ) treatment of customers, ) treatment of people, ) performance standards and accountability, ) innovation and change, and ) process orientation. these five dimensions have been confirmed by factor analysis (flamholtz and narasimhan-kannan, ) in addition, flamholtz has published empirical research that show the impact of organizational culture on financial performance (flamholtz, ). flamholtz has also proposed that organizational (corporate) culture is not just an asset in the economic sense; but is also an "asset" in the conventional accounting sense (flamholtz ). flamholtz and randle have also examined the evolution of organizational culture at different stages of organizational growth (flamholtz and randle, ). ethical frameworks and evaluations of corporate culture[edit] four organizational cultures can be classified as apathetic, caring, exacting, and integrative. 	an apathetic culture shows minimal concern for either people or performance.   	a caring culture exhibits high concern for people but minimal concern for performance issues. 	an exacting culture shows little concern for people but a high concern for performance. 	an integrative culture combines a high concern for people and performance. a cultural audit is an assessment of an organization's values. critical views[edit] criticism of the usage of the term by managers began already in its emergence in the early s.[ ] most of the criticism comes from the writers in critical management studies who for example express skepticism about the functionalist and unitarist views about culture that are put forward by mainstream management writers. they stress the ways in which these cultural assumptions can stifle dissent towards management and reproduce propaganda and ideology. they suggest that organizations do not encompass a single culture, and cultural engineering may not reflect the interests of all stakeholders within an organization. parker ( ) has suggested that many of the assumptions of those putting forward theories of organizational culture are not new. they reflect a long-standing tension between cultural and structural (or informal and formal) versions of what organizations are. further, it is reasonable to suggest that complex organizations might have many cultures, and that such sub-cultures might overlap and contradict each other. the neat typologies of cultural forms found in textbooks rarely acknowledge such complexities, or the various economic contradictions that exist in capitalist organizations. among the strongest and most widely recognized writers on corporate culture, with a long list of articles on leadership, culture, gender and their intersection, is linda smircich. as a part of the critical management studies, she criticizes theories that attempt to categorize or 'pigeonhole' organizational culture.[ ][ ] she uses the metaphor of a plant root to represent culture, saying that it drives organizations rather than vice versa. organizations are the product of organizational culture; we are unaware of how it shapes behavior and interaction (also implicit in schein's ( ) underlying assumptions[clarification needed]), which undermines attempts to categorize and define organizational culture. see also[edit] 	assessment culture 	cultural capital 	cultural identity 	diversity 	fit in or fuck off 	inclusive business 	inclusiveness 	kick the cat 	kiss up kick down 	lifestyle (sociology) 	machiavellianism in the workplace 	multiculturalism 	my way or the highway 	narcissism in the workplace 	organizational behavior 	organizational studies 	organizational psychology 	power (social and political) 	psychological capital 	psychopathy in the workplace 	realistic job preview 	silicon valley culture 	three circles model 	tick-box culture 	working class culture 	workplace diversity references[edit] 	^ schein, e. h. ( ). organizational culture. american psychologist, , – . doi: . / - x. . . 	^ compare: hatch, mary jo; cunliffe, ann l. ( ) [ ]. "a history of organizational culture in organization theory". organization theory: modern, symbolic and postmodern perspectives ( ed.). oxford: oxford university press. p.  . isbn  . oclc  . retrieved june . with the publication of his book the changing culture of a factory in , british sociologist elliott jaques became the first organization theorist to describe an organizational culture. 	^ a b jaques, elliott ( ). the changing culture of a factory. tavistock institute of human relations. [london]: tavistock publications. p.  . isbn  - . oclc  . 	^ compare: kummerow, elizabeth. organisational culture : concept, context, and measurement. kirby, neil.; ying, lee xin. new jersey. p.  . isbn  . oclc  . jacques [sic], a canadian psychoanalyst and organisational psychologist, made a major contribution [...] with his detailed study of glacier metals, a medium-sized british manufacturing company. 	^ ravasi, d.; schultz, m. ( ). "responding to organizational identity threats: exploring the role of organizational culture". academy of management journal. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /amj. . . 	^ schein, edgar h. ( ). organizational culture and leadership ( rd ed.). san francisco: jossey-bass. pp.  – . isbn  . oclc  . 	^ schrodt, p ( ). "the relationship between organizational identification and organizational culture: employee perceptions of culture and identification in a retail sales organization". communication studies. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ a b c schein, edgar ( ). organizational culture and leadership: a dynamic view. san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. pp.  . 	^ a b c d deal t. e. and kennedy, a. a. ( , ) corporate cultures: the rites and rituals of corporate life, harmondsworth, penguin books, ; reissue perseus books, 	^ a b c kotter, j. p.; heskett, james l. ( ). corporate culture and performance. new york: the free press. isbn  - - - - . 	^ selart, marcus; schei, vidar ( ): "organizational culture". in: mark a. runco and steven r. pritzker (eds.): encyclopedia of creativity, nd edition, vol. . san diego: academic press, pp. – . 	^ compare: flamholtz, eric g.; randle, yvonne ( ). corporate culture: the ultimate strategic asset. stanford business books. stanford, california: stanford university press. p.  . isbn  . retrieved - - . [...] in a very real sense, corporate culture can be thought of as a company's 'personality'. 	^ compare: flamholtz, eric; randle, yvonne ( ). " : implications of organizational life cycles for corporate culture and climate". in schneider, benjamin; barbera, karen m. (eds.). the oxford handbook of organizational climate and culture. oxford library of psychology. oxford: oxford university press. p.  . isbn  . retrieved - - . the essence of corporate culture, then, is the values, beliefs, and norms or behavioral practices that emerge in an organization. in this sense, organizational culture is the personality of the organization. 	^ compare: flamholtz, eric; randle, yvonne ( ). " : implications of organizational life cycles for corporate culture and climate". in schneider, benjamin; barbera, karen m. (eds.). the oxford handbook of organizational climate and culture. oxford library of psychology. oxford: oxford university press. p.  . isbn  . retrieved - - . the essence of corporate culture, then, is the values, beliefs, and norms or behavioral practices that emerge in an organization. 	^ jaques, elliott ( ). requisite organization : a total system for effective managerial organization and managerial leadership for the st century (rev. nd ed.). arlington, va: cason hall. isbn  - . oclc  . 	^ jaques, elliott ( ). "leadership and organizational values". requisite organization: a total system for effective managerial organization and managerial leadership for the st century ( ed.). routledge. isbn  . retrieved june . 	^ "culture is everything," said lou gerstner, the ceo who pulled ibm from near ruin in the s.", culture clash: when corporate culture fights strategy, it can cost you archived - - at the wayback machine, knowmgmt, arizona state university, march , 	^ unlike many expressions that emerge in business jargon, the term spread to newspapers and magazines. few usage experts object to the term. over percent of usage experts accept the sentence the new management style is a reversal of ge's traditional corporate culture, in which virtually everything the company does is measured in some form and filed away somewhere.", the american heritage® dictionary of the english language, fourth edition copyright © by houghton mifflin company. updated in . published by houghton mifflin company. 	^ a b one of the first to point to the importance of culture for organizational analysis and the intersection of culture theory and organization theory is linda smircich in her article concepts of culture and organizational analysis in . see smircich, linda ( ). "concepts of culture and organizational analysis". administrative science quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ a b "the term "corporate culture" is fast losing the academic ring it once had among u.s. manager. sociologists and anthropologists popularized the word "culture" in its technical sense, which describes overall behavior patterns in groups. but corporate managers, untrained in sociology jargon, found it difficult to use the term unselfconsciously." in phillip farish, career talk: corporate culture, hispanic engineer, issue , year , 	^ halpin, a. w., & croft, d. b. ( ). the organizational climate of schools. chicago: midwest administration center of the university of chicago. 	^ fred c. lunenburg, allan c. ornstein, educational administration: concepts and practices, cengage learning, , pp. 	^ a b modaff, d.p., dewine, s., & butler, j. ( ). organizational communication: foundations, challenges, and misunderstandings ( nd ed.). boston: pearson education. (chapters – ) 	^ a b "three bell curves: business culture decoded", accessed november 	^ "sirota survey intelligence". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ lean enterprise institute 	^ netpromoterscore 	^ babych, o.b. ( ). efficiency of functioning of the public administration’s and local government’s subjects basing on the corporate culture implementation. – manuscript. dissertation for getting a scientific degree of the candidate of sciences in public administration following the specialty . . – mechanisms of public administration. – kharkiv regional institute of public administration of the national academy of public administration attached to the office of the president of ukraine. – kharkiv. retrieved from http://irbis-nbuv.gov.ua/cgi-bin/irbis r_ /cgiirbis_ .exe?c com= &i dbn=ard&p dbn=ard&z id=&image_file_download= &image_file_name=doc/ / bobvkk.zip 	^ "definition of typology". www.merriam-webster.com. retrieved - - . 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( ), working the shadow side, san francisco, jossey-bass 	^ us labor department's msha cites corporate culture as root cause of upper big branch mine disaster, msha news release, us department of labor, may , 	^ a b c hofstede, geert h. . culture's consequences: comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. sage publications. 	^ "archived copy". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) 	^ a b becky h. takeda, investigation of employee tenure as related to relationships of personality and personal values of entrepreneurs and their perceptions of their employees, proquest, , p. 	^ a b c d deal and kennedy's cultural model, changingminds.org 	^ enrique ruiz, discriminate or diversify, positivepsyche.biz corp, 	^ beyer, d.l., & haug, r. (nd)., organizational culture: diagnosing a customer contact company. retrieved dec. , .[ ] archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ cooke, r. a. ( ). the organizational culture inventory. plymouth, mi: human synergistics, inc. 	^ "using the organizational culture inventory (oci) to measure kotter and heskett's adaptive and unadaptive cultures". human synergistics. archived from the original on october . retrieved october . 	^ "constructive styles". human-synergistics. archived from the original on october . retrieved october . 	^ a b "aggressive/defensive styles". archived from the original on october . retrieved october . 	^ a b c adam grant (april ). "givers take all: the hidden dimension of corporate culture". mckinsey. retrieved - - . 	^ "lindle hatton faculty page". 	^ brewis, joanna ( ). "othering organization theory: marta calás and linda smircich". the sociological review. : – . doi: . /j. - x. . .x. s cid  . notes[edit] 	adkins, b.; caldwell, d. ( ). "firm or subgroup culture: where does fitting in matter most?". journal of organizational behavior. ( ): – . doi: . /job. . 	burman, r. and evans, a.j. ( ) "target zero: a culture of safety", defence aviation safety centre journal, pp.  – . 	cameron, kim s. & quinn, robert e. ( ), diagnosing and changing organizational culture: based on the competing values framework, prentice hall, isbn  - - - - , reprinted john wiley & sons, 	chatman, j. a.; jehn, k. a. ( ). "assessing the relationship between industry characterestics and organizational culture: how different can you be?"". academy of management journal. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . jstor  . 	cummings, thomas g. & worley, christopher g. ( ), organization development and change, th ed., south-western college pub. 	denison, daniel r. ( ) corporate culture and organizational effectiveness, wiley. 	denison, daniel r., haaland, s. and goelzer, p. ( ) "corporate culture and organizational effectiveness: is asia different from the rest of the world?" organizational dynamics, pp.  – 	janis, irving l. ( ). victims of groupthink; a psychological study of foreign-policy decisions and fiascoes. boston: houghton, mifflin. isbn  - - - - . 	flamholtz, eric ( ). "corporate culture and the bottom line". european management journal. ( ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . 	flamholtz, eric ( ). "la cultura empresarial y la cuenta des resultos". harvard deusto business review. : – . 	flamholtz, e.g.; narasimhan-kannan, rangapriya ( ). "differential impact of culture upon financial performance: an empirical investigation". european management journal. ( ): – . doi: . /j.emj. . . . 	flamholtz, eric. "conceptualizing and measuring human capital of the third kind: corporate culture". journal of human resource costing & accounting. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	flamholtz, eric g and randle, yvonne ( ), "corporate culture: the ultimate strategic advantage," stanford university press, stanford california, pp.  – and – . 	flamholtz, eric and randle yvonne,( ). "implications of organizational life cycles for corporate culture and climate," chapter in b. schneider and k. barbera, the oxford handbook of organizational climate and culture, oxford library of psychology, oxford university press, , pp.  – . 	handy, charles b. ( ) understanding organizations, oxford university press 	harris, stanley g ( ). "organizational culture and individual sensemaking: a schema-based perspective". organization science. ( ): – . doi: . /orsc. . . . 	harrison, roger ( ) understanding your organisation's character, harvard business review 	hofstede, geert ( ) culture's consequences: international differences in work related values, beverly hills, ca, sage publications, reprinted 	hofstede, geert ( ), cultures and organizations: software of the mind., mcgraw-hill professional 	johnson, gerry ( ). "rethinking incrementalism". strategic management journal. : – . doi: . /smj. . 	mcguire, stephen j.j. ( ). "entrepreneurial organizational culture: construct definition and instrument development and validation, ph.d. dissertation", the george washington university, washington, dc. 	mulder, mauk ( ) the daily power game, martinus nijhoff socìal sciences division 	o'rielly, chatman; caldwell ( ). "people and organizational culture: a profile comparison approach to assessing person-organization fit". academy of management journal. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	parker, m. ( ) organizational culture and identity, london: sage. 	parsons, talcott, shils, edward ( ), toward a general theory of action, reprinted as parsons, talcott, shils, tolman, stouffer and kluckhohn et al., toward a general theory of action: theoretical foundations of the social sciencies, transaction publishers, 	peters and waterman ( ). in search of excellence. harper & row (new york). 	stoykov, lubomir ( ). Фирмената култура и комуникация (in bulgarian) (company culture and communication), stopanstvo, sofia. 	zhang, xibao ( ). values, expectations, ad hoc rules, and culture emergence in international cross cultural management contexts. new york: nova science publishers. further reading[edit] 	barney, j. b. ( ). "organizational culture: can it be a source of sustained competitive advantage?"". academy of management review. ( ): – . doi: . /amr. . . 	black, richard j. ( ) organizational culture: creating the influence needed for strategic success, london uk, isbn  - - -x 	bligh, michelle c ( ). "surviving post-merger 'culture clash': can cultural leadership lessen the casualties?". leadership. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	boddy, c. r. ( ) corporate psychopaths: organizational destroyers, palgrave macmillan 	hartnell, c. a.; ou, a. y.; kinicki, a. ( ). "organizational culture and organizational effectiveness: a meta-analytic investigation of the competing values framework's theoretical suppositions". journal of applied psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	jex, steven m. jex & britt, thomas w. ( ) organizational psychology, a scientist-practitioner approach, john wiley & sons, isbn  - - - - . 	kleinbaum, rob and aviva ( ). creating a culture of profitability, probabilistic publishing, isbn  - . 	markus, hazel ( ). "self-schemata and processing information about the self". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . 	mills, albert j ( ). "organization, gender and culture". organization studies. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	o'donovan, gabrielle ( ). the corporate culture handbook: how to plan, implement and measure a successful culture change programme, the liffey press, isbn  - - - 	papa, michael j., et al. ( ). organizational communication perspectives and trends ( th ed.). sage publications. 	phegan, b. ( – ) developing your company culture, a handbook for leaders and managers, context press, isbn  - - - 	rosauer, bernard l. ( ). "three bell curves: organizational culture decoded". cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	sopow, e. ( ). corporate personality disorder. lincoln neb.: iuniverse. 	luthans, f. & doh jonathan, p. ( ). "international management, culture, strategy and behavior" ( th ed.). mc graw hill external links[edit] 	organizational culture and institutional transformation (pdf) – from the education resources information center clearinghouse on higher education washington, dc. 	corporate executives discussing the importance of building a healthy, effective organizational culture 	 	organizational culture, joel peterson (chairman of jetblue corporation and managing partner of trammell crow company), stanford graduate school of business 	organizational culture trumps strategy, mindy grossman (ceo of the home shopping network [hsn]), stanford graduate school of business 	organizational culture, isadore sharp (founder and chairman of four seasons hotels and resorts), stanford graduate school of business 	organizational debt is like technical debt – but worse, steve blank (entrepreneur, investor and stanford university professor) 	 	v 	t 	e aspects of organizations 	 	architecture 	behavior 	blame 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	 	 	 	 	nostalgia 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for other uses, see nostalgia (disambiguation). feeling sentimentality for the past 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e memories of pre-computer-era settings, such as this small office/home office containing no modern computer equipment, can inspire nostalgia. this coca-cola advertisement from is still displayed in minden, louisiana nostalgia is a sentimentality for the past, typically for a period or place with happy personal associations.[ ] the word nostalgia is learned formation of a greek compound, consisting of νόστος (nóstos), meaning "homecoming", a homeric word, and ἄλγος (álgos), meaning "pain" or "ache", and was coined by a th-century medical student to describe the anxieties displayed by swiss mercenaries fighting away from home.[ ] described as a medical condition—a form of melancholy—in the early modern period,[ ] it became an important trope in romanticism.[ ] nostalgia is associated with a yearning for the past, its personalities, possibilities, and events, especially the "good old days" or a "warm childhood".[ ] the scientific literature on nostalgia usually refers to nostalgia regarding the personal life and has mainly studied the effects of nostalgia induced during the studies. smell and touch are strong evokers of nostalgia due to the processing of these stimuli first passing through the amygdala, the emotional seat of the brain. these recollections of one's past are usually important events, people one cares about, and places where one has spent time. music[ ] and weather[ ] can also be strong triggers of nostalgia. contents 	 functions 	 . improve mood 	 . increase social connectedness 	 . enhance positive self-regard 	 . provide existential meaning 	 . promote psychological growth 	 . as a deception 	 . as a comfort 	 . as a political tool 	 other aspects 	 . as a medical condition 	 . romanticism 	 . music 	 . books 	 . as an advertising tool 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading functions[edit] nostalgia's definition has changed greatly over time. consistent with its greek word roots meaning "homecoming" and "pain," nostalgia was for centuries considered a potentially debilitating and sometimes fatal medical condition expressing extreme homesickness.[ ] the modern view is that nostalgia is an independent, and even positive, emotion that many people experience often. occasional nostalgia has been found to have many functions, such as to improve mood, increase social connectedness, enhance positive self-regard, and provide existential meaning. many nostalgic reflections serve more than one function, and overall seem to benefit those who experience them. such benefits may lead to a chronic disposition or personality trait of "nostalgia proneness."[ ][ ] nostalgia has also been associated with learning and memory consolidation.[ ] improve mood[edit] although nostalgia is often triggered by negative feelings, it results in increasing one's mood and heightening positive emotions, which can stem from feelings of warmth or coping resulting from nostalgic reflections. one way to improve mood is to effectively cope with problems that hinder one's happiness. batcho ( ) found that nostalgia proneness positively related to successful methods of coping throughout all stages—planning and implementing strategies, and reframing the issue positively. these studies led to the conclusion that the coping strategies that are likely among nostalgia prone people often lead to benefits during stressful times. nostalgia can be connected to more focus on coping strategies and implementing them, thus increasing support in challenging times.[ ] increase social connectedness[edit] further information: living history tweed run, nostalgia also sometimes involves memories of people you were close to, and thus it can increase one's sense of social support and connections. nostalgia is also triggered specifically by feelings of loneliness, but counteracts such feelings with reflections of close relationships. according to zhou et al. ( ), lonely people often have lesser perceptions of social support. loneliness, however, leads to nostalgia, which actually increases perceptions of social support. thus, zhou and colleagues ( ) concluded that nostalgia serves a restorative function for individuals regarding their social connectedness.[ ] enhance positive self-regard[edit] nostalgia serves as a coping mechanism and helps people to feel better about themselves. vess et al. ( ) found that the subjects who thought of nostalgic memories showed a greater accessibility of positive characteristics than those who thought of exciting future experiences. additionally, in a second study conducted, some participants were exposed to nostalgic engagement and reflection while the other group was not. the researchers looked again at self-attributes and found that the participants who were not exposed to nostalgic experiences reflected a pattern of selfish and self-centered attributes. vess et al. ( ), however, found that this effect had weakened and become less powerful among the participants who engaged in nostalgic reflection.[ ] provide existential meaning[edit] nostalgia helps increase one's self-esteem and meaning in life by buffering threats to well-being and also by initiating a desire to deal with problems or stress. routledge ( ) and colleagues found that nostalgia correlates positively with one's sense of meaning in life. the second study revealed that nostalgia increases one's perceived meaning in life, which was thought to be mediated by a sense of social support or connectedness. thirdly, the researchers found that threatened meaning can even act as a trigger for nostalgia, thus increasing one's nostalgic reflections. by triggering nostalgia, though, one's defensiveness to such threat is minimized as found in the fourth study. the final two studies found that nostalgia is able to not only create meaning, but buffer threats to meaning by breaking the connection between a lack of meaning and one's well-being. follow-up studies also completed by routledge in not only found meaning as a function of nostalgia, but also concluded that nostalgic people have greater perceived meaning, search for meaning less, and can better buffer existential threat.[ ][ ] promote psychological growth[edit] nostalgia makes people more willing to engage in growth-oriented behaviors and encourages them to view themselves as growth-oriented people. baldwin & landau ( ) found that nostalgia leads people to rate themselves higher on items like "i am the kind of person who embraces unfamiliar people, events, and places." nostalgia also increased interest in growth-related behavior such as "i would like to explore someplace that i have never been before." in the first study, these effects were statistically mediated by nostalgia-induced positive affect—the extent to which nostalgia made participants feel good. in the second study, nostalgia led to the same growth outcomes but the effects were statistically mediated by nostalgia-induced self-esteem.[ ] as a deception[edit] one recent study critiques the idea of nostalgia, which in some forms can become a defense mechanism by which people avoid the historical facts.[ ] this study looked at the different portrayals of apartheid in south africa and argued that nostalgia appears as two ways,[ ] 'restorative nostalgia' a wish to return to that past, and 'reflective nostalgia' which is more critically aware. as a comfort[edit] reliving past memories may provide comfort and contribute to mental health.[ ] one notable recent medical study has looked at the physiological effects thinking about past 'good' memories can have. they found that thinking about the past 'fondly' actually increased perceptions of physical warmth.[ ] as a political tool[edit] in a study conducted by routledge, he and a team observed that the more people reported having major disruptions and uncertainties in their lives, the more they nostalgically longed for the past. routledge suggests that by invoking the idea of an idealized past, politicians can provoke the social and cultural anxieties and uncertainties that make nostalgia especially attractive—and effective—as a tool of political persuasion.[ ][ ] other aspects[edit] as a medical condition[edit] further information: homesickness the term was coined in by johannes hofer ( – ) in his basel dissertation. hofer introduced nostalgia or mal du pays "homesickness" for the condition also known as mal du suisse "swiss illness" or schweizerheimweh "swiss homesickness", because of its frequent occurrence in swiss mercenaries who in the plains of lowlands france or italy were pining for their native mountain landscapes. symptoms were also thought to include fainting, high fever, indigestion, stomach pain, and death. military physicians hypothesized that the malady was due to damage to the victims' brain cells and ear drums by the constant clanging of cowbells in the pastures of switzerland.[ ] english homesickness is a loan translation of nostalgia. sir joseph banks used the word in his journal during the first voyage of captain cook. on september he stated that the sailors "were now pretty far gone with the longing for home which the physicians have gone so far as to esteem a disease under the name of nostalgia", but his journal was not published in his lifetime (see beaglehole, j. c. (ed.). the endeavour journal of joseph banks – , public library of new south wales/angus and robertson, sydney, , vol. ii, p.  ). cases resulting in death were known and soldiers were sometimes successfully treated by being discharged and sent home. receiving a diagnosis was, however, generally regarded as an insult. in robert hamilton ( – , physician of ipswich) described a case of a soldier suffering from nostalgia, who received sensitive and successful treatment: in the year , while i lay in barracks at tin mouth in the north of england, a recruit who had lately joined the regiment ... was returned in sick list, with a message from his captain, requesting i would take him into the hospital. he had only been a few months a soldier; was young, handsome, and well-made for the service; but a melancholy hung over his countenance, and wanness preyed on his cheeks. he complained of a universal weakness, but no fixed pain; a noise in his ears, and giddiness of his head. ... as there were little obvious symptoms of fever, i did not well know what to make of the case. ... some weeks passed with little alteration ... excepting that he was evidently become more meager. he scarcely took any nourishment ... became indolent. ... he was put on a course of strengthening medicines; wine was allowed him. all proved ineffectual. he had now been in the hospital three months, and was quite emaciated, and like one in the last stage of consumption. ... on making my morning visit, and inquiring, as usual, of his rest at the nurse, she happened to mention the strong notions he had got in his head, she said, of home, and of his friends. what he was able to speak was constantly on this topic. this i had never heard of before. ... he had talked in the same style, it seems, less or more, ever since he came into the hospital. i went immediately up to him, and introduced the subject; and from the alacrity with which he resumed it.. i found it a theme which much affected him. he asked me, with earnestness, if i would let him go home. i pointed out to him how unfit he was, from his weakness to undertake such a journey [he was a welchman ] till once he was better; but promised him, assuredly, without farther hesitation, that as soon as he was able he should have six weeks to go home. he revived at the very thought of it. ... his appetite soon mended; and i saw in less than a week, evident signs of recovery. [citation needed] in the eighteenth century, scientists were looking for a locus of nostalgia, a nostalgic bone. by the s nostalgia was losing its status as a particular disease and coming to be seen rather as a symptom or stage of a pathological process. it was considered as a form of melancholia and a predisposing condition among suicides. nostalgia was, however, still diagnosed among soldiers as late as the american civil war.[ ] by the s interest in nostalgia as a medical category had almost completely vanished. nostalgia was still being recognized in both the first and second world wars, especially by the american armed forces. great lengths were taken to study and understand the condition to stem the tide of troops leaving the front in droves (see the bbc documentary century of the self). nostalgia is triggered by something reminding an individual of an event or item from their past. the resulting emotion can vary from happiness to sorrow. the term of "feeling nostalgic" is more commonly used to describe pleasurable emotions associated with and/or a longing to go back to a particular period of time, although the former may also be true. romanticism[edit] swiss nostalgia was linked to the singing of kuhreihen, which were forbidden to swiss mercenaries because they led to nostalgia to the point of desertion, illness or death. the dictionnaire de musique by jean-jacques rousseau claims that swiss mercenaries were threatened with severe punishment to prevent them from singing their swiss songs. it became somewhat of a topos in romantic literature, and figures in the poem der schweizer by achim von arnim ( ) and in clemens brentano's des knaben wunderhorn ( ) as well as in the opera le chalet by adolphe charles adam ( ) which was performed for queen victoria under the title the swiss cottage. the romantic connection of nostalgia, the kuhreihen and the swiss alps was a significant factor in the enthusiasm for switzerland, the development of early tourism in switzerland and alpinism that took hold of the european cultural elite in the th century. german romanticism coined an opposite to heimweh, fernweh "far-sickness," "longing to be far away," like wanderlust expressing the romantic desire to travel and explore. music[edit] hearing an old song can bring back memories for a person. a song heard once at a specific moment and then not heard again until a far later date will give the listener a sense of nostalgia for the date remembered and events which occurred then. however, if it is heard throughout life, it may lose its association with any specific period or experience.[ ] books[edit] a person can deliberately trigger feelings of nostalgia by listening to familiar music, looking at old photos, or visiting comforting environments of the past.[ ] with this knowledge widely available, many books have been published specifically to evoke the feeling of nostalgia. books are just one of many mediums used in the monetization of nostalgia[ ][circular reference]. do you remember? the book that takes you back as an advertising tool[edit] in media and advertising, nostalgia-evoking images, sounds, and references can be used strategically to create a sense of connectedness between consumers and products with the goal of convincing the public to consume, watch, or buy advertised products.[ ] modern technology facilitates nostalgia-eliciting advertising through the subject, style, and design of an advertisement.[ ] the feeling of longing for the past is easily communicated through social media and advertising because these media require the participation of multiple senses, are able to represent their ideas entirely, and therefore become more reminiscent of reality. due to efficient advertising schemes, consumers need not have experienced a specific event or moment in time in order to feel nostalgic for it. this is due to a phenomenon referred to as vicarious nostalgia. vicarious nostalgia is a feeling of wistful yearning for a moment that occurred prior to, or outside of, the span of one's memory, but is relatable (has sentimental value) due to repeated mediated exposure to it.[ ] the constant propagating of advertisements and other media messages makes vicarious nostalgia possible, and changes the ways we understand advertisements and subsequently, the way consumers use their purchasing power. examples of nostalgia used to provoke public interest include nostalgia-themed websites[ ] including the nostalgia machine and doyouremember?, revamps of old movies,[ ] tv shows, and books. vintage, rustic and old-fashioned design styles can also be seen in nostalgia-based ad campaigns that companies such as coca-cola and levi strauss & co. use.[ ] see also[edit] 	americana 	declinism 	golden age (metaphor) 	hauntology 	historic preservation 	mono no aware 	nostalgia industry 	nostalgia for the soviet union 	old-time radio 	ostalgie 	recency bias 	retro style 	rosy retrospection 	saudade 	sehnsucht 	solastalgia 	vaporwave 	vintage (design) 	yugo-nostalgia references[edit] 	^ a b boym, svetlana ( ). the future of nostalgia. basic books. pp. xiii–xiv. isbn  - - - - . 	^ fuentenebro; de diego, f; valiente, c ( ). "nostalgia: a conceptual history". history of psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . / x . pmid  . 	^ a b dahl, melissa (february , ). "the little-known medical history of homesickness". new york. archived from the original on march , . 	^ sedikides, constantine; wildschut, tim; arndt, jamie; routledge, clay (october ). "nostalgia: past, present, and future". current directions in psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. 	^ a b "music-evoked nostalgia". 	^ "study: nostalgia makes us warm, and cold makes us nostalgic". - - . cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ vanessa köneke: more bitter than sweet - are nostalgic people rather sad than happy after all? grin verlag gmbh, münchen , isbn  - . 	^ schindler, robert m.; holbrook, morris b. ( - - ). "nostalgia for early experience as a determinant of consumer preferences". psychology and marketing. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /mar. . issn  - . 	^ oba k.; noriuchi m.; atomi t.; moriguchi y.; kikuchi y. ( - - ). "memory and reward systems coproduce 'nostalgic' experiences in the brain". social cognitive and affective neuroscience. ( ): – . doi: . /scan/nsv . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ batcho, k. i. ( ). "nostalgia: retreat or support in difficult times?" the american journal of psychology, 	^ zhou, x.; sedikides, c.; wildschut, t.; gao, d. ( ). "counteracting loneliness: on the restorative function of nostalgia" (pdf). psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . s cid  . 	^ vess, m.; arndt, j.; routledge, c.; sedikides, c.; wildschut, t. ( ). "nostalgia as a resource for the self". self and identity. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . s cid  . 	^ routledge, c.; arndt, j.; wildschut, t.; sedikides, c.; hart, c. m. ( ). "the past makes the present meaningful: nostalgia as an existential resource". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ routledge, c.; wildschut, t.; sedikides, c.; juhl, j.; arndt, j. ( ). "the power of the past: nostalgia as a meaning-making resource". memory. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ baldwin, m.; landau, m.j. ( ). "exploring nostalgia's influence on psychological growth". self and identity. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . s cid  . 	^ hook, d.( ) "screened history: nostalgia as defensive formation." peace and conflict: journal of peace psychology, vol ( ), aug, . special issue: of narratives and nostalgia. pp. – 	^ boym, s. ( ). the future of nostalgia. new york, ny: basic books 	^ a b john tierney (july , ). "what is nostalgia good for? quite a bit, research shows". the new york times. retrieved july , . 	^ zhou, xinyue; wildschut, tim; sedikides, constantine; chen, xiaoxi; vingerhoets, ad j. j. m. ( ). "heartwarming memories: nostalgia maintains physiological comfort". emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ sedikides, c.; wildschut, t.; routledge, c.; arndt, j. ( ). "nostalgia counteracts self-discontinuity and restores self-continuity" (pdf). european journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /ejsp. . 	^ routledge, clay (october , ). "approach with caution: nostalgia is a potent political agent". undark magazine. 	^ wisconsin public radio, to the best of our knowledge, "svetlana boym on nostalgia", november 	^ https://www.neurologytimes.com/blog/brain-and-nostalgia 	^ nostalgia industry 	^ lizardi, r. ( ). mediated nostalgia. maryland: lexington books. 	^ niemeyer, k. ( ). media and nostalgia. palgrave macmillan. isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b merchant, a ( ). "effects of advertising evoked vicarious nostalgia in brand heritage". journal of business research: . 	^ "doyouremember.com". doyouremember?. doyouremember? inc. retrieved october . 	^ "oceans version". imdb. further reading[edit] 	bartholeyns, g. ( ). "the instant past: nostalgia and digital photo retro photography." media and nostalgia. yearning for the past, present and future, ed. k. niemeyer (palgrave macmillan): – . 	batcho, k. i. ( ). "nostalgia: retreat or support in difficult times?". the american journal of psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /amerjpsyc. . . . pmid  . 	simon bunke: heimweh. studien zur kultur- und literaturgeschichte einer tödlichen krankheit. (homesickness. on the cultural and literary history of a lethal disease). freiburg . pp. 	boulbry, gaëlle and borges, adilson. Évaluation d’une échelle anglo-saxonne de mesure du tempérament nostalgique dans un contexte culturel français (evaluation of an anglo-saxon scale of measurement of nostalgic mood in a french cultural context) 	dominic boyer, "ostalgie and the politics of the future in eastern germany." public culture ( ): - . 	simon bunke: heimweh. in: bettina von jagow / florian steger (eds.): literatur und medizin im europäischen kontext. ein lexikon. göttingen: vandenhoeck & ruprecht . sp. – . 	niemeyer, katharina (ed. ), media and nostalgia. yearning for the past, present and future'(palgrave macmillan. 	coromines i vigneaux, joan. diccionari etimològic i complementari de la llengua catalana [barcelona, curial edicions catalanes, ] 	davis, fred yearning for yesterday: a sociology of nostalgia. new york: free press, . 	freeman, lindsey a., longing for the bomb: oak ridge and atomic nostalgia. chapel hill: university of north carolina press, . 	hofer, johannes, "medical dissertation on nostalgia." bulletin of the institute of the history of medicine. trans. carolyn kiser anspach . (( ) aug. ): – . 	hunter, richard and macalpine, ida. three hundred years of psychiatry: – , [hartsdale, ny, carlisle publishing, inc, ] 	hutcheon, linda "irony, nostalgia, and the postmodern" 	jameson, fredric ( ). "nostalgia for the present". the south atlantic quarterly. ( ): – . 	thurber, christopher a. and marian d. sigman, "preliminary models of risk and protective factors for childhood homesickness: review and empirical synthesis." child development : (aug. ): – . 	dylan trigg, the aesthetics of decay: nothingness, nostalgia, and the absence of reason (new york: peter lang, ) [ ] 	linda m. austin, 'emily brontë's homesickness', victorian studies, : (summer ): – . 	simon bunke: heimwehforschung.de 	bbc four documentaries - the century of the self 	zhou, x.; sedikides, c.; wildschut, t.; gao, d. ( ). "counteracting loneliness: on the restorative function of nostalgia" (pdf). psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . s cid  . 	vess, m.; arndt, j.; routledge, c.; sedikides, c.; wildschut, t. ( ). "nostalgia as a resource for the self". self and identity. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . s cid  . 	rieter, o., http://www.barbarus.org/single-post/ / / /nostalgia-as-a-way-of-creating-meaning-in-everyday-life 	routledge, c.; wildschut, t.; sedikides, c.; juhl, j.; arndt, j. ( ). "the power of the past: nostalgia as a meaning-making resource". memory. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	routledge, c.; arndt, j.; wildschut, t.; sedikides, c.; hart, c. m. ( ). "the past makes the present meaningful: nostalgia as an existential resource". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	köneke, v. ( ). more bitter than sweet - are nostalgic people rather sad than happy after all? grin verlag gmbh, munich, germany. isbn 	gilad padva, queer nostalgia in cinema and pop culture (basingstock, uk and new york: palgrave macmillan, ). pp. 		look up nostalgia in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: nostalgia 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion 	authority control 	 	gnd: - retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=nostalgia&oldid= " 		categories: 	nostalgia 	emotions 	 th-century neologisms hidden categories: 	cs errors: missing periodical 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	articles containing ancient greek (to )-language text 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from june 	all articles lacking reliable references 	articles lacking reliable references from august 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 	wikivoyage 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	avañe'ẽ 	azərbaycanca 	বাংলা 	bân-lâm-gú 	Български 	བོད་ཡིག 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	eesti 	español 	esperanto 	euskara 	فارسی 	français 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	हिन्दी 	hrvatski 	ido 	bahasa indonesia 	Íslenska 	italiano 	עברית 	Македонски 	مصرى 	مازِرونی 	bahasa melayu 	nederlands 	nedersaksies 	日本語 	norsk bokmål 	norsk nynorsk 	occitan 	ਪੰਜਾਬੀ 	polski 	português 	română 	Русский 	sicilianu 	simple english 	slovenčina 	کوردی 	Српски / srpski 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	suomi 	svenska 	தமிழ் 	türkçe 	Українська 	اردو 	tiếng việt 	吴语 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 pity - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	pity 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		sympathetic sorrow evoked by the suffering of others for the film, see pity (film). 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e pity is a sympathetic sorrow evoked by the suffering of others, and is used in a comparable sense to compassion, condolence or empathy - the word deriving from the latin pietās (etymon also of piety). self-pity is pity directed towards oneself. two different kinds of pity can be distinguished, "benevolent pity" and "contemptuous pity" (see kimball), where, through insincere, pejorative usage, pity is used to connote feelings of superiority, condescension, or contempt.[ ] contents 	 psychological origins 	 religious views 	 philosophical assessments 	 literary examples 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links psychological origins[edit] psychologists see pity arising in early childhood out of the infant's ability to identify with others.[ ] psychoanalysis sees a more convoluted route to (at least some forms of) adult pity by way of the sublimation of aggression – pity serving as a kind of magic gesture intended to show how leniently one should oneself be treated by one's own conscience.[ ] alexander sees with a look of pity that darius has died from his wounds. the human abstract, a poem in william blake's collection songs of innocence and of experience, in which he proclaims "pity would be no more, / if we did not make somebody poor" ( - ). this version is copy l created in and currently held by the yale center for british art.[ ] religious views[edit] 	in the west, the religious concept of pity was reinforced after acceptance of judeo-christian concepts of god pitying all humanity, as found initially in the jewish tradition: “like as a father pitieth his children, so the lord pitieth them that fear him”.[ ] the hebrew word "hesed" translated in the lxx by "eleos" carries the meaning roughly equivalent to pity in the sense of compassion, mercy and loving-kindness. (see the theological wordbook of the old testament, a.) 	in mahayana buddhism, bodhisattvas are described by the lotus sutra as those who “hope to win final nirvana for all beings – for the sake of the many, for their weal and happiness, out of pity for the world”.[ ] philosophical assessments[edit] 	aristotle in his rhetoric argued (rhetoric . ) that before a person can feel pity for another human, the person must first have experienced suffering of a similar type, and the person must also be somewhat distanced or removed from the sufferer.[ ] he defines pity as follows: "let pity, then, be a kind of pain in the case of an apparent destructive or painful harm of one not deserving to encounter it, which one might expect oneself, or one of one's own, to suffer, and this when it seems near".[ ] aristotle also pointed out that "people pity their acquaintances, provided that they are not exceedingly close in kinship; for concerning these they are disposed as they are concerning themselves", arguing further that in order to feel pity, a person must believe that the person who is suffering does not deserve their fate.[ ] developing a traditional greek view in his work on poetry, aristotle also defines tragedy as a kind of imitative poetry that provokes pity and fear.[ ] 	david hume in his treatise of human nature (sect. vii of compassion), argued that "pity is concern for ... the misery of others without any friendship...to occasion this concern." he continues that pity "is derived from the imagination." when one observes a person in misfortune, the observer initially imagines his sorrow, even though they may not feel the same. while "we blush for the conduct of those, who behave themselves foolishly before us; and that though they show no sense of shame, nor seem in the least conscious of their folly," hume argues "that he is the more worthy of compassion the less sensible he is of his miserable condition."[ ] 	jean-jacques rousseau had the following opinion of pity as opposed to love for others: "it is therefore certain that pity is a natural sentiment, which, by moderating in every individual the activity of self-love, contributes to the mutual preservation of the whole species. it is this pity which hurries us without reflection to the assistance of those we see in distress; it is this pity which, in a state of nature, stands for laws, for manners, for virtue, with this advantage, that no one is tempted to disobey her sweet and gentle voice: it is this pity which will always hinder a robust savage from plundering a feeble child, or infirm old man, of the subsistence they have acquired with pain and difficulty, if he has but the least prospect of providing for himself by any other means: it is this pity which, instead of that sublime maxim of argumentative justice, do to others as you would have others do to you, inspires all men with that other maxim of natural goodness a great deal less perfect, but perhaps more useful, consult your own happiness with as little prejudice as you can to that of others. " [ ] 	nietzsche pointed out that since all people to some degree value self-esteem and self-worth, pity can negatively affect any situation. nietzsche considered his own sensitivity to pity a lifelong weakness;[ ] and condemned what he called “schopenhauer’s morality of pity...pity negates life”.[ ] literary examples[edit] 	juvenal considered pity the noblest aspect of human nature.[ ] 	mystic poet william blake was ambivalent about pity, initially casting it in a negative role, before viewing pity as an emotion that can draw beings together. in the book of urizen pity begins when los looks on the body of urizen bound in chains (urizen . – ). however, pity furthers the fall, "for pity divides the soul" ( . ), dividing los and enitharmon (enitharmon is named pity at her birth). blake maintained that pity disarmed righteous indignation leading to action; and, railing further against pity in the human abstract, blake exclaims: "pity would be no more, / if we did not make somebody poor" ( – ). 	j. r. r. tolkien made pity – that of the hobbits for gollum - pivotal to the action of the lord of the rings:[ ] “it was pity that stayed his hand...the pity of bilbo may rule the fate of many”.[ ] 	wilfred owen prefaced his collection of war poetry with the claim that “my subject is war and the pity of war. the poetry is in the pity”[ ] - something c. h. sisson considered to verge on sentimentality.[ ] see also[edit] 	animism 	compassion 	empathy 	moral emotions 	pathetic fallacy 	social emotions 	sympathy references[edit] 	^ stuff pity! 	^ d goleman, emotional intelligence (london ) p. - 	^ o fenichel, the psychoanalytic theory of neurosis (london ) p. 	^ morris eaves; robert n. essick; joseph viscomi (eds.). "songs of innocence and of experience, copy l, object (bentley , erdman , keynes ) "the human abstract"". william blake archive. retrieved june , . 	^ king james version, ‘’holy bible’’ (usa ) p. (psalm : ) 	^ e conze ed., buddhist scriptures (penguin ) p. 	^ a b c david konstan ( ). pity transformed. london: duckworth. p.  . isbn  - - - . 	^ aristotle. poetics, section . b - . 	^ "a treatise of human nature, by david hume : b . . ". ebooks.adelaide.edu.au. retrieved - - . 	^ rousseau, jean-jacques ( ). discourse on the origin of inequality. mineola: dover. p.  . 	^ w kaufmann ed., the portable nietzsche (london ) p. 	^ w kaufmann ed., the portable nietzsche (london ) p. and p. 	^ j d duff ed., fourteen satires of juvenal (cambridge ) p. 	^ t shippey, j. r. r. tolkien (london ) p. 	^ j. r. r. tolkien, the fellowship of the ring (london ) p. (bk , ch ) 	^ j silkin ed, wilfred owen: the poems (penguin ) p. 	^ c. h. sisson english poetry - (manchester ) p. further reading[edit] 	kimball, robert h. ( ). "a plea for pity". philosophy & rhetoric. ( ): – . doi: . /par. . . 	david konstan, pity transformed. london: duckworth, . pp.  . isbn  - - - . 	david hume, an enquiry concerning the principles of morals, in his enquires concerning human understanding and concerning the principles of morals. ( ) ed. l.a. selby-bigge, rd ed. p.h. nidditch (oxford: oxford university press, [ st]) sec. vi part ii, p.  , n. . 	stephen tudor, compassion and remorse: acknowledging the suffering other, leuven, peeters . 	lauren wispé. the psychology of sympathy. springer, . isbn  - - - , isbn  - - - - . external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: pity 	 the dictionary definition of pity at wiktionary 	pity 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 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hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	català 	español 	français 	galego 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	magyar 	português 	Русский 	sicilianu 	simple english 	suomi 	தமிழ் 	türkçe 	Українська 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on july , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 psychoanalysis - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	psychoanalysis 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		psychological theory and therapy established by sigmund freud 	part of a series of articles on 	psychoanalysis 	 	 concepts 	psychosexual development 	psychosocial development (erikson) 	unconscious 	preconscious 	consciousness 	psychic apparatus 	id, ego and super-ego 	libido 	drive 	transference 	countertransference 	ego defenses 	resistance 	projection 	denial 	dreamwork 	 important figures 	karl abraham 	alfred adler 	michael balint 	wilfred bion 	josef breuer 	nancy chodorow 	max eitingon 	erik erikson 	ronald fairbairn 	paul federn 	otto fenichel 	sándor ferenczi 	anna freud 	sigmund freud 	erich fromm 	harry guntrip 	karen horney 	edith jacobson 	ernest jones 	carl jung 	abram kardiner 	heinz kohut 	melanie klein 	jacques lacan 	ronald laing 	jean laplanche 	margaret mahler 	jacques-alain miller 	sandor rado 	otto rank 	wilhelm reich 	joan riviere 	isidor sadger 	ernst simmel 	sabina spielrein 	wilhelm stekel 	james strachey 	harry stack sullivan 	susan sutherland isaacs 	donald winnicott 	slavoj Žižek 	 important works 	the interpretation of dreams ( ) 	the psychopathology of everyday life ( ) 	three essays on the theory of sexuality ( ) 	beyond the pleasure principle ( ) 	the ego and the id ( ) 	 schools of thought 	adlerian 	ego psychology 	jungian 	lacanian 	interpersonal 	intersubjective 	marxist 	object relations 	reichian 	relational 	self psychology 	 training 	boston graduate school of psychoanalysis 	british psychoanalytic council 	british psychoanalytical society 	columbia university center for psychoanalytic training and research 	international psychoanalytical association 	world association of psychoanalysis 	list of schools of psychoanalysis 	 see also 	child psychoanalysis 	depth psychology 	psychodynamics 	psychoanalytic theory 	 	 psychology portal 		v 	t 	e 	icd- -cm	 . 	mesh	d 	[edit on wikidata] psychoanalysis (from greek: ψυχή, psykhḗ, 'soul' + ἀνάλυσις, análysis, 'investigate') is a set of theories and therapeutic techniques[i] used to study the unconscious mind,[ii] which together form a method of treatment for mental disorders. the discipline was established in the early s by austrian neurologist sigmund freud, who retained the term psychoanalysis for his own school of thought.[ ] freud's work stems partly from the clinical work of josef breuer and others. psychoanalysis was later developed in different directions, mostly by students of freud, such as alfred adler and his collaborator, carl gustav jung,[iii] as well as by neo-freudian thinkers, such as erich fromm, karen horney, and harry stack sullivan.[ ] psychoanalysis has been known to be a controversial discipline, and its validity as a science is very contested. nonetheless, it remains a strong influence within psychiatry, more so in some quarters than others.[iv][v] psychoanalytic concepts are also widely used outside the therapeutic arena, in areas such as psychoanalytic literary criticism, as well as in the analysis of film, fairy tales and other cultural phenomena. contents 	 basic tenets 	 practice 	 history 	 . s 	 . – s 	 . s–present 	 . developments of alternatives to psychotherapy 	 theories 	 . topographic theory 	 . structural theory 	 . theoretical and clinical approaches 	 . . ego psychology 	 . . modern conflict theory 	 . . object relations theory 	 . . self psychology 	 . . lacanian psychoanalysis 	 . . adaptive paradigm 	 . . relational psychoanalysis 	 . . interpersonal-relational psychoanalysis 	 psychopathology (mental disturbances) 	 . adults 	 . childhood origins 	 . . oedipal conflicts 	 treatment 	 . techniques 	 . . variations in technique 	 . group therapy and play therapy 	 . cultural variations 	 . cost and length of treatment 	 training and research 	 . united states 	 . united kingdom 	 . india 	 . psychoanalytic psychotherapy 	 . research 	 effectiveness 	 . research results 	 criticism 	 . as a field of science 	 . freudian theory 	 see also 	 references 	 . notes 	 . citations 	 further reading 	 . introductions 	 . . reference works 	 . book series 	 . analyses, discussions and critiques 	 . responses to critiques 	 external links basic tenets[edit] the basic tenets of psychoanalysis include:[ ] 	a person's development is determined by often forgotten events in early childhood, rather than by inherited traits alone. 	human behaviour and cognition are largely determined by instinctual drives that are rooted in the unconscious. 	attempts to bring such drives into awareness triggers resistance in the form of defense mechanisms, particularly repression. 	conflicts between conscious and unconscious material can result in mental disturbances, such as neurosis, neurotic traits, anxiety, and depression. 	unconscious material can be found in dreams and unintentional acts, including mannerisms and slips of the tongue. 	liberation from the effects of the unconscious is achieved by bringing this material into the conscious mind through therapeutic intervention. 	the "centerpiece of the psychoanalytic process" is the transference, whereby patients relive their infantile conflicts by projecting onto the analyst feelings of love, dependence and anger.[ ] practice[edit] during psychoanalytic sessions, typically lasting minutes,[ ] ideally – times a week,[ ] the patient (or analysand) may lie on a couch, with the analyst often sitting just behind and out of sight. the patient expresses his or her thoughts, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams, from which the analyst infers the unconscious conflicts causing the patient's symptoms and character problems. through the analysis of these conflicts, which includes interpreting the transference and countertransference[ ] (the analyst's feelings for the patient), the analyst confronts the patient's pathological defenses to help the patient gain insight. history[edit] sigmund freud first used the term 'psychoanalysis' (french: psychoanalyse) in , ultimately retaining the term for his own school of thought.[ ] in november , he wrote the interpretation of dreams (german: die traumdeutung), which freud thought of as his "most significant work."[ ] psychoanalysis was later developed in different directions, mostly by students of freud such as alfred adler and carl gustav jung,[iii] and by neo-freudians such as erich fromm, karen horney and harry stack sullivan.[ ] s[edit] the idea of psychoanalysis (german: psychoanalyse) first began to receive serious attention under sigmund freud, who formulated his own theory of psychoanalysis in vienna in the s. freud was a neurologist trying to find an effective treatment for patients with neurotic or hysterical symptoms. freud realised that there were mental processes that were not conscious, whilst he was employed as a neurological consultant at the children's hospital, where he noticed that many aphasic children had no apparent organic cause for their symptoms. he then wrote a monograph about this subject.[ ] in , freud obtained a grant to study with jean-martin charcot, a famed neurologist, at the salpêtrière in paris, where freud followed the clinical presentations of charcot, particularly in the areas of hysteria, paralyses and the anaesthesias. charcot had introduced hypnotism as an experimental research tool and developed the photographic representation of clinical symptoms. freud's first theory to explain hysterical symptoms was presented in studies on hysteria ( ; studien über hysterie), co-authored with his mentor the distinguished physician josef breuer, which was generally seen as the birth of psychoanalysis.[ ] the work was based on breuer's treatment of bertha pappenheim, referred to in case studies by the pseudonym "anna o.", treatment which pappenheim herself had dubbed the "talking cure". breuer wrote that many factors could result in such symptoms, including various types of emotional trauma, and he also credited work by others such as pierre janet; while freud contended that at the root of hysterical symptoms were repressed memories of distressing occurrences, almost always having direct or indirect sexual associations.[ ] around the same time, freud attempted to develop a neuro-physiological theory of unconscious mental mechanisms, which he soon gave up. it remained unpublished in his lifetime.[ ] the term 'psychoanalysis' (psychoanalyse) was first introduced by freud in his essay titled "heredity and etiology of neuroses" ("l'hérédité et l’étiologie des névroses"), written and published in french in .[ ][ ] in , freud also published his seduction theory, claiming to have uncovered repressed memories of incidents of sexual abuse for all his current patients, from which he proposed that the preconditions for hysterical symptoms are sexual excitations in infancy.[ ] however, by he had privately acknowledged to his friend and colleague wilhelm fliess that he no longer believed in his theory, though he did not state this publicly until .[ ] though in he had reported that his patients "had no feeling of remembering the [infantile sexual] scenes", and assured him "emphatically of their unbelief,"[ ]: in later accounts he claimed that they had told him that they had been sexually abused in infancy. this became the received historical account until challenged by several freud scholars in the latter part of the th century who argued that he had imposed his preconceived notions on his patients.[ ][ ][ ] however, building on his claims that the patients reported infantile sexual abuse experiences, freud subsequently contended that his clinical findings in the mid- s provided evidence of the occurrence of unconscious fantasies, supposedly to cover up memories of infantile masturbation.[ ] only much later did he claim the same findings as evidence for oedipal desires.[ ] by , freud had theorised that dreams had symbolic significance, and generally were specific to the dreamer. freud formulated his second psychological theory— which hypotheses that the unconscious has or is a "primary process" consisting of symbolic and condensed thoughts, and a "secondary process" of logical, conscious thoughts. this theory was published in his book, the interpretation of dreams.[ ] chapter vii is a re-working of the earlier "project" and freud outlined his topographic theory. in this theory, which was mostly later supplanted by the structural theory, unacceptable sexual wishes were repressed into the "system unconscious," unconscious due to society's condemnation of premarital sexual activity, and this repression created anxiety. this "topographic theory" is still popular in much of europe, although it has fallen out of favour in much of north america.[ ] – s[edit] in , freud published three essays on the theory of sexuality in which he laid out his discovery of the psychosexual phases:[ ] 	oral (ages – ); 	anal ( – ); 	phallic-oedipal or first genital ( – ); 	latency ( -puberty); and 	mature genital (puberty-onward). his early formulation included the idea that because of societal restrictions, sexual wishes were repressed into an unconscious state, and that the energy of these unconscious wishes could be turned into anxiety or physical symptoms. therefore, the early treatment techniques, including hypnotism and abreaction, were designed to make the unconscious conscious in order to relieve the pressure and the apparently resulting symptoms. this method would later on be left aside by freud, giving free association a bigger role. in on narcissism ( ), freud turned his attention to the titular subject of narcissism.[ ] still using an energic system, freud characterized the difference between energy directed at the self versus energy directed at others, called cathexis. by , in "mourning and melancholia," he suggested that certain depressions were caused by turning guilt-ridden anger on the self.[ ] in , through "a child is being beaten," he began to address the problems of self-destructive behavior (moral masochism) and frank sexual masochism.[ ] based on his experience with depressed and self-destructive patients, and pondering the carnage of world war i, freud became dissatisfied with considering only oral and sexual motivations for behavior. by , freud addressed the power of identification (with the leader and with other members) in groups as a motivation for behavior (in "group psychology and the analysis of the ego").[ ][ ] in that same year, freud suggested his 'dual drive' theory of sexuality and aggression in "beyond the pleasure principle," to try to begin to explain human destructiveness. also, it was the first appearance of his "structural theory" consisting of three new concepts id, ego, and superego.[ ] three years later, in , he summarised the ideas of id, ego, and superego in "the ego and the id."[ ] in the book, he revised the whole theory of mental functioning, now considering that repression was only one of many defense mechanisms, and that it occurred to reduce anxiety. hence, freud characterised repression as both a cause and a result of anxiety. in , in "inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety," freud characterised how intrapsychic conflict among drive and superego (wishes and guilt) caused anxiety, and how that anxiety could lead to an inhibition of mental functions, such as intellect and speech.[ ] "inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety" was written in response to otto rank, who, in , published das trauma der geburt (the trauma of birth), analysing how art, myth, religion, philosophy and therapy were illuminated by separation anxiety in the "phase before the development of the oedipus complex."[ ] freud's theories, however, characterized no such phase. according to freud, the oedipus complex, was at the centre of neurosis, and was the foundational source of all art, myth, religion, philosophy, therapy—indeed of all human culture and civilization. it was the first time that anyone in the inner circle had characterised something other than the oedipus complex as contributing to intrapsychic development, a notion that was rejected by freud and his followers at the time. by the "principle of multiple function" was clarified by robert waelder.[ ] he widened the formulation that psychological symptoms were caused by and relieved conflict simultaneously. moreover, symptoms (such as phobias and compulsions) each represented elements of some drive wish (sexual and/or aggressive), superego, anxiety, reality, and defenses. also in , anna freud, sigmund's daughter, published her seminal book, the ego and the mechanisms of defense, outlining numerous ways the mind could shut upsetting things out of consciousness.[ ] s–present[edit] when hitler's power grew, the freud family and many of their colleagues fled to london. within a year, sigmund freud died.[ ] in the united states, also following the death of freud, a new group of psychoanalysts began to explore the function of the ego. led by heinz hartmann, the group built upon understandings of the synthetic function of the ego as a mediator in psychic functioning, distinguishing such from autonomous ego functions (e.g. memory and intellect, which could be secondarily affected by conflict). these "ego psychologists" of the s paved a way to focus analytic work by attending to the defenses (mediated by the ego) before exploring the deeper roots to the unconscious conflicts. in addition, there was burgeoning interest in child psychoanalysis. although criticized since its inception, psychoanalysis has been used as a research tool into childhood development,[vi] and is still used to treat certain mental disturbances.[ ] in the s, freud's early thoughts on the childhood development of female sexuality were challenged; this challenge led to the development of a variety of understandings of female sexual development,[citation needed] many of which modified the timing and normality of several of freud's theories (which had been gleaned from the treatment of women with mental disturbances). several researchers followed karen horney's studies of societal pressures that influence the development of women.[ ] in the first decade of the st century, there were approximately training institutes for psychoanalysis in the united states accredited by the american psychoanalytic association (apsaa), which is a component organization of the international psychoanalytical association (ipa), and there are over graduated psychoanalysts practicing in the united states. the ipa accredits psychoanalytic training centers through such "component organisations" throughout the rest of the world, including countries such as serbia, france, germany, austria, italy, switzerland,[ ] and many others, as well as about six institutes directly in the united states. developments of alternatives to psychotherapy[edit] in the s, psychoanalysis was the main modality of psychotherapy. behavioural models of pschotherapy started to assume a more central role in psychotherapy in the s.[a] aaron t. beck a psychiatrist trained in a psychoanalytic tradition set out to test the psychoanalytic models of depression and found that conscious ruminations of loss and personal failing were correlated with depression. he suggested that distorted and biased beliefs were a causal factor of depression, publishing an influential paper in after a decade of research using the construct of schemas to explain the process.[ ]: beck developed this into a talking therapy in the early s called cognitive behavioral therapy. theories[edit] the predominant psychoanalytic theories can be organised into several theoretical schools. although these perspectives differ, most of them emphasize the influence of unconscious elements on the conscious. there has also been considerable work done on consolidating elements of conflicting theories.[ ] as in the field of medicine, there are some persistent conflicts regarding specific causes of certain syndromes, and disputes regarding the ideal treatment techniques. in the st century, psychoanalytic ideas are embedded in western culture,[vague] especially in fields such as childcare, education, literary criticism, cultural studies, mental health, and particularly psychotherapy. though there is a mainstream of evolved analytic ideas, there are groups who follow the precepts of one or more of the later theoreticians. psychoanalytic ideas also play roles in some types of literary analysis such as archetypal literary criticism.[citation needed] topographic theory[edit] topographic theory was named and first described by sigmund freud in the interpretation of dreams ( ).[ ] the theory hypothesizes that the mental apparatus can be divided into the systems conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. these systems are not anatomical structures of the brain but, rather, mental processes. although freud retained this theory throughout his life he largely replaced it with the structural theory.[ ] the topographic theory remains as one of the meta-psychological points of view for describing how the mind functions in classical psychoanalytic theory. structural theory[edit] structural theory divides the psyche into the id, the ego, and the super-ego. the id is present at birth as the repository of basic instincts, which freud called "triebe" ("drives"): unorganized and unconscious, it operates merely on the 'pleasure principle', without realism or foresight. the ego develops slowly and gradually, being concerned with mediating between the urging of the id and the realities of the external world; it thus operates on the 'reality principle'. the super-ego is held to be the part of the ego in which self-observation, self-criticism and other reflective and judgmental faculties develop. the ego and the super-ego are both partly conscious and partly unconscious.[ ] theoretical and clinical approaches[edit] during the twentieth century, many different clinical and theoretical models of psychoanalysis emerged. ego psychology[edit] ego psychology was initially suggested by freud in "inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety" ( ),[ ] while major steps forward would be made through anna freud's work on defense mechanisms, first published in her book the ego and the mechanisms of defence ( ).[ ] the theory was refined by hartmann, loewenstein, and kris in a series of papers and books from through the late s. leo bellak was a later contributor. this series of constructs, paralleling some of the later developments of cognitive theory, includes the notions of autonomous ego functions: mental functions not dependent, at least in origin, on intrapsychic conflict. such functions include: sensory perception, motor control, symbolic thought, logical thought, speech, abstraction, integration (synthesis), orientation, concentration, judgment about danger, reality testing, adaptive ability, executive decision-making, hygiene, and self-preservation. freud noted that inhibition is one method that the mind may utilize to interfere with any of these functions in order to avoid painful emotions. hartmann ( s) pointed out that there may be delays or deficits in such functions.[citation needed] frosch ( ) described differences in those people who demonstrated damage to their relationship to reality, but who seemed able to test it.[citation needed] according to ego psychology, ego strengths, later described by otto f. kernberg ( ), include the capacities to control oral, sexual, and destructive impulses; to tolerate painful affects without falling apart; and to prevent the eruption into consciousness of bizarre symbolic fantasy.[ ] synthetic functions, in contrast to autonomous functions, arise from the development of the ego and serve the purpose of managing conflict processes. defenses are synthetic functions that protect the conscious mind from awareness of forbidden impulses and thoughts. one purpose of ego psychology has been to emphasize that some mental functions can be considered to be basic, rather than derivatives of wishes, affects, or defenses. however, autonomous ego functions can be secondarily affected because of unconscious conflict.[citation needed] for example, a patient may have an hysterical amnesia (memory being an autonomous function) because of intrapsychic conflict (wishing not to remember because it is too painful). taken together, the above theories present a group of metapsychological assumptions. therefore, the inclusive group of the different classical theories provides a cross-sectional view of human mentation. there are six "points of view", five described by freud and a sixth added by hartmann. unconscious processes can therefore be evaluated from each of these six points of view:[ ] 	topographic 	dynamic (the theory of conflict) 	economic (the theory of energy flow) 	structural 	genetic (i.e. propositions concerning origin and development of psychological functions) 	adaptational (i.e. psychological phenomena as it relates to the external world) modern conflict theory[edit] modern conflict theory, a variation of ego psychology, is a revised version of structural theory, most notably different by altering concepts related to where repressed thoughts were stored.[ ][ ] modern conflict theory addresses emotional symptoms and character traits as complex solutions to mental conflict.[ ] it dispenses with the concepts of a fixed id, ego and superego, and instead posits conscious and unconscious conflict among wishes (dependent, controlling, sexual, and aggressive), guilt and shame, emotions (especially anxiety and depressive affect), and defensive operations that shut off from consciousness some aspect of the others. moreover, healthy functioning (adaptive) is also determined, to a great extent, by resolutions of conflict. a major objective of modern conflict-theory psychoanalysis is to change the balance of conflict in a patient by making aspects of the less adaptive solutions (also called "compromise formations") conscious so that they can be rethought, and more adaptive solutions found. current theoreticians who follow the work of charles brenner, especially the mind in conflict ( ), include sandor abend,[ ] jacob arlow,[ ] and jerome blackman.[ ] object relations theory[edit] object relations theory attempts to explain the ups and downs of human relationships through a study of how internal representations of the self and others are organized.[ ] the clinical symptoms that suggest object relations problems (typically developmental delays throughout life) include disturbances in an individual's capacity to feel: warmth, empathy, trust, sense of security, identity stability, consistent emotional closeness, and stability in relationships with significant others concepts regarding internal representation (aka 'introspect,' 'self and object representation,' or 'internalization of self and other'), although often attributed to melanie klein, were actually first mentioned by sigmund freud in his early concepts of drive theory (three essays on the theory of sexuality, ). freud's paper "mourning and melancholia," for example, hypothesized that unresolved grief was caused by the survivor's internalized image of the deceased becoming fused with that of the survivor, and then the survivor shifting unacceptable anger toward the deceased onto the now complex self-image.[ ] vamik volkan, in "linking objects and linking phenomena," expanded on freud's thoughts on this, describing the syndromes of "established pathological mourning" vs. "reactive depression" based on similar dynamics. melanie klein's hypotheses regarding internalization during the first year of life, leading to paranoid and depressive positions, were later challenged by rené spitz (e.g., the first year of life, ), who divided the first year of life into a coenesthetic phase of the first six months, and then a diacritic phase for the second six months. mahler, fine, and bergman ( ) describe distinct phases and subphases of child development leading to "separation-individuation" during the first three years of life, stressing the importance of constancy of parental figures in the face of the child's destructive aggression, internalizations, stability of affect management, and ability to develop healthy autonomy.[ ] john frosch, otto kernberg, salman akhtar, and sheldon bach have developed the theory of self and object constancy as it affects adult psychiatric problems such as psychosis and borderline states.[citation needed] blos ( ) described how similar separation-individuation struggles occur during adolescence, of course with a different outcome from the first three years of life: the teen usually, eventually, leaves the parents' house (varying with culture).[ ] during adolescence, erik erikson ( – s) described the 'identity crisis,' that involves identity-diffusion anxiety. in order for an adult to be able to experience "warm-ethics: (warmth, empathy, trust, holding environment, identity, closeness, and stability) in relationships, the teenager must resolve the problems with identity and redevelop self and object constancy.[ ] self psychology[edit] self psychology emphasizes the development of a stable and integrated sense of self through empathic contacts with other humans, primary significant others conceived of as 'selfobjects.'[citation needed] selfobjects meet the developing self's needs for mirroring, idealization, and twinship, and thereby strengthen the developing self. the process of treatment proceeds through "transmuting internalizations" in which the patient gradually internalizes the selfobject functions provided by the therapist.[citation needed] self psychology was proposed originally by heinz kohut, and has been further developed by arnold goldberg, frank lachmann, paul and anna ornstein, marian tolpin, and others. lacanian psychoanalysis[edit] lacanian psychoanalysis, which integrates psychoanalysis with structural linguistics and hegelian philosophy, is especially popular in france and parts of latin america. lacanian psychoanalysis is a departure from the traditional british and american psychoanalysis. jacques lacan frequently used the phrase "retourner à freud" ("return to freud") in his seminars and writings, as he claimed that his theories were an extension of freud's own, contrary to those of anna freud, the ego psychology, object relations and "self" theories and also claims the necessity of reading freud's complete works, not only a part of them. lacan's concepts concern the "mirror stage", the "real", the "imaginary", and the "symbolic", and the claim that "the unconscious is structured as a language."[ ] though a major influence on psychoanalysis in france and parts of latin america, lacan and his ideas have taken longer to be translated into english and he has thus had a lesser impact on psychoanalysis and psychotherapy in the english-speaking world. in the united kingdom and the united states, his ideas are most widely used to analyze texts in literary theory.[ ] due to his increasingly critical stance towards the deviation from freud's thought, often singling out particular texts and readings from his colleagues, lacan was excluded from acting as a training analyst in the ipa, thus leading him to create his own school in order to maintain an institutional structure for the many candidates who desired to continue their analysis with him.[ ] adaptive paradigm[edit] main article: robert langs the adaptive paradigm of psychotherapy develops out of the work of robert langs. the adaptive paradigm interprets psychic conflict primarily in terms of conscious and unconscious adaptation to reality. langs’ recent work in some measure returns to the earlier freud, in that langs prefers a modified version of the topographic model of the mind (conscious, preconscious, and unconscious) over the structural model (id, ego, and super-ego), including the former's emphasis on trauma (though langs looks to death-related traumas rather than sexual traumas).[ ] at the same time, langs’ model of the mind differs from freud's in that it understands the mind in terms of evolutionary biological principles.[ ] relational psychoanalysis[edit] relational psychoanalysis combines interpersonal psychoanalysis with object-relations theory and with inter-subjective theory as critical for mental health. it was introduced by stephen mitchell.[ ] relational psychoanalysis stresses how the individual's personality is shaped by both real and imagined relationships with others, and how these relationship patterns are re-enacted in the interactions between analyst and patient. in new york, key proponents of relational psychoanalysis include lew aron, jessica benjamin, and adrienne harris. fonagy and target, in london, have propounded their view of the necessity of helping certain detached, isolated patients, develop the capacity for "mentalization" associated with thinking about relationships and themselves. arietta slade, susan coates, and daniel schechter in new york have additionally contributed to the application of relational psychoanalysis to treatment of the adult patient-as-parent, the clinical study of mentalization in parent-infant relationships, and the intergenerational transmission of attachment and trauma.[citation needed] interpersonal-relational psychoanalysis[edit] the term interpersonal-relational psychoanalysis is often used as a professional identification. psychoanalysts under this broader umbrella debate about what precisely are the differences between the two schools, without any current clear consensus.[citation needed] psychopathology (mental disturbances)[edit] adults[edit] 		this section needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (may ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) the various psychoses involve deficits in the autonomous ego functions (see above) of integration (organization) of thought, in abstraction ability, in relationship to reality and in reality testing. in depressions with psychotic features, the self-preservation function may also be damaged (sometimes by overwhelming depressive affect). because of the integrative deficits (often causing what general psychiatrists call "loose associations," "blocking," "flight of ideas," "verbigeration," and "thought withdrawal"), the development of self and object representations is also impaired. clinically, therefore, psychotic individuals manifest limitations in warmth, empathy, trust, identity, closeness and/or stability in relationships (due to problems with self-object fusion anxiety) as well. in patients whose autonomous ego functions are more intact, but who still show problems with object relations, the diagnosis often falls into the category known as "borderline". borderline patients also show deficits, often in controlling impulses, affects, or fantasies – but their ability to test reality remains more or less intact. adults who do not experience guilt and shame, and who indulge in criminal behavior, are usually diagnosed as psychopaths, or, using dsm-iv-tr, antisocial personality disorder. neurotic symptoms—including panic, phobias, conversions, obsessions, compulsions and depressions—are not usually caused by deficits in functions. instead, they are caused by intrapsychic conflicts. the conflicts are generally among sexual and hostile-aggressive wishes, guilt and shame, and reality factors. the conflicts may be conscious or unconscious, but create anxiety, depressive affect, and anger. finally, the various elements are managed by defensive operations—essentially shut-off brain mechanisms that make people unaware of that element of conflict. repression is the term given to the mechanism that shuts thoughts out of consciousness. isolation of affect is the term used for the mechanism that shuts sensations out of consciousness. neurotic symptoms may occur with or without deficits in ego functions, object relations, and ego strengths. therefore, it is not uncommon to encounter obsessive-compulsive schizophrenics, panic patients who also suffer with borderline personality disorder, etc. this section above is partial to ego psychoanalytic theory autonomous ego functions. childhood origins[edit] freudian theories hold that adult problems can be traced to unresolved conflicts from certain phases of childhood and adolescence, caused by fantasy, stemming from their own drives. freud, based on the data gathered from his patients early in his career, suspected that neurotic disturbances occurred when children were sexually abused in childhood (i.e. seduction theory). later, freud came to believe that, although child abuse occurs, neurotic symptoms were not associated with this. he believed that neurotic people often had unconscious conflicts that involved incestuous fantasies deriving from different stages of development. he found the stage from about three to six years of age (preschool years, today called the "first genital stage") to be filled with fantasies of having romantic relationships with both parents. arguments were quickly generated in early th-century vienna about whether adult seduction of children, i.e. child sexual abuse, was the basis of neurotic illness. there still is no complete agreement, although nowadays professionals recognize the negative effects of child sexual abuse on mental health.[ ] oedipal conflicts[edit] many psychoanalysts who work with children have studied the actual effects of child abuse, which include ego and object relations deficits and severe neurotic conflicts. much research has been done on these types of trauma in childhood, and the adult sequelae of those. in studying the childhood factors that start neurotic symptom development, freud found a constellation of factors that, for literary reasons, he termed the oedipus complex, based on the play by sophocles, oedipus rex, in which the protagonist unwittingly kills his father and marries his mother. the validity of the oedipus complex is now widely disputed and rejected.[ ][ ] the shorthand term, oedipal—later explicated by joseph j. sandler in "on the concept superego" ( ) and modified by charles brenner in the mind in conflict ( )—refers to the powerful attachments that children make to their parents in the preschool years. these attachments involve fantasies of sexual relationships with either (or both) parent, and, therefore, competitive fantasies toward either (or both) parents. humberto nagera ( ) has been particularly helpful in clarifying many of the complexities of the child through these years.[citation needed] "positive" and "negative" oedipal conflicts have been attached to the heterosexual and homosexual aspects, respectively. both seem to occur in development of most children. eventually, the developing child's concessions to reality (that they will neither marry one parent nor eliminate the other) lead to identifications with parental values. these identifications generally create a new set of mental operations regarding values and guilt, subsumed under the term superego. besides superego development, children "resolve" their preschool oedipal conflicts through channeling wishes into something their parents approve of ("sublimation") and the development, during the school-age years ("latency") of age-appropriate obsessive-compulsive defensive maneuvers (rules, repetitive games).[citation needed] treatment[edit] 		this section needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (may ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) using the various analytic and psychological techniques to assess mental problems, some believe that there are particular constellations of problems that are especially suited for analytic treatment (see below) whereas other problems might respond better to medicines and other interpersonal interventions. to be treated with psychoanalysis, whatever the presenting problem, the person requesting help must demonstrate a desire to start an analysis. the person wishing to start an analysis must have some capacity for speech and communication. as well, they need to be able to have or develop trust and insight within the psychoanalytic session. potential patients must undergo a preliminary stage of treatment to assess their amenability to psychoanalysis at that time, and also to enable the analyst to form a working psychological model, which the analyst will use to direct the treatment. psychoanalysts mainly work with neurosis and hysteria in particular; however, adapted forms of psychoanalysis are used in working with schizophrenia and other forms of psychosis or mental disorder. finally, if a prospective patient is severely suicidal a longer preliminary stage may be employed, sometimes with sessions which have a twenty-minute break in the middle. there are numerous modifications in technique under the heading of psychoanalysis due to the individualistic nature of personality in both analyst and patient. the most common problems treatable with psychoanalysis include: phobias, conversions, compulsions, obsessions, anxiety attacks, depressions, sexual dysfunctions, a wide variety of relationship problems (such as dating and marital strife), and a wide variety of character problems (for example, painful shyness, meanness, obnoxiousness, workaholism, hyperseductiveness, hyperemotionality, hyperfastidiousness). the fact that many of such patients also demonstrate deficits above makes diagnosis and treatment selection difficult. analytical organizations such as the ipa, apsaa and the european federation for psychoanalytic psychotherapy have established procedures and models for the indication and practice of psychoanalytical therapy for trainees in analysis. the match between the analyst and the patient can be viewed as another contributing factor for the indication and contraindication for psychoanalytic treatment. the analyst decides whether the patient is suitable for psychoanalysis. this decision made by the analyst, besides made on the usual indications and pathology, is also based to a certain degree by the "fit" between analyst and patient. a person's suitability for analysis at any particular time is based on their desire to know something about where their illness has come from. someone who is not suitable for analysis expresses no desire to know more about the root causes of their illness. an evaluation may include one or more other analysts' independent opinions and will include discussion of the patient's financial situation and insurances. techniques[edit] the basic method of psychoanalysis is interpretation of the patient's unconscious conflicts that are interfering with current-day functioning – conflicts that are causing painful symptoms such as phobias, anxiety, depression, and compulsions. strachey ( ) stressed that figuring out ways the patient distorted perceptions about the analyst led to understanding what may have been forgotten.[vii] in particular, unconscious hostile feelings toward the analyst could be found in symbolic, negative reactions to what robert langs later called the "frame" of the therapy[ ]—the setup that included times of the sessions, payment of fees, and necessity of talking. in patients who made mistakes, forgot, or showed other peculiarities regarding time, fees, and talking, the analyst can usually find various unconscious "resistances" to the flow of thoughts (aka free association). when the patient reclines on a couch with the analyst out of view, the patient tends to remember more experiences, more resistance and transference, and is able to reorganize thoughts after the development of insight – through the interpretive work of the analyst. although fantasy life can be understood through the examination of dreams, masturbation fantasies[viii] are also important. the analyst is interested in how the patient reacts to and avoids such fantasies.[ ] various memories of early life are generally distorted—what freud called screen memories—and in any case, very early experiences (before age two)—cannot be remembered.[ix] variations in technique[edit] there is what is known among psychoanalysts as classical technique, although freud throughout his writings deviated from this considerably, depending on the problems of any given patient. classical technique was summarized by allan compton as comprising:[citation needed] 	instructions: telling the patient to try to say what's on their mind, including interferences; 	exploration: asking questions; and 	clarification: rephrasing and summarizing what the patient has been describing. as well, the analyst can also use confrontation to bringing an aspect of functioning, usually a defense, to the patient's attention. the analyst then uses a variety of interpretation methods, such as:[citation needed] 	dynamic interpretation: explaining how being too nice guards against guilt (e.g. defense vs. affect); 	genetic interpretation: explaining how a past event is influencing the present; 	resistance interpretation: showing the patient how they are avoiding their problems; 	transference interpretation: showing the patient ways old conflicts arise in current relationships, including that with the analyst; or 	dream interpretation: obtaining the patient's thoughts about their dreams and connecting this with their current problems. analysts can also use reconstruction to estimate what may have happened in the past that created some current issue. these techniques are primarily based on conflict theory (see above). as object relations theory evolved, supplemented by the work of john bowlby and mary ainsworth, techniques with patients who had more severe problems with basic trust (erikson, ) and a history of maternal deprivation (see the works of augusta alpert) led to new techniques with adults. these have sometimes been called interpersonal, intersubjective (cf. stolorow), relational, or corrective object relations techniques. these techniques include expressing an empathic attunement to the patient or warmth; exposing a bit of the analyst's personal life or attitudes to the patient; allowing the patient autonomy in the form of disagreement with the analyst (cf. i. h. paul, letters to simon); and explaining the motivations of others which the patient misperceives.[citation needed] ego psychological concepts of deficit in functioning led to refinements in supportive therapy. these techniques are particularly applicable to psychotic and near-psychotic (cf., eric marcus, "psychosis and near-psychosis") patients. these supportive therapy techniques include discussions of reality; encouragement to stay alive (including hospitalization); psychotropic medicines to relieve overwhelming depressive affect or overwhelming fantasies (hallucinations and delusions); and advice about the meanings of things (to counter abstraction failures).[citation needed] the notion of the "silent analyst" has been criticized. actually, the analyst listens using arlow's approach as set out in "the genesis of interpretation", using active intervention to interpret resistances, defenses creating pathology, and fantasies. silence is not a technique of psychoanalysis (see also the studies and opinion papers of owen renik). "analytic neutrality" is a concept that does not mean the analyst is silent. it refers to the analyst's position of not taking sides in the internal struggles of the patient. for example, if a patient feels guilty, the analyst might explore what the patient has been doing or thinking that causes the guilt, but not reassure the patient not to feel guilty. the analyst might also explore the identifications with parents and others that led to the guilt.[citation needed] interpersonal–relational psychoanalysts emphasize the notion that it is impossible to be neutral. sullivan introduced the term participant-observer to indicate the analyst inevitably interacts with the analysand, and suggested the detailed inquiry as an alternative to interpretation. the detailed inquiry involves noting where the analysand is leaving out important elements of an account and noting when the story is obfuscated, and asking careful questions to open up the dialogue.[citation needed] group therapy and play therapy[edit] although single-client sessions remain the norm, psychoanalytic theory has been used to develop other types of psychological treatment. psychoanalytic group therapy was pioneered by trigant burrow, joseph pratt, paul f. schilder, samuel r. slavson, harry stack sullivan, and wolfe. child-centered counseling for parents was instituted early in analytic history by freud, and was later further developed by irwin marcus, edith schulhofer, and gilbert kliman. psychoanalytically based couples therapy has been promulgated and explicated by fred sander. techniques and tools developed in the first decade of the st century have made psychoanalysis available to patients who were not treatable by earlier techniques. this meant that the analytic situation was modified so that it would be more suitable and more likely to be helpful for these patients. eagle ( ) believes that psychoanalysis cannot be a self-contained discipline but instead must be open to influence from and integration with findings and theory from other disciplines.[ ] psychoanalytic constructs have been adapted for use with children with treatments such as play therapy, art therapy, and storytelling. throughout her career, from the s through the s, anna freud adapted psychoanalysis for children through play. this is still used today for children, especially those who are preadolescent.[x] using toys and games, children are able to symbolically demonstrate their fears, fantasies, and defenses; although not identical, this technique, in children, is analogous to the aim of free association in adults. psychoanalytic play therapy allows the child and analyst to understand children's conflicts, particularly defenses such as disobedience and withdrawal, that have been guarding against various unpleasant feelings and hostile wishes. in art therapy, the counselor may have a child draw a portrait and then tell a story about the portrait. the counselor watches for recurring themes—regardless of whether it is with art or toys.[citation needed] cultural variations[edit] psychoanalysis can be adapted to different cultures, as long as the therapist or counselor understands the client's culture.[citation needed] for example, tori and blimes found that defense mechanisms were valid in a normative sample of , thais. the use of certain defense mechanisms was related to cultural values. for example, thais value calmness and collectiveness (because of buddhist beliefs), so they were low on regressive emotionality. psychoanalysis also applies because freud used techniques that allowed him to get the subjective perceptions of his patients. he takes an objective approach by not facing his clients during his talk therapy sessions. he met with his patients wherever they were, such as when he used free association—where clients would say whatever came to mind without self-censorship. his treatments had little to no structure for most cultures, especially asian cultures. therefore, it is more likely that freudian constructs will be used in structured therapy.[ ] in addition, corey postulates that it will be necessary for a therapist to help clients develop a cultural identity as well as an ego identity. cost and length of treatment[edit] 	 	this section relies largely or entirely on a single source. relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. find sources: "psychoanalysis" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (september ) the cost to the patient of psychoanalytic treatment ranges widely from place to place and between practitioners.[citation needed] low-fee analysis is often available in a psychoanalytic training clinic and graduate schools. otherwise, the fee set by each analyst varies with the analyst's training and experience. since, in most locations in the united states, unlike in ontario and germany, classical analysis (which usually requires sessions three to five times per week) is not covered by health insurance, many analysts may negotiate their fees with patients whom they feel they can help, but who have financial difficulties. the modifications of analysis, which include psychodynamic therapy, brief therapies, and certain types of group therapy,[xi] are carried out on a less frequent basis – usually once, twice, or three times a week – and usually the patient sits facing the therapist. as a result of the defense mechanisms and the lack of access to the unfathomable elements of the unconscious, psychoanalysis can be an expansive process that involves to sessions per week for several years. this type of therapy relies on the belief that reducing the symptoms will not actually help with the root causes or irrational drives. the analyst typically is a 'blank screen', disclosing very little about themselves in order that the client can use the space in the relationship to work on their unconscious without interference from outside.[citation needed] the psychoanalyst uses various methods to help the patient to become more self-aware and to develop insights into their behavior and into the meanings of symptoms. first and foremost, the psychoanalyst attempts to develop a confidential atmosphere in which the patient can feel safe reporting his feelings, thoughts and fantasies. analysands (as people in analysis are called) are asked to report whatever comes to mind without fear of reprisal. freud called this the "fundamental rule". analysands are asked to talk about their lives, including their early life, current life and hopes and aspirations for the future. they are encouraged to report their fantasies, "flash thoughts" and dreams. in fact, freud believed that dreams were, "the royal road to the unconscious"; he devoted an entire volume to the interpretation of dreams. freud had his patients lay on a couch in a dimly lit room and would sit out of sight, usually directly behind them, as to not influence the patients thoughts by his gestures or expressions.[citation needed][ ] the psychoanalyst's task, in collaboration with the analysand, is to help deepen the analysand's understanding of those factors, outside of his awareness, that drive his behaviors. in the safe environment of the psychoanalytic setting, the analysand becomes attached to the analyst and pretty soon he begins to experience the same conflicts with his analyst that he experiences with key figures in his life such as his parents, his boss, his significant other, etc. it is the psychoanalyst's role to point out these conflicts and to interpret them. the transferring of these internal conflicts onto the analyst is called "transference".[citation needed] many studies have also been done on briefer "dynamic" treatments; these are more expedient to measure, and shed light on the therapeutic process to some extent. brief relational therapy (brt), brief psychodynamic therapy (bpt), and time-limited dynamic therapy (tldp) limit treatment to – sessions. on average, classical analysis may last . years[citation needed], but for phobias and depressions uncomplicated by ego deficits or object relations deficits, analysis may run for a shorter period of time.[medical citation needed] longer analyses are indicated for those with more serious disturbances in object relations, more symptoms, and more ingrained character pathology.[citation needed] training and research[edit] psychoanalysis continues to be practiced by psychiatrists, social workers, and other mental health professionals; however, its practice has declined.[ ][ ] in , psychoanalyst bradley peterson, who is also a child psychiatrist and director of the institute for the developing mind at children's hospital los angeles, said: "i think most people would agree that psychoanalysis as a form of treatment is on its last legs."[ ] however psychoanalytic approaches continue to be listed by the uk nhs as possibly helpful for depression.[ ] united states[edit] 		this section needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (may ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) psychoanalytic training in the united states involves a personal psychoanalysis for the trainee, approximately hours of class instruction, with a standard curriculum, over a four or five-year period. typically, this psychoanalysis must be conducted by a supervising and training analyst. most institutes (but not all) within the american psychoanalytic association, require that supervising and training analysts become certified by the american board of psychoanalysts. certification entails a blind review in which the psychoanalyst's work is vetted by psychoanalysts outside of their local community. after earning certification, these psychoanalysts undergo another hurdle in which they are specially vetted by senior members of their own institute. supervising and training analysts are held to the highest clinical and ethical standards. moreover, they are required to have extensive experience conducting psychoanalyses.[citation needed] similarly, class instruction for psychoanalytic candidates is rigorous. typically classes meet several hours a week, or for a full day or two every other weekend during the academic year; this varies with the institute.[citation needed] candidates generally have an hour of supervision each week, with a supervising and training analyst, on each psychoanalytic case. the minimum number of cases varies between institutes, often two to four cases. male and female cases are required. supervision must go on for at least a few years on one or more cases. supervision is done in the supervisor's office, where the trainee presents material from the psychoanalytic work that week. in supervision, the patient's unconscious conflicts are explored, also, transference-countertransference constellations are examined. also, clinical technique is taught.[citation needed] many psychoanalytic training centers in the united states have been accredited by special committees of the apsaa or the ipa. because of theoretical differences, there are independent institutes, usually founded by psychologists, who until were not permitted access to psychoanalytic training institutes of the apsaa. currently there are between and independent institutes in the united states. as well, other institutes are affiliated to other organizations such as the american academy of psychoanalysis and dynamic psychiatry, and the national association for the advancement of psychoanalysis. at most psychoanalytic institutes in the united states, qualifications for entry include a terminal degree in a mental health field, such as ph.d., psy.d., m.s.w., or m.d. a few institutes restrict applicants to those already holding an m.d. or ph.d., and most institutes in southern california confer a ph.d. or psy.d. in psychoanalysis upon graduation, which involves completion of the necessary requirements for the state boards that confer that doctoral degree. the first training institute in america to educate non-medical psychoanalysts was the national psychological association for psychoanalysis ( ) in new york city. it was founded by the analyst theodor reik. the contemporary freudian (originally the new york freudian society) an offshoot of the national psychological association has a branch in washington, dc. it is a component society/institute or the ipa.[citation needed] some psychoanalytic training has been set up as a post-doctoral fellowship in university settings, such as at duke university, yale university, new york university, adelphi university and columbia university. other psychoanalytic institutes may not be directly associated with universities, but the faculty at those institutes usually hold contemporaneous faculty positions with psychology ph.d. programs and/or with medical school psychiatry residency programs.[citation needed] the ipa is the world's primary accrediting and regulatory body for psychoanalysis. their mission is to assure the continued vigor and development of psychoanalysis for the benefit of psychoanalytic patients. it works in partnership with its constituent organizations in countries to support , members. in the us, there are psychoanalytical organizations, institutes associations in the united states, which are spread across the states of america. apsaa has affiliated societies which have or more active members who practice in a given geographical area. the aims of apsaa and other psychoanalytical organizations are: provide ongoing educational opportunities for its members, stimulate the development and research of psychoanalysis, provide training and organize conferences. there are eight affiliated study groups in the united states. a study group is the first level of integration of a psychoanalytical body within the ipa, followed by a provisional society and finally a member society.[citation needed] the division of psychoanalysis ( ) of the american psychological association (apa) was established in the early s by several psychologists. until the establishment of the division of psychoanalysis, psychologists who had trained in independent institutes had no national organization. the division of psychoanalysis now has approximately , members and approximately local chapters in the united states. the division of psychoanalysis holds two annual meetings or conferences and offers continuing education in theory, research and clinical technique, as do their affiliated local chapters. the european psychoanalytical federation (epf) is the organization which consolidates all european psychoanalytic societies. this organization is affiliated with the ipa. in there were approximately , individual members in countries, speaking different languages. there are also psychoanalytic societies.[citation needed] the american association of psychoanalysis in clinical social work (aapcsw) was established by crayton rowe in as a division of the federation of clinical societies of social work and became an independent entity in . until it was known as the national membership committee on psychoanalysis. the organization was founded because although social workers represented the larger number of people who were training to be psychoanalysts, they were underrepresented as supervisors and teachers at the institutes they attended. aapcsw now has over members and has over chapters. it holds a bi-annual national conference and numerous annual local conferences.[citation needed] experiences of psychoanalysts and psychoanalytic psychotherapists and research into infant and child development have led to new insights. theories have been further developed and the results of empirical research are now more integrated in the psychoanalytic theory.[ ] united kingdom[edit] 		this section needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (may ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) the london psychoanalytical society was founded by ernest jones on october .[citation needed] after world war i with the expansion of psychoanalysis in the united kingdom, the society was reconstituted and named the british psychoanalytical society in . soon after, the institute of psychoanalysis was established to administer the society's activities. these include: the training of psychoanalysts, the development of the theory and practice of psychoanalysis, the provision of treatment through the london clinic of psychoanalysis, the publication of books in the new library of psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic ideas. the institute of psychoanalysis also publishes the international journal of psychoanalysis, maintains a library, furthers research, and holds public lectures. the society has a code of ethics and an ethical committee. the society, the institute and the clinic are all located at byron house in west london.[citation needed] the society is a constituent society of the international psychoanalytical association, ipa, a body with members on all five continents which safeguards professional and ethical practice.[citation needed] the society is a member of the british psychoanalytic council (bpc); the bpc publishes a register of british psychoanalysts and psychoanalytical psychotherapists. all members of the british psychoanalytic council are required to undertake continuing professional development, cpd. members of the society teach and hold posts on other approved psychoanalytic courses, e.g.: british psychotherapy foundation and in academic departments, e.g.university college london. members of the society have included: michael balint, wilfred bion, john bowlby, ronald fairbairn, anna freud, harry guntrip, melanie klein, donald meltzer, joseph j. sandler, hanna segal, j. d. sutherland and donald winnicott. the institute of psychoanalysis is the foremost publisher of psychoanalytic literature. the -volume standard edition of the complete psychological works of sigmund freud was conceived, translated, and produced under the direction of the british psychoanalytical society. the society, in conjunction with random house, will soon publish a new, revised and expanded standard edition. with the new library of psychoanalysis the institute continues to publish the books of leading theorists and practitioners. the international journal of psychoanalysis is published by the institute of psychoanalysis. now in its th year, it has one of the largest circulations of any psychoanalytic journal.[citation needed] india[edit] 	 	this section needs expansion. you can help by adding to it. (october ) psychoanalytical practice is emerging slowly in india, but is not yet recognised by the government. in , india decriminalised suicide in its mental health bill.[ ] psychoanalytic psychotherapy[edit] there are different forms of psychoanalysis and psychotherapies in which psychoanalytic thinking is practiced. besides classical psychoanalysis there is for example psychoanalytic psychotherapy, a therapeutic approach which widens "the accessibility of psychoanalytic theory and clinical practices that had evolved over plus years to a larger number of individuals."[ ] other examples of well known therapies which also use insights of psychoanalysis are mentalization-based treatment (mbt), and transference focused psychotherapy (tfp).[ ] there is also a continuing influence of psychoanalytic thinking in mental health care.[ ] research[edit] 		this section needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (may ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) over a hundred years of case reports and studies in the journal modern psychoanalysis, the psychoanalytic quarterly, the international journal of psychoanalysis and the journal of the american psychoanalytic association have analyzed the efficacy of analysis in cases of neurosis and character or personality problems. psychoanalysis modified by object relations techniques has been shown to be effective in many cases of ingrained problems of intimacy and relationship (cf. the many books of otto kernberg). psychoanalytic treatment, in other situations, may run from about a year to many years, depending on the severity and complexity of the pathology. psychoanalytic theory has, from its inception, been the subject of criticism and controversy. freud remarked on this early in his career, when other physicians in vienna ostracized him for his findings that hysterical conversion symptoms were not limited to women. challenges to analytic theory began with otto rank and alfred adler (turn of the th century), continued with behaviorists (e.g. wolpe) into the s and ' s, and have persisted (e.g. miller). criticisms come from those who object to the notion that there are mechanisms, thoughts or feelings in the mind that could be unconscious. criticisms also have been leveled against the idea of "infantile sexuality" (the recognition that children between ages two and six imagine things about procreation). criticisms of theory have led to variations in analytic theories, such as the work of ronald fairbairn, michael balint, and john bowlby. in the past years or so, the criticisms have centered on the issue of empirical verification.[ ] psychoanalysis has been used as a research tool into childhood development (cf. the journal the psychoanalytic study of the child), and has developed into a flexible, effective treatment for certain mental disturbances.[ ] in the s, freud's early ( ) thoughts on the childhood development of female sexuality were challenged; this challenge led to major research in the s and s, and then to a reformulation of female sexual development that corrected some of freud's concepts.[ ] also see the various works of eleanor galenson, nancy chodorow, karen horney, françoise dolto, melanie klein, selma fraiberg, and others. most recently, psychoanalytic researchers who have integrated attachment theory into their work, including alicia lieberman, susan coates, and daniel schechter have explored the role of parental traumatization in the development of young children's mental representations of self and others.[ ] effectiveness[edit] the psychoanalytic profession has been resistant to researching efficacy.[ ] evaluations of effectiveness based on the interpretation of the therapist alone cannot be proven.[ ] research results[edit] meta-analyses in and found support or evidence for the efficacy of psychoanalytic therapy, thus further research is needed.[ ][ ] other meta-analyses published in the recent years showed psychoanalysis and psychodynamic therapy to be effective, with outcomes comparable or greater than other kinds of psychotherapy or antidepressant drugs,[ ][ ][ ] but these arguments have also been subjected to various criticisms.[ ][ ][ ][ ] in particular, the inclusion of pre/post studies rather than randomized controlled trials, and the absence of adequate comparisons with control treatments is a serious limitation in interpreting the results.[ ] in , the american psychological association made comparisons between psychodynamic treatment and a non-dynamic competitor and found that were superior, were inferior, had no difference and were adequate. the study found that this could be used as a basis "to make psychodynamic psychotherapy an 'empirically validated' treatment."[ ][further explanation needed] meta-analyses of short term psychodynamic psychotherapy (stpp) have found effect sizes (cohen's d) ranging from . to . compared to no treatment and was found to be slightly better than other therapies in follow up.[ ] other reviews have found an effect size of . to . for somatic disorders compared to no treatment[ ] and . for treating depression.[ ] a harvard review of psychiatry meta-analysis of intensive short-term dynamic psychotherapy (istdp) found effect sizes ranging from . for interpersonal problems to . for depression. overall istdp had an effect size of . compared to no treatment.[ ] a meta-analysis of long term psychodynamic psychotherapy in found an overall effect size of . , which is modest. this study concluded the recovery rate following ltpp was equal to control treatments, including treatment as usual, and found the evidence for the effectiveness of ltpp to be limited and at best conflicting.[ ] others have found effect sizes of . –. .[ ] according to a french review conducted by inserm, psychoanalysis was presumed or proven effective at treating panic disorder, post-traumatic stress, and personality disorders, but did not find evidence of its effectiveness in treating schizophrenia, panic disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, specific phobia, bulimia and anorexia.[ ] a systematic review of the medical literature by the cochrane collaboration concluded that no data exist demonstrating that psychodynamic psychotherapy is effective in treating schizophrenia and severe mental illness, and cautioned that medication should always be used alongside any type of talk therapy in schizophrenia cases.[ ] a french review from found the same.[ ] the schizophrenia patient outcomes research team advises against the use of psychodynamic therapy in cases of schizophrenia, arguing that more trials are necessary to verify its effectiveness.[ ][ ] criticism[edit] as a field of science[edit] the strongest reason for considering freud a pseudo-scientist is that he claimed to have tested – and thus to have provided the most cogent grounds for accepting – theories which are either untestable or even if testable had not been tested. it is spurious claims to have tested an untestable or untested theory which are the most pertinent grounds for deeming freud and his followers pseudoscientists... —frank cioffi[ ] both freud and psychoanalysis have been criticized in extreme terms.[ ] exchanges between critics and defenders of psychoanalysis have often been so heated that they have come to be characterized as the freud wars.[ ] early critics of psychoanalysis believed that its theories were based too little on quantitative and experimental research, and too much on the clinical case study method. some have accused freud of fabrication, most famously in the case of anna o.[ ] philosopher frank cioffi cites false claims of a sound scientific verification of the theory and its elements as the strongest basis for classifying the work of freud and his school as pseudoscience.[ ] others have speculated that patients suffered from now easily identifiable conditions unrelated to psychoanalysis; for instance, anna o. is thought to have suffered from an organic impairment such as tuberculous meningitis or temporal lobe epilepsy and not hysteria (see modern interpretations).[ ] karl popper argued that psychoanalysis is a pseudoscience because its claims are not testable and cannot be refuted; that is, they are not falsifiable:[ ] ....those "clinical observations" which analysts naively believe confirm their theory cannot do this any more than the daily confirmations which astrologers find in their practice. and as for freud's epic of the ego, the super-ego, and the id, no substantially stronger claim to scientific status can be made for it than for homer's collected stories from the olympus. in addition, imre lakatos wrote that "freudians have been nonplussed by popper's basic challenge concerning scientific honesty. indeed, they have refused to specify experimental conditions under which they would give up their basic assumptions."[ ] in sexual desire ( ), philosopher roger scruton rejects popper's arguments pointing to the theory of repression as an example of a freudian theory that does have testable consequences. scruton nevertheless concluded that psychoanalysis is not genuinely scientific, on the grounds that it involves an unacceptable dependence on metaphor.[ ] the philosopher and physicist mario bunge argued that psychoanalysis is a pseudoscience because it violates the ontology and methodology inherent to science.[ ] according to bunge, most psychoanalytic theories are either untestable or unsupported by evidence.[ ] cognitive scientists, in particular, have also weighed in. martin seligman, a prominent academic in positive psychology wrote that:[ ] thirty years ago, the cognitive revolution in psychology overthrew both freud and the behaviorists, at least in academia.… [t]hinking…is not just a [result] of emotion or behavior.… [e]motion is always generated by cognition, not the other way around. linguist noam chomsky has criticized psychoanalysis for lacking a scientific basis.[ ] steven pinker considers freudian theory unscientific for understanding the mind.[ ] evolutionary biologist stephen jay gould considered psychoanalysis influenced by pseudoscientific theories such as recapitulation theory.[ ] psychologists hans eysenck ( ) and john f. kihlstrom ( / ) have also criticized the field as pseudoscience.[ ][ ] adolf grünbaum argues in validation in the clinical theory of psychoanalysis ( ) that psychoanalytic based theories are falsifiable, but that the causal claims of psychoanalysis are unsupported by the available clinical evidence.[ ] richard feynman wrote off psychoanalysts as mere "witch doctors:"[ ] if you look at all of the complicated ideas that they have developed in an infinitesimal amount of time, if you compare to any other of the sciences how long it takes to get one idea after the other, if you consider all the structures and inventions and complicated things, the ids and the egos, the tensions and the forces, and the pushes and the pulls, i tell you they can't all be there. it's too much for one brain or a few brains to have cooked up in such a short time.[xii] likewise, psychiatrist e. fuller torrey, in witchdoctors and psychiatrists ( ), agreed that psychoanalytic theories have no more scientific basis than the theories of traditional native healers, "witchdoctors" or modern "cult" alternatives such as est.[ ] psychologist alice miller charged psychoanalysis with being similar to the poisonous pedagogies, which she described in her book for your own good. she scrutinized and rejected the validity of freud's drive theory, including the oedipus complex, which, according to her and jeffrey masson, blames the child for the abusive sexual behavior of adults.[ ] psychologist joel kupfersmid investigated the validity of the oedipus complex, examining its nature and origins. he concluded that there is little evidence to support the existence of the oedipus complex.[ ] michel foucault and gilles deleuze claimed that the institution of psychoanalysis has become a center of power and that its confessional techniques resemble the christian tradition.[ ] jacques lacan criticized the emphasis of some american and british psychoanalytical traditions on what he has viewed as the suggestion of imaginary "causes" for symptoms, and recommended the return to freud.[ ] together with deleuze, félix guattari criticised the oedipal structure.[ ] luce irigaray criticised psychoanalysis, employing jacques derrida's concept of phallogocentrism to describe the exclusion of the woman from freudian and lacanian psychoanalytical theories.[ ] deleuze and guattari ( ), in anti-Œdipus, take the cases of gérard mendel, bela grunberger and janine chasseguet-smirgel, prominent members of the most respected associations (ipa), to suggest that, traditionally, psychoanalysis enthusiastically embraces a police state.[ ] the theoretical foundations of psychoanalysis lie in the same philosophical currents that lead to interpretive phenomenology rather than in those that lead to scientific positivism, making the theory largely incompatible with positivist approaches to the study of the mind.[ ][ ][ ] although numerous studies have shown that the efficacy of therapy is primarily related to the quality of the therapist,[ ] rather than the school or technique or training, a french report from inserm concluded that psychoanalytic therapy is less effective than other psychotherapies (including cognitive behavioral therapy) for certain diseases. this report used a meta-analysis of numerous other studies to find whether the treatment was "proven" or "presumed" to be effective on different diseases.[ ] freudian theory[edit] many aspects of freudian theory are indeed out of date, and they should be: freud died in , and he has been slow to undertake further revisions. his critics, however, are equally behind the times, attacking freudian views of the s as if they continue to have some currency in their original form. psychodynamic theory and therapy have evolved considerably since when freud's bearded countenance was last sighted in earnest. contemporary psychoanalysts and psychodynamic therapists no longer write much about ids and egos, nor do they conceive of treatment for psychological disorders as an archaeological expedition in search of lost memories. —drew westen, [ ] a survey of scientific research suggested that while personality traits corresponding to freud's oral, anal, oedipal, and genital phases can be observed, they do not necessarily manifest as stages in the development of children. these studies also have not confirmed that such traits in adults result from childhood experiences.[ ] however, these stages should not be viewed as crucial to modern psychoanalysis. what is crucial to modern psychoanalytic theory and practice is the power of the unconscious and the transference phenomenon.[ ] the idea of "unconscious" is contested because human behavior can be observed while human mental activity has to be inferred. however, the unconscious is now a popular topic of study in the fields of experimental and social psychology (e.g., implicit attitude measures, fmri, and pet scans, and other indirect tests). the idea of unconscious, and the transference phenomenon, have been widely researched and, it is claimed, validated in the fields of cognitive psychology and social psychology,[ ] though a freudian interpretation of unconscious mental activity is not held by the majority of cognitive psychologists. recent developments in neuroscience have resulted in one side arguing that it has provided a biological basis for unconscious emotional processing in line with psychoanalytic theory i.e., neuropsychoanalysis,[ ] while the other side argues that such findings make psychoanalytic theory obsolete and irrelevant. shlomo kalo explains that the scientific materialism that flourished in the th century severely harmed religion and rejected whatever called spiritual. the institution of the confession priest in particular was badly damaged. the empty void that this institution left behind was swiftly occupied by the newborn psychoanalysis. in his writings, kalo claims that psychoanalysis basic approach is erroneous. it represents the mainline wrong assumptions that happiness is unreachable and that the natural desire of a human being is to exploit his fellow men for his own pleasure and benefit.[ ] jacques derrida incorporated aspects of psychoanalytic theory into his theory of deconstruction in order to question what he called the 'metaphysics of presence'. derrida also turns some of these ideas against freud, to reveal tensions and contradictions in his work. for example, although freud defines religion and metaphysics as displacements of the identification with the father in the resolution of the oedipal complex, derrida ( ) insists that the prominence of the father in freud's own analysis is itself indebted to the prominence given to the father in western metaphysics and theology since plato.[ ] see also[edit] 	analytical psychology 	list of schools of psychoanalysis 	psychoanalytic sociology 	psychoanalysis and music 	training analysis references[edit] notes[edit] 	^ "what is psychoanalysis? of course, one is supposed to answer that it is many things — a theory, a research method, a therapy, a body of knowledge. in what might be considered an unfortunately abbreviated description, freud said that anyone who recognizes transference and resistance is a psychoanalyst, even if he comes to conclusions other than his own.… i prefer to think of the analytic situation more broadly, as one in which someone seeking help tries to speak as freely as he can to someone who listens as carefully as he can with the aim of articulating what is going on between them and why. david rapaport ( a) once defined the analytic situation as carrying the method of interpersonal relationship to its last consequences." gill, merton m. . "psychoanalysis, part : proposals for the future." the challenge for psychoanalysis and psychotherapy: solutions for the future. new york: american mental health foundation. archived june . 	^ "all psychoanalytic theories include the idea that unconscious thoughts and feelings are central in mental functioning." milton, jane, caroline polmear, and julia fabricius. . a short introduction to psychoanalysis. sage. p. . 	^ a b alfred adler developed the school of thought known as individual psychology, while carl jung established analytical psychology. 	^ "psychoanalysis has existed before the turn of the th century and, in that span of years, has established itself as one of the fundamental disciplines within psychiatry. the science of psychoanalysis is the bedrock of psychodynamic understanding and forms the fundamental theoretical frame of reference for a variety of forms of therapeutic intervention, embracing not only psychoanalysis itself but also various forms of psychoanalytically oriented psychotherapy and related forms of therapy using psychodynamic concepts." sadock, benjamin j., and virginia a. sadock. . kaplan and sadock's synopsis of psychiatry ( th ed.). lippincott williams & wilkins. p. . 	^ "psychoanalysis continues to be an important paradigm organizing the way many psychiatrists think about patients and treatment. however, its limitations are more widely recognized and it is assumed that many important advances in the future will come from other areas, particularly biologic psychiatry. as yet unresolved is the appropriate role of psychoanalytic thinking in organizing the treatment of patients and the training of psychiatrists after that biologic revolution has born fruit. will treatments aimed at biologic defects or abnormalities become technical steps in a program organized in a psychoanalytic framework? will psychoanalysis serve to explain and guide supportive intervention for individuals whose lives are deformed by biologic defect and therapeutic interventions, much as it now does for patients with chronic physical illness, with the psychoanalyst on the psychiatric dialysis program? or will we look back on the role of psychoanalysis in the treatment of the seriously mentally ill as the last and most scientifically enlightened phase of the humanistic tradition in psychiatry, a tradition that became extinct when advances in biology allowed us to cure those we had so long only comforted?" michels, robert. . "psychoanalysis and psychiatry: a changing relationship." the challenge for psychoanalysis and psychotherapy: solutions for the future. new york: american mental health foundation. archived june . 	^ cf. the psychoanalytic study of the child, academic journal 	^ also see freud's paper "repeating, remembering, and working through" 	^ cf. marcus, i. and j. francis. . masturbation from infancy to senescence. 	^ see the child studies of eleanor galenson on "evocative memory" 	^ see leon hoffman, new york psychoanalytic institute center for children 	^ cf. slavson, s. r., a textbook in analytic group therapy 	^ feynman was also speaking here of psychiatrists. 	^ "by the s it would assume a more central place in the psychotherapy arena" [ ] citations[edit] 	^ a b mitchell, juliet. . psychoanalysis and feminism: a radical reassessment of freudian psychoanalysis. london: penguin books. p. . 	^ a b birnbach, martin. . neo-freudian social philosophy. stanford: stanford university press. p. . 	^ fromm, erich. . the revision of psychoanalysis. new york: open road. pp. – . 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"was freud a pseudoscientist?" butterflies & wheels. retrieved may . 	^ brunner, josé ( ), freud and the politics of psychoanalysis, transaction, p. xxi, isbn  - - - - 	^ "washingtonpost.com: dispatches from the freud wars: psychoanalysis and its passions". 	^ borch-jacobsen, mikkel. . remembering anna o: a century of mystification. london: routledge. isbn  - - - . 	^ cioffi, frank. . "was freud a pseudoscientist?" butterflies & wheels. translated and published in le livre noir de la psychoanalyse: vivre, penser et aller mieux sans freud, edited by c. meyer, with m. borch-jacobsen, j. cottraux, d. pleux, and j. van rillaer. paris: les arènes ( ). retrieved may . 	^ a b webster, richard. . why freud was wrong. sin, science and psychoanalysis. london: harper collins. 	^ a b popper, karl r. . "science: conjectures and refutations." pp. – in philosophy of science and the occult, edited by p. grim. albany, p. , preview google books see also conjectures and refutations. 	^ lakatos, imre. . 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"powerlessness as a parable." the trousers – parables for the st century. uk: d.a.t. publications. pp. , back cover. 	^ derrida, jacques, and alan bass. . the post card: from socrates to freud and beyond. chicago: university of chicago.[page needed] further reading[edit] introductions[edit] 	brenner, charles ( ). an elementary textbook of psychoanalysis. 	elliott, anthony ( ). psychoanalytic theory: an introduction ( nd ed.). duke university press. -- an introduction that explains psychoanalytic theory with interpretations of major theorists. 	fine, reuben ( ). the history of psychoanalysis. (expanded ed.). northvale: jason aronson. isbn  - - - 	samuel, lawrence r. ( ). shrink: a cultural history of psychoanalysis in america. university of nebraska press. pp. 	freud, sigmund ( ) [ ]. "psychoanalysis." encyclopædia britannica. reference works[edit] 	de mijolla, alain, ed. ( ). international dictionary of psychoanalysis [enhanced american version] , ,& . detroit: thomson/gale. 	laplanche, jean, and j. b. pontalis ( ). "the language of psycho-analysis". w. w. norton & company. isbn  - - - 	freud, sigmund ( ). an outline of psychoanalysis. epenguin.;general isbn  - 	edelson, marshall ( ). hypothesis and evidence in psychoanalysis. chicago: chicago university press. isbn  - - - 	etchegoyen, horacio ( ). the fundamentals of psychoanalytic technique (new ed.). karnac books. isbn  - - -x 	gellner, ernest. the psychoanalytic movement: the cunning of unreason, . a critical view of freudian theory. isbn  - - - 	green, andré ( ). "psychoanalysis: a paradigm for clinical thinking". free association books. isbn  - - - 	irigaray, luce ( ). key writings. continuum. isbn  - - -x 	jacobson, edith ( ). depression; comparative studies of normal, neurotic, and psychotic conditions. international universities press. isbn  - - - 	kernberg, otto ( ). severe personality disorders: psychotherapeutic strategies. yale university press. isbn  - - - 	kohut, heinz ( ). analysis of the self: systematic approach to treatment of narcissistic personality disorders. international universities press. isbn  - - - 	kovacevic, filip ( ). liberating oedipus? psychoanalysis as critical theory. lexington books. isbn  - - - 	kristeva, julia ( ). the kristeva reader, edited by t. moi. columbia university press. isbn  - - - 	meltzer, donald ( ). dream-life: a re-examination of the psycho-analytical theory and technique. karnac books. isbn  - - - 	— ( ). the kleinian development (new ed.). karnac books; reprint: isbn  - - - 	mitchell, s. a., and m. j. black ( ). freud and beyond: a history of modern psychoanalytic thought. new york: basic books. pp. xviii-xx. 	pollock, griselda ( ). "beyond oedipus. feminist thought, psychoanalysis, and mythical figurations of the feminine." in laughing with medusa, edited by v. zajko and m. leonard. oxford: oxford university press. isbn  - - -x 	spielrein, sabina ( ). destruction as cause of becoming. oclc  	stoller, robert ( ). presentations of gender. yale university press. isbn  - - - 	stolorow, robert, george atwood, and donna orange ( ). worlds of experience: interweaving philosophical and clinical dimensions in psychoanalysis. new york: basic books. 	spitz, rené ( ). the first year of life: psychoanalytic study of normal and deviant development of object relations. international universities press. isbn  - - - 	tähkä, veikko ( ). mind and its treatment: a psychoanalytic approach. madison, ct: international universities press. isbn  - - - book series[edit] 	contemporary psychoanalytic studies. amsterdam & new york: rodopi. analyses, discussions and critiques[edit] 	aziz, robert ( ). the syndetic paradigm: the untrodden path beyond freud and jung. albany: state university of new york press. isbn  - - - - . 	borch-jacobsen, mikkel ( ). lacan: the absolute master, stanford: stanford university press. isbn  - - - 	— ( ). remembering anna o: a century of mystification london: routledge. isbn  - - - 	brockmeier jens ( ). "autobiography, narrative and the freudian conception of life history". philosophy, psychiatry, & psychology. : – . 	burnham, john, ed. after freud left: a century of psychoanalysis in america (university of chicago press, ) pp. 	cioffi, frank. ( ). freud and the question of pseudoscience, open court publishing company. isbn  - - -x 	crews, frederick ( ). the memory wars: freud's legacy in dispute, new york: new york review of books. isbn  - - - 	crews, frederick, ed. ( ). unauthorized freud: doubters confront a legend, new york: viking. isbn  - - - 	dufresne, todd ( ). tales from the freudian crypt: the death drive in text and context, stanford: stanford university press. isbn  - - - 	— ( ). against freud: critics talk back, stanford: stanford university press. isbn  - - - 	erwin, edward, a final accounting: philosophical and empirical issues in freudian psychology isbn  - - - 	esterson, allen. seductive mirage: an exploration of the work of sigmund freud. chicago: open court, . isbn  - - - 	fisher, seymour, and roger p. greenberg ( ). the scientific credibility of freud's theories and therapy. new york: basic books. 	— ( ). freud scientifically reappraised: testing the theories and therapy. new york: john wiley. 	gellner, ernest, the psychoanalytic movement: the cunning of unreason. a critical view of freudian theory, isbn  - - - 	grünbaum adolf ( ). "is freudian psychoanalytic theory pseudo-scientific by karl popper's criterion of demarcation?". american philosophical quarterly. : – . 	— ( ). the foundations of psychoanalysis: a philosophical critique isbn  - - - 	macmillan, malcolm, freud evaluated: the completed arc isbn  - - - 	morley s, eccleston c, williams a ( ). "systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of cognitive behaviour therapy and behaviour therapy for chronic pain in adults, excluding headache". pain. ( – ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . pmid  . s cid  . 	roustang, francois ( ). dire mastery: discipleship from freud to lacan, baltimore: johns hopkins university press. isbn  - - - 	webster, richard. ( ). why freud was wrong, new york: basic books, harper collins. isbn  - - - 	wollheim, richard, editor. ( ). freud: a collection of critical essays. new york: anchor books. isbn  - - - responses to critiques[edit] 	köhler, thomas : anti-freud-literatur von ihren anfängen bis heute. zur wissenschaftlichen fundierung von psychoanalyse-kritik. stuttgart: kohlhammer verlag. isbn  - - - 	ollinheimo, ari — vuorinen, risto ( ): metapsychology and the suggestion argument: a reply to grünbaum's critique of psychoanalysis. commentationes scientiarum socialium, . helsinki: finnish academy of science and letters. isbn  - - - 	robinson, paul ( ). freud and his critics. berkeley & los angeles: university of california press. isbn  - - - 	gomez, lavinia: the freud wars: an introduction to the philosophy of psychoanalysis. routledge, . review: psychodynamic practice ( ): - . feb., .  external links[edit] 	library resources about psychoanalysis 	 	resources in your library 	resources in other libraries 		look up psychoanalysis in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikimedia commons has media related to psychoanalysis. 	international psychoanalytical association (ipa) – world's primary regulatory body for psychoanalysis, founded by sigmund freud 	psychoanalysis – division – american psychological association (apa) 	 	v 	t 	e psychotherapy (list) 	schools	 	psychodynamic	 	psychoanalysis 	adlerian therapy 	analytical therapy 	mentalization-based treatment 	transference focused psychotherapy 	cognitive and behavioral	 	clinical behavior analysis 	acceptance and commitment therapy 	functional analytic psychotherapy 	cognitive behavioral therapy 	cognitive therapy 	dialectical behavior therapy 	mindfulness-based cognitive therapy 	rational emotive behavior therapy 	humanistic	 	emotionally focused therapy 	existential therapy 	focusing 	gestalt therapy 	logotherapy 	person-centered therapy 	other	 	art therapy 	dance therapy 	feminist therapy 	music therapy 	narrative therapy 	play therapy 	reality therapy 	systemic therapy 	transactional analysis 	list 	integrative	 	eclectic psychotherapy 	integrative psychotherapy 	multimodal therapy 	transtheoretical model 	approaches	 	brief psychotherapy 	counseling 	online counseling 	residential treatment 	self-help 	support groups 	research	 	clinical formulation 	clinical pluralism 	common factors theory 	discontinuation 	history 	practitioner–scholar model 	techniques	 	behaviour therapy	 	aversion therapy 	chaining 	contingency management 	shaping 	stimulus control 	token economy 	counterconditioning 	desensitization/exposure therapy 	systematic desensitization 	other individual therapy	 	autogenic training 	biofeedback 	cognitive restructuring 	emotion regulation 	affect labeling 	free association 	homework 	hypnotherapy 	modeling 	group psychotherapy	 	co-therapy 	couples therapy 	family therapy 	psychodrama 	sensitivity training 	people	 	philippe pinel ( – ) 	josef breuer ( – ) 	sigmund freud ( – ) 	pierre janet ( – ) 	alfred adler ( – ) 	sándor ferenczi ( – ) 	carl jung ( – ) 	ludwig binswanger ( – ) 	melanie klein ( – ) 	otto rank ( – ) 	karen horney ( – ) 	harry stack sullivan ( – ) 	fritz perls ( – ) 	anna freud ( – ) 	donald winnicott ( – ) 	wilhelm reich ( – ) 	milton h. erickson ( – ) 	jacques lacan ( – ) 	erik erikson ( – ) 	carl rogers ( – ) 	viktor frankl ( – ) 	george kelly ( – ) 	rollo may ( – ) 	virginia axline ( – ) 	carl whitaker ( – ) 	albert ellis ( – ) 	silvano arieti ( – ) 	james bugental ( – ) 	joseph wolpe ( – ) 	virginia satir ( – ) 	aaron t. beck (b.  ) 	salvador minuchin ( – ) 	hans herrman strupp ( – ) 	paul watzlawick ( – ) 	haim ginott ( – ) 	ogden lindsley ( – ) 	arthur janov ( – ) 	eugene gendlin ( – ) 	r. d. laing ( – ) 	jean baker miller ( – ) 	otto f. kernberg (b.  ) 	nathan azrin ( – ) 	irvin d. yalom (b.  ) 	arnold lazarus ( – ) 	lorna smith benjamin (b.  ) 	marsha m. linehan (b.  ) 	vittorio guidano ( – ) 	les greenberg (b.  ) 	william r. miller (b.  ) 	steven c. hayes (b.  ) 	michael white ( – ) 	jeffrey young (b.  ) 	peter fonagy (b.  ) 	associations	 	association for the advancement of psychotherapy 	association for applied psychophysiology and biofeedback 	association for behavioral and cognitive therapies 	association for behavior analysis international 	european association for psychotherapy 	society for psychotherapy research 	world council for psychotherapy 	 	v 	t 	e sigmund freud 	books	 	on aphasia ( ) 	studies on hysteria ( ) 	the interpretation of dreams (including on dreams) ( ) 	the psychopathology of everyday life ( ) 	jokes and their relation to the unconscious ( ) 	totem and taboo ( ) 	the history of the psychoanalytic movement ( ) 	introduction to psychoanalysis ( - 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wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	neuroscience 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for the journal, see neuroscience (journal). "brain science" redirects here. for other aspects of brain science, see cognitive science, cognitive psychology, neurology, and neuropsychology. drawing by santiago ramón y cajal ( ) of neurons in the pigeon cerebellum scientific study of the nervous system neuroscience (or neurobiology) is the scientific study of the nervous system.[ ] it is a multidisciplinary science that combines physiology, anatomy, molecular biology, developmental biology, cytology, mathematical modeling, and psychology to understand the fundamental and emergent properties of neurons and neural circuits.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] the understanding of the biological basis of learning, memory, behavior, perception, and consciousness has been described by eric kandel as the "ultimate challenge" of the biological sciences.[ ] the scope of neuroscience has broadened over time to include different approaches used to study the nervous system at different scales and the techniques used by neuroscientists have expanded enormously, from molecular and cellular studies of individual neurons to imaging of sensory, motor and cognitive tasks in the brain. contents 	 history 	 modern neuroscience 	 . molecular and cellular neuroscience 	 . neural circuits and systems 	 . cognitive and behavioral neuroscience 	 . computational neuroscience 	 . . brain simualtion 	 . . neuromorphic computers 	 . nano-neurotechnology 	 . neuroscience and medicine 	 . . translational research 	 . . nanoneuroscience 	 major branches 	 neuroscience organizations 	 . public education and outreach 	 nobel prizes related to neuroscience 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links history[edit] main article: history of neuroscience illustration from gray's anatomy ( ) of a lateral view of the human brain, featuring the hippocampus among other neuroanatomical features the earliest study of the nervous system dates to ancient egypt. trepanation, the surgical practice of either drilling or scraping a hole into the skull for the purpose of curing head injuries or mental disorders, or relieving cranial pressure, was first recorded during the neolithic period. manuscripts dating to  bc indicate that the egyptians had some knowledge about symptoms of brain damage.[ ] early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a "cranial stuffing" of sorts. in egypt, from the late middle kingdom onwards, the brain was regularly removed in preparation for mummification. it was believed at the time that the heart was the seat of intelligence. according to herodotus, the first step of mummification was to "take a crooked piece of iron, and with it draw out the brain through the nostrils, thus getting rid of a portion, while the skull is cleared of the rest by rinsing with drugs."[ ] the view that the heart was the source of consciousness was not challenged until the time of the greek physician hippocrates. he believed that the brain was not only involved with sensation—since most specialized organs (e.g., eyes, ears, tongue) are located in the head near the brain—but was also the seat of intelligence.[ ] plato also speculated that the brain was the seat of the rational part of the soul.[ ] aristotle, however, believed the heart was the center of intelligence and that the brain regulated the amount of heat from the heart.[ ] this view was generally accepted until the roman physician galen, a follower of hippocrates and physician to roman gladiators, observed that his patients lost their mental faculties when they had sustained damage to their brains.[ ] abulcasis, averroes, avicenna, avenzoar, and maimonides, active in the medieval muslim world, described a number of medical problems related to the brain. in renaissance europe, vesalius ( – ), rené descartes ( – ), thomas willis ( – ) and jan swammerdam ( – ) also made several contributions to neuroscience. the golgi stain first allowed for the visualization of individual neurons. luigi galvani's pioneering work in the late s set the stage for studying the electrical excitability of muscles and neurons. in the first half of the th century, jean pierre flourens pioneered the experimental method of carrying out localized lesions of the brain in living animals describing their effects on motricity, sensibility and behavior. in emil du bois-reymond demonstrated the electrical nature of the nerve signal,[ ] whose speed hermann von helmholtz proceeded to measure,[ ] and in richard caton found electrical phenomena in the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys.[ ] adolf beck published in similar observations of spontaneous electrical activity of the brain of rabbits and dogs.[ ] studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the microscope and the development of a staining procedure by camillo golgi during the late s. the procedure used a silver chromate salt to reveal the intricate structures of individual neurons. his technique was used by santiago ramón y cajal and led to the formation of the neuron doctrine, the hypothesis that the functional unit of the brain is the neuron.[ ] golgi and ramón y cajal shared the nobel prize in physiology or medicine in for their extensive observations, descriptions, and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain. in parallel with this research, work with brain-damaged patients by paul broca suggested that certain regions of the brain were responsible for certain functions. at the time, broca's findings were seen as a confirmation of franz joseph gall's theory that language was localized and that certain psychological functions were localized in specific areas of the cerebral cortex.[ ][ ] the localization of function hypothesis was supported by observations of epileptic patients conducted by john hughlings jackson, who correctly inferred the organization of the motor cortex by watching the progression of seizures through the body. carl wernicke further developed the theory of the specialization of specific brain structures in language comprehension and production. modern research through neuroimaging techniques, still uses the brodmann cerebral cytoarchitectonic map (referring to study of cell structure) anatomical definitions from this era in continuing to show that distinct areas of the cortex are activated in the execution of specific tasks.[ ] during the th century, neuroscience began to be recognized as a distinct academic discipline in its own right, rather than as studies of the nervous system within other disciplines. eric kandel and collaborators have cited david rioch, francis o. schmitt, and stephen kuffler as having played critical roles in establishing the field.[ ] rioch originated the integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at the walter reed army institute of research, starting in the s. during the same period, schmitt established a neuroscience research program within the biology department at the massachusetts institute of technology, bringing together biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. the first freestanding neuroscience department (then called psychobiology) was founded in at the university of california, irvine by james l. mcgaugh.[ ] this was followed by the department of neurobiology at harvard medical school, which was founded in by stephen kuffler.[ ] the understanding of neurons and of nervous system function became increasingly precise and molecular during the th century. for example, in , alan lloyd hodgkin and andrew huxley presented a mathematical model for transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, which they called "action potentials", and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the hodgkin–huxley model. in – , richard fitzhugh and j. nagumo simplified hodgkin–huxley, in what is called the fitzhugh–nagumo model. in , bernard katz modeled neurotransmission across the space between neurons known as synapses. beginning in , eric kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in aplysia. in catherine morris and harold lecar combined these models in the morris–lecar model. such increasingly quantitative work gave rise to numerous biological neuron models and models of neural computation. as a result of the increasing interest about the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientist during the th century. for example, the international brain research organization was founded in ,[ ] the international society for neurochemistry in ,[ ] the european brain and behaviour society in ,[ ] and the society for neuroscience in .[ ] recently, the application of neuroscience research results has also given rise to applied disciplines as neuroeconomics,[ ] neuroeducation,[ ] neuroethics,[ ] and neurolaw.[ ] over time, brain research has gone through philosophical, experimental, and theoretical phases, with work on brain simulation predicted to be important in the future.[ ] modern neuroscience[edit] main article: outline of neuroscience human nervous system the scientific study of the nervous system increased significantly during the second half of the twentieth century, principally due to advances in molecular biology, electrophysiology, and computational neuroscience. this has allowed neuroscientists to study the nervous system in all its aspects: how it is structured, how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be changed. for example, it has become possible to understand, in much detail, the complex processes occurring within a single neuron. neurons are cells specialized for communication. they are able to communicate with neurons and other cell types through specialized junctions called synapses, at which electrical or electrochemical signals can be transmitted from one cell to another. many neurons extrude a long thin filament of axoplasm called an axon, which may extend to distant parts of the body and are capable of rapidly carrying electrical signals, influencing the activity of other neurons, muscles, or glands at their termination points. a nervous system emerges from the assemblage of neurons that are connected to each other. the vertebrate nervous system can be split into two parts: the central nervous system (defined as the brain and spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system. in many species — including all vertebrates — the nervous system is the most complex organ system in the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. the human brain alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. at least one out of three of the approximately , genes belonging to the human genome is expressed mainly in the brain.[ ] due to the high degree of plasticity of the human brain, the structure of its synapses and their resulting functions change throughout life.[ ] making sense of the nervous system's dynamic complexity is a formidable research challenge. ultimately, neuroscientists would like to understand every aspect of the nervous system, including how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be altered or repaired. analysis of the nervous system is therefore performed at multiple levels, ranging from the molecular and cellular levels to the systems and cognitive levels. the specific topics that form the main foci of research change over time, driven by an ever-expanding base of knowledge and the availability of increasingly sophisticated technical methods. improvements in technology have been the primary drivers of progress. developments in electron microscopy, computer science, electronics, functional neuroimaging, and genetics and genomics have all been major drivers of progress. molecular and cellular neuroscience[edit] main articles: molecular neuroscience and cellular neuroscience photograph of a stained neuron in a chicken embryo basic questions addressed in molecular neuroscience include the mechanisms by which neurons express and respond to molecular signals and how axons form complex connectivity patterns. at this level, tools from molecular biology and genetics are used to understand how neurons develop and how genetic changes affect biological functions. the morphology, molecular identity, and physiological characteristics of neurons and how they relate to different types of behavior are also of considerable interest. questions addressed in cellular neuroscience include the mechanisms of how neurons process signals physiologically and electrochemically. these questions include how signals are processed by neurites and somas and how neurotransmitters and electrical signals are used to process information in a neuron. neurites are thin extensions from a neuronal cell body, consisting of dendrites (specialized to receive synaptic inputs from other neurons) and axons (specialized to conduct nerve impulses called action potentials). somas are the cell bodies of the neurons and contain the nucleus. another major area of cellular neuroscience is the investigation of the development of the nervous system. questions include the patterning and regionalization of the nervous system, neural stem cells, differentiation of neurons and glia (neurogenesis and gliogenesis), neuronal migration, axonal and dendritic development, trophic interactions, and synapse formation. computational neurogenetic modeling is concerned with the development of dynamic neuronal models for modeling brain functions with respect to genes and dynamic interactions between genes. neural circuits and systems[edit] main articles: neural circuit and systems neuroscience proposed organization of motor-semantic neural circuits for action language comprehension. adapted from shebani et al. ( ) questions in systems neuroscience include how neural circuits are formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce functions such as reflexes, multisensory integration, motor coordination, circadian rhythms, emotional responses, learning, and memory. in other words, they address how these neural circuits function in large-scale brain networks, and the mechanisms through which behaviors are generated. for example, systems level analysis addresses questions concerning specific sensory and motor modalities: how does vision work? how do songbirds learn new songs and bats localize with ultrasound? how does the somatosensory system process tactile information? the related fields of neuroethology and neuropsychology address the question of how neural substrates underlie specific animal and human behaviors. neuroendocrinology and psychoneuroimmunology examine interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine and immune systems, respectively. despite many advancements, the way that networks of neurons perform complex cognitive processes and behaviors is still poorly understood. cognitive and behavioral neuroscience[edit] main articles: behavioral neuroscience and cognitive neuroscience cognitive neuroscience addresses the questions of how psychological functions are produced by neural circuitry. the emergence of powerful new measurement techniques such as neuroimaging (e.g., fmri, pet, spect), eeg, meg, electrophysiology, optogenetics and human genetic analysis combined with sophisticated experimental techniques from cognitive psychology allows neuroscientists and psychologists to address abstract questions such as how cognition and emotion are mapped to specific neural substrates. although many studies still hold a reductionist stance looking for the neurobiological basis of cognitive phenomena, recent research shows that there is an interesting interplay between neuroscientific findings and conceptual research, soliciting and integrating both perspectives. for example, neuroscience research on empathy solicited an interesting interdisciplinary debate involving philosophy, psychology and psychopathology.[ ] moreover, the neuroscientific identification of multiple memory systems related to different brain areas has challenged the idea of memory as a literal reproduction of the past, supporting a view of memory as a generative, constructive and dynamic process.[ ] neuroscience is also allied with the social and behavioral sciences as well as nascent interdisciplinary fields such as neuroeconomics, decision theory, social neuroscience, and neuromarketing to address complex questions about interactions of the brain with its environment. a study into consumer responses for example uses eeg to investigate neural correlates associated with narrative transportation into stories about energy efficiency.[ ] computational neuroscience[edit] main article: computational neuroscience questions in computational neuroscience can span a wide range of levels of traditional analysis, such as development, structure, and cognitive functions of the brain. research in this field utilizes mathematical models, theoretical analysis, and computer simulation to describe and verify biologically plausible neurons and nervous systems. for example, biological neuron models are mathematical descriptions of spiking neurons which can be used to describe both the behavior of single neurons as well as the dynamics of neural networks. computational neuroscience is often referred to as theoretical neuroscience. nanoparticles in medicine are versatile in treating neurological disorders showing promising results in mediating drug transport across the blood brain barrier.[ ] implementing nanoparticles in antiepileptic drugs enhances their medical efficacy by increasing bioavailability in the bloodstream, as well as offering a measure of control in release time concentration.[ ] although nanoparticles can assist therapeutic drugs by adjusting physical properties to achieve desirable effects, inadvertent increases in toxicity often occur in preliminary drug trials.[ ] furthermore, production of nanomedicine for drug trials is economically consuming, hindering progress in their implementation. computational models in nanoneuroscience provide alternatives to study the efficacy of nanotechnology-based medicines in neurological disorders while mitigating potential side effects and development costs.[ ] nanomaterials often operate at length scales between classical and quantum regimes.[ ] due to the associated uncertainties at the length scales that nanomaterials operate, it is difficult to predict their behavior prior to in vivo studies.[ ] classically, the physical processes which occur throughout neurons are analogous to electrical circuits. designers focus on such analogies and model brain activity as a neural circuit.[ ] success in computational modeling of neurons have led to the development of stereochemical models that accurately predict acetylcholine receptor-based synapses operating at microsecond time scales.[ ] ultrafine nanoneedles for cellular manipulations are thinner than the smallest single walled carbon nanotubes. computational quantum chemistry[ ] is used to design ultrafine nanomaterials with highly symmetrical structures to optimize geometry, reactivity and stability.[ ] behavior of nanomaterials are dominated by long ranged non-bonding interactions.[ ] electrochemical processes that occur throughout the brain generate an electric field which can inadvertently affect the behavior of some nanomaterials.[ ] molecular dynamics simulations can mitigate the development phase of nanomaterials as well as prevent neural toxicity of nanomaterials following in vivo clinical trials.[ ] testing nanomaterials using molecular dynamics optimizes nano characteristics for therapeutic purposes by testing different environment conditions, nanomaterial shape fabrications, nanomaterial surface properties, etc without the need for in vivo experimentation.[ ] flexibility in molecular dynamic simulations allows medical practitioners to personalize treatment. nanoparticle related data from translational nanoinformatics links neurological patient specific data to predict treatment response.[ ] brain simualtion[edit] with the rise of modern supercomputers, as well as the ever-increasing detailed data available on the mouse brain, some of the large-scale neuroscience projects are attempting brain simulation or the computer simulation of biological neural systems. the eventual goal of these projects is to simulate the whole mouse brain (and eventually the human).[ ][ ][ ] neuromorphic computers[edit] another approach to simulating the brain is neuromorphic computing or hardware chips that work analogously to biological neural circuits. the primary advantage of this in neural simulation is that the computer is engineered from a hardware level to be brainlike physically thus allowing the computation itself (what the computer actually needs to process) to be somewhat simplified.[ ] some examples of neuromorphic computing projects are: spinnaker and brainscales (human brain project) and pohoiki springs (intel labs) nano-neurotechnology[edit] the visualization of neuronal activity is of key importance in the study of neurology. nano-imaging tools with nanoscale resolution help in these areas. these optical imaging tools are palm[ ] and storm[ ] which helps visualize nanoscale objects within cells. pampaloni states that, so far, these imaging tools revealed the dynamic behavior and organization of the actin cytoskeleton inside the cells, which will assist in understanding how neurons probe their involvement during neuronal outgrowth and in response to injury, and how they differentiate axonal processes and characterization of receptor clustering and stoichiometry at the plasma inside the synapses, which are critical for understanding how synapses respond to changes in neuronal activity.[ ] these past works focused on devices for stimulation or inhibition of neural activity, but the crucial aspect is the ability for the device to simultaneously monitor neural activity. the major aspect that is to be improved in the nano imaging tools is the effective collection of the light as a major problem is that biological tissue are dispersive media that do not allow a straightforward propagation and control of light. these devices use nanoneedle and nanowire (nws) for probing and stimulation.[ ] nws are artificial nano- or micro-sized “needles” that can provide high-fidelity electrophysiological recordings if used as microscopic electrodes for neuronal recordings. nws are an attractive as they are highly functional structures that offer unique electronic properties that are affected by biological/chemical species adsorbed on their surface; mostly the conductivity.[ ][ ] this conductivity variance depending on chemical species present allows enhanced sensing performances.[ ] nws are also able to act as non-invasive and highly local probes. these versatility of nws makes it optimal for interfacing with neurons due to the fact that the contact length along the axon (or the dendrite projection crossing a nw) is just about  nm.[ ] neuroscience and medicine[edit] neurology, psychiatry, neurosurgery, psychosurgery, anesthesiology and pain medicine, neuropathology, neuroradiology, ophthalmology, otolaryngology, clinical neurophysiology, addiction medicine, and sleep medicine are some medical specialties that specifically address the diseases of the nervous system. these terms also refer to clinical disciplines involving diagnosis and treatment of these diseases. neurology works with diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (als) and stroke, and their medical treatment. psychiatry focuses on affective, behavioral, cognitive, and perceptual disorders. anesthesiology focuses on perception of pain, and pharmacologic alteration of consciousness. neuropathology focuses upon the classification and underlying pathogenic mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system and muscle diseases, with an emphasis on morphologic, microscopic, and chemically observable alterations. neurosurgery and psychosurgery work primarily with surgical treatment of diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems. translational research[edit] further information: translational research and translational neuroscience parasagittal mri of the head of a patient with benign familial macrocephaly recently, the boundaries between various specialties have blurred, as they are all influenced by basic research in neuroscience. for example, brain imaging enables objective biological insight into mental illnesses, which can lead to faster diagnosis, more accurate prognosis, and improved monitoring of patient progress over time.[ ] integrative neuroscience describes the effort to combine models and information from multiple levels of research to develop a coherent model of the nervous system. for example, brain imaging coupled with physiological numerical models and theories of fundamental mechanisms may shed light on psychiatric disorders.[ ] nanoneuroscience[edit] further information: nanotechnology one of the main goals of nanoneuroscience is to gain a detailed understanding of how the nervous system operates and, thus, how neurons organize themselves in the brain. consequently, creating drugs and devices that are able to cross the blood brain barrier (bbb) are essential to allow for detailed imaging and diagnoses. the blood brain barrier functions as a highly specialized semipermeable membrane surrounding the brain, preventing harmful molecules that may be dissolved in the circulation blood from entering the central nervous system. the main two hurdles for drug-delivering molecules to access the brain are size (must have a molecular weight < da) and lipid solubility.[ ] physicians hope to circumvent difficulties in accessing the central nervous system through viral gene therapy. this often involves direct injection into the patient’s brain or cerebral spinal fluid. the drawback of this therapy is that it is invasive and carries a high risk factor due to the necessity of surgery for the treatment to be administered. because of this, only . % of clinical trials in this field have progressed to stage iii since the concept of gene therapy was developed in the s.[ ] another proposed way to cross the bbb is through temporary intentional disruption of the barrier. this method was first inspired by certain pathological conditions that were discovered to break down this barrier by themselves, such as alzheimer’s disease, parkinson’s disease, stroke, and seizure conditions.[ ] nanoparticles are unique from macromolecules because their surface properties are dependent on their size, allowing for strategic manipulation of these properties (or, “programming”) by scientists that would not be possible otherwise. likewise, nanoparticle shape can also be varied to give a different set of characteristics based on the surface area to volume ratio of the particle.[ ] nanoparticles have promising therapeutic effects when treating neurodegenerative diseases. oxygen reactive polymer (orp) is a nano-platform programmed to react with oxygen and has been shown to detect and reduce the presence of reactive oxygen species (ros) formed immediately after traumatic brain injuries.[ ] nanoparticles have also been employed as a “neuroprotective” measure, as is the case with alzheimer’s disease and stroke models. alzheimer’s disease results in toxic aggregates of the amyloid beta protein formed in the brain. in one study, gold nanoparticles were programmed to attach themselves to these aggregates and were successful in breaking them up.[ ] likewise, with ischemic stroke models, cells in the affected region of the brain undergo apoptosis, dramatically reducing blood flow to important parts of the brain and often resulting in death or severe mental and physical changes.[ ] platinum nanoparticles have been shown to act as ros, serving as “biological antioxidants” and significantly reducing oxidation in the brain as a result of stroke.[ ] nanoparticles can also lead to neurotoxicity and cause permanent bbb damage either from brain oedema or from unrelated molecules crossing the bbb and causing brain damage.[ ] this proves further long term in vivo studies are needed to gain enough understanding to allow for successful clinical trials. one of the most common nano-based drug delivery platforms is liposome-based delivery. they are both lipid-soluble and nano-scale and thus are permitted through a fully functioning bbb. additionally, lipids themselves are biological molecules, making them highly biocompatible, which in turn lowers the risk of cell toxicity. the bilayer that is formed allows the molecule to fully encapsulate any drug, protecting it while it is travelling through the body. one drawback to shielding the drug from the outside cells is that it no longer has specificity, and requires coupling to extra antibodies to be able to target a biological site. due to their low stability, liposome-based nanoparticles for drug delivery have a short shelf life.[ ] targeted therapy using magnetic nanoparticles (mnps) is also a popular topic of research and has led to several stage iii clinical trials.[ ] invasiveness is not an issue here because a magnetic force can be applied from the outside of a patient’s body to interact and direct the mnps. this strategy has been proven successful in delivering brain-derived neurotropic factor, a naturally occurring gene thought to promote neurorehabilitation, across the bbb.[ ] major branches[edit] modern neuroscience education and research activities can be very roughly categorized into the following major branches, based on the subject and scale of the system in examination as well as distinct experimental or curricular approaches. individual neuroscientists, however, often work on questions that span several distinct subfields. list of the major branches of neuroscience 	branch	description 	affective neuroscience 	affective neuroscience is the study of the neural mechanisms involved in emotion, typically through experimentation on animal models.[ ] 	behavioral neuroscience 	behavioral neuroscience (also known as biological psychology, physiological psychology, biopsychology, or psychobiology) is the application of the principles of biology to the study of genetic, physiological, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and non-human animals. 	cellular neuroscience 	cellular neuroscience is the study of neurons at a cellular level including morphology and physiological properties. 	clinical neuroscience 	the scientific study of the biological mechanisms that underlie the disorders and diseases of the nervous system. 	cognitive neuroscience 	cognitive neuroscience is the study of the biological mechanisms underlying cognition. 	computational neuroscience 	computational neuroscience is the theoretical study of the nervous system. 	cultural neuroscience 	cultural neuroscience is the study of how cultural values, practices and beliefs shape and are shaped by the mind, brain and genes across multiple timescales.[ ] 	developmental neuroscience 	developmental neuroscience studies the processes that generate, shape, and reshape the nervous system and seeks to describe the cellular basis of neural development to address underlying mechanisms. 	evolutionary neuroscience 	evolutionary neuroscience studies the evolution of nervous systems. 	molecular neuroscience 	molecular neuroscience studies the nervous system with molecular biology, molecular genetics, protein chemistry, and related methodologies. 	neural engineering 	neural engineering uses engineering techniques to interact with, understand, repair, replace, or enhance neural systems. 	neuroanatomy 	neuroanatomy is the study of the anatomy of nervous systems. 	neurochemistry 	neurochemistry is the study of how neurochemicals interact and influence the function of neurons. 	neuroethology 	neuroethology is the study of the neural basis of non-human animals behavior. 	neurogastronomy 	neurogastronomy is the study of flavor and how it affects sensation, cognition, and memory.[ ] 	neurogenetics 	neurogenetics is the study of the genetical basis of the development and function of the nervous system. 	neuroimaging 	neuroimaging includes the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly image the structure and function of the brain. 	neuroimmunology 	neuroimmunology is concerned with the interactions between the nervous and the immune system. 	neuroinformatics 	neuroinformatics is a discipline within bioinformatics that conducts the organization of neuroscience data and application of computational models and analytical tools. 	neurolinguistics 	neurolinguistics is the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language. 	neurophysics 	neurophysics deals with the development of physical experimental tools to gain information about the brain. 	neurophysiology 	neurophysiology is the study of the functioning of the nervous system, generally using physiological techniques that include measurement and stimulation with electrodes or optically with ion- or voltage-sensitive dyes or light-sensitive channels. 	neuropsychology 	neuropsychology is a discipline that resides under the umbrellas of both psychology and neuroscience, and is involved in activities in the arenas of both basic science and applied science. in psychology, it is most closely associated with biopsychology, clinical psychology, cognitive psychology, and developmental psychology. in neuroscience, it is most closely associated with the cognitive, behavioral, social, and affective neuroscience areas. in the applied and medical domain, it is related to neurology and psychiatry. 	paleoneurobiology 	paleoneurobiology is a field which combines techniques used in paleontology and archeology to study brain evolution, especially that of the human brain. 	social neuroscience 	social neuroscience is an interdisciplinary field devoted to understanding how biological systems implement social processes and behavior, and to using biological concepts and methods to inform and refine theories of social processes and behavior. 	systems neuroscience 	systems neuroscience is the study of the function of neural circuits and systems. neuroscience organizations[edit] the largest professional neuroscience organization is the society for neuroscience (sfn), which is based in the united states but includes many members from other countries. since its founding in the sfn has grown steadily: as of it recorded , members from different countries.[ ] annual meetings, held each year in a different american city, draw attendance from researchers, postdoctoral fellows, graduate students, and undergraduates, as well as educational institutions, funding agencies, publishers, and hundreds of businesses that supply products used in research. other major organizations devoted to neuroscience include the international brain research organization (ibro), which holds its meetings in a country from a different part of the world each year, and the federation of european neuroscience societies (fens), which holds a meeting in a different european city every two years. fens comprises a set of national-level organizations, including the british neuroscience association, the german neuroscience society (neurowissenschaftliche gesellschaft), and the french société des neurosciences. the first national honor society in neuroscience, nu rho psi, was founded in . numerous youth neuroscience societies which support undergraduates, graduates and early career researchers also exist, like project encephalon.[ ] in , the brain initiative was announced in the us. an international brain initiative was created in ,[ ] currently integrated by more than seven national-level brain research initiatives (us, europe, allen institute, japan, china, australia, canada, korea, israel)[ ] spanning four continents. public education and outreach[edit] in addition to conducting traditional research in laboratory settings, neuroscientists have also been involved in the promotion of awareness and knowledge about the nervous system among the general public and government officials. such promotions have been done by both individual neuroscientists and large organizations. for example, individual neuroscientists have promoted neuroscience education among young students by organizing the international brain bee, which is an academic competition for high school or secondary school students worldwide.[ ] in the united states, large organizations such as the society for neuroscience have promoted neuroscience education by developing a primer called brain facts,[ ] collaborating with public school teachers to develop neuroscience core concepts for k- teachers and students,[ ] and cosponsoring a campaign with the dana foundation called brain awareness week to increase public awareness about the progress and benefits of brain research.[ ] in canada, the cihr canadian national brain bee is held annually at mcmaster university.[ ] neuroscience educators formed faculty for undergraduate neuroscience (fun) in to share best practices and provide travel awards for undergraduates presenting at society for neuroscience meetings.[ ] finally, neuroscientists have also collaborated with other education experts to study and refine educational techniques to optimize learning among students, an emerging field called educational neuroscience.[ ] federal agencies in the united states, such as the national institute of health (nih)[ ] and national science foundation (nsf),[ ] have also funded research that pertains to best practices in teaching and learning of neuroscience concepts. nobel prizes related to neuroscience[edit] see also: list of neuroscience awards 	year 	prize field 	image 	laureate 	lifetime 	country 	rationale 	ref 	 	physiology 	 	ivan petrovich pavlov 	 – 	russian empire 	"in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged" 	[ ] 	 	physiology 	 	camillo golgi 	 – 	kingdom of italy 	"in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system" 	[ ] 	 	santiago ramón y cajal 	 – 	restoration (spain) 	 	physiology 	 	robert bárány 	 – 	austria-hungary 	"for his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus" 	[ ] 	 	physiology 	 	charles scott sherrington 	 – 	united kingdom 	"for their discoveries regarding the functions of neurons" 	[ ] 	 	edgar douglas adrian 	 – 	united kingdom 	 	physiology 	 	henry hallett dale 	 – 	united kingdom 	"for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses" 	[ ] 	 	otto loewi 	 – 	austria germany 	 	physiology 	 	corneille jean françois heymans 	 – 	belgium 	"for the discovery of the role played by the sinus and aortic mechanisms in the regulation of respiration" 	[ ] 	 	physiology 	 	joseph erlanger 	 – 	united states 	"for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres" 	[ ] 	 	herbert spencer gasser 	 – 	united states 	 	physiology 	 	walter rudolf hess 	 – 	switzerland 	"for his discovery of the functional organization of the interbrain as a coordinator of the activities of the internal organs" 	[ ] 	 	antónio caetano egas moniz 	 – 	portugal 	"for his discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain psychoses" 	[ ] 	 	physiology 	 	daniel bovet 	 – 	italy 	"for his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles" 	[ ] 	 	physiology 	 	georg von békésy 	 – 	united states 	"for his discoveries of the physical mechanism of stimulation within the cochlea" 	[ ] 	 	physiology 	 	john carew eccles 	 – 	australia 	"for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane" 	[ ] 	 	alan lloyd hodgkin 	 – 	united kingdom 	 	andrew fielding huxley 	 – 	united kingdom 	 	physiology 	 	ragnar granit 	 – 	finland sweden 	"for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye" 	[ ] 	 	haldan keffer hartline 	 – 	united states 	 	george wald 	 – 	united states 	 	physiology 	 	julius axelrod 	 – 	united states 	"for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation" 	[ ] 	 	ulf von euler 	 – 	sweden 	 	bernard katz 	 – 	united kingdom 	 	physiology 	 	roger w. sperry 	 – 	united states 	"for his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres" 	[ ] 	 	david h. hubel 	 – 	canada 	"for their discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system" 	[ ] 	 	torsten n. wiesel 	 – 	sweden 	 	physiology 	 	stanley cohen 	 – 	united states 	"for their discoveries of growth factors" 	[ ] 	 	rita levi-montalcini 	 – 	italy 	 	chemistry 	 	jens c. skou 	 – 	denmark 	"for the first discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, na+, k+ -atpase" 	[ ] 	 	physiology 	 	arvid carlsson 	 – 	sweden 	"for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system" 	[ ] 	 	paul greengard 	 – 	united states 	 	eric r. kandel 	 – 	united states 	 	chemistry 	 	roderick mackinnon 	 – 	united states 	"for discoveries concerning channels in cell membranes [...] for structural and mechanistic studies of ion channels" 	[ ] 	 	physiology 	 	richard axel 	 – 	united states 	"for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system" 	[ ] 	 	linda b. buck 	 – 	united states 	 	physiology 	 	john o'keefe 	 – 	united states united kingdom 	"for their discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain" 	[ ] 	 	may-britt moser 	 – 	norway 	 	edvard i. moser 	 – 	norway 	 	physiology 	 	jeffrey c. hall 	 – 	united states 	"for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm" 	[ ] 	 	michael rosbash 	 – 	united states 	 	michael w. young 	 – 	united states see also[edit] 	list of neuroscience databases 	list of neuroscience journals 	list of neuroscience topics 	list of neuroscientists 	neuroplasticity 	noogenesis 	outline of brain mapping 	outline of the human brain 	list of regions in the human brain 	gut–brain axis 	connectomics 	affect (psychology) references[edit] 	^ "neuroscience". merriam-webster medical dictionary. 	^ kandel, eric r. 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(eds.) handbook of cultural psychology, guilford press, new york, pp. - . 	^ shepherd, gordon m. - ( - - ). neurogastronomy : how the brain creates flavor and why it matters. isbn  . oclc  . 	^ "financial and organizational highlights" (pdf). society for neuroscience. archived from the original (pdf) on september , . 	^ "about us, project encephalon". project encephalon. retrieved october . 	^ "international brain initiative | the kavli foundation". www.kavlifoundation.org. retrieved - - . 	^ rommelfanger, karen s.; jeong, sung-jin; ema, arisa; fukushi, tamami; kasai, kiyoto; ramos, khara m.; salles, arleen; singh, ilina; amadio, jordan ( ). "neuroethics questions to guide ethical research in the international brain initiatives". neuron. 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( ). encyclopedia of neuroscience. springer. isbn  - - - - . 	kandel, er; schwartz jh; jessell tm ( ). principles of neural science ( th ed.). new york: mcgraw-hill. isbn  - - - - . 	squire, l. et al. ( ). fundamental neuroscience, th edition. academic press; isbn  - - - 	byrne and roberts ( ). from molecules to networks. academic press; isbn  - - - 	sanes, reh, harris ( ). development of the nervous system, nd edition. academic press; isbn  - - - 	siegel et al. ( ). basic neurochemistry, th edition. academic press; isbn  - - -x 	rieke, f. et al. ( ). spikes: exploring the neural code. the mit press; reprint edition isbn  - - - 	section. neuroscience nd ed. dale purves, george j. augustine, david fitzpatrick, lawrence c. katz, anthony-samuel lamantia, james o. mcnamara, s. mark williams. published by sinauer associates, inc., . 	section. basic neurochemistry: molecular, cellular, and medical aspects th ed. by george j. siegel, bernard w. agranoff, r. wayne albers, stephen k. fisher, michael d. uhler, editors. published by lippincott, williams & wilkins, . 	andreasen, nancy c. (march , ). brave new brain: conquering mental illness in the era of the genome. oxford university press. isbn  - - - - . 	damasio, a. r. ( ). descartes' error: emotion, reason, and the human brain. new york, avon books. isbn  - - - (hardcover) isbn  - - - (paperback) 	gardner, h. ( ). the shattered mind: the person after brain damage. new york, vintage books, isbn  - - - 	goldstein, k. ( ). the organism. new york, zone books. isbn  - - - (hardcover) isbn  - - - (paperback) 	lauwereyns, jan (february ). the anatomy of bias: how neural circuits weigh the options. cambridge, massachusetts: the mit press. isbn  - - - - . 	subhash kak, the architecture of knowledge: quantum mechanics, neuroscience, computers and consciousness, motilal banarsidass, , isbn  - - - 	llinas r. ( ). i of the vortex: from neurons to self mit press. isbn  - - - (hardcover) isbn  - - - (paperback) 	luria, a. r. ( ). the man with a shattered world: the history of a brain wound. cambridge, massachusetts, harvard university press. isbn  - - - (hardcover) isbn  - - - (paperback) 	luria, a. r. ( ). the mind of a mnemonist: a little book about a vast memory. new york, basic books, inc. isbn  - - - 	medina, j. ( ). brain rules: principles for surviving and thriving at work, home, and school. seattle, pear press. isbn  - - - (hardcover with dvd) 	pinker, s. ( ). how the mind works. w. w. norton & company. isbn  - - - 	pinker, s. ( ). the blank slate: the modern denial of human nature. viking adult. isbn  - - - 	robinson, d. l. ( ). brain, mind and behaviour: a new perspective on human nature ( nd ed.). dundalk, ireland: pontoon publications. isbn  - - - - . 	penrose, r., hameroff, s. r., kak, s., & tao, l. ( ). consciousness and the universe: quantum physics, evolution, brain & mind. cambridge, ma: cosmology science publishers. 	ramachandran, v. s. ( ). phantoms in the brain. new york, harpercollins. isbn  - - - (paperback) 	rose, s. ( ). st century brain: explaining, mending & manipulating the mind isbn  - - - (paperback) 	sacks, o. the man who mistook his wife for a hat. summit books isbn  - - - (hardcover) isbn  - - - (paperback) 	sacks, o. ( ). awakenings. new york, vintage books. (see also oliver sacks) isbn  - - - (hardcover) isbn  - - - (paperback) 	encyclopedia:neuroscience scholarpedia expert articles 	sternberg, e. ( ) are you a machine? the brain, the mind and what it means to be human. amherst, new york: prometheus books. 	churchland, p. s. ( ) braintrust: what neuroscience tells us about morality. princeton university press. isbn  - - -x 	selvin, paul ( ). 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wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	shyness 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		this article is about the social trait. for other uses, see shy (disambiguation). feeling of apprehension, discomfort or awkwardness in the presence of other people 	 	this article is written like a personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay that states a wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic. please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (october ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e shyness (also called diffidence) is the feeling of apprehension, lack of comfort, or awkwardness especially when a person is around other people. this commonly occurs in new situations or with unfamiliar people. shyness can be a characteristic of people who have low self-esteem. stronger forms of shyness are usually referred to as social anxiety or social phobia. the primary defining characteristic of shyness is a largely ego-driven fear of what other people will think of a person's behavior. this results in a person becoming scared of doing or saying what they want to out of fear of negative reactions, being laughed at, humiliated or patronized, criticism or rejection. a shy person may simply opt to avoid social situations instead.[ ] contents 	 origins 	 . genetics and heredity 	 . as a symptom of mercury poisoning 	 . prenatal development 	 . low birth weights 	 personality trait 	 concepts 	 . versus introversion 	 . versus social phobia 	 . social versus behavioral inhibition 	 misconceptions and negative aspects 	 . intelligence 	 benefits 	 different cultural views 	 . western perceptions 	 . eastern perceptions 	 . examples of shyness and inhibition 	 intervention and treatment 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links origins[edit] the initial cause of shyness varies. scientists believe that they have located genetic data supporting the hypothesis that shyness is, at least, partially genetic. however, there is also evidence that suggests the environment in which a person is raised can also be responsible for their shyness. this includes child abuse, particularly emotional abuse such as ridicule. shyness can originate after a person has experienced a physical anxiety reaction; at other times, shyness seems to develop first and then later causes physical symptoms of anxiety. shyness differs from social anxiety, which is a broader, often depression-related psychological condition including the experience of fear, apprehension or worrying about being evaluated by others in social situations to the extent of inducing panic. shyness may come from genetic traits, the environment in which a person is raised and personal experiences. shyness may be a personality trait or can occur at certain stages of development in children. genetics and heredity[edit] shyness is often seen as a hindrance to people and their development. the cause of shyness is often disputed but it is found that fear is positively related to shyness,[ ] suggesting that fearful children are much more likely to develop being shy as opposed to children less fearful. shyness can also be seen on a biological level as a result of an excess of cortisol. when cortisol is present in greater quantities it is known to suppress an individual's immune system, making them more susceptible to illness and disease.[ ] the genetics of shyness is a relatively small area of research that has been receiving an even smaller amount of attention, although papers on the biological bases of shyness date back to . some research has indicated that shyness and aggression are related—through long and short forms of the gene drd , though considerably more research on this is needed. further, it has been suggested that shyness and social phobia (the distinction between the two is becoming ever more blurred) are related to obsessive-compulsive disorder. as with other studies of behavioral genetics, the study of shyness is complicated by the number of genes involved in, and the confusion in defining, the phenotype. naming the phenotype – and translation of terms between genetics and psychology — also causes problems. several genetic links to shyness are current areas of research. one is the serotonin transporter promoter region polymorphism ( -httlpr), the long form of which has been shown to be modestly correlated with shyness in grade school children.[ ] previous studies had shown a connection between this form of the gene and both obsessive-compulsive disorder and autism.[ ] mouse models have also been used, to derive genes suitable for further study in humans; one such gene, the glutamic acid decarboxylase gene (which encodes an enzyme that functions in gaba synthesis), has so far been shown to have some association with behavioral inhibition.[ ] another gene, the dopamine d receptor gene (drd ) exon iii polymorphism, had been the subject of studies in both shyness and aggression and is currently the subject of studies on the "novelty seeking" trait. a study of anxiety-related traits (shyness being one of these) remarked that, "although twin studies have indicated that individual variation in measures of anxiety-related personality traits is - % heritable, none of the relevant genes has yet been identified", and that " to genes might be predicted to be involved" in the anxiety trait. progress has been made since then, especially in identifying other potential genes involved in personality traits, but there has been little progress made towards confirming these relationships.[ ] the long version of the -htt gene-linked polymorphic region ( -httlpr) is now postulated to be correlated with shyness,[ ] but in the study, the short version was shown to be related to anxiety-based traits. thalia eley, professor of developmental behavioural genetics at king's college london, argues that only about % of shyness as a trait is genetically inherited, while the rest emerges as a response to the environment.[ ] as a symptom of mercury poisoning[edit] excessive shyness, embarrassment, self-consciousness and timidity, social-phobia and lack of self-confidence are also components of erethism, which is a symptom complex that appears in cases of mercury poisoning.[ ][ ] mercury poisoning was common among hat makers in england in the th and th centuries, who used mercury to stabilize wool into felt fabric. prenatal development[edit] the prevalence of shyness in some children can be linked to day length during pregnancy, particularly during the midpoint of prenatal development.[ ] an analysis of longitudinal data from children living at specific latitudes in the united states and new zealand revealed a significant relationship between hours of day length during the midpoint of pregnancy and the prevalence of shyness in children. "the odds of being classified as shy were . times greater for children exposed to shorter compared to longer daylengths during gestation."[ ] in their analysis, scientists assigned conception dates to the children relative to their known birth dates, which allowed them to obtain random samples from children who had a mid-gestation point during the longest hours of the year and the shortest hours of the year (june and december, depending on whether the cohorts were in the united states or new zealand). the longitudinal survey data included measurements of shyness on a five-point scale based on interviews with the families being surveyed, and children in the top th percentile of shyness scores were identified. the data revealed a significant co-variance between the children who presented as being consistently shy over a two-year period, and shorter day length during their mid-prenatal development period. "taken together, these estimates indicate that about one out of five cases of extreme shyness in children can be associated with gestation during months of limited daylength."[ ] low birth weights[edit] in recent years correlations between birth weight and shyness have been studied. findings suggest that those born at low birth weights are more likely to be shy, risk-aversive and cautious compared to those born at normal birth weights. these results do not however imply a cause-and-effect relationship.[ ] personality trait[edit] shyness is most likely to occur during unfamiliar situations, though in severe cases it may hinder an individual in their most familiar situations and relationships as well. shy people avoid the objects of their apprehension in order to keep from feeling uncomfortable and inept; thus, the situations remain unfamiliar and the shyness perpetuates itself. shyness may fade with time; e.g., a child who is shy towards strangers may eventually lose this trait when older and become more socially adept. this often occurs by adolescence or young adulthood (generally around the age of ). in some cases, though, it may become an integrated, lifelong character trait. longitudinal data suggests that the three different personality types evident in infancy – easy, slow-to-warm-up, and difficult – tend to change as children mature. extreme traits become less pronounced, and personalities evolve in predictable patterns over time. what has been proven to remain constant is the tendency to internalize or externalize problems.[ ] this relates to individuals with shy personalities because they tend to internalize their problems, or dwell on their problems internally instead of expressing their concerns, which leads to disorders like depression and anxiety.[ ] humans experience shyness to different degrees and in different areas. shyness can also be seen as an academic determinant. it has been determined that there is a negative relationship between shyness and classroom performance. as the shyness of an individual increased, classroom performance was seen to decrease.[ ] shyness may involve the discomfort of difficulty in knowing what to say in social situations, or may include crippling physical manifestations of uneasiness. shyness usually involves a combination of both symptoms, and may be quite devastating for the sufferer, in many cases leading them to feel that they are boring, or exhibit bizarre behavior in an attempt to create interest, alienating them further. behavioral traits in social situations such as smiling, easily producing suitable conversational topics, assuming a relaxed posture and making good eye contact, may not be second nature for a shy person. such people might only affect such traits by great difficulty, or they may even be impossible to display. those who are shy are perceived more negatively, in cultures that value sociability, because of the way they act towards others.[ ] shy individuals are often distant during conversations, which can result in others forming poor impressions of them and considering them stand-offish or snobbish. people who are not shy may be up-front, aggressive, or critical towards shy people in an attempt "to get them out of their shell". even when an attempt to draw out a shy person is conducted in a kindly and well-intentioned manner the exercise may still backfire, as by focusing attention on the individual it increases their self-consciousness and sense of awkwardness.[ ]: – concepts[edit] versus introversion[edit] the term shyness may be implemented as a lay blanket-term for a family of related and partially overlapping afflictions, including timidity (apprehension in meeting new people), bashfulness and diffidence (reluctance in asserting oneself), apprehension and anticipation (general fear of potential interaction), or intimidation (relating to the object of fear rather than one's low confidence).[ ] apparent shyness, as perceived by others, may simply be the manifestation of reservation or introversion, a character trait which cause an individual to voluntarily avoid excessive social contact or be terse in communication, but are not motivated or accompanied by discomfort, apprehension, or lack of confidence. introversion is commonly mistaken for shyness. however, introversion is a personal preference, while shyness stems from distress. rather, according to professor of psychology bernardo j. carducci, introverts choose to avoid social situations because they derive no reward from them or may find surplus sensory input overwhelming, whereas shy people may fear such situations.[ ] research using the statistical techniques of factor analysis and correlation have found shyness overlaps mildly with both introversion and neuroticism (i.e., negative emotionality).[ ][ ][ ] low societal acceptance of shyness or introversion may reinforce a shy or introverted individual's low self-confidence.[ ][page needed] both shyness and introversion can outwardly manifest with socially withdrawn behaviors, such as tendencies to avoid social situations, especially when they are unfamiliar. a variety of research suggests that shyness and introversion possess clearly distinct motivational forces and lead to uniquely different personal and peer reactions and therefore cannot be described as theoretically the same,[ ][ ][ ] with susan cain's quiet ( ) further discerning introversion as involving being differently social (preferring one-on-one or small group interactions) rather than being anti-social altogether.[ ] research suggests that no unique physiological response, such as an increased heart beat, accompanies socially withdrawn behavior in familiar compared with unfamiliar social situations. but unsociability leads to decreased exposure to unfamiliar social situations and shyness causes a lack of response in such situations, suggesting that shyness and unsociability affect two different aspects of sociability and are distinct personality traits.[ ] in addition, different cultures perceive unsociability and shyness in different ways, leading to either positive or negative individual feelings of self-esteem. collectivist cultures view shyness as a more positive trait related to compliance with group ideals and self-control, while perceiving chosen isolation (introverted behavior) negatively as a threat to group harmony; and because collectivist society accepts shyness and rejects unsociability, shy individuals develop higher self-esteem than introverted individuals.[ ] on the other hand, individualistic cultures perceive shyness as a weakness and a character flaw, while unsociable personality traits (preference to spend time alone) are accepted because they uphold the value of autonomy; accordingly, shy individuals tend to develop low self-esteem in western cultures while unsociable individuals develop high self-esteem.[ ] versus social phobia[edit] an extreme case of shyness is identified as a psychiatric illness, which made its debut as social phobia in dsm-iii in , but was then described as rare.[ ][page needed] by , however, when dsm-iv was published, it was given a second, alternative name in parentheses (social anxiety disorder) and was now said to be relatively common, affecting between and % of the population at some point during their lifetime.[ ][ ] studies examining shy adolescents and university students found that between and % of shy individuals meet criteria for social anxiety disorder.[ ][ ][ ] shyness affects people mildly in unfamiliar social situations where one feels anxiety about interacting with new people. social anxiety disorder, on the other hand, is a strong irrational fear of interacting with people, or being in situations which may involve public scrutiny, because one feels overly concerned about being criticized if one embarrasses oneself. physical symptoms of social phobia can include blushing, shortness of breath, trembling, increased heart rate, and sweating; in some cases, these symptoms are intense enough and numerous enough to constitute a panic attack. shyness, on the other hand, may incorporate many of these symptoms, but at a lower intensity, infrequently, and does not interfere tremendously with normal living.[ ] social versus behavioral inhibition[edit] those considered shy are also said to be socially inhibited. social inhibition is the conscious or unconscious constraint by a person of behavior of a social nature. in other words, social inhibition is holding back for social reasons. there are different levels of social inhibition, from mild to severe. being socially inhibited is good when preventing one from harming another and bad when causing one to refrain from participating in class discussions. behavioral inhibition is a temperament or personality style that predisposes a person to become fearful, distressed and withdrawn in novel situations. this personality style is associated with the development of anxiety disorders in adulthood, particularly social anxiety disorder.[ ][ ] misconceptions and negative aspects[edit] many misconceptions/stereotypes about shy individuals exist in western culture and negative peer reactions to "shy" behavior abound. this takes place because individualistic cultures place less value on quietness and meekness in social situations, and more often reward outgoing behaviors. some misconceptions include viewing introversion and social phobia synonymous with shyness, and believing that shy people are less intelligent.[ ][ ][ ][ ] intelligence[edit] no correlation (positive or negative) exists between intelligence and shyness.[ ] research indicates that shy children have a harder time expressing their knowledge in social situations (which most modern curricula utilize) and because they do not engage actively in discussions, teachers view them as less intelligent. in line with social learning theory, an unwillingness to engage with classmates and teachers makes it more difficult for shy students to learn. test scores, however, indicate that shyness is unrelated to actual academic knowledge, and therefore only academic engagement.[ ] depending on the level of a teacher's own shyness, more indirect (vs. socially oriented) strategies are used with shy individuals to assess knowledge in the classroom, and accommodations are made.[ ] observed peer evaluations of shy people during initial meeting and social interactions thereafter found that peers evaluate shy individuals as less intelligent during the first encounter. during subsequent interactions, however, peers perceived shy individuals' intelligence more positively.[ ] benefits[edit] thomas benton claims that because shy people "have a tendency toward self-criticism, they are often high achievers, and not just in solitary activities like research and writing. perhaps even more than the drive toward independent achievement, shy people long to make connections to others often through altruistic behavior."[ ] susan cain describes the benefits that shy people bring to society that us cultural norms devalue. without characteristics that shy people bring to social interactions, such as sensitivity to the emotions of others, contemplation of ideas, and valuable listening skills, there would be no balance to society.[ ] in earlier generations, such as the s, society perceived shyness as a more socially attractive trait, especially in women, indicating that views on shyness vary by culture.[ ] sociologist susie scott challenged the interpretation and treatment of shyness as being pathological. "by treating shyness as an individual pathology, ... we forget that this is also a socially oriented state of mind that is socially produced and managed."[ ]: she explores the idea that "shyness is a form of deviance: a problem for society as much as for the individual", and concludes that, to some extent, "we are all impostors, faking our way through social life".[ ]: , one of her interview subjects (self-defined as shy) puts this point of view even more strongly: "sometimes i want to take my cue from the militant disabled lobbyists and say, 'hey, it's not my problem, it's society's'. i want to be proud to be shy: on the whole, shys are probably more sensitive, and nicer people, than 'normals'. i shouldn't have to change: society should adapt to meet my needs."[ ]: different cultural views[edit] in cultures that value outspokenness and overt confidence, shyness can be perceived as weakness.[ ] to an unsympathetic observer, a shy individual may be mistaken as cold, distant, arrogant or aloof, which can be frustrating for the shy individual.[ ] however, in other cultures, shy people may be perceived as being thoughtful, intelligent, as being good listeners, and as being more likely to think before they speak.[ ] in cultures that value autonomy, shyness is often analyzed in the context of being a social dysfunction, and is frequently contemplated as a personality disorder or mental health issue. some researchers are beginning to study comparisons between individualistic and collectivistic cultures, to examine the role that shyness might play in matters of social etiquette and achieving group-oriented goals. "shyness is one of the emotions that may serve as behavioral regulators of social relationships in collectivistic cultures. for example, social shyness is evaluated more positively in a collectivistic society, but negatively evaluated in an individualistic society."[ ] in a cross-cultural study of chinese and canadian school children, researchers sought to measure several variables related to social reputation and peer relationships, including "shyness-sensitivity." using peer nomination questionnaire, students evaluated their fellow students using positive and negative playmate nominations. "shyness-sensitivity was significantly and negatively correlated with measures of peer acceptance in the canadian sample. inconsistent with western results, it was found that items describing shyness-sensitivity were separated from items assessing isolation in the factor structure for the chinese sample. shyness-sensitivity was positively associated with sociability-leadership and with peer acceptance in the chinese sample."[ ] western perceptions[edit] in some western cultures shyness-inhibition plays an important role in psychological and social adjustment. it has been found that shyness-inhibition is associated with a variety of maladaptive behaviors. being shy or inhibited in western cultures can result in rejection by peers, isolation and being viewed as socially incompetent by adults. however, research suggests that if social withdrawal is seen as a personal choice rather than the result of shyness, there are fewer negative connotations.[ ] british writer arthur c. benson felt shyness is not mere self-consciousness, but a primitive suspicion of strangers, the primeval belief that their motives are predatory, with shyness a sinister quality which needs to be uprooted.[ ] he believed the remedy is for the shy to frequent society for courage from familiarity. also, he claimed that too many shy adults take refuge in a critical attitude, engaging in brutal onslaughts on inoffensive persons. he felt that a better way is for the shy to be nice, to wonder what others need and like, interest in what others do or are talking about, friendly questions, and sympathy.[ ] for charles darwin shyness was an 'odd state of mind' appearing to offer no benefit to our species, and since the s the modern tendency in psychology has been to see shyness as pathology.[ ] however, evolutionary survival advantages of careful temperaments over adventurous temperaments in dangerous environments have also been recognized.[ ][ ] eastern perceptions[edit] in eastern cultures shyness-inhibition in school-aged children is seen as positive and those that exhibit these traits are viewed well by peers and are accepted. they tended to be seen as competent by their teachers, to perform well in school and to show well-being. shy individuals are also more likely to attain leadership status in school. being shy or inhibited does not correlate with loneliness or depression as those in the west do. in eastern cultures being shy and inhibited is a sign of politeness, respectfulness, and thoughtfulness.[ ] examples of shyness and inhibition[edit] in hispanic cultures shyness and inhibition with authority figures is common. for instance, hispanic students may feel shy towards being praised by teachers in front of others, because in these cultures students are rewarded in private with a touch, a smile, or spoken word of praise. hispanic students may seem shy when they are not. it is considered rude to excel over peers and siblings; therefore it is common for hispanic students to be reserved in classroom settings. adults also show reluctance to share personal matters about themselves to authority figures such as nurses and doctors.[ ] cultures in which the community is closed and based on agriculture (kenya, india, etc.) experience lower social engagement than those in more open communities (united states, okinawa, etc.) where interactions with peers is encouraged. children in mayan, indian, mexican, and kenyan cultures are less expressive in social styles during interactions and they spend little time engaged in socio-dramatic activities. they are also less assertive in social situations. self-expression and assertiveness in social interactions are related to shyness and inhibition in that when one is shy or inhibited one exhibits little or no expressive tendencies.[ ] assertiveness is demonstrated in the same way, being shy and inhibited lessen one's chances of being assertive because of a lack of confidence.[citation needed] in the italian culture emotional expressiveness during interpersonal interaction is encouraged. from a young age children engage in debates or discussions that encourage and strengthen social assertiveness. independence and social competence during childhood is also promoted. being inhibited is looked down upon and those who show this characteristic are viewed negatively by their parents and peers. like other cultures where shyness and inhibition is viewed negatively, peers of shy and inhibited italian children reject the socially fearful, cautious and withdrawn. these withdrawn and socially fearful children express loneliness and believe themselves to be lacking the social skills needed in social interactions.[ ] intervention and treatment[edit] psychological methods and pharmaceutical drugs are commonly used to treat shyness in individuals who feel crippled because of low self-esteem and psychological symptoms, such as depression or loneliness. according to research, early intervention methods that expose shy children to social interactions involving team work, especially team sports, decrease their anxiety in social interactions and increase their all around self-confidence later on.[ ] implementing such tactics could prove to be an important step in combating the psychological effects of shyness that make living normal life difficult for anxious individuals.[citation needed] one important aspect of shyness is social skills development. schools and parents may implicitly assume children are fully capable of effective social interaction. social skills training is not given any priority (unlike reading and writing) and as a result, shy students are not given an opportunity to develop their ability to participate in class and interact with peers. teachers can model social skills and ask questions in a less direct and intimidating manner in order to gently encourage shy students to speak up in class, and make friends with other children.[ ] see also[edit] 	psychology portal 	boldness 	camera shyness 	haya (islam) 	people skills 	social anxiety 	social phobia 	selective mutism 	avoidant personality disorder 	highly sensitive person 	medicalization of behaviors as illness 	timidness references[edit] 	^ a b "shyness and social phobia". royal college of psychiatrists. . retrieved january . 	^ eggum, natalie; eisenberg, nancy; spinrad, tracy; reiser, mark; gaertner, bridget; sallquist, julie; smith, cynthia ( ). 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( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. pmid  . 	^ a b heiser, n. a.; turner, s. m.; beidel, d. c. ( ). "shyness: relationship to social phobia and other psychiatric disorders". behaviour research and therapy. ( ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . pmid  . 	^ shiner, r.; caspi, a. ( ). "personality differences in childhood and adolescence: measurement, development, and consequences". journal of child psychology and psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . pmid  . 	^ cain, susan ( ). quiet: the power of introverts in a world that can't stop talking. new york: crown. isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b asendorpf, j.b.; meier, g.h. ( ). "personality effects on children's speech in everyday life: sociability-mediated exposure and shyness-mediated reactivity to social situations". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ a b chen, x.; wang, l.; cao, r. ( ). 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( ): – . doi: . /a . 	^ "all about shyness". psych central. 	^ thomas h. benton ( may ). "shyness and academe". the chronicle of higher education. retrieved october . 	^ a b c d cain, susan ( june ). "shyness: evolutionary tactic?". the new york times. archived from the original on september . 	^ frijda, n.h., & mesquita, b. social roles and functions: a interaction functions of emotion. . 	^ chen, x., rubin, k., sun, y. social reputation and peer relationships in chinese and canadian children: a cross-cultural study. . 	^ a b c kenneth h. rubin and robert j. coplan, ed. ( ). " ". the development of shyness and social withdrawal. new york, ny: the guilford press. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . retrieved january . 	^ p. , benson, arthur c. . arthur c. benson at large number xi shyness. putnam’s monthly and the reader, a magazine of literature, art and life. volume iv. new rochelle, new york: g.p. putnam’s sons, the knickerbocker press. 	^ pp. - , benson, arthur c. . arthur c. benson at large number xi shyness. putnam’s monthly and the reader, a magazine of literature, art and life. volume iv. new rochelle, new york: g.p. putnam’s sons, the knickerbocker press. 	^ a b moran, joe ( july ). "the crystalline wall". aeon. archived from the original on august . 	^ "how the students' culture effects their behavior". teaching from a hispanic perspective a handbook for non-hispanic adult educators. retrieved march . 	^ rubin, kenneth; sheryl a. hemphill; xinyin chen; paul hasting (may ). "a cross-cultural study of behavioral inhibition in toddlers: east-west-north-south". international journal of behavioral development. . ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ findlay, l.c.; coplan, r.j. ( ). "come out and play: shyness in childhood and the benefits of organized sports participation". canadian journal of behavioural science. ( ): – . doi: . / - x. . . . 	^ coplan, r. j.; arbeau, k. a. ( ). "the stresses of a "brave new world": shyness and school adjustment in kindergarten". journal of research in childhood education. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . further reading[edit] 	crozier, w. r. ( ). understanding shyness: psychological perspectives. basingstoke: palgrave. isbn  - - - - . 	keillor, garrison ( ). "shy rights: why not pretty soon?". happy to be here. london: faber. pp.  – . isbn  - . 	kluger, z.; siegfried, z; ebstein, r. p. ( ). "a meta-analysis of the association between drd polymorphism and novelty seeking". molecular psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . /sj.mp. . pmid  . 	miller, rowland s.; perlman, daniel; brehn, sharon s. ( ). intimate relationships ( th ed.). boston: mcgraw-hill. p.  . isbn  . 	moran, joe ( ). shrinking violets: a field guide to shyness. london: profile. isbn  - - - - . 	rubin, kenneth h. ( ). the friendship factor. new york: penguin paperbacks. isbn  - . 	zimbardo, philip g. ( ). shyness: what it is, what to do about it. reading, mass.: addison-wesley. isbn  . shyness. external links[edit] listen to this article ( .  megabytes) this audio file was created from a revision of this article dated  december   ( - - ), and does not reflect subsequent edits. 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	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 rage (emotion) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	rage (emotion) 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		advanced emotion, feeling of intense or growing anger "enrage" redirects here. for the french wine grape also known as enragé, see folle blanche. for other uses of the word "rage," see rage. artist's sketches that show two types of extreme emotions; the right illustration shows rage mixed with fear. 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e rage, tacuinum sanitatis casanatensis ( th century). angel with temperance and humility virtues versus devil with rage and anger sins. a fresco from the saint nicolas church in cukovets, pernik province, bulgaria rage (also known as frenzy or fury) is intense, uncontrolled anger that is an increased stage of hostile response to a perceived egregious injury or injustice.[ ] contents 	 etymology 	 symptoms and effects 	 health complications 	 treatment 	 . types of therapy 	 psychology 	 see also 	 references 	 external links etymology[edit] old french raige, rage (french: rage), from medieval latin rabia, from latin rabies ("anger fury") akin to sanskrit rabhas (violence).[ ] the vulgar latin spelling of the word possesses many cognates when translated into many of the modern romance languages, such as spanish, galician, catalan, portuguese, and modern italian: rabia, rabia, ràbia, raiva, and rabbia respectively. symptoms and effects[edit] rage can sometimes lead to a state of mind where the individuals experiencing it believe they can do, and often are capable of doing, things that may normally seem physically impossible. those experiencing rage usually feel the effects of high adrenaline levels in the body. this increase in adrenal output raises the physical strength and endurance levels of the person and sharpens their senses, while dulling the sensation of pain. high levels of adrenaline impair memory. temporal perspective is also affected: people in a rage have described experiencing events in slow-motion. time dilation occurs due to the individual becoming hyper aware of the hind brain (the seat of fight or flight)[citation needed]. rational thought and reasoning would inhibit an individual from acting rapidly upon impulse. an older explanation of this "time dilation" effect is that instead of actually slowing our perception of time, high levels of adrenaline increase our ability to recall specific minutiae of an event after it occurs. since humans gauge time based on the number of things they can remember, high-adrenaline events such as those experienced during periods of rage seem to unfold more slowly.[ ] a person in a state of rage may also lose much of their capacity for rational thought and reasoning, and may act, usually violently, on their impulses to the point that they may attack until they themselves have been incapacitated or the source of their rage has been destroyed. a person in rage may also experience tunnel vision, muffled hearing, increased heart rate, and hyperventilation. their vision may also become "rose-tinted" (hence "seeing red"). they often focus only on the source of their anger. the large amounts of adrenaline and oxygen in the bloodstream may cause a person's extremities to shake. psychiatrists consider rage to be at one end of the spectrum of anger, and annoyance to be at the other side.[ ] in , rage was hypothesized to occur when oxytocin, vasopressin, and corticotropin-releasing hormone are rapidly released from the hypothalamus. this results in the pituitary gland producing and releasing large amounts of the adrenocorticotropic hormone, which causes the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids. this chain reaction occurs when faced with a threatening situation.[ ] nearly two decades later, more came to be known about the impacts of high epinephrine. as the focus in neuroscience began to shift towards the roles of white matter tissues, a more full bodied understanding of this complex emotion was able to be extrapolated. memory, being the “retention of perceptions”, can be viewed as a giant mosaic.(robertson, )[citation needed] this mosaic would consist of fragmented perceptions (tiles) being held together by astrocytes (glue), creating resistance. a ratio of : could indicate an increased demand on neurons being held together, or insulated. this also raises the possibility that a more developed memory improved an individual’s fitness. in addition, an increase in white matter tissues assisted in an individual's ability to adapt to new cultures and environments. the metaphor of a kaleidoscope is often utilized when expressing the extraordinary ability humans have at adapting to different cultures by engaging in different patterns of thought. our ability to perceive patterns of behavior assists in our ability to utilize inductive reasoning, a type of reasoning that can assist in an individual's ability to think of how their behaviors may impact their future. such lines of reasoning are strengthened through the use of deductive reasoning. together, inductive and deductive reasoning have assisted in developing adaptive conflict management strategies that assist in the cessation of rage caused by cognitive dissonance[citation needed]. astrocytes play a pivotal role in regulating blood flow to and from neurons by creating the blood-brain barrier (bbb).[ ] more specifically, these astrocytes are found in close proximity to the ‘end feet’ of blood vessels. these astrocytes aid in the tightening and expansion of the blood vessels to regulate which nutrients make their way to the neurons.[ ] the bbb protects the brain from toxins and helps transport things such as oxygen and glucose to the brain. this system plays a crucial role in the regulation of memory. studies have suggested that glucose, together with epinephrine from the adrenal medulla have an effect on memory. although high doses of epinephrine have been proven to impair memory, moderate doses of epinephrine actually enhance memory.[ ] this leads to questioning the role that epinephrine has played on the evolution of the genus homo as well as epinephrine's crucial role during fits of rage. the crucial role that astrocytes play in the formation of muscle memory may also shed light on the beneficial impact of meditation and deep breathing as a method of managing and controlling one's rage. health complications[edit] some research suggests that an individual is more susceptible to having feelings of depression and anxiety if he or she experiences rage on a frequent basis. health complications become much worse if an individual represses feelings of rage.[ ] john e. sarno believes that repressed rage in the subconscious leads to physical ailments. cardiac stress and hypertension are other health complications that will occur when rage is experienced on a regular basis. psychopathologies such as depression and[ ] posttraumatic stress disorder regularly present comorbidly with rage.[ ] treatment[edit] types of therapy[edit] evidence has shown that behavioral and cognitive therapy techniques have assisted individuals that have difficulties controlling their anger or rage. role playing and personal study are the two main techniques used to aid individuals with managing rage. role playing is utilized by angering an individual to the point of rage and then showing them how to control it.[ ] multi-modal cognitive therapy is another treatment used to help individuals cope with anger. this therapy teaches individuals relaxation techniques, problem solving skills, and techniques on response disruption. this type of therapy has proven to be effective for individuals that are highly stressed and are prone to rage.[ ] an emerging business is the rage room, a place where people relieve their stress by destroying objects within a room.[ ] psychology[edit] according to psychologists, rage is an in-born behavior that every person exhibits in some form. rage is often used to denote hostile/affective/reactive aggression.[ ] rage tends to be expressed when a person faces a threat to their pride, position, ability to deceive others, self-deceptive beliefs, or socioeconomic status.[ ] this maladaptive conflict management strategy often stems from cognitive dissonance, most simply put, a 'no' where a 'yes' has been. cases in which rage is exhibited as a direct response to an individual's deeply held religious beliefs, may directly be related to cognitive dissonance in relation to an individual's ability to manage the terror associated with death and dying. many researchers have questioned whether hindu/buddhist concepts, such as reincarnation and nibbâna, help ease death anxieties. coleman and ka-ying hui ( ) stated that “according to the terror management theory, a religious concept of an afterlife helps people manage their personal death anxiety” ( ). this suggests that rage, in relation to religious ideas, may stem from an inability to manage feelings of terror. some psychologists, however, such as bushman and anderson, argue that the hostile/predatory dichotomy that is commonly employed in psychology fails to define rage fully, since it is possible for anger to motivate aggression, provoking vengeful behavior, without incorporating the impulsive thinking that is characteristic of rage. they point to individuals or groups such as seung-hui cho in the virginia tech massacre or eric harris and dylan klebold of the columbine high school massacre, all of whom clearly experienced intense anger and hate, but whose planning (sometimes over periods of years), forethought, and lack of impulsive behavior is readily observable.[ ] see also[edit] 	anger 	achilles 	air rage 	berserker 	bike rage 	computer rage 	lawsuit 	moral emotions 	narcissistic rage 	road rage 	running amok 	tantrum 	wrap rage 	intermittent explosive disorder references[edit] 	^ cf. the apa definition of anger ("an emotion characterized by tension and hostility arising from frustration, real or imagined injury by another, or perceived injustice") and rage ("intense, typically uncontrolled anger. it is usually differentiated from hostility in that it is not necessarily accompanied by destructive actions but rather by excessive expressions"). 	^ "merriam-webster's collegiate dictionary". 	^ eagleman, et al., 	^ digiuseppe & tafrate., . 	^ jezova et al., ; sapolsky, . 	^ (lundgaard i et al., ) 	^ (frank ) 	^ (gold, ) 	^ begley, . 	^ levin, andrew p. "dsm- and posttraumatic stress disorder" (pdf). 	^ painuly et al., 	^ willner et al., ; lishman et al., . 	^ gerzina & drummond, . 	^ business where people can vent their anger by destroying objects within a room 	^ fontaine, 	^ anderson, . 	^ digiuseppe & tafrate, . 	gold, paul e. ( ). "regulation of memory – from the adrenal medulla to liver to astrocytes to neurons". brain research bulletin. : – . doi: . /j.brainresbull. . . . pmc  . pmid  . 	frank, m. g. ( ). astroglial regulation of sleep homeostasis.current opinion in neurobiology, : – . 	lundgaard, i.; osório, m.j.; kress, b.t.; sanggaard, s.; nedergaard, m. ( ). "white matter astrocytes in health and disease". neuroscience. : – . doi: . /j.neuroscience. . . . pmc  . pmid  . 	coleman p. g. and ka-ying hui, v. ( ). do reincarnation beliefs protect older adult 	chinese buddhists against personal death anxieties? death studies. : – external links[edit] 	 media related to rage (emotion) at wikimedia commons 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion 	authority control 	 	gnd: - retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=rage_(emotion)&oldid= " 		categories: 	rage (emotion) 	emotions hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from march 	articles with unsourced statements from october 	commons category link is on wikidata 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			Български 	deutsch 	eesti 	فارسی 	français 	frysk 	Հայերեն 	hrvatski 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	lietuvių 	magyar 	nederlands 	polski 	ripoarisch 	Русский 	shqip 	simple english 	slovenčina 	Српски / srpski 	suomi 	Українська 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 pride - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	pride 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for other uses, see pride (disambiguation). positive affect from the perceived value of a person 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e allegory of pride, from circa – , engraving, . cm x . cm, in the metropolitan museum of art (new york city) pride is an emotional state deriving positive affect from the perceived value of a person or thing with which the subject has an intimate connection. it may be inwardly or outwardly directed. with a negative connotation pride refers to a foolishly[ ] and irrationally corrupt sense of one's personal value, status or accomplishments,[ ] used synonymously with hubris. with a positive connotation, pride refers to a content sense of attachment toward one's own or another's choices and actions, or toward a whole group of people, and is a product of praise, independent self-reflection, and a fulfilled feeling of belonging. philosophers and social psychologists have noted that pride is a complex secondary emotion which requires the development of a sense of self and the mastery of relevant conceptual distinctions (e.g. that pride is distinct from happiness and joy) through language-based interaction with others.[ ] some social psychologists identify the nonverbal expression of pride as a means of sending a functional, automatically perceived signal of high social status.[ ] in contrast, pride could also be defined as a lowly disagreement with the truth. one definition of pride comes from st. augustine: "the love of one's own excellence".[ ] a similar definition comes from meher baba: "pride is the specific feeling through which egoism manifests."[ ] pride is sometimes viewed as corrupt or as a vice, sometimes as proper or as a virtue. while some philosophers such as aristotle (and george bernard shaw) consider pride (but not hubris) a profound virtue, some world religions consider pride's fraudulent form a sin, such as is expressed in proverbs : of the hebrew bible. in judaism, pride is called the root of all evil. when viewed as a virtue, pride in one's abilities is known as virtuous pride, the greatness of soul or magnanimity, but when viewed as a vice it is often known to be self-idolatry, sadistic contempt, vanity or vainglory. pride can also manifest itself as a high opinion of one's nation (national pride), ethnicity (ethnic pride) and sexual identity. contents 	 etymology 	 philosophical views 	 . ancient greek philosophy 	 psychological views 	 . as an emotion 	 . positive outcomes 	 . in economic psychology 	 . sin and self-acceptance 	 . hubris and group pride 	 in different groups 	 . national 	 . . germany 	 . ethnic 	 . . asian 	 . . black 	 . . white 	 . mental illness 	 . lgbt+ 	 vanity 	 see also 	 notes 	 references 	 further reading etymology[edit] proud comes from late old english prut, probably from old french prud "brave, valiant" ( th century) (which became preux in french), from late latin term prodis "useful", which is compared with the latin prodesse "be of use".[ ] the sense of "having a high opinion of oneself", not in french, may reflect the anglo-saxons' opinion of the norman knights who called themselves "proud".[ ] philosophical views[edit] ancient greek philosophy[edit] aristotle identified pride (megalopsuchia, variously translated as proper pride, the greatness of soul and magnanimity)[ ] as the crown of the virtues, distinguishing it from vanity, temperance, and humility, thus: now the man is thought to be proud who thinks himself worthy of great things, being worthy of them; for he who does so beyond his deserts is a fool, but no virtuous man is foolish or silly. the proud man, then, is the man we have described. for he who is worthy of little and thinks himself worthy of little is temperate, but not proud; for pride implies greatness, as beauty implies a goodsized body, and little people may be neat and well-proportioned but cannot be beautiful.[ ] he concludes then that pride, then, seems to be a sort of crown of the virtues; for it makes them more powerful, and it is not found without them. therefore it is hard to be truly proud; for it is impossible without nobility and goodness of character.[ ][ ] by contrast, aristotle defined the vice of hubris as follows: to cause shame to the victim, not in order that anything may happen to you, nor because anything has happened to you, but merely for your own gratification. hubris is not the requital of past injuries; this is revenge. as for the pleasure in hubris, its cause is this: naive men think that by ill-treating others they make their own superiority the greater.[ ] thus, although pride and hubris are often deemed the same thing, for aristotle and many philosophers hubris is altogether an entirely different thing from pride. psychological views[edit] since pride is classified as an emotion or passion, it is pride both cognitive and evaluative and that its object, that which it cognizes and evaluates, is the self and its properties, or something the proud individual identifies with.[ ] like guilt and shame, it is specifically described in the field as a self-conscious emotion that results from the evaluations of the self and one's behavior according to internal and external standards.[ ] this is further explained by the way pride results from satisfying or conforming to a standard while guilt or shame is an offshoot of defying it. an observation cites the lack of research that addresses pride because it is despised as well as valued in the individualist west where it is experienced as pleasurable.[ ] as an emotion[edit] in psychological terms, positive pride is "a pleasant, sometimes exhilarating, emotion that results from a positive self-evaluation".[ ] it was added by tracy et al. to the university of california, davis, set of emotion expressions (ucdsee) in , as one of three "self-conscious" emotions known to have recognizable expressions (along with embarrassment and shame).[ ] the term "fiero" was coined by italian psychologist isabella poggi to describe the pride experienced and expressed in the moments following a personal triumph over adversity.[ ][ ] facial expressions and gestures that demonstrate pride can involve a lifting of the chin, smiles, or arms on hips to demonstrate victory. individuals may implicitly grant status to others based solely on their expressions of pride, even in cases in which they wish to avoid doing so. indeed, some studies show that the nonverbal expression of pride conveys a message that is automatically perceived by others about a person's high social status in a group.[ ] behaviorally, pride can also be expressed by adopting an expanded posture in which the head is tilted back and the arms extended out from the body. this postural display is innate as it is shown in congenitally blind individuals who have lacked the opportunity to see it in others.[ ] positive outcomes[edit] a common understanding of pride is that it results from self-directed satisfaction with meeting the personal goals; for example, weiner et al. have posited that positive performance outcomes elicit pride in an individual when the event is appraised as having been caused by him alone. moreover, oveis et al. conceptualize pride as a display of the strong self that promotes feelings of similarity to strong others, as well as differentiation from weak others. seen in this light, pride can be conceptualized as a hierarchy-enhancing emotion, as its experience and display helps rid negotiations of conflict.[ ] pride involves exhilarated pleasure and a feeling of accomplishment. it is related to "more positive behaviors and outcomes in the area where the individual is proud" (weiner, ). pride is generally associated with positive social behaviors such as helping others and outward promotion. along with hope, it is also often described as an emotion that facilitates performance attainment, as it can help trigger and sustain focused and appetitive effort to prepare for upcoming evaluative events. it may also help enhance the quality and flexibility of the effort expended (fredrickson, ). according to bagozzi et al., pride can have positive benefits of enhancing creativity, productivity, and altruism. for instance, it has been found that in terms of school achievement, pride is associated with a higher gpa in low neighborhood socioeconomic environments, whereas in more advantaged neighborhoods, pride is associated with a lower gpa.[ ] in economic psychology[edit] in the field of economic psychology, pride is conceptualized in a spectrum ranging from "proper pride", associated with genuine achievements, and "false pride", which can be maladaptive or even pathological. lea et al. have examined the role of pride in various economic situations and claim that in all cases pride is involved because economic decisions are not taken in isolation from one another, but are linked together by the selfhood of the people who take them.[ ] understood in this way, pride is an emotional state that works to ensure that people take financial decisions that are in their long-term interests, even when in the short term they would appear irrational. sin and self-acceptance[edit] see also: self-esteem § contingent vs. non-contingent pride, from the seven deadly sins by jacob matham c. . exaggerated self-esteem is called "pride".[ ] classical christian theology views pride as being the result of high self-esteem, and thus high self-esteem was viewed as the primary human problem, but beginning in the th century, "humanistic psychology" diagnosed the primary human problem as low self-esteem stemming from a lack of belief in one's "true worth". carl rogers observed that most people "regard themselves as worthless and unlovable." thus, they lack self-esteem.[ ] terry cooper conceptualized in excessive pride (along with low self-esteem) as an important paradigm in describing the human condition. he examines and compares the augustinian-niebuhrian conviction that pride is primary, the feminist concept of pride as being absent in the experience of women, the humanistic psychology position that pride does not adequately account for anyone's experience, and the humanistic psychology idea that if pride emerges, it is always a false front designed to protect an undervalued self.[ ] he considers that the work of certain neo-freudian psychoanalysts, namely karen horney, offers promise in dealing with what he calls a "deadlock between the overvalued and undervalued self" (cooper, – ). cooper refers to their work in describing the connection between religious and psychological pride as well as sin to describe how a neurotic pride system underlies an appearance of self-contempt and low self-esteem: the "idealized self," the "tyranny of the should," the "pride system" and the nature of self-hate all point toward the intertwined relationship between neurotic pride and self-contempt. understanding how a neurotic pride system underlies an appearance of self-contempt and low self-esteem. (cooper, – ). thus, hubris, which is an exaggerated form of self-esteem, is sometimes actually a lie used to cover the lack of self-esteem the committer of pride feels deep down. in the king james bible, those people exhibiting excess pride are labeled with the somewhat archaic term, "haughty". hubris and group pride[edit] main article: hubris see also: group narcissism hubris itself is associated with more intra-individual negative outcomes and is commonly related to expressions of aggression and hostility (tangney, ). as one might expect, hubris is not necessarily associated with high self-esteem but with highly fluctuating or variable self-esteem. excessive feelings of hubris have a tendency to create conflict and sometimes terminating close relationships, which has led it to be understood as one of the few emotions with no clear positive or adaptive functions (rhodwalt, et al.).[citation needed] several studies by uc davis psychologist cynthia picket about group pride, have shown that groups that boast, gloat or denigrate others tend to become a group with low social status or to be vulnerable to threats from other groups.[ ] suggesting that "hubristic, pompous displays of group pride might be a sign of group insecurity as opposed to a sign of strength," she states that those that express pride by being filled with humility whilst focusing on members' efforts and hard work tend to achieve high social standing in both the adult public and personal eyes. in different groups[edit] national[edit] the father and mother by boardman robinson depicting war as the offspring of greed and pride. main article: nationalism germany[edit] in germany, "national pride" ("nationalstolz") is often associated with the former nazi regime. strong displays of national pride are therefore considered poor taste by many germans. there is an ongoing public debate about the issue of german patriotism. the world cup in , held in germany, saw a wave of patriotism sweep the country in a manner not seen for many years. although many were hesitant to show such blatant support as the hanging of the national flag from windows, as the team progressed through the tournament, so too did the level of support across the nation.[ ] by the time the semi-final against italy came around, the level of national pride and unity was at its highest throughout the tournament, and the hosting of the world cup is seen to have been a great success for germany as a nation. after the world cup, however, the subject of patriotism became again as difficult as it had been before. ethnic[edit] 	 	the examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. you may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (may ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) asian[edit] main article: asian pride asian pride in modern slang refers mostly to those of east asian descent, though it can include anyone of asian descent. asian pride was originally fragmented, as asian nations have had long conflicts with each other, examples are the old japanese and chinese religious beliefs of their superiority. asian pride emerged prominently during european colonialism.[ ] at one time, europeans controlled % of the world's land through colonialism, resulting in anti-western feelings among asian nations.[ ] today, some asians still look upon european involvement in their affairs with suspicion.[ ] in contrast, asian empires are prominent and are proudly remembered by adherents to asian pride. there is an emerging discourse of chinese pride that unfolds complex histories and maps of privileges and empowerments. in a deeper sense, it is a strategic positioning, aligned with approaches such as "asia as method",[ ] to invite more diverse resistances in language, culture, and practices, in challenging colonial, imperial dominations, and being critical of eurocentric epistemologies.[ ] in more specific cases, it examines the sinophone circulations of power relations connecting the transnational to the local, for example, a particular set of chinese-canadian relations between china's increasing industrial materiality and output in which pride becomes an expansionist reach and mobilization of capital, canada's active interests in tapping into asian and chinese labours, markets, and industrial productions, and the intersected cultural politics of 'chinese-ness' in an east pacific british columbia city where 'chinese' has been tagged as a majority-minority.[ ] black[edit] main article: black pride black pride is a slogan used primarily in the united states to raise awareness for a black racial identity. the slogan has been used by african americans of sub-saharan african origin to denote a feeling of self-confidence, self-respect, celebrating one's heritage, and being proud of one's worth. white[edit] main article: white pride white pride is a slogan mainly (but not exclusively) used by white separatist, white nationalist, neo-nazi and white supremacist organizations in the united states for a white race identity.[ ] white pride also consists of white ethnic/cultural pride. mental illness[edit] main article: mad pride bed push at mad pride parade in cologne, germany, in mad pride refers to a worldwide movement and philosophy that individuals with mental illnesses should be proud of their 'mad' identity. mad pride advocates mutual support and rallies in support of rights for people with mental illness.[ ] the mad pride movement aims to reclaim the word mad as a self-descriptor.[ ] lgbt+[edit] main article: gay pride pride parade, düsseldorf gay pride refers to a worldwide movement and philosophy asserting that lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (lgbt) individuals should be proud of their sexual orientation and gender identity. lgbt pride advocates work for equal "rights and benefits" for lgbtq+ people.[ ][ ][ ] the movement has three main premises: that people should be proud of their sexual orientation and gender identity, that sexual diversity is a gift, and that sexual orientation and gender identity are inherent and cannot be intentionally altered.[ ] the word pride is used in this case as an antonym for shame. pride in this sense is an affirmation of one's self and the community as a whole. the modern "gay pride" movement began after the stonewall riots of the late s. in june , the first pride parade in the united states commemorated the one-year anniversary of the stonewall riots—the nearly week-long uprising between new york city youth and police officers following a raid of stonewall inn.[ ] vanity[edit] main article: vanity detail of "pride" in the seven deadly sins and the four last things by hieronymus bosch in conventional parlance, vanity sometimes is used in a positive sense to refer to a rational concern for one's appearance, attractiveness, and dress and is thus not the same as pride. however, it also refers to an excessive or irrational belief in one's abilities or attractiveness in the eyes of others and may in so far be compared to pride. the term vanity originates from the latin word vanitas meaning emptiness, untruthfulness, futility, foolishness and empty pride.[ ] here empty pride means a fake pride, in the sense of vainglory, unjustified by one's own achievements and actions, but sought by pretense and appeals to superficial characteristics. "all is vanity" by c. allan gilbert, evoking the inevitable decay of life and beauty toward death jacques callot, pride (vanity), probably after in many religions, vanity is considered a form of self-idolatry, in which one rejects god for the sake of one's own image, and thereby becomes divorced from the graces of god. the stories of lucifer and narcissus (who gave us the term narcissism), and others, attend to a pernicious aspect of vanity. in western art, vanity was often symbolized by a peacock, and in biblical terms, by the whore of babylon. during the renaissance, vanity was invariably represented as a naked woman, sometimes seated or reclining on a couch. she attends to her hair with a comb and mirror. the mirror is sometimes held by a demon or a putto. other symbols of vanity include jewels, gold coins, a purse, and often by the figure of death himself. often we find an inscription on a scroll that reads omnia vanitas ("all is vanity"), a quote from the latin translation of the book of ecclesiastes.[ ] although that phrase, itself depicted in a type of still life, vanitas, originally referred not to an obsession with one's appearance, but to the ultimate fruitlessness of man's efforts in this world, the phrase summarizes the complete preoccupation of the subject of the picture. "the artist invites us to pay lip-service to condemning her", writes edwin mullins, "while offering us full permission to drool over her. she admires herself in the glass, while we treat the picture that purports to incriminate her as another kind of glass—a window—through which we peer and secretly desire her."[ ] the theme of the recumbent woman often merged artistically with the non-allegorical one of a reclining venus. in his table of the seven deadly sins, hieronymus bosch depicts a bourgeois woman admiring herself in a mirror held up by a devil. behind her is an open jewelry box. a painting attributed to nicolas tournier, which hangs in the ashmolean museum, is an allegory of justice and vanity. a young woman holds a balance, symbolizing justice; she does not look at the mirror or the skull on the table before her. vermeer's famous painting girl with a pearl earring is sometimes believed to depict the sin of vanity, as the young girl has adorned herself before a glass without further positive allegorical attributes.[ ] all is vanity, by charles allan gilbert ( – ), carries on this theme. an optical illusion, the painting depicts what appears to be a large grinning skull. upon closer examination, it reveals itself to be a young woman gazing at her reflection in the mirror. such artistic works served to warn viewers of the ephemeral nature of youthful beauty, as well as the brevity of human life and the inevitability of death. see also[edit] 	philosophy portal 	psychology portal 	groupthink 	icarus complex 	selfishness 	seven virtues 	the seven deadly sins and the four last things 	vanity gallery 	victory disease 	accomplishment notes[edit] 	^ "definition of hubris". www.merriam-webster.com. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ a b steinvorth, ulrich ( ). pride and authenticity. cham: palgrave macmillan. p.  . isbn  . 	^ sullivan, gb ( ). "wittgenstein and the grammar of pride: the relevance of philosophy to studies of self-evaluative emotions". new ideas in psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /j.newideapsych. . . . 	^ a b shariff, af; tracy, jl (october ). "knowing who's boss: implicit perceptions of status from the nonverbal expression of pride". emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ "est autem superbia amor proprie excellentie, et fuit initium peccati superbia.""archived copy". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) 	^ baba, meher ( ). discourses. . san francisco: sufism reoriented. p. . isbn  - . 	^ article from free online dictionary, accessed nov. 	^ article from online etymology dictionary archived - - at the wayback machine, accessed june 	^ aristotle ( ). the nicomachean ethics by aristotle, james alexander, kerr thomson, hugh tredennick, jonathan barnes translators. isbn  . retrieved - - . 	^ aristotle, nicomachean ethics . archived december , , at the wayback machine; also available here sacred texts – aristotle's nicomachean ethics archived - - at the wayback machine; and here alternate translation at perseus 	^ aristotle, nicomachean ethics . archived december , , at the wayback machine 	^ hamilton, christopher ( ). understanding philosophy for as level aqa, by christopher hamilton (google books). isbn  . retrieved - - . 	^ aristotle rhetoric b (greek text and english translation available at the perseus project). 	^ bechtel, robert; churchman, arza ( ). handbook of environmental psychology. hoboken, nj: john wiley & sons, inc. pp.  . isbn  - . 	^ leontiev, dmitry ( ). positive psychology in search for meaning. oxon: routledge. p.  . isbn  . 	^ lewis, m.; takai-kawakami, k.; kawakami, k.; sullivan, m. w. ( ). "cultural differences in emotional responses to success and failure". international journal of behavioral development. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ tracy, j. l.; robins, r. w.; schriber, r. a. ( ). "development of a facs-verified set of basic and self-conscious emotion expressions". emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ lazzaro, n. ( ). why we play games: four keys to more emotion without story. retrieved from www.xeodesign.com/xeodesign_whyweplaygames.pdf 	^ language, body ( - - ). "sincerity secret # : fiero feels good – mirror neurons". body language success. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ tracy & matsumoto, . 	^ oveis, c.; horberg, e. j.; keltner, d. ( ). "compassion, pride, and social intuitions of self-other similarity". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ byrd, c. m.; chavous, t. m. ( ). "racial identity and academic achievement in the neighborhood context: a multilevel analysis ". journal of youth and adolescence. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ lea, s. e. g.; webley, p. ( ). "pride in economic psychology". journal of economic psychology. ( – ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . 	^ "pride, n. ". oed online. december . oxford university press. http:// -www.oed.com.librarycatalog.vts.edu/view/entry/ ?rskey=l lc z&result= (accessed december , ). 	^ terry d. cooper, sin, pride & self-acceptance: the problem of identity in theology & psychology (intervar sity, ), , , . 	^ cooper, t. d. ( ). sin, pride & self-acceptance: the problem of identity in theology & psychology. chicago: intervarsity press. 	^ study is currently in revision 	^ sullivan, g. b. ( ). germany during the world cup: the role of television in creating a national narrative of pride and "party patriotism". in castelló, e., dhoest, a. & o'donnell, h. (eds.), the nation on screen, discourses of the national in global television. cambridge scholars press: cambridge. 	^ a b c langguth, gerd. german foreign affairs review. "dawn of the 'pacific' century?" . june , . "archived copy". archived from the original on june , . retrieved december , .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) 	^ chen, k. h. ( ). asia as method: toward deimperialization. durham & london: duke university press. 	^ a b xiao, y ( ). "radical feelings in the 'liberation zone': active chinese canadian citizenship in richmond, bc". citizenship education research journal. ( ): – . archived from the original on - - . 	^ dobratz & shanks-meile harvnb error: no target: citerefdobratzshanks-meile (help) 	^ cohen, oryx ( march ). "the power of 'healing voices'". the mighty. retrieved september . 	^ graham, ben ( june ). "mad pride". wayahead. retrieved september . 	^ "pride celebrated worldwide". www.pridesource.com. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "gay pride in europe looks globally". direland.typepad.com. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "lesbian gay bisexual transgender equality -an issue for us all". www.ucu.org.uk. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "gay and lesbian history month" (pdf). www.bates.ctc.edu. archived from the original (pdf) on august , . retrieved - - . 	^ "wgbh american experience - inside american experience". american experience. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "william whitaker's words". 	^ james hall, dictionary of subjects & symbols in art (new york: harper & row, ), . 	^ edwin mullins, the painted witch: how western artists have viewed the sexuality of women (new york: carroll & graf publishers, inc., ), – . 	^ "archived copy". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) references[edit] 	cairns, douglas l ( ). "hybris, dishonour, and thinking big" (pdf). journal of hellenic studies. : – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	macdowell, douglas ( ). "hybris in athens". greece and rome. : – . doi: . /s . 	owen, david ( ) the hubris syndrome: bush, blair and the intoxication of power politico's, methuen publishing ltd. further reading[edit] 	jessica tracy ( ). take pride: why the deadliest sin holds the secret to human success. houghton mifflin harcourt. isbn  - . 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion 	 	v 	t 	e seven deadly sins 	 	lust 	gluttony 	greed 	sloth 	wrath 	envy 	pride 	persons categorizing and describing the sins	 	evagrius ponticus 	john cassian 	pope gregory i 	dante alighieri 	peter binsfeld 	 	in art and culture	 	divine comedy 	inferno 	purgatorio 	the seven deadly sins ( play) 	the seven deadly sins and the four last things (painting) 	the seven deadly sins ( ballet) 	the seven deadly sins ( film) 	the seven deadly sins ( film) 	the muppet show: sex and violence ( ) 	seven ( film) 	fullmetal alchemist (manga series) 	fullmetal alchemist ( anime) 	fullmetal alchemist: brotherhood ( anime) 	the seven deadly sins (manga series) 	the seven deadly sins of modern times (painting) 	jack (webcomic) 	four last things (video game) 	shazam! 	related	 	seven heavenly virtues 	seven social sins 	sin 	christian views on sin 	christian views on the old covenant 	hamartiology 	 	 catholicism portal 	 	v 	t 	e seven virtues in christian ethics 	four cardinal virtues	 	prudence (prudentia) 	justice (iustitia) 	fortitude (fortitudo) 	temperance (temperantia) 	sources: plato 	republic, book iv 	cicero 	ambrose 	augustine of hippo 	thomas aquinas 	 	three theological virtues	 	faith (fides) 	hope (spes) 	love (caritas) 	sources: paul the apostle 	 corinthians 	seven deadly sins	 	lust (luxuria) 	gluttony (gula) 	greed (avaritia) 	sloth (acedia) 	wrath (ira) 	envy (invidia) 	pride (superbia) 	source: prudentius, psychomachia 	people: evagrius ponticus 	john cassian 	pope gregory i 	dante alighieri 	peter binsfeld 	related concepts	 	ten commandments 	great commandment 	eschatology 	sin 	original sin 	old covenant 	hamartiology 	 	christian philosophy 	find out more on wikipedia's sister projects		media from commons 	definitions from wiktionary 	quotations from wikiquote 	data from wikidata retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=pride&oldid= " 		categories: 	pride 	emotions 	psychological attitude 	religious belief and doctrine 	virtue hidden categories: 	cs maint: archived copy as title 	webarchive template wayback links 	harv and sfn no-target errors 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from march 	articles with limited geographic scope from may 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	brezhoneg 	català 	deutsch 	esperanto 	français 	italiano 	עברית 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	simple english 	walon 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 none apa psycnet loading... outrage (emotion) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	outrage (emotion) 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		emotion characterized by a combination of surprise, disgust, and anger 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e outrage is a strong moral emotion characterized by a combination of surprise, disgust,[ ] and anger,[ ] usually in reaction to a grave personal offense.[ ] it comes from old french "ultrage", which in turn borrows from classical latin "ultra", meaning "beyond".[ ] moral outrage is the emotion of outrage experienced in reaction to an injustice, as such involving a moral judgement, and is often accompanied by a desire to shame and/or punish wrongdoers.[ ] contents 	 faux outrage 	 historical and sociological examples 	 literary examples 	 see also 	 references faux outrage[edit] the st century and its social media have seen an increased display of false or manufactured outrage, with power and prestige being hypocritically sought by professing concern for others, in a highly selective and temporary manner.[ ] in the sociology of everyday life peacebuilding, john d. brewer, et al., observed:[ ] 'canonized' and 'preferred victims' generate considerable outrage when their memory is besmirched but the same politicians and spokespeople who express this outrage are content enough to besmirch the memory of dis-preferred victims. in contested peace processes, there are many people who are eager to offend and many only too willing to be offended, and victims easily get used by others to provoke faux outrage. and as public insult and degradation descend to the bottom in competitive faux outrage in the public sphere, victims find themselves used for party political purposes, voiceless and ignored save when it suits those who exploit their suffering and pain. the authors, whose work focuses primarily on post-conflict peace and resolution, propose a paradox: individual "preferred victims" lack much if any agency to control how perception of them is manipulated in the public sphere, and can thus feel "owned" by this process and those who are deeply involved in it. yet, as a social class, they collectively may be surrounded by considerable socio-political power, which is wielded by self-appointed spokespeople and "allies" who do not always have the best interests of the victim class at heart, and may even be competing with each other at cross-purposes, for dominance within the political sphere of issues surrounding that class, and at the class's expense.[ ] historical and sociological examples[edit] 	george gascoigne in his eye witness account of the spanish sack of antwerp described what he called “these outrages and disordered cruelties...rapes, spoyles, incests, and sacriledges”.[ ] 	kate fox in her anthropology of the english observed that drunkenness came with a standardised set of outrages to perform, ranging from swearing and scuffling up to mooning.[ ] she also noted how “the english take great pleasure in being shocked and outraged, and righteous indignation is one of our favourite national pastimes, but the feelings expressed are nonetheless genuine”.[ ] literary examples[edit] 	at the climax of the libation bearers, orestes, murderously confronting his mother over her murder of his father, exclaims “you killed and it was outrage – suffer outrage now”.[ ] see also[edit] 	emotion 	indignation 	moral panic 	morality 	norm (social) 	outrage porn 	righteous indignation 	social emotions 	social order 	taboo references[edit] 	^ "the interactive effect of anger and disgust on moral outrage and judgments". 	^ "robert plutchik's psychoevolutionary theory of basic emotions" (pdf). adliterate.com. retrieved - - . 	^ "outrage – definition of outrage by merriam-webster". 	^ "outrage: definition of outrage in oxford dictionary (american english)". 	^ crockett, m. j. ( september ). "moral outrage in the digital age". nature human behaviour. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ a b c brewer, john d.; hayes, bernadette c.; teeney, francis; dudgeon, katrin; mueller-hirth, natascha; wijesinghe, shirley lal ( ). "centring victims in peacebuilding". sociology of everyday life peacemaking. "studies in compromise after conflict" series. palgrave macmillan. pp.  – . isbn  . retrieved february – via google books. 	^ quoted in g austen, george gascoigne (cambridge ) p. and p. 	^ k fox watching the english (hodder ) p. 	^ k fox watching the english (hodder ) p. 	^ aeschylus, the oresteia' (penguin ) p. 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=outrage_(emotion)&oldid= " 		categories: 	emotions 	moral psychology hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	articles containing french-language text 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			Čeština 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 apa psycnet loading... proceedings of the royal society - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	proceedings of the royal society 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from proceedings of the royal society b) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		academic journal proceedings of the royal society of london  	language	english 	publication details 	history	 – 	publisher	royal society (united kingdom) 	standard abbreviations iso (alt) · bluebook (alt  · alt ) nlm (alt) · mathscinet (alt ) 	iso 	proc. r. soc. lond. 	indexing coden · jstor (alt) · lccn (alt) miar · nlm (alt) · scopus 	issn	 - 	links 	 	journal homepage 	online archive proceedings of the royal society is the parent title of two scientific journals published by the royal society. originally a single journal, it was split into two separate journals in : 	part a: which publishes research related to mathematical, physical, and engineering sciences (including computer science) 	part b: which publishes research related to biology the two journals are the royal society's main research journals. many celebrated names in science have published their research in the proceedings of the royal society, including paul dirac,[ ] werner heisenberg,[ ] ernest rutherford,[ ] and erwin schrödinger.[ ] all articles are available free at the journals' websites after one year for proceedings b and two years for proceedings a. between and years after publication they are behind a paywall, and after that they enter the free digital archive.[ ][ ] authors may have their articles made immediately open access (under creative commons license) on payment of an article processing charge. contents 	 history 	 proceedings of the royal society a: mathematical, physical and engineering sciences 	 proceedings of the royal society b: biological sciences 	 external links 	 references history[edit] the journal started out in as the abstracts of the papers printed in the philosophical transactions of the royal society of london as an extension of the journal philosophical transactions of the royal society which was first published in . the royal society published four volumes, from to . volumes and , which appeared from to , were called abstracts of the papers communicated to the royal society of london. starting with volume , in , the proceedings first appeared under the name proceedings of the royal society of london. publication of the proceedings in this form continued to volume in .[ ] starting with volume , the proceedings were split into 	proceedings of the royal society of london. series a, containing papers of a mathematical and physical character 	proceedings of the royal society of london. series b, containing papers of a biological character. the proceedings have since undergone further name changes. as of [update], the two series are called 	proceedings of the royal society a — mathematical, physical and engineering sciences 	proceedings of the royal society b — biological sciences. proceedings of the royal society a: mathematical, physical and engineering sciences [edit] academic journal proceedings of the royal society a: mathematical, physical and engineering sciences  	 	discipline	natural sciences 	language	english 	edited by	michael lockwood[ ] 	publication details 	history	 -present 	publisher	royal society (united kingdom) 	frequency	monthly 	open access 	hybrid 	impact factor 	 . ( ) 	standard abbreviations iso (alt) · bluebook (alt  · alt ) nlm (alt) · mathscinet (alt ) 	iso 	proc. r. soc. a 	indexing coden · jstor (alt) · lccn (alt) miar · nlm (alt) · scopus 	issn	 -  (print) -  (web) 	lccn	 	oclc no.	 	links 	 	journal homepage 	online access 	online archive proceedings of the royal society a publishes peer-reviewed research articles in the mathematical, physical, and engineering sciences. as of [update] the editor-in-chief is professor michael lockwood[ ][ ] frs. according to journal citation reports, as of [update] the journal has an impact factor of . [ ] topics covered by this journal include: 	topic 	subject editor 	astronomy 	louise harra 	chemistry 	marie-pierre gaigeot 	computer science 	wendy hall 	earth science 	brian kennett 	engineering 	djordje peric 	materials 	nicole grobert 	mathematics 	herbert huppert 	physics 	ajay sood the journal is abstracted and indexed by applied mechanics reviews, georef, british and irish archaeological bibliography, chemical abstracts, chemistry citation index, composites alert, compumath citation index, current contents, engineered materials abstracts, engineering index monthly, excerpta medica, fluidex, forest products abstracts, geographical abstracts, human geography, geological abstracts, geomechanics abstracts, index to scientific reviews, inspec, mass spectrometry bulletin, mathematical reviews, metals abstracts, metals abstracts index, mineralogical abstracts, nonferrous metals alert, oceanographic literature review, petroleum abstracts, polymers, ceramics, research alert (philadelphia), science citation index, steels alert, and world aluminum abstracts.[citation needed] proceedings of the royal society b: biological sciences[edit] academic journal proceedings of the royal society b: biological sciences  	 	discipline	biology 	language	english 	edited by	spencer barrett[ ] 	publication details 	history	 -present 	publisher	royal society (united kingdom) 	frequency	biweekly 	open access 	hybrid 	impact factor 	 . ( ) 	standard abbreviations iso (alt) · bluebook (alt  · alt ) nlm (alt) · mathscinet (alt ) 	iso 	proc. r. soc. b 	indexing coden · jstor (alt) · lccn (alt) miar · nlm (alt) · scopus 	issn	 -  (print) -  (web) 	lccn	 	oclc no.	 	links 	 	journal homepage 	online access 	online archive proceedings of the royal society b publishes research related to biological sciences. as of [update] the editor-in-chief is professor spencer barrett.[ ][ ] topics covered in particular include ecology, behavioural ecology and evolutionary biology, as well as epidemiology, human biology, neuroscience, palaeontology, psychology, and biomechanics. the journal publishes predominately research articles and reviews, as well as comments, replies, and commentaries. in , biology letters (originally a supplement to proceedings b), was launched as an independent journal publishing short articles from across biology. according to journal citation reports, as of [update] the journal has an impact factor of . .[ ] external links[edit] 	philosophical transactions of the royal society a [ ] 	philosophical transactions of the royal society b [ ] references[edit] 	^ dirac, p. a. m. ( ). "quantised singularities in the electromagnetic field". proceedings of the royal society of london a: mathematical, physical and engineering sciences. ( ): – . bibcode: rspsa. ... d. doi: . /rspa. . . 	^ heisenberg, w. ( ). "on the theory of statistical and isotropic turbulence". proceedings of the royal society of london a: mathematical, physical and engineering sciences. ( ): – . bibcode: rspsa. .. h. doi: . /rspa. . . 	^ oliphant, m. l. e.; kempton, a. e.; rutherford, lord ( ). "some nuclear transformations of beryllium and boron, and the masses of the light elements". proceedings of the royal society of london a: mathematical, physical and engineering sciences. ( ): – . bibcode: rspsa. .. o. doi: . /rspa. . . 	^ schrodinger, e. ( ). "the wave equation for spin in hamiltonian form. ii". proceedings of the royal society of london a: mathematical, physical and engineering sciences. ( ): – . bibcode: rspsa. .. s. doi: . /rspa. . . s cid  . 	^ "information for readers". royalsocietypublishing.org. retrieved - - . 	^ "information for readers". royalsocietypublishing.org. retrieved - - . 	^ "about proceedings a | proceedings of the royal society of london a: mathematical, physical and engineering sciences". rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org. retrieved - - . 	^ a b lockwood, michael ( ). "editorial january ". proceedings of the royal society a: mathematical, physical and engineering sciences. ( ): . doi: . /rspa. . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ "editorial board | proceedings of the royal society of london a: mathematical, physical and engineering sciences". rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org. retrieved - - . 	^ "proceedings of the royal society a". journal citation reports. web of science (science ed.). clarivate analytics. . 	^ a b barrett, spencer c. h. ( ). "proceedings b : the year in review". proceedings of the royal society b: biological sciences. ( ): . doi: . /rspb. . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ "editorial board | proceedings of the royal society of london b: biological sciences". rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org. retrieved - - . 	^ "proceedings of the royal society b". journal citation reports. web of science (science ed.). clarivate analytics. . 		wikimedia commons has media related to proceedings of the royal society of london. retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=proceedings_of_the_royal_society&oldid= #proceedings_of_the_royal_society_b" 		categories: 	publications established in 	royal society academic journals 	english-language journals 	multidisciplinary scientific journals 	monthly journals 	biweekly journals 	biology journals 	 establishments in great britain hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	articles containing potentially dated statements from 	all articles containing potentially dated statements 	monthly journals (infobox) 	articles containing potentially dated statements from 	articles containing potentially dated statements from 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from march 	biweekly journals (infobox) 	articles with outdated impact factors from 	commons category link is on wikidata 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	català 	deutsch 	español 	esperanto 	français 	nederlands 	português 	română 	Русский 	türkçe 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 none passion (emotion) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	passion (emotion) 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		feeling of intense enthusiasm towards or compelling desire for someone or something "heat of the moment" redirects here. for other uses, see heat of the moment (disambiguation). "passionate love" redirects here. for the south korean tv series, see passionate love. 		look up passion in wiktionary, the free dictionary. frederick goodall's passionate encounter 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e 	 relationships (outline) 	 types 	 genetic or adoptive 	 	kinship 	family 	parent 	father 	mother 	grandparent 	sibling 	cousin 	 by marriage 	 	spouse 	husband 	wife 	open marriage 	polygamy 	polyandry 	polygyny 		group marriage 	mixed-orientation 	 partner(s) 	 	 	significant other 	boyfriend 	girlfriend 	cohabitation 	same-sex 	life partner 	friendship (romantic / cross-sex / zone) 	 sexual 	 	casual 	monogamy 	non-monogamy 	mutual monogamy 	polyamory 	polyfidelity 	cicisbeo 	concubinage 	courtesan 	mistress 	 activities 	bonding 	courtship 	dating 	engagement 	bachelor's day 	mating 	meet market 	romance 	singles event 	wedding 	 endings 	breakup 	separation 	annulment 	divorce 	widowhood 	 emotions and feelings 	affinity 	attachment 	intimacy 	jealousy 	limerence 	love 	platonic 	unconditional 	passion 	sexuality 	 practices 	bride price 	dower 	dowry 	service 	hypergamy 	infidelity 	sexual activity 	transgression 	repression 	 abuse 	child 	dating 	domestic 	elderly 	narcissistic parent 	power and control 	 	v 	t 	e passion (greek πάσχω "to suffer, to be acted on"[ ] and late latin (chiefly christian[ ]) passio "passion; suffering" (from latin pati "to suffer"; participle: passus)) is a feeling of intense enthusiasm towards or compelling desire for someone or something. passion can range from eager interest in or admiration for an idea, proposal, or cause; to enthusiastic enjoyment of an interest or activity; to strong attraction, excitement, or emotion towards a person. it is particularly used in the context of romance or sexual desire, though it generally implies a deeper or more encompassing emotion than that implied by the term lust. denis diderot ( - ) describes passions as "penchants, inclinations, desires and aversions carried to a certain degree of intensity, combined with an indistinct sensation of pleasure or pain, occasioned or accompanied by some irregular movement of the blood and animal spirits, are what we call passions. they can be so strong as to inhibit all practice of personal freedom, a state in which the soul is in some sense rendered passive; whence the name passions. this inclination or so-called disposition of the soul, is born of the opinion we hold that a great good or a great evil is contained in an object which in and of itself arouses passion".[ ] diderot further breaks down pleasure and pain, which he sees as the guiding principles of passion, into four major categories: 	pleasures and pains of the senses 	pleasures of the mind or of the imagination 	our perfection or our imperfection of virtues or vices 	pleasures and pains in the happiness or misfortunes of others 	management of passion: the factors that lead to the management of passion are (i) our attitude (ii) our appetite (iii) our aims. modern pop-psychologies and employers tend to favor and even encourage the expression of a "passion"; previous generations sometimes expressed more nuanced viewpoints.[ ] contents 	 emotion 	 reason 	 . "descartes' error" 	 in marriage 	 intellectual passions 	 as a motivation in an occupation 	 . work enjoyment vs. inner pressures 	 . . motivation and outcomes 	 . . good and bad workaholics 	 . . desire in an occupation 	 as a motivation for hobbies 	 . dualistic model 	 . . intrinsic motivation 	 fictional examples 	 see also 	 references 	 . footnotes 	 . sources 	 further reading 	 external links emotion[edit] the standard definition for emotion is a "natural instinctive state of mind deriving from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others". [ ] emotion [ ], william james describes emotions as "corporeal reverberations such as surprise, curiosity, rapture, fear, anger, lust, greed and the like." these are all feelings that affect our mental perception. our body is placed into this latter state, which is caused by one's mental affection. this state gives signals to our body which cause bodily expressions. the philosopher robert solomon developed his own theory and definition of emotion. his view is that emotion is not a bodily state, but instead a type of judge. "it is necessary that we choose our emotions, in much the same way that we choose our actions"[ ] with regard to the relationship between emotion and our rational will, solomon believes that people are responsible for their emotions. emotions are rational and purposive, just as actions are. "we choose an emotion much as we choose a course of action."[ ] recent studies, also traditional studies have placed emotions to be a physiological disturbance. william james takes such consciousness of emotion to be not a choice but a physical occurrence rather than a disturbance. it is an occurrence that happens outside of our control, and our bodies are just affected by these emotions. we produce these actions based on the instinctive state that these feelings lead us towards. this concept of emotion was derived from passion. emotions were created as a category within passion. reason[edit] strong desire for something: in whatever context, if someone desires for something and that desire has some strong feeling or emotion is defined in terms of passion. passion has no boundary, being passionate about something which is boundless can be sometimes dangerous, in which person forget about everything and is fully determined towards the particular thing-(sanyukta) in his wake, stoics like epictetus emphasized that "the most important and especially pressing field of study is that which has to do with the stronger emotions...sorrows, lamentations, envies...passions which make it impossible for us even to listen to reason".[ ] the stoic tradition still lay behind hamlet's plea to "give me that man that is not passion's slave, and i will wear him in my heart's core",[ ] or erasmus's lament that "jupiter has bestowed far more passion than reason – you could calculate the ratio as to one".[ ] it was only with the romantic movement that a valorisation of passion over reason took hold in the western tradition: "the more passion there is, the better the poetry".[ ] the recent concerns of emotional intelligence have been to find a synthesis of the two forces—something that "turns the old understanding of the tension between reason and feeling on its head: it is not that we want to do away with emotion and put reason in its place, as erasmus had it, but instead find the intelligent balance of the two".[ ] "descartes' error"[edit] antonio damasio studied what ensued when something "severed ties between the lower centres of the emotional brain...and the thinking abilities of the neocortex".[ ] he found that while "emotions and feelings can cause havoc in the processes of reasoning...the absence of emotion and feeling is no less damaging";[ ] and was led to "the counter-intuitive position that feelings are typically indispensable for rational decisions".[ ] the passions, he concluded, "have a say on how the rest of the brain and cognition go about their business. their influence is immense...[providing] a frame of reference – as opposed to descartes' error...the cartesian idea of a disembodied mind".[ ] in marriage[edit] a tension or dialectic between marriage and passion can be traced back in western society at least as far as the middle ages, and the emergence of the cult of courtly love. denis de rougemont has argued that 'since its origins in the twelfth century, passionate love was constituted in opposition to marriage'.[ ] stacey oliker writes that while "puritanism prepared the ground for a marital love ideology by prescribing love in marriage", only from the eighteenth century has "romantic love ideology resolved the puritan antagonism between passion and reason"[ ] in a marital context. (note though that saint paul spoke of loving one's wife in ephesians .) intellectual passions[edit] george bernard shaw "insists that there are passions far more exciting than the physical ones...'intellectual passion, mathematical passion, passion for discovery and exploration: the mightiest of all passions'".[ ] his contemporary, sigmund freud, argued for a continuity (not a contrast) between the two, physical and intellectual, and commended the way "leonardo had energetically sublimated his sexual passions into the passion for independent scientific research".[ ] as a motivation in an occupation[edit] there are different reasons individuals are motivated in an occupation. these may include a passion for the occupation, for a firm, or for an activity. when canadian managers or professionals score as passionate about their occupation they tend to be less obsessive about their behavior while on their job, resulting in more work being done and more work satisfaction. these same individuals have higher levels of psychological well-being.[ ] when people genuinely enjoy their profession and are motivated by their passion, they tend to be more satisfied with their work and more psychologically healthy.[citation needed] when managers or professionals are unsatisfied with their profession they tend to also be dissatisfied with their family relationships and to experience psychological distress.[ ] other reasons people are more satisfied when they are motivated by their passion for their occupation include the effects of intrinsic and external motivations. when canadian managers or professionals do a job to satisfy others, they tend to have lower levels of satisfaction and psychological health. also, these same individuals have shown they are motivated by several beliefs and fears concerning other people.[ ] thirdly, though some individuals believe one should not work extreme hours, many prefer it because of how passionate they are about the occupation. on the other hand, this may also put a strain on family relationships and friendships.[citation needed] the balance of the two is something that is hard to achieve and it is always hard to satisfy both parties.[citation needed] work enjoyment vs. inner pressures[edit] there are different components that qualify as reasons for considering an individual as a workaholic. burke & fiksenbaum refer to spence and robbins ( ) by stating two of the three workaholism components that are used to measure workaholism. these include feeling driven to work because of inner pressure and work enjoyment. both of these affect an individual differently and each has different outcomes. to begin, work enjoyment brings about more positive work outcomes and is unrelated to health indicators. inner pressure, on the other hand, is negatively related with work outcomes and has been related negatively to measures of psychological health. burke & fiksenbaum make a reference to graves et al. ( ) when examining work enjoyment and inner pressures. work enjoyment and inner pressure were tested with performance ratings. the former was positively related to performance ratings while the latter interfered with the performance-enhancing aspects of work enjoyment. burke & fiksenbaum refer to virick and baruch ( ) when explaining how these two workaholism components affect life satisfaction. not surprisingly, inner pressure lowered the balance between work-life and life satisfaction but enhanced people's performance at their occupation, whereas work enjoyment led to a positive balance between the two. again, when managers and professionals are passionate about their occupation and put in many hours, they then become concerned that their occupation will satisfy personal relationships and the balance must then be found according to the importance levels of the individual.[ ] motivation and outcomes[edit] the researchers indicate different patterns of correlations between these two components. these patterns include antecedents and consequences. the two components offer unique motivations or orientations to work which result in its effects on work and well-being. inner pressures will hinder performance while work enjoyment will smooth performance. inner pressures of workaholism have characteristics such as persistence, rigidity, perfectionism, and heightened levels of job stress. this component is also associated[by whom?] with working harder, not smarter. on a more positive note, individuals who enjoy their work will have higher levels of performance for several reasons. these include creativity, trust in their colleagues, and reducing levels of stress.[ ] good and bad workaholics[edit] burke and fiksenbaum refer to schaufeli, taris, and bakker ( ) when they made a distinction between an individual good workaholics and bad workaholics. a good workaholic will score higher on measures of work engagement and a bad workaholic will score higher on measures of burnout. they[who?] also suggest why this is – some individuals work because they are satisfied, engaged, and challenged and to prove a point. on the other hand, the opposite kind work hard because they are addicted to work; they see that the occupation makes a contribution to finding an identity and purpose.[ ] desire in an occupation[edit] passion and desire go hand in hand, especially as a motivation. linstead & brewis refer to merriam-webster to say that passion is an "intense, driving, or overmastering feeling or conviction". this suggests that passion is a very intense emotion, but can be positive or negative. negatively, it may be unpleasant at times. it could involve pain and has obsessive forms that can destroy the self and even others. in an occupation, when an individual is very passionate about their job, they may be so wrapped up in work that they cause pain to their loved ones by focusing more on their job than on their friendships and relationships. this is a constant battle of balance that is difficult to achieve and only an individual can decide where that line lies.[citation needed] passion is connected to the concept of desire. in fact, they are inseparable, according to a (mostly western) way of thinking related to plato, aristotle, and augustine. these two concepts cause individuals to reach out for something, or even someone. they both can either be creative or destructive and this dark side can very well be dangerous to the self or to others.[ ] as a motivation for hobbies[edit] hobbies require a certain level of passion in order to continue engaging in the hobby. singers, athletes, dancers, artists, and many others describe their emotion for their hobby as a passion. although this might be the emotion they're feeling, passion is serving as a motivation for them to continue their hobby. recently there has been a model to explain different types of passion that contribute to engaging in an activity. dualistic model[edit] according to researchers who have tested this model, "a dualistic model in which passion is defined as a strong inclination or desire toward a self-defining activity that one likes (or even loves), that one finds important (high valuation), and in which one invests time and energy." [ ] it is proposed that there exist two types of passion. the first type of passion is harmonious passion. "a harmonious passion refers to a strong desire to engage in the activity that remains under the person's control." [ ]this is mostly obtained when the person views their activity as part of their identity. furthermore, once an activity is part of the person's identity then the motivation to continue the specific hobby is even stronger. the harmony obtained with this passion is conceived when the person is able both to freely engage in or to stop the hobby. it's not so much that the person is forced to continue this hobby, but on his or her own free will is able to engage in it. for example, if a girl loves to play volleyball, but she has a project due the next day and her friends invite her to play, she should be able to say "no" on the basis of her own free will. the second kind of passion in the dualistic model is obsessive passion. being the opposite of harmonious passion. this type has a strong desire to engage in the activity, but it's not under the person's own control and he or she is forced to engage in the hobby. this type of passion has a negative effect on a person where they could feel they need to engage in their hobby to continue, for example, interpersonal relationships, or "fit in" with the crowd. to change the above example, if the girl has an obsessive passion towards volleyball and she is asked to play with her friends, she will likely say "yes" even though she needs to finish her project for the next day. intrinsic motivation[edit] since passion can be a type of motivation in hobbies then assessing intrinsic motivation is appropriate. intrinsic motivation helps define these types of passion. passion naturally helps the needs or desires that motivate a person to some particular action or behavior.[ ] certain abilities and hobbies can be developed early and the innate motivation is also something that comes early in life. although someone might know how to engage in a hobby, this doesn't necessarily mean they are motivated to do it. christine robinson makes the point in her article that, " ...knowledge of your innate motivation can help guide action toward what will be fulfilling." [ ] feeling satisfied and fulfilled builds the passion for the hobby to continue a person's happiness. fictional examples[edit] in margaret drabble's the realms of gold, the hero flies hundreds of miles to reunite with the heroine, only to miss her by hours – leaving the onlookers "wondering what grand passion could have brought him so far...a quixotic look about him, a look of harassed desperation".[ ] when the couple do finally reunite, however, the heroine is less than impressed. "'if you ask me, it was a very childish gesture. you're not twenty-one now, you know'. 'no, i know. it was my last fling'".[ ] in alberto moravia's , the revolutionary double-agent, faced with the girl he is betraying, "was seized by violent desire...he never took his eyes off my bosom...i believe those two dark spots at the end of my breasts were enough to make him forget tsarism, revolution, political faith, ideology, and betrayal".[ ] see also[edit] 	crime of passion 	eros 	eroticism 	limerence 	attraction 	courtly love 	love 	passions (philosophy) 	pathos 	romantic love 	enthusiasm 	zest (positive psychology) references[edit] footnotes[edit] 	^ " . paschó". strong's concordance. archived from the original on july , . retrieved december , . 	^ "definition of passion". oxford english dictionary. archived from the original on may , . retrieved december , . 	^ diderot, denis ( april ). "passions". encyclopedia of diderot & d'alembert - collaborative translation project. : – . hdl: /spo.did . . . 	^ for example: schroeder, theodore (july ). "psychology, democracy and free speech". the medico-legal journal. medico-legal society of new york. ( ): . retrieved march . every one with enough ignorant passion to be offended must of necessity deem everything to be of evil tendency which questions the omniscience of this passionate ignorance. passion and fear of unconventional thoughts or words are symptoms of immaturity and conflict, that is, of ignorance, and all these conduce to the desire for censorship. 	^ "the definition of emotion". 	^ james, william ( - - ). "what is an emotion?". 	^ dixon, thomas ( - - ). from passions to emotions: the creation of a secular psychological category. cambridge university press. isbn  . 	^ solomon, robert c. ( ). "emotions and choice". the review of metaphysics. ( ): – . issn  - . jstor  . 	^ w. a. oldfield trans., epitectus: the discourses vol ii (london ) p. 	^ harold jenkins ed., hamlet (london ) p. 	^ quoted in goleman, p. 	^ john dennis, in m. h. abrams, the mirror and the lamp (oxford ) p. 	^ goleman, p. - 	^ goleman, p. 	^ antonio r. damasio, descartes' error (london ) p. xiv 	^ goleman, p. 	^ damasio, p. and p. 	^ denis de rougement, love in the western world (princeton ) p. 	^ stacey j. oliker, best friends and marriage ( ) p. 	^ stanley weintraub, shaw's people ( ) p. 	^ peter gay, freud: a life for our time (london ) p. 	^ burke, r. j.; fiksenbaum, lisa (may ). "work motivations, satisfactions, and health among managers: passion versus addiction". cross-cultural research. : – . doi: . / . s cid  . data were collected from canadian managers and professionals, mba graduates of a single university, using anonymously completed questionnaires. the following results were noted. first, scores on passion and addiction were significantly and positively correlated. second, managers scoring higher on passion and on addiction were both more heavily invested in their work. third, managers scoring higher on passion also indicated less obsessive job behaviors, greater work and extrawork satisfactions, and higher levels of psychological well-being. 	^ a b c d e burke, r. j.; fiksenbaum, lisa (may ). "work motivations, satisfactions, and health among managers: passion versus addiction". cross-cultural research. : – . doi: . / . s cid  . data were collected from canadian managers and professionals, mba graduates of a single university, using anonymously completed questionnaires. 	^ linstead, s.; brewis, j. ( ). "passion, knowledge and motivation: ontolgies of desire". organization. . ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ a b phillipe, f.l.; vallerand, r. j.; houlfort, n.; lavigne, g. l.; donahue, e. g. ( ). "passion for an activity and quality of interpersonal relationships: the mediating role of emotions". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ a b robinson, c. ( ). "the keys to turbo-charging intrinsic motivation". journal for quality & participation. ( ): – . 	^ margaret drabble, the realms of gold(penguin ) p. 	^ drabble, p. 	^ alberto moravia, (london ) p. - sources[edit] 	diderot's encyclopédie further reading[edit] 	rené descartes, passions of the soul in j. cottingham et al. eds., the philosophical writings of descartes vol i (cambridge ) external links[edit] 	sophie de mijolla-mellor, "passion" 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 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		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 shame - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	shame 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		this article is about psychological, philosophical, and societal aspects of shame. for other uses, see shame (disambiguation). an affect, emotion, cognition, state, or condition eve covers herself and lowers her head in shame in rodin's eve after the fall. 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e shame is an unpleasant self-conscious emotion typically associated with a negative evaluation of the self; withdrawal motivations; and feelings of distress, exposure, mistrust, powerlessness, and worthlessness. contents 	 definition 	 identification and self-evaluation 	 . behavioural expression 	 comparison with other emotions 	 . comparison with guilt 	 . comparison with embarrassment 	 four subtypes 	 . subtypes 	 shame and mental illness 	 . narcissistic personality disorder 	 social aspects 	 . stigma 	 . shame campaign 	 research 	 . treatments for shame 	 . . empathy 	 see also 	 further reading 	 external links 	 references definition[edit] 	 	this section possibly contains inappropriate or misinterpreted citations that do not verify the text. please help improve this article by checking for citation inaccuracies. (may ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) shame is a discrete, basic emotion, described as a moral or social emotion that drives people to hide or deny their wrongdoings.[ ] the focus of shame is on the self or the individual; it is the only emotion that is dysfunctional for the individual and functional at a group level. shame can also be described as an unpleasant self-conscious emotion that involves negative evaluation of the self.[ ] shame can be a painful emotion that is seen as a "...comparison of the self's action with the self's standards..." but may equally stem from comparison of the self's state of being with the ideal social context's standard. some scales measure shame to assess emotional states, whereas other shame scales are used to assess emotional traits or dispositions- shame proneness.[ ] "to shame" generally means to actively assign or communicate a state of shame to another person. behaviors designed to "uncover" or "expose" others are sometimes used to place shame on the other person. whereas, having shame means to maintain a sense of restraint against offending others (as with modesty, humility, and deference). in contrast to having shame is to have no shame; behave without the restraint to offend others, similar to other emotions like pride or hubris.[clarification needed] identification and self-evaluation[edit] nineteenth-century scientist charles darwin described shame affect in the physical form of blushing, confusion of mind, downward cast eyes, slack posture, and lowered head; darwin noted these observations of shame affect in human populations worldwide, as mentioned in his book "the expression of the emotions in man and animals". darwin also mentions how the sense of warmth or heat, associated with the vasodilation of the face and skin, can result in an even more sense of shame. more commonly, the act of crying can be associated with shame. when people feel shame, the focus of their evaluation is on the self or identity.[ ] shame is a self-punishing acknowledgment of something gone wrong.[ ] it is associated with "mental undoing". studies of shame showed that when ashamed people feel that their entire self is worthless, powerless, and small, they also feel exposed to an audience—real or imagined—that exists purely for the purpose of confirming that the self is worthless. shame and the sense of self is stigmatized, or treated unfairly, like being overtly rejected by parents in favor of siblings' needs, and is assigned externally by others regardless of one's own experience or awareness. an individual who is in a state of shame will assign the shame internally from being a victim of the environment, and the same is assigned externally, or assigned by others regardless of one's own experience or awareness. a "sense of shame" is the feeling known as guilt but "consciousness" or awareness of "shame as a state" or condition defines core/toxic shame (lewis, ; tangney, ). the person experiencing shame might not be able to, or perhaps simply will not, identify their emotional state as shame, and there is an intrinsic connection between shame and the mechanism of denial.[ ] " the key emotion in all forms of shame is contempt (miller, ; tomkins, ). two realms in which shame is expressed are the consciousness of self as bad and self as inadequate.[ ] people employ negative coping responses to counter deep rooted, associated sense of "shameworthiness".[ ] the shame cognition may occur as a result of the experience of shame affect or, more generally, in any situation of embarrassment, dishonor, disgrace, inadequacy, humiliation, or chagrin.[ ] shame, devaluation and their interrelationship are similar across cultures, prompting some researchers to suggest that there is a universal human psychology of cultural valuation and devaluation.[ ] behavioural expression[edit] the shame code was developed to capture behavior as it unfolds in real time during the socially stressful and potentially shaming spontaneous speech task and was coded into the following categories: ( ) body tension, ( ) facial tension, ( ) stillness, ( ) fidgeting, ( ) nervous positive affect, ( ) hiding and avoiding, ( ) verbal flow and uncertainty, and ( ) silence.[ ] shame proneness was associated with more fidgeting and less freezing, but both stillness and fidgeting are social cues that communicate distress to observers, and may elicit less harsh responses. thus, both may be an attempt to diminish further shaming experiences. shame involves global, self-focused negative attributions based on the anticipated, imagined, or real negative evaluations of others and is accompanied by a powerful urge to hide, withdraw, or escape from the source of these evaluations. these negative evaluations arise from transgressions of standards, rules, or goals and cause the individual to feel separate from the group for which these standards, rules, or goals exist, resulting in one of the most powerful, painful, and potentially destructive experiences known to humans.[ ] comparison with other emotions[edit] comparison with guilt[edit] person hiding face and showing posture of shame (while wearing a sanbenito and coroza hat) in goya's sketch "for being born somewhere else". the person has been shamed by the spanish inquisition. further information: guilt-shame-fear spectrum of cultures the boundaries between concepts of shame, guilt, and embarrassment are not easily delineated.[ ] according to cultural anthropologist ruth benedict, shame arises from a violation of cultural or social values while guilt feelings arise from violations of one's internal values. thus shame arises when one's 'defects' are exposed to others, and results from the negative evaluation (whether real or imagined) of others; guilt, on the other hand, comes from one's own negative evaluation of oneself, for instance, when one acts contrary to one's values or idea of one's self.[ ] thus, it might be possible to feel ashamed of thought or behavior that no one actually knows about [since one fears their discovery] and conversely, to feel guilty about actions that gain the approval of others. psychoanalyst helen b. lewis argued that, "the experience of shame is directly about the self, which is the focus of evaluation. in guilt, the self is not the central object of negative evaluation, but rather the thing done is the focus."[ ] similarly, fossum and mason say in their book facing shame that "while guilt is a painful feeling of regret and responsibility for one's actions, shame is a painful feeling about oneself as a person."[ ] following this line of reasoning, psychiatrist judith lewis herman concludes that "shame is an acutely self-conscious state in which the self is 'split,' imagining the self in the eyes of the other; by contrast, in guilt the self is unified."[ ] clinical psychologist gershen kaufman's view of shame is derived from that of affect theory, namely that shame is one of a set of instinctual, short-duration physiological reactions to stimulation.[ ][ ] in this view, guilt is considered to be a learned behavior consisting essentially of self-directed blame or contempt, with shame occurring consequent to such behaviors making up a part of the overall experience of guilt. here, self-blame and self-contempt mean the application, towards (a part of) one's self, of exactly the same dynamic that blaming of, and contempt for, others represents when it is applied interpersonally. kaufman saw that mechanisms such as blame or contempt may be used as a defending strategy against the experience of shame and that someone who has a pattern of applying them to himself may well attempt to defend against a shame experience by applying self-blame or self-contempt. this, however, can lead to an internalized, self-reinforcing sequence of shame events for which kaufman coined the term "shame spiral".[ ] shame can also be used as a strategy when feeling guilt, in particular when there is the hope to avoid punishment by inspiring pity.[ ] one view of difference between shame and embarrassment says that shame does not necessarily involve public humiliation while embarrassment does; that is, one can feel shame for an act known only to oneself but in order to be embarrassed one's actions must be revealed to others. in the field of ethics (moral psychology, in particular), however, there is debate as to whether or not shame is a heteronomous emotion, i.e. whether or not shame does involve recognition on the part of the ashamed that they have been judged negatively by others. another view of the dividing line between shame and embarrassment holds that the difference is one of intensity.[ ] in this view embarrassment is simply a less intense experience of shame. it is adaptive and functional. extreme or toxic shame is a much more intense experience and one that is not functional. in fact on this view toxic shame can be debilitating. the dividing line then is between functional and dysfunctional shame. this includes the idea that shame has a function or benefit for the organism.[ ] immanuel kant and his followers held that shame is heteronomous (comes from others); bernard williams and others have argued that shame can be autonomous (comes from oneself).[ ][ ] shame may carry the connotation of a response to something that is morally wrong whereas embarrassment is the response to something that is morally neutral but socially unacceptable. another view of shame and guilt is that shame is a focus on self, while guilt is a focus on behavior. simply put: a person who feels guilt is saying "i did something bad.", while someone who feels shame is saying "i am bad". comparison with embarrassment[edit] embarrassment has occasionally been viewed in the literature as a less severe or intense form of shame, but it is distinct from shame in that it involves a focus on the self-presented to an audience rather than the entire self, and that it is experienced as a sense of fluster and slight mortification resulting from a social awkwardness that leads to a loss of esteem in the eyes of others. we have characterized embarrassment as a sudden-onset sense of fluster and mortification that results when the self is evaluated negatively because one has committed, or anticipates committing, a gaffe or awkward performance before an audience. so, because shame is focused on the entire self, those who become embarrassed apologize for their mistake, and then begin to repair things and this repair involves redressing harm done to the presented self.[ ] one view of difference between shame and embarrassment says that shame does not necessarily involve public humiliation while embarrassment does; that is, one can feel shame for an act known only to oneself but in order to be embarrassed one's actions must be revealed to others. therefore shame can only be experienced in private and embarrassment can never be experienced in private.[ ] in the field of ethics (moral psychology, in particular), however, there is debate as to whether or not shame is a heteronomous emotion, i.e. whether or not shame does involve recognition on the part of the ashamed that they have been judged negatively by others. this is a mature heteronomous type of shame where the agent does not judge herself negatively, but, due to the negative judgments of others, suspects that she may deserve negative judgment, and feel shame on this basis.[ ] therefore, shame may carry the connotation of a response to something that is morally wrong whereas embarrassment is the response to something that is morally neutral but socially unacceptable. four subtypes[edit] there are many different reasons that people might feel shame. according to joseph burgo, there are four different aspects of shame. he calls these aspects of shame paradigms. in his first subdivision of shame he looks into is unrequited love; which is when you love someone but your partner does not reciprocate, or one is rejected by somebody that they like; this can be mortifying and shaming. unrequited love can be shown in other ways as well. for example, the way a mother treats her new born baby. an experiment was done where a mother showed her baby love and talked to the baby for a set period of time. she then went a few minutes without talking to the baby. this resulted with the baby making different expressions to get the mother's attention. when the mother stopped giving the baby attention, the baby felt shame. the second type of shame is unwanted exposure. this would take place if you were called out in front of a whole class for doing something wrong or if someone saw you doing something you didn't want them to see. this is what you would normally think of when you hear the word shame. disappointed expectation would be your third type of shame according to burgo. this could be not passing a class, having a friendship go wrong, or not getting a big promotion in a job that you thought you would get. the fourth and final type of shame according to burgo is exclusion which also means being left out. many people will do anything to just fit in or want to belong in today's society. this happens all the time at school, work, friendships, relationships, everywhere. people will do anything to prove that they belong. shame causes a lot of stress on people daily, but it also teaches people a lot of lessons. without having shame people would never be able to learn a lesson and never be able to grow from their mistakes. subtypes[edit] 	genuine shame: is associated with genuine dishonor, disgrace, or condemnation.[citation needed] 	false shame: is associated with false condemnation as in the double bind form of false shaming; "he brought what we did to him upon himself". author and tv personality john bradshaw calls shame the "emotion that lets us know we are finite".[ ] 	secret shame: describes the idea of being ashamed to be ashamed, so causing ashamed people to keep their shame a secret.[ ] 	toxic shame: describes false, pathological shame, and bradshaw states that toxic shame is induced, inside children, by all forms of child abuse. incest and other forms of child sexual abuse can cause particularly severe toxic shame. toxic shame often induces what is known as complex trauma in children who cannot cope with toxic shaming as it occurs and who dissociate the shame until it is possible to cope with.[ ] 	vicarious shame: refers to the experience of shame on behalf of another person. individuals vary in their tendency to experience vicarious shame, which is related to neuroticism and to the tendency to experience personal shame. extremely shame-prone people might even experience vicarious shame even to an increased degree, in other words: shame on behalf of another person who is already feeling shame on behalf of a third party (or possibly on behalf of the individual proper). the dutch term for this feeling is 'plaatsvervangende schaamte', the german term is die fremdscham and in the spanish language it is referred to as vergüenza ajena.[ ] shame and mental illness[edit] narcissistic personality disorder[edit] it has been suggested that narcissism in adults is related to defenses against shame[ ] and that narcissistic personality disorder is connected to shame as well.[ ][ ] according to psychiatrist glen gabbard, npd can be broken down into two subtypes, a grandiose, arrogant, thick-skinned "oblivious" subtype and an easily hurt, oversensitive, ashamed "hypervigilant" subtype. the oblivious subtype presents for admiration, envy, and appreciation a grandiose self that is the antithesis of a weak internalized self which hides in shame, while the hypervigilant subtype neutralizes devaluation by seeing others as unjust abusers.[ ] social aspects[edit] a girl feeling ashamed as two other girls taunt behind her back according to the anthropologist ruth benedict, cultures may be classified by their emphasis on the use of either shame (a shame society) or guilt to regulate the social activities of individuals.[ ] shame may be used by those people who commit relational aggression and may occur in the workplace as a form of overt social control or aggression. shaming is used in some societies as a type of punishment, shunning, or ostracism. in this sense, "the real purpose of shaming is not to punish crimes but to create the kind of people who don't commit them".[ ] stigma[edit] see also: social stigma stigma occurs when society labels someone as tainted, less desirable, or handicapped. this negative evaluation may be "felt" or "enacted". when felt, it refers to the shame associated with having a condition and the fear of being discriminated against... when enacted it refers to actual discrimination of this kind.[ ] shame in relation to stigma studies have most often come from the sense and mental consequences that young adolescents find themselves trapped in when they are deciding to use a condom in std or hiv protection. the other use of stigma and shame is when someone has a disease, such as cancer, where people look to blame something for their feelings of shame and circumstance of sickness. jessica m. sales et al. researched young adolescents ages – on whether they had used protection in the days prior to coming in for the study. the answers showed implications of shame and stigma, which received an accommodating score. the scores, prior history of stds, demographics, and psychosocial variables were put into a hierarchical regression model to determine probability of an adolescents chances of using protected sex in the future. the study found that the higher sense of shame and stigma the higher chance the adolescent would use protection in the future. this means that if a person is more aware of consequences, is more in-tune with themselves and the stigma (stereotypes, disgrace, etc.), they will be more likely to protect themselves. the study shows that placing more shame and stigma in the mind of people can be more prone to protecting themselves from the consequences that follow the action of unprotected sex.[ ] hiv-related stigma from those who are born with hiv due to their maternal genetics have a proneness to shame and avoidant coping. david s. bennett et al. studied the ages – of self-reported measures of potential risk factors and three domains of internalizing factors: depression, anxiety, and ptsd. the findings suggested that those who had more shame-proneness and more awareness of hiv-stigma had a greater amount of depressive and ptsd symptoms. this means that those who have high hiv-stigma and shame do not seek help from interventions. rather, they avoid the situation that could cause them to find themselves in a predicament of other mental health issues. older age was related to greater hiv-related stigma and the female gender was more related to stigma and internalizing symptoms (depression, anxiety, ptsd). stigma was also associated with greater shame-proneness.[ ] chapple et al. researched people with lung cancer in regards to the shame and stigma that comes from the disease. the stigma that accompanies lung cancer is most commonly caused by smoking. however, there are many ways to contract lung cancer, therefore those who did not receive lung cancer from smoking often feel shame; blaming themselves for something they did not do. the stigma effects their opinions of themselves, while shame is found to blame other cancer causing factors (tobacco products/anti-tobacco products) or ignoring the disease in avoidant coping altogether. the stigma associated with lung cancer effected relationships of patients with their family members, peers, and physicians who were attempting to provide comfort because the patients felt shame and victimized themselves.[ ] shame campaign[edit] a shame campaign is a tactic in which particular individuals are singled out because of their behavior or suspected crimes, often by marking them publicly, such as hester prynne in nathaniel hawthorne's the scarlet letter. in the philippines, alfredo lim popularized such tactics during his term as mayor of manila. on july , , he began a controversial "spray paint shame campaign" in an effort to stop drug use. he and his team sprayed bright red paint on two hundred squatter houses whose residents had been charged, but not yet convicted, of selling prohibited substances. officials of other municipalities followed suit. former senator rene a. saguisag condemned lim's policy.[ ] communists in the th century used struggle sessions to handle corruption and other problems.[ ] public humiliation, historically expressed by confinement in stocks and in other public punishments may occur in social media through viral phenomena.[ ] research[edit] see also: measures of guilt and shame psychologists and other researchers who study shame use validated psychometric testing instruments to determine whether or how much a person feels shame. some of these tools include the guilt and shame proneness (gasp) scale,[ ] the shame and stigma scale (sss), the experience of shame scale, and the internalized shame scale. some scales are specific to the person's situation, such as the weight- and body-related shame and guilt scale (web-sg), the hiv stigma scale for people living with hiv and the cataldo lung cancer stigma scale (clcss) for people with lung cancer.[ ] others are more general, such as the emotional reactions and thoughts scale, which deals with anxiety, depression, and guilt as well as shame. treatments for shame[edit] empathy[edit] brene brown explains that shame (using a metaphor of a petri-dish) only needs things to grow: secrecy, silence, and judgement. shame cannot grow or thrive, in the context (or supportive environment) of empathy. it is important, however, that when we reach out for a supportative/empathetic person (i.e. when we reach out to share our story/experience): that we choose the people who have earned the right to hear our story (i.e. someone you can trust); share with people with whom we have a relationship that can bear the weight of the story. [ ] see also[edit] 	badge of shame 	cognitive dissonance 	guilt (emotion) 	haya (islam) 	lady macbeth effect 	measures of guilt and shame 	online shaming 	psychological projection 	reintegrative shaming 	scopophobia 	so you've been publicly shamed, a book by journalist jon ronson about online shaming further reading[edit] 	bradshaw, j. ( ). healing the shame that binds you. hci. isbn  - - - . 	gilbert, p. ( ). body shame: conceptualisation, research and treatment. brunner-routledge. isbn  - - - . 	gilbert, p. ( ). shame: interpersonal behavior, psychopathology and culture. isbn  - - - . 	goldberg, carl ( ). understanding shame. northvale, nj.: jason aaronson, inc. isbn  - - - . 	hutchinson, phil ( ). shame and philosophy. london: palgrave macmillan. isbn  - - - - . 	lamb, r. e. (march ). "guilt, shame, and morality". philosophy and phenomenological research. xliii ( ). 	lewis, michael ( ). shame: the exposed self. ny: the free press. isbn  - - - . 	middelton-moz, j. ( ). shame and guilt: masters of disguise. hci. isbn  - - - . 	miller, susan b. ( ). shame in context. routledge. isbn  - - - . 	morrison, andrew p. ( ). the culture of shame. ballantine books. isbn  - - - . 	morrison, andrew p. ( ). shame: the underside of narcissism. the analytic press. isbn  - - - . 	nathanson, d., ed. ( ). the many faces of shame. ny: the guilford press. isbn  - - - . 	schneider, carl d. ( ). shame, exposure, and privacy. boston: beacon press. isbn  - - - . 	uebel, michael ( ). "psychoanalysis and the question of violence: from masochism to shame". american imago. ( ): – . doi: . /aim. . . s cid  . 	uebel, michael ( ). "dirty rotten shame? the value and ethical functions of shame". journal of humanistic psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	vallelonga, damian s. ( ). "an empirical phenomenological investigation of being ashamed". in valle, r. (ed.). phenomenological inquiry in psychology: existential and transpersonal dimensions. new york: plenum press. pp.  – . doi: . / - - - - _ . isbn  - - - - . external links[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to shame. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: shame 		look up shame in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	brene brown listening to shame, ted talk, march 	sample chapter from phil hutchinson's book shame and philosophy 	understanding shame and humiliation in torture 	us forces make iraqis strip and walk naked in public 	shame 	humiliation is simply wrong (usa today editorial/opinion) 	hiding from humanity: disgust, shame, and the law 	shame and psychotherapy 	shame and group psychotherapy 	sexual guilt and shame 	social usage of shame in historical times references[edit] 	^ shein, l. ( ). the evolution of shame and guilt. plosone, ( ), - . 	^ parsa, s. ( ). psychological construction of shame in disordered eating. new psychology bulletin, ( ), - . 	^ a b schalkwijk, f., stams, g. j., dekker, j., & elison, j. ( ). measuring shame regulations: validation of the compass of shame scale. social behavior and personality, ( ), - . 	^ niedenthal, p. m., krauth-gruber, s. & ric, f. ( ). psychology of emotion: self-conscious emotions. new york, ny: taylor & francis group. 	^ dolezal, luna; lyons, barry ( - - ). "health-related shame: an affective determinant of health?". medical humanities. ( ): – . doi: . /medhum- - . issn  - x. pmc  . pmid  . 	^ jeff greenberg; sander l. koole; tom pyszczynski ( ). handbook of experimental existential psychology. guilford publications. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ edward teyber; faith teyber ( ). interpersonal process in therapy: an integrative model. cengage learning. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ broucek, francis ( ), shame and the self, guilford press, new york, p.  , isbn  - - - - 	^ sznycer, daniel, dimitris xygalatas, elizabeth agey, sarah alami, xiao-fen an, kristina i. ananyeva, quentin d. atkinson et al. "cross-cultural invariances in the architecture of shame." proceedings of the national academy of sciences , no. ( ): - . 	^ a b de france, k., lanteigne, d., glozman, j. & hollenstain, t. ( ). a new measure of the expression of shame: the shame code. journal of child & family studies, ( ), - . 	^ tangney, jp; miller flicker barlow ( ), "are shame, guilt, and embarrassment distinct emotions?", journal of personality and social psychology, ( ): – , doi: . / - . . . , pmid  , s cid  	^ "cultural models of shame and guilt" archived april , , at the wayback machine 	^ lewis, helen b. ( ), "shame and guilt in neurosis", psychoanalytic review, international university press, new york, ( ): – , isbn  - - - - , pmid  	^ fossum, merle a.; mason, marilyn j. ( ), facing shame: families in recovery, w.w. norton, p.  , isbn  - - - - 	^ herman, judith lewis ( ), "shattered shame states and their repair" (pdf), the john bowlby memorial lecture, archived from the original (pdf) on july , 	^ a b kaufman, gershen ( ), shame: the power of caring ( rd ed.), schenkman books, rochester, vt, isbn  - - - - 	^ nathanson, donald ( ), shame and pride: affect, sex, and the birth of the self, w.w. norton, ny, isbn  - - - - 	^ shame and the origins of self-esteem: a jungian approach. psychology press. . pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ graham, michael c. ( ). facts of life: ten issues of contentment. outskirts press. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ graham, michael c. ( ). facts of life: ten issues of contentment. outskirts press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ williams, bernard: shame and necessity 	^ hutchinson, phil: chapter four of shame and philosophy 	^ a b niedenthal, p. m., krauth-gruber, s. & ric, f. ( ). psychology of emotion: self-conscious emotions. new york, ny: taylor & francis group. 	^ turnbull, d. j. ( ). shame: in defense of an essential moral emotion. phd thesis, birkbeck, university of london. 	^ bradshaw, john (december ), bradshaw on the family: a new way of creating solid self-esteem, hci, isbn  - - - - 	^ gilligan, james ( ) violence: reflections on a national epidemic vintage books, new york 	^ bradshaw, john ( ) healing the shame that binds you ( nd edition) health communications, deerfield beach, florida, page archived august , , at the wayback machine, isbn  - - - 	^ paulus, f.m., müller-pinzler, l., jansen, a., gazzola, v. and krach, s., . mentalizing and the role of the posterior superior temporal sulcus in sharing others' embarrassment. cerebral cortex, ( ), pp. - . 	^ wurmser l, shame, the veiled companion of narcissism, in the many faces of shame, edited by nathanson dl. new york, guilford, , pp. – . 	^ a b gabbard go, subtypes of narcissistic personality disorder.[dead link] bull menninger clin ; : – . 	^ young, klosko, weishaar: schema therapy – a practitioner's guide, , p. . 	^ stephen pattison, shame:theory, therapy and theology. cambridge university press. . . isbn  	^ roger scruton, bring back stigma, in modern sex: liberation and its discontents, chicago , p. . 	^ a b chapple, a., ziebland, s. & mcpherson, a. ( ). stigma, shame, and blame experienced by patients with lung cancer: qualitative study. british medical journal, ( ), - . 	^ sales, j. m., diclemente, r. j., rose, e. s., wingood, g. m., klein, j. d. & woods, e. r. ( ). relationship of std-related shame and stigma to female adolescents' condom-protected intercourse. journal of adolescent health, , . 	^ bennett, d. s., hersh, j., herres, j. & foster, j. ( ). hiv-related stigma, shame, and avoidant coping: risk factors for internalizing symptoms among youth living with hiv? child psychology & human development, ( ), - . 	^ pulta, benjamin b. "spray campaign debate heats up." archived september , , at the wayback machine sun.star manila. june , . 	^ hayoun, massoud ( - - ). "photos: fathers of chinese leaders at revolutionary 'struggle sessions'". the atlantic. retrieved - - . 	^ jon ronson (march , ). so you've been publicly shamed (hardcover) |format= requires |url= (help). riverhead books. isbn  - . 	^ cohen tr; wolf st; panter at; insko ca (may ). "introducing the gasp scale: a new measure of guilt and shame proneness". j pers soc psychol. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	^ cataldo jk; slaughter r; jahan tm; pongquan vl; hwang wj (january ). "measuring stigma in people with lung cancer: psychometric testing of the cataldo lung cancer stigma scale". oncol nurs forum. ( ): e – . doi: . / .onf.e -e . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ brene, brown ( ). the power of vulnerability. sounds true. 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 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	elective share 	pretermitted heir 	wills and conflict of laws 	 trusts 	 	express 	resulting 	constructive common types 	bare 	discretionary 	accumulation and maintenance 	interest in possession 	charitable 	purpose 	incentive other types 	protective 	spendthrift 	life insurance 	remainder 	life interest 	reversionary interest 	testamentary 	honorary 	asset-protection 	special needs 	supplemental needs governing doctrines 	pour-over will 	cy-près doctrine 	hague convention (conflict law) 	application in civil law 	dishonest assistance 	 estate administration 	 	intestacy 	testator 	probate 	power of appointment 	simultaneous death 	slayer rule 	laughing heir 	advancement 	disclaimer of interest 	inheritance tax 	 related topics 	 	advance directive (living will) 	blind trust 	forced heirship 	totten trust 	 other common law areas 	 	contract 	tort 	property 	criminal law 	evidence 		v 	t 	e 	 	this article needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "position of trust" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (december ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) a position of trust is any position that requires its holder to enjoy the trust of those who elected or chose the holder. it is often used in a more restricted sense defined by an organization or by legislation. one possible legal summary of a position of trust is a paid or volunteer position with one or more of the following responsibilities: access to vulnerable populations, property access, financial/fiduciary duty or executive positions. [ ] according to one common definition, it is any position that has responsibility for "cash, keys, or kids (minors)". the concept of "keys" refers to security, including it security and management.[ ][ ] according to another common definition, it is any position of authority over another person or within an organization, for example as a supervisor. crimes committed by a person in a position of trust may be penalized more severely under the law, and those wishing to occupy positions of trust may be subject to special restrictions such as background checks. contents 	 parties involved 	 sexual relations 	 see also 	 references 	 external links parties involved[edit] a typical position of trust at the personal level involves child custody or power of attorney. the same would be true for the five standard professions; medicine, law, finance, education and engineering. any regulated profession dealing with the health and safety of others usually requires certification and licensing and would be a position of trust. the same would be true in the hierarchy of relationships involved in education, employment, financial matters and government. sexual relations[edit] in the united kingdom, the sexual offences act prohibits a person in a position of trust from performing sexual acts with someone who cannot consent, which includes minors and "very vulnerable people".[ ] this is primarily used for the protection of young people who are above the age of consent but under the age of and for the protection of people with mental disabilities. only after a person is no longer in a position of trust may they pursue a sexual relationship with a person previously entrusted to them.[ ][ ] similarly, molestation by a person in a position of trust is also a criminal offence in singapore punishable by imprisonment.[ ] in the netherlands, incest itself is not prosecutable,[citation needed] but if an adult commits incest with a family member that is a minor, the adult can be prosecuted for abusing his/her position of trust. the adult family member does not have to be biologically related to the minor to be prosecutable for this offence. the relevant legislation also applies to adults who are family members only by marriage.[citation needed] see also[edit] 	conflict of interest 	misplaced loyalty 	profession 	professional abuse 	professional ethics 	professional responsibility 	supervisor references[edit] 	^ https://www.lawinsider.com/dictionary/position-of-trust 	^ http://www.policies.uga.edu/fa/nodes/view/ /background-investigations 	^ https://www.unf.edu/hr/employment/pre-employment_background_checks.aspx 	^ "understanding sexual offense reform". jubilee-centre.org. retrieved - - . 	^ law.jrank.org[permanent dead link] 	^ g.r. no. retrieved january 	^ lum, selina. 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( ) (bot) tag: rollback 	 diffhist n user talk: . . . ‎ : + , ‎ ‎doniago talk contribs‎ general note: adding original research, including unpublished syntheses of sources on the bourne ultimatum (film). tag: twinkle 	 diffhist cordell hull‎ : − ‎ ‎greatcaesarsghost talk contribs‎ 	 diffhist m mentuhotep i‎ : − , ‎ ‎hee talk contribs‎ →‎identity: sasasas tag: reverted 	 diffhist user talk:abhi ‎ : + ‎ ‎ravensfire talk contribs‎ →‎november : replying to ravensfire (using reply-link) retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:recentchanges" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			special page 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			atom 	upload file 	special pages 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 sexual desire - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	sexual desire 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		psychological feature arousing organisms to physical pleasure and reproduction for the book by roger scruton, see sexual desire (book). sexual desire is a motivational state and an interest in sexual objects or activities, or as a wish, or drive to seek out sexual objects or to engage in sexual activities.[ ] synonyms for sexual desire are libido, sexual attraction and lust.[ ] sexual desire is an aspect of a person's sexuality, which varies significantly from one person to another, and also varies depending on circumstances at a particular time. not every person experiences sexual desire; those who do not experience it may be labelled asexual. sexual desire may be the single most common sexual event in the lives of men and women.[ ] sexual desire is a subjective feeling state that can be triggered by both internal and external cues, and that may or may not result in overt sexual behaviour.[ ] sexual desire can be aroused through imagination and sexual fantasies, or perceiving an individual whom one finds attractive.[ ] sexual desire is also created and amplified through sexual tension, which is caused by sexual desire that has yet to be consummated. sexual desire can be spontaneous or responsive.[ ] sexual desire is dynamic, can either be positive or negative, and can vary in intensity depending on the desired object/person. the sexual desire spectrum is described by stephen b. levine as: aversion → disinclination → indifference → interest → need → passion.[ ] the production and use of sexual fantasy and thought is an important part of properly functioning sexual desire. some physical manifestations of sexual desire in humans are; licking, sucking, puckering and touching the lips, as well as tongue protrusion.[ ] contents 	 theoretical perspectives 	 sex differences 	 measuring and assessing 	 factors affecting 	 . social and relationship influences 	 . disorders 	 . health 	 . medications 	 . hormones 	 . interventions 	 social and religious views 	 references theoretical perspectives[edit] theorists and researchers have usually employed two different frameworks in their understanding of human sexual desire. the first is a biological framework where sexual desire comes from an innate motivational force like an instinct, drive, need, urge, wish, or want.[ ] also known as sex drive. second, a socio-cultural theory where desire is conceptualized as one factor in a much larger context (i.e. relationships nested within societies, nested within cultures).[ ][ ] in the biological approach, sexual drive is likened to other biological drives such as hunger, where an individual will seek out food, or in the case of desire – pleasure, in order to reduce or avoid pain.[ ] sex drive can be thought of as a biological need or craving that inspires individuals to seek out and become receptive to sexual experiences and sexual pleasure.[ ] however, members of all species (including humans) will not seek to engage in sexual activity with any conspecific, since attraction plays a large role in sexual desire. incentive motivation theory exists under this framework. this theory states that the strength of motivation towards sexual activity depends on the strength of the stimuli (immediacy of stimuli), and if satiety is achieved, the strength of the stimuli/incentive will be increased in the future.[ ] sex drive is strongly tied to biological factors such as “chromosomal and hormonal status, nutritional status, age, and general health”.[ ] sexual desire is the first phase of the human sex response cycle. the traditional model for the human sexual response cycle can be represented as: desire → arousal → orgasm → resolution.[ ] sexual desire, though a part of the sexual response cycle, is believed to be distinct and separate from genital sexual arousal.[ ] it has also been argued that sexual desire is not a distinct phase in sexual response. rather, it is something that persists through arousal and orgasm and can even persist after orgasm. although orgasm might make it difficult for a man to maintain his erection or woman continue with vaginal lubrication, sexual desire can persist nevertheless.[ ] in the sociocultural framework, sexual desire would indicate a longing for sexual activity for its own sake, not for any other purpose than purely for enjoyment and one's own satisfaction or to release some sexual tension.[ ] sexual desire and activity could also be produced to help achieve some other means or to gain some other rewards that may not be sexual in origin, like increased closeness and attachment between partners. sexual desire is not an urge; this may imply that individuals have more of a conscious control of their own desire. that being said, sociocultural influences may push males and females into gender-specific roles where the use of social scripts dictating the appropriate feelings and responses to desire and activity are expected. this may lead to conflict where an individual's wants may be unfulfilled due to the anticipated social consequences of their actions, causing frustration. some theorists suggest that the experience of sexual desire may be socially constructed. however, some argue that although sociocultural factors are very influential over the experience of sexual desire, they don't play a large role until after biological initially influences desire.[ ] another view is that sexual desire is neither a social construction[ ] nor a biological drive.[ ] according to james giles, it is rather an existential need that is based on the sense of incompleteness that arises from the experience of being gendered.[ ] there are many researchers who believe that stressing any single approach to the study of human sexuality and excluding others is not logical and counterproductive.[ ] it is the integrations of and interaction between multiple approaches and disciplines that will allow us the most comprehensive understanding of human sexuality from all angles. one single approach may provide necessary factors for studying desire, but it is not sufficient. sexual desire can manifest itself in more than one way; it is a “variety of different behaviours, cognitions, and emotions, taken together”.[ ] levine suggests that sexual desire has three components which link several different theoretical perspectives together:[ ] 	drive – the biological component. this includes anatomy and neuroendocrine physiology. 	motivation – the psychological component. this includes the influences of personal mental states (mood), interpersonal states (e.g. mutual affection, disagreement), and social context (e.g. relationship status). 	wish – the cultural component. this considers cultural ideals, values, and rules about sexual expression which are external to the individual. sex differences[edit] in early life, usually just before puberty, males are said to be quite flexible regarding their preferred sexual incentive,[ ] although they later become inflexible. females on the other hand remain flexible throughout their life cycle. this change in sexuality due to sensitivity to variations in situational, cultural, and social factors is called erotic plasticity. otherwise, we know very little about the feelings of sexual desire and sexual arousal in prepubertal children or whether any feelings they may have can be comparable to what they would experience later on in life as an adult.[ ] however, we do know that boys typically experience and commence sexual interest and activity before girls do.[ ] men, on average, have significantly higher sex drives and desire for sexual activity than women do; this also correlated with the finding that men report, on average, a larger total number of lifetime sexual partners,[ ] although mathematicians say it is logically impossible for heterosexual men to have more partners on average than heterosexual women.[ ] sex drive was also related to sociosexuality scores, where the higher the sex drive the less restricted the sociosexual orientation, or the willingness to have sex outside of a committed relationship.[ ] this was especially the case for women. lippa utilized data from a bbc internet survey to examine cross-cultural patterns in sex differences for three traits: sex drive, sociosexuality, and height. these three traits all showed consistent sex differences across nations, although women were found to be more variable than men in their sex drive.[ ] on average, male sexual desire remains stronger, more frequent, and longer into the life cycle than women's.[ ] though women do not experience sexual desire as often as men, when they do, the intensity of the experience is equal to that of men.[ ] societal perceptions of men and women in addition to perceptions about acceptable sexual behaviour (e.g. men are more sexual and sometimes insatiable while women should be more reserved and almost nonsexual) may also contribute to expressed levels of sexual desire and expressed sexual satisfaction.[ ] delamater and sill found that affect and feelings towards the importance of sexual activity can affect levels of desire. in their study, women who said that sexual activity was important to the quality of their lives and relationships demonstrated low desire, while women who placed less emphasis on sexual activity in their lives demonstrated high desire. men also presented similar results.[ ] these findings were reflected in a conaglen and evans study where they assessed whether sexual desire levels influence emotional responses and cognitive processing of sexual pictorial stimuli. they found that women with lower sexual desire responded to sexual stimuli in the picture recognition task more quickly but rated the sexual images as less arousing and less pleasant than the other desire groups.[ ] it has been found that women can become physically aroused when presented with explicit sexual imagery and stimuli without experiencing psychological desire or arousal.[ ] this led to % of women in a study reporting that they have had sexual intercourse without experiencing sexual desire while only % of the men reported the same thing.[ ] also, women may form a more significant association between sexual desire and attachment than men.[ ] women may be more prone to desire fluctuation due to the many phases and biological changes the woman's body endures through a life cycle: menstrual cycle, pregnancy, lactation, menopause, and fatigue.[ ] though these changes are usually very small, women seem to have increased levels of sexual desire during ovulation while during menstruation they experience a decreased level of sexual desire.[ ] in women, an abrupt decline in androgen production can cause cessation of sexual thoughts and the failure to respond to sexual cues and triggers which previously would elicit sexual desire.[ ] this is seen especially in postmenopausal women who have low levels of testosterone. doses of testosterone given to women transdermally have been found to improve levels of sexual desire and sexual functioning.[ ] older individuals are less likely to declare themselves as being at the extremes of the sexual desire spectrum.[ ] by the time that individuals reach middle and old age there is a natural decline in sexual desire, sexual capacity, and the frequency of sexual behaviour.[ ] delamater and sill found that the majority of men and women do not officially report themselves as having low levels of sexual desire until they are years old.[ ] many would attribute this lull to partner familiarity, alienation, or preoccupation with other non-sexual matters such as social, relational, and health concerns.[ ] measuring and assessing[edit] properly defining sexual desire is always a challenge as it can be conceptualized in many different ways. one must take into account the definition used by clinicians in the american psychiatric association's diagnostic and statistical manual iv-tr (dsm-iv-tr) as well as what men and women understand their own desire to be.[ ] the difficulty of not having a single, agreed-upon definition that outlines the parameters of "normal" versus "hypoactive" levels of desire[ ] creates challenges in the measurement of sexual desire and in the diagnosis of sexual desire disorders. many researchers seek to assess sexual desire through examining self-reported data and observing the frequency of participants’ sexual behaviour.[ ] this once again poses a problem for many researchers as this method of assessment is only emphasizing the behaviour aspects of sexual desire and is not taking into account the participants' cognitions or biological influences that motivate them to seek out and become receptive to sexual opportunities.[ ] several scales have been developed in recent years to measure the various factors influencing the development and expression of sexual desire. the sexual desire inventory (sdi) is a self-administered questionnaire meant to measure sexual desire. this scale defines sexual desire as “interest in or wish for sexual activity”.[ ] the sdi measures the individual's thoughts as well as actual experiences. fourteen questions assess the strength, frequency, and importance of an individual's desire for sexual activity with others and by themselves. as a result, the sdi proposes that desire can be split into two categories; dyadic and solitary desire. dyadic desire refers to “interest in or a wish to engage in sexual activity with another person and desire for sharing and intimacy with another” while solitary desire refers to “an interest in engaging in sexual behaviour by oneself, and may involve a wish to refrain from intimacy and sharing with others”.[ ] the sexual interest and desire inventory-female (sidi-f) was the first validated instrument developed to specifically assess severity in hypoactive sexual desire disorder (hsdd) or to assess change in response to treatment for the disorder in females.[ ][ ] the sidi-f consists of thirteen items which assess the female's satisfaction with her relationship, her recent sexual experiences both with her partner and alone, her enthusiasm, desire, and receptivity for sexual behaviour, distress over her level of desire, and arousal. with a maximum score of on the scale, higher scores represented increased levels of sexual functioning.[ ] factors affecting[edit] levels of sexual desire may fluctuate over time due to internal and external factors. social and relationship influences[edit] one's social situation can refer to the social circumstances of life, the stage of life one is in, the state of one's relationship with a partner, or even if there is a relationship at all. whether people think that their experience of desire or lack of experience is problematic depends on special kinds of social circumstances such as the presence or absence of a partner.[ ][ ] as social beings, many humans seek out lifetime partners and wish to experience that celebrated connection and intimacy. sexual desire is often considered essential to romantic attraction and relationship development.[ ] the experience of desire can ebb and flow with the passing of time, with increasing familiarity for one's partner, and with the changing of relationship dynamics and priorities. for more information please view sexual desire and intimate relationships. disorders[edit] there are currently two sexual desire disorders in the diagnostic and statistical manual iv-tr (dsm-iv-tr) which affect men and women alike. the first is hypoactive sexual desire disorder (hsdd). hsdd is currently defined by the dsm as persistently or recurrently deficient (or absent) sexual fantasies and desire for sexual activity which causes marked distress or interpersonal difficulty.[ ] however, this definition has been met with some disagreement in recent years as it places too much emphasis on sexual fantasy which are usually used to supplement sexual arousal.[ ] as a result, a group of sexuality researchers and clinicians have recently proposed the addition of sexual desire/interest disorder (sdid) to the dsm in hopes that it may encompass sexual desire concerns specifically in women more accurately.[ ] sdid is defined by low sexual desire, absent sexual fantasies, and a lack of responsive desire.[ ] the second sexual desire disorder in the dsm is sexual aversion disorder (sad). sad is defined as persistent or recurrent extreme aversion to, and avoidance of, all or almost all, genital sexual contact with a sexual partner.[ ] however, some have questioned the placement of sad within the sexual dysfunction category of the dsm and have called for its placement within the specific phobia grouping as an anxiety disorder.[ ] both hsdd and sad has been found to be more prevalent in females than males, this is especially the case in sad.[ ] however, on a spectrum of severity, hsdd would be considered less severe than sad. on the opposite end of the sexual desire disorder spectrum is hypersexual disorder. according to the proposed revision to the dsm which will include hypersexual disorder in the appendix of future publications, hypersexual disorder is defined as recurrent and intense sexual fantasies, sexual urges, and sexual behavior where the individual is consumed with excessive sexual desire and repeatedly engages in sexual behaviour in response to dysphoric mood states and stressful life events.[ ] hypersexual disorder is currently associated with sexual addiction and sexual compulsivity.[ ][ ] health[edit] a serious or chronic illness can have an enormous effect on the biological drive and the psychological motivation for sexual desire and sexual behaviour.[ ] with poor health, an individual may be able to experience some desire but does not have the motivation or strength to have sex.[ ] physical and mental well-being is crucial to successful and satisfying sexual expression.[ ] chronic disorders like cardiovascular disease, diabetes, arthritis, enlarged prostates (in men), parkinson's disease, and cancer can have negative influence over sexual desire, sexual functioning, and sexual response.[ ][ ] in the case of diabetes, especially in men, there have been conflicting findings of the effect of the disease on sexual desire. some studies have found that diabetic men have shown lower levels of sexual desire than healthy, age-matched counterparts.[ ] while other researchers have found no difference in level of sexual desire between diabetic men and healthy controls.[ ] high-blood pressure has also been found to be related to declining levels of sexual desire in men and women alike.[ ] medications[edit] certain medications can cause changes in the level of experienced sexual desire through non-specific effects on general well-being, energy level, and mood.[ ] declining levels of sexual desire have been linked to the use of anti-hypertension medication and many psychiatric medications; such as anti-psychotic medications, tricyclic anti-depressants, monoamine-oxidase (mao) inhibitors, and sedative drugs.[ ] however, the most severe decreases in sexual desire relating to psychiatric medication occur due to the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (ssris).[ ] in women specifically, the use of anticoagulants, cardiovascular medications, medications to control cholesterol, and medications for hypertension contributed to low levels of desire. however, in men, only the use of anticoagulants and medications for hypertension was related to low levels of desire.[ ] in addition to the specific type of medication being used, the amount of medications used regularly was also found to be correlated with a lowering of sexual desire.[ ] one medication that many do not realize can lower sexual desire in women is the oral contraceptive. not every woman experiences the negative side effects of the pill, however, as many as one in four do.[ ] in addition, the pill reduces the sexual attractiveness of women by changing their estrus phase.[ ] oral contraceptives have been known to increase the levels of sex hormone-binding globulin (shbg) in the body. in turn, high shbg levels have been associated with a decline in sexual desire.[ ] though it is not used as medication, the drug methamphetamine has a strong positive effect on many aspects of sexual behaviour, including sexual desire.[ ] hormones[edit] sexual desire is said to be influenced by androgens in men and by androgens and estrogens in women.[ ] many studies associate the sex hormone, testosterone with sexual desire. testosterone is mainly synthesized in the testes in men and in the ovaries in women.[ ] another hormone thought to influence sexual desire is oxytocin. exogenous administration of moderate amounts of oxytocin has been found to stimulate females to desire and seek out sexual activity.[ ] in women, oxytocin levels are at their highest during sexual activity. in males, the frequency of ejaculations affects the libido. if the gap between ejaculations extends toward a week, there will be a stronger desire for sexual activity.[ ] interventions[edit] there are a few medical interventions that can be done on individuals who feel sexually bored, experience performance anxiety, or are unable to orgasm. for everyday life, a fact sheet by the association for reproductive health professionals recommends:[ ] 	erotic literature 	recalling instances when felt sexy and sexual ("the patient is instructed to recall her physical appearance, the setting, the smells in the air, the music she was hearing, and the foods she was eating at that time and use these as 'cues' for feeling sexual now") social and religious views[edit] further information: religion and sexuality the views on sexual desire and on how sexual desire should be expressed vary significantly between different societies and religions. various ideologies range from sexual repression to hedonism. laws on various forms sexual activity, such as homosexual acts and sex outside marriage vary by countries. some cultures seek to restrict sexual acts to marriage. in some countries, such as saudi arabia, pakistan,[ ] afghanistan,[ ][ ] iran,[ ] kuwait,[ ] maldives,[ ] morocco,[ ] oman,[ ] mauritania,[ ] united arab emirates,[ ][ ] sudan,[ ] yemen,[ ] any form of sexual activity outside marriage is illegal. in some societies there is a double standard regarding male and female expression of sexual desire.[ ] female genital mutilation is practiced in some regions of the world in an attempt to prevent women from acting out on their sexual desires and engaging in "illicit" sex.[ ] references[edit] 	^ a b c d e f g h i regan, p.c.; atkins, l. ( ). "sex differences and similarities in frequency and intensity of sexual desire". social behavior & personality. ( ): – . doi: . /sbp. . . . . 	^ a b c d e spector, i. p.; carey, m. p.; steinberg, l. ( ). "the sexual desire inventory: development, factor structure, and evidence of reliability". journal of sex & marital therapy. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ a b c beck, j.g.; bozman, a.w.; qualtrough, t. ( ). "the experience of sexual desire: psychological correlates in a college sample". the journal of sex research. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ a b c toates, f. ( ). "an integrative theoretical framework for understanding sexual motivation, arousal, and behavior". journal of sex research. ( – ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ a b c basson, r. ( ). "the female sexual response: a different model". journal of sex & marital therapy. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ a b c d e f g h levine, s. b. ( ). "the nature of sexual desire: a clinician's perspective". archives of sexual behavior. ( ): – . doi: . /a: . pmid  . 	^ gonzaga, g. c.; turner, r. a.; keltner, d.; campos, b.; altemus, m. ( ). "romantic love and sexual desire in close relationships". emotion. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n delamater, j.d.; sill, m. ( ). "sexual desire in later life". the journal of sex research. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ a b c d e f tolman, d.l.; diamond, l.m. ( ). "desegregating sexuality research: cultural and biological perspectives on gender and desire". annual review of sex research. ( ): – . 	^ gagnon, john h ( ). an interpretation of desire. chicago: university of chicago. 	^ a b c d baumeister, r. f.; catanese, k. r.; vohs, k. d. ( ). "is there a gender difference in strength of sex drive? theoretical views, conceptual distinctions, and a review of relevant evidence". personality and social psychology review. ( ): . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /s pspr _ . 	^ masters, w.; johnson, v.e. ( ). human sexual response. ishi press international. p.  . isbn  . 	^ a b giles, james ( ). the nature of sexual desire. lanham, maryland: university press of america isbn  	^ giles, j. ( ). "social constructionism and sexual desire". journal for the theory of social behaviour. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. 	^ a b giles, j. ( ). "sex hormones and sexual desire". journal for the theory of social behaviour. : – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. 	^ a b baumeister, r. f. ( ). "gender and erotic plasticity: sociocultural influences on the sex drive". sexual and relationship therapy. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ ostovich, j. m.; sabini, j. ( ). "how are sociosexuality, sex drive, and lifetime number of sexual partners related?". personality and social psychology bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ kolata, gina ( august ). "the myth, the math, the sex". the new york times. retrieved april . 	^ lippa, r. a. ( ). "sex differences in sex drive, sociosexuality, and height across nations: testing evolutionary and social structural theories". archives of sexual behavior. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . pmid  . 	^ conaglen, h. m.; evans, i. m. ( ). "pictorial cues and sexual desire: an experimental approach". archives of sexual behavior. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . pmid  . 	^ basson, r. ( ). "a model of women's sexual arousal". journal of sex & marital therapy. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ diamond, l. m. ( ). "what does sexual orientation orient? a biobehavioral model distinguishing romantic love and sexual desire". psychological review. ( ): – . doi: . / - x. . . . pmid  . 	^ "archived copy". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) 	^ a b brotto, l. a. ( ). "the dsm diagnostic criteria for hypoactive sexual desire disorder in women". archives of sexual behavior. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . pmid  . 	^ sills, t.; wunderlich, g.; pyke, r.; segraves, r. t.; leiblum, s.; clayton, a.; cotton, d.; evans, k. ( ). "the sexual interest and desire inventory-female (sidi-f): item response analyses of data from women diagnosed with hypoactive sexual desire disorder". the journal of sexual medicine. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . 	^ a b clayton, a. h.; segraves, r. t.; leiblum, s.; basson, r.; pyke, r.; cotton, d.; lewis-d'agostino, d.; evans, k. r.; sills, t. l.; wunderlich, g. r. ( ). "reliability and validity of the sexual interest and desire inventory–female (sidi-f), a scale designed to measure severity of female hypoactive sexual desire disorder". journal of sex & marital therapy. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ a b c american psychiatric association ( ). diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. washington, dc: american psychiatric publishing. isbn  - . 	^ brotto, l. a.; petkau, a. j.; labrie, f.; basson, r. ( ). "predictors of sexual desire disorders in women". the journal of sexual medicine. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . 	^ basson, r.; leiblum, s.; brotto, l.; derogatis, l.; fourcroy, j.; fugl-meyer, k.; graziottin, a.; heiman, j. r.; laan, e.; meston, c.; schover, l.; van lankveld, j.; schultz, w. w. ( ). "definitions of women's sexual dysfunction reconsidered: advocating expansion and revision". journal of psychosomatic obstetrics & gynecology. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ brotto, l. a. ( ). "the dsm diagnostic criteria for sexual aversion disorder". archives of sexual behavior. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . pmid  . 	^ montgomery, k.a. ( ). "sexual desire disorders". psychiatry (edgmont). ( ): – . 	^ "dsm- website". dsm .org. retrieved april . 	^ a b delamater, j. ( ). "sexual expression in later life: a review and synthesis". journal of sex research. ( – ): – . doi: . / . . . pmid  . 	^ schiavi, r. c.; stimmel, b. b.; mandeli, j.; rayfield, e. j. ( ). "diabetes, sleep disorders, and male sexual function". biological psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . / - ( ) -t. pmid  . 	^ a b samuels, n. ( ). "the irony of oral contraceptives". the womens health activist. ( ): – . 	^ geoffrey miller; joshua m. tybur; brent d. jordan (november ). "ovulatory cycle effects on tip earnings by lap dancers: economic evidence for human estrus?". evolution and human behavior. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /j.evolhumbehav. . . . 	^ jiang, m.; xin, j.; zou, q.; shen, j. w. ( ). "a research on the relationship between ejaculation and serum testosterone level in men". journal of zhejiang university science. ( ): – . doi: . /jzus. . . pmid  . 	^ "clinical fact sheet: sex therapy for non-sex therapists". www.arhp.org. 	^ "human rights voices – pakistan, august , ". eyeontheun.org. archived from the original on january , . 	^ "home". aidsportal. archived from the original on - - . 	^ a b "iran". travel.state.gov. archived from the original on - - . 	^ "united nations human rights website – treaty bodies database – document – summary record – kuwait". unhchr.ch. 	^ "culture of maldives – history, people, clothing, women, beliefs, food, customs, family, social". everyculture.com. 	^ fakim, nora ( august ). "bbc news – morocco: should pre-marital sex be legal?". bbc. 	^ "legislation of interpol member states on sexual offences against children – oman" (pdf). interpol. archived from the original (pdf) on may . 	^ " human rights report: mauritania". state.gov. april . 	^ dubai faqs. "education in dubai". dubaifaqs.com. 	^ judd, terri ( july ). "briton faces jail for sex on dubai beach – middle east – world". the independent. london. 	^ "sudan must rewrite rape laws to protect victims". reuters. june . 	^ united nations high commissioner for refugees. "refworld | women's rights in the middle east and north africa – yemen". unhcr. 	^ crawford, mary; popp, danielle ( ). "sexual double standards: a review and methodological critique of two decades of research". journal of sex research. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ "female genital mutilation". world health organization. retrieved april . retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=sexual_desire&oldid= " 		categories: 	psychoanalysis 	sexuality hidden categories: 	cs maint: archived copy as title 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	Български 	فارسی 	français 	עברית 	नेपाल भाषा 	Русский 	suomi 	Татарча/tatarça 	粵語 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 pubmed central - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	pubmed central 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from pmc (identifier)) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		repository of freely accessible biomedical journal articles pubmed central	producer	united states national library of medicine (united states) 	history	 to present 	access 	cost	free 	coverage 	disciplines	medicine 	record depth	index, abstract & full-text 	format coverage	journal articles 	links 	website	https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ 	title list(s)	https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/journals/ pubmed central (pmc) is a free digital repository that archives open access full-text scholarly articles that have been published in biomedical and life sciences journals. as one of the major research databases developed by the national center for biotechnology information (ncbi), pubmed central is more than a document repository. submissions to pmc are indexed and formatted for enhanced metadata, medical ontology, and unique identifiers which enrich the xml structured data for each article.[ ] content within pmc can be linked to other ncbi databases and accessed via entrez search and retrieval systems, further enhancing the public's ability to discover, read and build upon its biomedical knowledge.[ ] pubmed central is distinct from pubmed.[ ] pubmed central is a free digital archive of full articles, accessible to anyone from anywhere via a web browser (with varying provisions for reuse). conversely, although pubmed is a searchable database of biomedical citations and abstracts, the full-text article resides elsewhere (in print or online, free or behind a subscriber paywall). as of december  [update], the pmc archive contained over . million articles,[ ] with contributions coming from publishers or authors depositing their manuscripts into the repository per the nih public access policy. earlier data shows that from january to january author-initiated deposits exceeded , papers during a -month period.[ ] pmc identifies about , journals which participate in some capacity to deposit their published content into the pmc repository.[ ] some publishers delay the release of their articles on pubmed central for a set time after publication, referred to as an "embargo period", ranging from a few months to a few years depending on the journal. (embargoes of six to twelve months are the most common.) pubmed central is a key example of "systematic external distribution by a third party"[ ] which is still prohibited by the contributor agreements of many publishers. contents 	 adoption 	 technology 	 reception 	 pmcid 	 see also 	 references 	 external links adoption[edit] see also: nih public access policy launched in february , the repository has grown rapidly as the nih public access policy is designed to make all research funded by the national institutes of health (nih) freely accessible to anyone, and, in addition, many publishers are working cooperatively with the nih to provide free access to their works. in late , the consolidated appropriations act of (h.r. ) was signed into law and included a provision requiring the nih to modify its policies and require inclusion into pubmed central complete electronic copies of their peer-reviewed research and findings from nih-funded research. these articles are required to be included within months of publication. this is the first time the us government has required an agency to provide open access to research and is an evolution from the policy, in which the nih asked researchers to voluntarily add their research to pubmed central.[ ] a uk version of the pubmed central system, uk pubmed central (ukpmc), has been developed by the wellcome trust and the british library as part of a nine-strong group of uk research funders. this system went live in january . on november , it became europe pubmed central. the canadian member of the pubmed central international network, pubmed central canada, was launched in october . the national library of medicine "nlm journal publishing tag set" journal article markup language is freely available.[ ] the association of learned and professional society publishers comments that "it is likely to become the standard for preparing scholarly content for both books and journals".[ ] a related dtd is available for books.[ ] the library of congress and the british library have announced support for the nlm dtd.[ ] it has also been popular with journal service providers.[ ] with the release of public access plans for many agencies beyond nih, pmc is in the process of becoming the repository for a wider variety of articles.[ ] this includes nasa content, with the interface branded as "pubspace".[ ][ ] technology[edit] articles are sent to pubmed central by publishers in xml or sgml, using a variety of article dtds. older and larger publishers may have their own established in-house dtds, but many publishers use the nlm journal publishing dtd (see above). received articles are converted via xslt to the very similar nlm archiving and interchange dtd. this process may reveal errors that are reported back to the publisher for correction. graphics are also converted to standard formats and sizes. the original and converted forms are archived. the converted form is moved into a relational database, along with associated files for graphics, multimedia, or other associated data. many publishers also provide pdf of their articles, and these are made available without change.[ ] bibliographic citations are parsed and automatically linked to the relevant abstracts in pubmed, articles in pubmed central, and resources on publishers' web sites. pubmed links also lead to pubmed central. unresolvable references, such as to journals or particular articles not yet available at one of these sources, are tracked in the database and automatically come "live" when the resources become available. an in-house indexing system provides search capability, and is aware of biological and medical terminology, such as generic vs. proprietary drug names, and alternate names for organisms, diseases and anatomical parts. when a user accesses a journal issue, a table of contents is automatically generated by retrieving all articles, letters, editorials, etc. for that issue. when an actual item such as an article is reached, pubmed central converts the nlm markup to html for delivery, and provides links to related data objects. this is feasible because the variety of incoming data has first been converted to standard dtds and graphic formats. in a separate submission stream, nih-funded authors may deposit articles into pubmed central using the nih manuscript submission (nihms). articles thus submitted typically go through xml markup in order to be converted to nlm dtd. reception[edit] reactions to pubmed central among the scholarly publishing community range between a genuine enthusiasm by some,[ ] to cautious concern by others.[ ] while pmc is a welcome partner to open access publishers in its ability to augment the discovery and dissemination of biomedical knowledge, that same truth causes others to worry about traffic being diverted from the published version-of-record, the economic consequences of less readership, as well as the effect on maintaining a community of scholars within learned societies.[ ][ ] a analysis found strong evidence that public repositories of published articles were responsible for "drawing significant numbers of readers away from journal websites" and that "the effect of pmc is growing over time".[ ] libraries, universities, open access supporters, consumer health advocacy groups, and patient rights organizations have applauded pubmed central, and hope to see similar public access repositories developed by other federal funding agencies so to freely share any research publications that were the result of taxpayer support.[ ] the antelman study of open access publishing found that in philosophy, political science, electrical and electronic engineering and mathematics, open access papers had a greater research impact.[ ] a randomised trial found an increase in content downloads of open access papers, with no citation advantage over subscription access one year after publication.[ ] the nih policy and open access repository work has inspired a presidential directive which has sparkled action in other federal agencies as well. in march , pubmed central accelerated its deposit procedures for the full text of publications on coronavirus. the nlm did so upon request from the white house office of science and technology policy and international scientists to improve access for scientists, healthcare providers, data mining innovators, ai healthcare researchers, and the general public.[ ] pmcid[edit] the pmcid (pubmed central identifier), also known as the pmc reference number, is a bibliographic identifier for the pubmed central database, much like the pmid is the bibliographic identifier for the pubmed database. the two identifiers are distinct however. it consists of "pmc" followed by a string of seven numbers. the format is:[ ] 	pmcid: pmc authors applying for nih awards must include the pmcid in their application. see also[edit] 	europe pubmed central 	jats (technology) 	medline, an international literature database of life sciences and biomedical information 	pmid (pubmed identifier) 	pubmed central canada 	redalyc (similar project focused on latin america) 	scielo (similar service) references[edit] 	^ beck j ( ). "report from the field: pubmed central, an xml-based archive of life sciences journal articles". proceedings of the international symposium on xml for the long haul: issues in the long-term preservation of xml. . doi: . /balisagevol .beck . isbn  - - - - . 	^ maloney c, sequeira e, kelly c, orris r, beck j ( december ). pubmed central. national center for biotechnology information (us). 	^ "medline, pubmed, and pmc (pubmed central): how are they different?". www.nlm.nih.gov. september . 	^ "openness by default", inside higher ed, january . 	^ "nihms statistics". nihms.nih.gov. 	^ "home - pmc - ncbi". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 	^ ouerfelli n. "author rights: what's it all about" (pdf). 	^ "public access to nih research made law". science codex. . archived from the original on march . retrieved november . 	^ "journal publishing tag set". national center for biotechnology information. retrieved november . 	^ french d ( august ). "alpsp technology update: a standard xml document format: the case for the adoption of nlm dtd". alpsp. retrieved november . 	^ "ncbi book tag set". dtd.nlm.nih.gov. 	^ "news from the library of congress". library of congress. april . retrieved november . 	^ "inera inc. - nlm dtd resources". february . archived from the original on - - . 	^ "public access plans of u.s. federal agencies". cendi.gov. 	^ kovo y ( july ). "public access to results of nasa-funded research". nasa.gov. 	^ "nasa in pmc". preview.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 	^ nlm journal archiving and interchange tag suite, national center for biotechnical information, national library of medicine 	^ "plos applauds congress for action on open access". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "acs submission to the office of science and technology policy request for information on public access to peer-reviewed scholarly publications resulting from federally funded research" (pdf). whitehouse.gov. archived from the original (pdf) on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ davis pm (october ). "the effect of public deposit of scientific articles on readership". the physiologist. ( ): , – . pmid  . 	^ davis pm (july ). "public accessibility of biomedical articles from pubmed central reduces journal readership--retrospective cohort analysis". faseb journal. ( ): – . doi: . /fj. - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ davis pm (july ). "public accessibility of biomedical articles from pubmed central reduces journal readership--retrospective cohort analysis". faseb journal. ( ): – . doi: . /fj. - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ "autism speaks announces new policy to give families easy, free access to key research findings - press release - autism speaks". www.autismspeaks.org. july . 	^ antelman, kristin ( ). "do open-access articles have a greater research impact?". college & research libraries. ( ): – . doi: . /crl. . . . , summarized by stemper j, williams k ( ). "scholarly communication: turning crisis into opportunity". college & research libraries news. ( ): – . doi: . /crln. . . . 	^ davis pm, lewenstein bv, simon dh, booth jg, connolly mj (july ). "open access publishing, article downloads, and citations: randomised controlled trial". bmj. : a . doi: . /bmj.a . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ "the national library of medicine expands access to coronavirus literature through pubmed central". national institutes of health (nih). - - . retrieved - - . to support this initiative, nlm is adapting its standard procedures for depositing articles into pmc to provide greater flexibility that will ensure coronavirus research is readily available. 	^ "include pmcid in citations | publicaccess.nih.gov". publicaccess.nih.gov. retrieved - - . external links[edit] 		wikidata has the property: 	 pmcid (p ) (see uses) 	official website 	national institutes of health submission system (nihms) 	nih public access policy 		v 	t 	e academic publishing 	journals	 	academic journal 	scientific journal 	open access journal 	public health journal 	papers	 	scholarly paper 	review article 	position paper 	literature review 	grey literature	 	working paper 	white paper 	technical report 	annual report 	pamphlet 	essay 	lab notes 	other types of publication	 	thesis (collection of articles, monograph) 	specialized patent (biological, chemical) 	book 	book chapter 	preprint 	poster session 	abstract 	impact and ranking	 	acknowledgment index 	altmetrics 	article-level metrics 	author-level metrics 	bibliometrics 	citation impact 	citation index 	journal ranking 	eigenfactor 	h-index 	impact factor 	scimago journal rank 	scientometrics 	reform	 	academic journal publishing reform 	full-text-on-the-net bias (futon bias) 	open access 	serials crisis 	sci-hub 	indexes and search engines	 	google scholar 	pubmed 	pubmed central 	scopus 	web of science 	citeseerx 	semantic scholar 	scirus (defunct) 	base 	related topics	 	imprint 	scientific writing 	peer review 	proceedings 	grey literature 	scientific literature 	learned society 	open research 	open science data 	orcid 	electronic publishing 	ingelfinger rule 	lists	 	academic journals 	scientific journals 	open-access journals 	academic databases and search engines 	university presses 	style/formatting guides 	category:academic publishing 	category:scientific documents 	 portal 	authority control 	 	lccn: no 	viaf: 	 worldcat identities: lccn-no retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=pubmed_central&oldid= #pmcid" 		categories: 	biological databases 	bibliographic databases and indexes 	national institutes of health 	open-access archives 	medical databases 	full text scholarly online databases hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	articles containing potentially dated statements from december 	all articles containing potentially dated statements 	official website different in wikidata and wikipedia 	wikipedia articles with lccn identifiers 	wikipedia articles with viaf identifiers 	wikipedia articles with worldcatid identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	বাংলা 	bosanski 	català 	dansk 	deutsch 	eesti 	Ελληνικά 	español 	فارسی 	français 	galego 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	hrvatski 	ilokano 	bahasa indonesia 	Кыргызча 	bahasa melayu 	nederlands 	日本語 	norsk bokmål 	polski 	português 	română 	Русский 	scots 	simple english 	slovenščina 	Српски / srpski 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	suomi 	svenska 	தமிழ் 	ไทย 	Тоҷикӣ 	Українська 	tiếng việt 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 panic - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	panic 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		sudden overwhelming sensation of fear and irrational response. for the psychological condition, see panic attack. for other uses, see panic (disambiguation). 	 	this article relies largely or entirely on a single source. relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. find sources: "panic" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (february ) illustration in charles darwin‘s the expression of the emotions in man and animals 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e panic is a sudden sensation of fear, which is so strong as to dominate or prevent reason and logical thinking, replacing it with overwhelming feelings of anxiety and frantic agitation consistent with an animalistic fight-or-flight reaction. panic may occur singularly in individuals or manifest suddenly in large groups as mass panic (closely related to herd behavior). contents 	 etymology 	 psychology 	 effects 	 see also 	 notes 	 external links etymology[edit] the word derives from antiquity and is a tribute to the ancient god pan. one of the many gods in the mythology of ancient greece, pan was the god of shepherds and of woods and pastures. the greeks believed that he often wandered peacefully through the woods, playing a pipe, but when accidentally awakened from his noontime nap he could give a great shout that would cause flocks to stampede. from this aspect of pan's nature greek authors derived the word panikos, “sudden fear,” the ultimate source of the english word: "panic".[ ] the greek term indicates the feeling of total fear that is also sudden and often attributed to the presence of a god.[ ] psychology[edit] in psychology, panic is identified as a disorder and is related strongly to biological and psychological factors and their interactions.[ ] a view described one of its incidences as a specific psychological vulnerability of people to interpret normal physical sensations in a catastrophic way.[ ] leonard j. schmidt and brooke warner describe panic as “that terrible, profound emotion that stretches us beyond our ability to imagine any experience more horrible” adding that “physicians like to compare painful clinical conditions on some imagined ‘richter scale’ of vicious, mean hurt … to the psychiatrist there is no more vicious, mean hurt than an exploding and personally disintegrating panic attack.”[ ] bank run on the seamen's savings' bank during the panic of . panic in social psychology is considered infectious since it can spread to a multitude of people and those affected are expected to act irrationally as a consequence.[ ] psychologists identify different types of this panic event with slightly varying descriptions and these include mass hysteria, mass psychosis, mass panic, and social contagion.[ ] an influential theoretical treatment of panic is found in neil j. smelser's theory of collective behavior. the science of panic management has found important practical applications in the armed forces and emergency services of the world. effects[edit] prehistoric humans used mass panic as a technique when hunting animals, especially ruminants. herds reacting to unusually strong sounds or unfamiliar visual effects were directed towards cliffs, where they eventually jumped to their deaths when cornered. humans are also vulnerable to panic and it is often considered infectious, in the sense one person's panic may easily spread to other people nearby and soon the entire group acts irrationally, but people also have the ability to prevent and/or control their own and others' panic by disciplined thinking or training (such as disaster drills). architects and city planners try to accommodate for the symptoms of panic, such as herd behavior, during design and planning, often using simulations to determine the best way to lead people to a safe exit and prevent congestion (stampedes). the most effective methods are often non-intuitive. a tall column or columns, placed in front of the door exit at a precisely calculated distance, may speed up the evacuation of a large room, as the obstacle divides the congestion well ahead of the choke point.[ ] many highly publicized cases of deadly panic occurred during massive public events. the layout of mecca was extensively redesigned by saudi authorities in an attempt to eliminate frequent stampedes, which kill an average of pilgrims every year.[ ] football stadiums have seen deadly crowd rushes and stampedes, such as at heysel stadium in belgium in with more than casualties, including deaths, and at hillsborough stadium in sheffield, england, in when people were killed in a crush. see also[edit] 	panic attack – period of intense fear of sudden onset 	anxiety – unpleasant combination of emotions including fear, apprehension and worry 	fight-or-flight response – physiological reaction to a perceived threat or harmful event 	angst – intense feeling of apprehension, anxiety, or inner turmoil 	collective behavior 	collective identity 	emotion – subjective, conscious experience characterised primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, and mental states 	hysteria – excess, ungovernable emotion 	kernel panic 	moral panic – feeling of fear spread among many people that some evil threatens the well-being of society 	financial crisis – situation in which financial assets suddenly lose a large part of their nominal value 	panic disorder 	panic saturday (super saturday), last saturday before christmas 	panic! at the disco – american rock solo project notes[edit] 	^ "definition of panic by merriam-webster". 	^ cavarero, adriana ( ). horrorism: naming contemporary violence. new york: columbia university press. p.  . isbn  . 	^ barlow, david; durand, mark ( ). abnormal psychology: an integrative approach, th edition. stamford, ct: cengage learning. p.  . isbn  . 	^ durand, mark; barlow, david; hofman, stefan ( ). essentials of abnormal psychology. boston, ma: cengage learning. p.  . isbn  . 	^ leonard j. schmidt and brooke warner (eds), panic: origins, insight, and treatment (berkeley ca: north atlantic books, ), xiii 	^ radosavljevic, vladan; banjari, ines; belojevic, goran ( ). defence against bioterrorism: methods for prevention and control. dordrecht: springer. p.  . isbn  . 	^ heinzen, thomas; goodfriend, wind ( - - ). case studies in social psychology: critical thinking and application. sage publications. isbn  . 	^ twarogowska, m; goatin, p; duvigneau, r ( ). "macroscopic modeling and simulations of room evacuation". arxiv: . [math.na]. 	^ castelvecchi, davide ( - - ), "formula for panic: crowd-motion findings may prevent stampedes", science news online external links[edit] 		look up panic in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: panic 	panic! how it works and what to do about it — by bruce tognazzini. 	"panic: myth or reality?" — professor lee clarke, contexts magazine, . 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drugs on fitness to dive 	fitness to dive 	psychological fitness to dive 	research	 	researchers in diving physiology and medicine	 	arthur j. bachrach 	albert r. behnke 	paul bert 	george f. bond 	robert boyle 	albert a. bühlmann 	john r. clarke 	guybon chesney castell damant 	kenneth william donald 	william paul fife 	john scott haldane 	robert william hamilton jr. 	leonard erskine hill 	brian andrew hills 	felix hoppe-seyler 	christian j. lambertsen 	simon mitchell 	charles momsen 	john rawlins r.n. 	charles wesley shilling 	edward d. thalmann 	jacques triger 	diving medical research organisations	 	aerospace medical association 	divers alert network (dan) 	diving diseases research centre (ddrc) 	diving medical advisory council (dmac) 	european diving technology committee (edtc) 	european underwater and baromedical society (eubs) 	national board of diving and hyperbaric medical technology 	naval submarine medical research laboratory 	royal australian navy school of underwater 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mental states that humans and other animals experience as positive, enjoyable, or worth seeking for other uses, see pleasure (disambiguation). "pleasant" redirects here. for other uses, see pleasant (disambiguation). 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e pleasure is a mental experience that humans and other conscious animals find enjoyable, positive, or worth seeking. it can be a part of other mental states such as happiness, entertainment, enjoyment, ecstasy and euphoria. the experience of pleasure is subjective and different individuals experience different kinds and amounts of pleasure in the same situation.[citation needed] contents 	 sources and types of pleasure 	 formation of pleasure 	 . neuroscience 	 . . human reward system and hedonic hotspots 	 . . relationship of pleasure with reward system 	 . . relationship of pleasure with motivational salience 	 . . common mesocorticolimbic circuitry 	 . . status and outlook 	 . psychology 	 . . psychological aspects of pleasure 	 . . psychological approaches to pleasure motivation 	 . . pleasure in relation to emotion 	 . . pleasure in relation to pain 	 . issues in experiencing pleasure 	 philosophy 	 . hellenistic philosophy 	 . medieval philosophy 	 . modern philosophy 	 not a uniquely human experience 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links sources and types of pleasure[edit] many pleasurable experiences are associated with satisfying basic biological drives, such as eating, exercise, hygiene, sleep, and sex.[ ] the appreciation of cultural artifacts and activities such as art, music, dancing, and literature is often pleasurable.[ ] pleasure is sometimes subdivided into fundamental pleasures that are closely related to survival (food, sex, and social belonging) and higher-order pleasures (e.g., viewing art and altruism).[ ] bentham listed kinds of pleasure; sense, wealth, skill, amity, a good name, power, piety, benevolence, malevolence, memory, imagination, expectation, pleasures dependent on association, and the pleasures of relief.[ ] some commentators see 'complex pleasures' including wit and sudden realisation,[ ] and some see a wide range of pleasurable feelings.[ ] formation of pleasure[edit] see also: affective neuroscience pleasure can often include sensory and psychological aspects.[ ] neuroscience[edit] human reward system and hedonic hotspots[edit] this section is an excerpt from reward system § pleasure centers[edit] pleasure is a component of reward, but not all rewards are pleasurable (e.g., money does not elicit pleasure unless this response is conditioned).[ ] stimuli that are naturally pleasurable, and therefore attractive, are known as intrinsic rewards, whereas stimuli that are attractive and motivate approach behavior, but are not inherently pleasurable, are termed extrinsic rewards.[ ] extrinsic rewards (e.g., money) are rewarding as a result of a learned association with an intrinsic reward.[ ] in other words, extrinsic rewards function as motivational magnets that elicit "wanting", but not "liking" reactions once they have been acquired.[ ] the reward system contains pleasure centers or hedonic hotspots – i.e., brain structures that mediate pleasure or "liking" reactions from intrinsic rewards. as of october  ,[update] hedonic hotspots have been identified in subcompartments within the nucleus accumbens shell, ventral pallidum, parabrachial nucleus, orbitofrontal cortex (ofc), and insular cortex.[ ][ ][ ] the hotspot within the nucleus accumbens shell is located in the rostrodorsal quadrant of the medial shell, while the hedonic coldspot is located in a more posterior region. the posterior ventral pallidum also contains a hedonic hotspot, while the anterior ventral pallidum contains a hedonic coldspot. microinjections of opioids, endocannabinoids, and orexin are capable of enhancing liking in these hotspots.[ ] the hedonic hotspots located in the anterior ofc and posterior insula have been demonstrated to respond to orexin and opioids, as has the overlapping hedonic coldspot in the anterior insula and posterior ofc.[ ] on the other hand, the parabrachial nucleus hotspot has only been demonstrated to respond to benzodiazepine receptor agonists.[ ] hedonic hotspots are functionally linked, in that activation of one hotspot results in the recruitment of the others, as indexed by the induced expression of c-fos, an immediate early gene. furthermore, inhibition of one hotspot results in the blunting of the effects of activating another hotspot.[ ][ ] therefore, the simultaneous activation of every hedonic hotspot within the reward system is believed to be necessary for generating the sensation of an intense euphoria.[ ] relationship of pleasure with reward system[edit] while all pleasurable stimuli can be seen as rewards, some rewards do not evoke pleasure.[ ] relationship of pleasure with motivational salience[edit] based upon the incentive salience model of reward – the attractive and motivational property of a stimulus that induces approach behavior and consummatory behavior[ ] – an intrinsic reward has two components: a "wanting" or desire component that is reflected in approach behavior, and a "liking" or pleasure component that is reflected in consummatory behavior.[ ] common mesocorticolimbic circuitry[edit] some research indicates that similar mesocorticolimbic circuitry is activated by quite diverse pleasures, suggesting a common neural currency.[ ] status and outlook[edit] some commentators opine that our current understanding of how pleasure happens within us remains poor,[ ][ ] but that scientific advance gives optimism for future progress.[ ] psychology[edit] study for youth on the prow, and pleasure at the helm by william etty, psychological aspects of pleasure[edit] the degree to which something or someone is experienced as pleasurable not only depends on its objective attributes (appearance, sound, taste, texture, etc.), but on beliefs about its history, about the circumstances of its creation, about its rarity, fame, or price, and on other non-intrinsic attributes, such as the social status or identity it conveys. for example, a sweater that has been worn by a celebrity is more desired than an otherwise identical sweater that has not, though considerably less so if it has been washed.[ ] another example was when grammy-winning, internationally acclaimed violinist joshua bell played in the washington d.c. subway for minutes, attracting little attention from the , people who passed by, and earning about $ in tips.[ ][ ][ ] paul bloom describes these phenomena as arising from a form of essentialism. psychological approaches to pleasure motivation[edit] freud proposed the pleasure principle, describing it as a positive feedback mechanism that motivates the organism to recreate the situation it has just found pleasurable, and to avoid past situations that caused pain.[ ] pleasure in relation to emotion[edit] pleasure is considered one of the core dimensions of emotion. it can be described as the positive evaluation that forms the basis for several more elaborate evaluations such as "agreeable" or "nice". as such, pleasure is an affect and not an emotion, as it forms one component of several different emotions.[ ] pleasure in relation to pain[edit] pleasure is often regarded as a bipolar construct, meaning that the two ends of the spectrum from pleasure to suffering are mutually exclusive. that is part of the circumplex model of affect.[ ] yet, some lines of research suggest that people do experience pleasure and suffering at the same time, giving rise to so-called mixed feelings.[ ][ ][ ] issues in experiencing pleasure[edit] the clinical condition of being unable to experience pleasure from usually enjoyable activities is called anhedonia. an active aversion to obtaining pleasure is called hedonophobia. philosophy[edit] 	part of a series on 	hedonism 	 thinkers 	ajita kesakambali 	jeremy bentham 	julien offray de la mettrie 	aristippus 	epicurus 	fred feldman 	theodorus the atheist 	michel onfray 	aristippus the younger 	hermarchus 	lucretius 	pierre gassendi 	metrodorus of lampsacus 	david pearce 	zeno of sidon 	yang zhu 	torbjörn tännsjö 	esperanza guisán 	 schools of hedonism 	cārvāka 	cyrenaics 	epicureanism 	christian hedonism 	utilitarianism 	yangism 	 key concepts 	aponia 	ataraxia 	eudaimonia 	happiness 	hedone 	pain 	pleasure 	sensation 	suffering 	tetrapharmakos 	libertine 	 related articles 	paradox of hedonism 	hedonic treadmill 	 	v 	t 	e 	part of a series on 	utilitarianism 	 predecessors 	epicurus 	Śāntideva 	david hume 	claude adrien helvétius 	william godwin 	francis hutcheson 	william paley 	 key proponents 	jeremy bentham 	john stuart mill 	henry sidgwick 	r. m. hare 	peter singer 	 types of utilitarianism 	negative 	rule 	act 	two-level 	total 	average 	preference 	classical 	 key concepts 	pain 	suffering 	pleasure 	utility 	happiness 	eudaimonia 	consequentialism 	felicific calculus 	 problems 	demandingness objection 	mere addition paradox 	paradox of hedonism 	utility monster 	 related topics 	rational choice theory 	game theory 	social choice 	neoclassical economics 	population ethics 	effective altruism 	 politics portal 	 	v 	t 	e various philosophical approaches to utilitarianism and hedonism advocate maximizing the amount of pleasure and minimizing the amount of suffering. hellenistic philosophy[edit] the ancient cyrenaics posited pleasure as the universal aim for all people. later, epicurus defined the highest pleasure as aponia (the absence of pain),[ ] and pleasure as "freedom from pain in the body and freedom from turmoil in the soul".[ ] according to cicero (or rather his character torquatus) epicurus also believed that pleasure was the chief good and pain the chief evil.[ ] the pyrrhonist philosopher aenesidemus claimed that following pyrrhonism's prescriptions for philosophical skepticism produced pleasure.[ ] medieval philosophy[edit] in the th century, razi's "treatise of the self and the spirit" (kitab al nafs wa’l ruh) analyzed different types of pleasure- sensuous and intellectual, and explained their relations with one another. he concludes that human needs and desires are endless, and "their satisfaction is by definition impossible."[ ] modern philosophy[edit] the th-century german philosopher arthur schopenhauer understood pleasure as a negative sensation, one that negates the usual existential condition of suffering.[ ] not a uniquely human experience[edit] see also: reward system § animals vs humans, and animal sexual behaviour § sex for pleasure in the past, there has been debate as to whether pleasure is experienced by other animals rather than being an exclusive property of humankind; however, it is now known that animals do experience pleasure, as measured by objective behavioral and neural hedonic responses to pleasurable stimuli.[ ] see also[edit] 	false pleasure 	flow (psychology) 	gratification 	leisure 	recreation 	orgasm 	pain and pleasure 	sadomasochism 	happiness references[edit] 	^ a b c d e schultz, wolfram (july ). "neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data". physiological reviews. ( ): – . doi: . /physrev. . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ kringelbach, morten l. ( - - ). the pleasure center : trust your animal instincts: trust your animal instincts. oxford university press, us. isbn  . 	^ chapter v, an introduction to the principles of morals and legislation, bentham, , http://fs .american.edu/dfagel/www/philosophers/bentham/principlesofmoralsandlegislation.pdf#page https://www.utilitarianism.com/jeremy-bentham/index.html 	^ complex pleasure: forms of feeling in german literature, stanley corngold, stanford press, 	^ smuts, aaron (september ). "the feels good theory of pleasure". philosophical studies. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . s cid  . 	^ a b moccia, lorenzo; mazza, marianna; nicola, marco di; janiri, luigi ( september ). "the experience of pleasure: a perspective between neuroscience and psychoanalysis". frontiers in human neuroscience. : . doi: . /fnhum. . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b c d schultz, wolfram (july ). "neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data". physiological reviews. ( ): – . doi: . /physrev. . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b c d berridge kc, kringelbach ml (may ). "pleasure systems in the brain". neuron. ( ): – . doi: . /j.neuron. . . . pmc  . pmid  . in the prefrontal cortex, recent evidence indicates that the [orbitofrontal cortex] ofc and insula cortex may each contain their own additional hot spots (d.c. castro et al., soc. neurosci., abstract). in specific subregions of each area, either opioid-stimulating or orexin-stimulating microinjections appear to enhance the number of liking reactions elicited by sweetness, similar to the [nucleus accumbens] nac and [ventral pallidum] vp hot spots. successful confirmation of hedonic hot spots in the ofc or insula would be important and possibly relevant to the orbitofrontal mid-anterior site mentioned earlier that especially tracks the subjective pleasure of foods in humans (georgiadis et al., ; kringelbach, ; kringelbach et al., ; small et al., ; veldhuizen et al., ). finally, in the brainstem, a hindbrain site near the parabrachial nucleus of dorsal pons also appears able to contribute to hedonic gains of function (söderpalm and berridge, ). a brainstem mechanism for pleasure may seem more surprising than forebrain hot spots to anyone who views the brainstem as merely reflexive, but the pontine parabrachial nucleus contributes to taste, pain, and many visceral sensations from the body and has also been suggested to play an important role in motivation (wu et al., ) and in human emotion (especially related to the somatic marker hypothesis) (damasio, ). 	^ richard jm, castro dc, difeliceantonio ag, robinson mj, berridge kc (november ). "mapping brain circuits of reward and motivation: in the footsteps of ann kelley". neurosci. biobehav. rev. ( pt a): – . doi: . /j.neubiorev. . . . pmc  . pmid  . figure : neural circuits underlying motivated 'wanting' and hedonic 'liking'. 	^ a b c castro, dc; berridge, kc ( october ). "opioid and orexin hedonic hotspots in rat orbitofrontal cortex and insula". proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america. ( ): e –e . doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . here, we show that opioid or orexin stimulations in orbitofrontal cortex and insula causally enhance hedonic “liking” reactions to sweetness and find a third cortical site where the same neurochemical stimulations reduce positive hedonic impact. 	^ kringelbach ml, berridge kc ( ). "the joyful mind" (pdf). scientific american. ( ): – . bibcode: sciam. b.. k. doi: . /scientificamerican - . pmid  . retrieved january . so it makes sense that the real pleasure centers in the brain – those directly responsible for generating pleasurable sensations – turn out to lie within some of the structures previously identified as part of the reward circuit. one of these so-called hedonic hotspots lies in a subregion of the nucleus accumbens called the medial shell. a second is found within the ventral pallidum, a deep-seated structure near the base of the forebrain that receives most of its signals from the nucleus accumbens. ...      on the other hand, intense euphoria is harder to come by than everyday pleasures. the reason may be that strong enhancement of pleasure – like the chemically induced pleasure bump we produced in lab animals – seems to require activation of the entire network at once. defection of any single component dampens the high.      whether the pleasure circuit – and in particular, the ventral pallidum – works the same way in humans is unclear. 	^ a b berridge, kent c.; kringelbach, morten l. ( may ). "pleasure systems in the brain". neuron. ( ): – . doi: . /j.neuron. . . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ "how we and our hedonic experience are situated or constituted in our brains and organisms remains to be seen."conclusion, pleasure, stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pleasure/ 	^ "prospects seem good for new and deep scientific understanding of pleasure and of how it is organized in the brain." conclusion, pleasure, stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pleasure/ 	^ a b paul bloom. how pleasure works: the new science of why we like what we like ( ) pages. draws on neuroscience, philosophy, child-development research, and behavioral economics in a study of our desires, attractions, and tastes. 	^ "a concert violinist on the metro?". npr.org. april . 	^ gene weingarten (april , ). "pearls before breakfast: can one of the nation's great musicians cut through the fog of a d.c. rush hour? let's find out". washington post. 	^ freud, siegmund ( ). beyond the pleasure principle. new york: liveright. 	^ frijda, nico f. ( ). "on the nature and function of pleasure". in kringelbach, morten l.; berridge, kent c. (eds.). pleasures of the brain. oxford university press. p.  . 	^ posner, jonathan; russell, james a.; peterson, bradley s. ( - - ). "the circumplex model of affect: an integrative approach to affective neuroscience, cognitive development, and psychopathology". development and psychopathology. ( ): – . doi: . /s . issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ schimmack, ulrich ( - - ). "pleasure, displeasure, and mixed feelings: are semantic opposites mutually exclusive?". cognition and emotion. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ schimmack, ulrich ( - - ). "response latencies of pleasure and displeasure ratings: further evidence for mixed feelings". cognition and emotion. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ kron, assaf; goldstein, ariel; lee, daniel hyuk-joon; gardhouse, katherine; anderson, adam keith ( - - ). "how are you feeling? revisiting the quantification of emotional qualia". psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ the forty principal doctrines, number iii. 	^ letter to menoeceus archived - - at the wayback machine, section - . 	^ about the ends of goods and evils, book i archived - - at the wayback machine, from section ix, torquatus sets out his understanding of epicurus's philosophy. 	^ eusebius praeparatio evangelica chapter 	^ haque, amber ( ). "psychology from islamic perspective: contributions of early muslim scholars and challenges to contemporary muslim psychologists". journal of religion and health. ( ): – [ ]. doi: . /s - - -z. s cid  . 	^ counsels and maxims archived - - at the wayback machine, chapter , general rules section . further reading[edit] 	bloom, paul ( ). how pleasure works: the new science of why we like what we like. w. w. norton & company. isbn  - . draws on neuroscience, philosophy, child-development research, and behavioral economics in a study of our desires, attractions, and tastes. 	m.l. kringelbach. the pleasure center: trust your animal instincts ( ). oxford university press. isbn  - - - - . a general overview of the neuroscience of pleasure. external links[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to pleasure. 	 the dictionary definition of pleasure at wiktionary 	 quotations related to pleasure at wikiquote 	paul, margaret (april , ). 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		  (redirected from oclc (identifier)) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		global library cooperative for information on using oclc control numbers in wikipedia articles, see template:oclc. oclc, inc.	 	oclc headquarters 	type 	nonprofit cooperative 	industry	information 	founded	july  , ;  years ago ( - - ) (as ohio college library center) 	founder	frederick g. kilgour 	headquarters	dublin, ohio , us 	area served 	worldwide 	key people 	skip prichard, president and ceo 	products		worldcat 	firstsearch 	dewey decimal classification 	tipasa 	vdx 	webjunction 	wise 	worldshare 	revenue	$  million[ ] ( – ) 	total assets	$  million[ ] ( – ) 	total equity	$  million[ ] ( – ) 	members	 , libraries in countries[ ] ( – ) 	website	official website } oclc, inc., doing business as oclc,[ ] is an american nonprofit cooperative organization "dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs".[ ] it was founded in as the ohio college library center, then became the online computer library center as it expanded. in , the name was formally changed to oclc, inc.[ ] oclc and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain worldcat, the largest online public access catalog (opac) in the world.[ ] oclc is funded mainly by the fees that libraries pay (around $  million annually in total as of [update]) for the many different services it offers.[ ] oclc also maintains the dewey decimal classification system. contents 	 history 	 services 	 . questionpoint 	 software 	 research 	 advocacy 	 online database: worldcat 	 identifiers and linked data 	 company acquisitions 	 criticism 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links history[edit] oclc began in , as the ohio college library center, through a collaboration of university presidents, vice presidents, and library directors who wanted to create a cooperative, computerized network for libraries in the state of ohio. the group first met on july , , on the campus of the ohio state university to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization[ ] and hired frederick g. kilgour, a former yale university medical school librarian, to design the shared cataloging system.[ ] kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. the plan was to merge the catalogs of ohio libraries electronically through a computer network and database to streamline operations, control costs, and increase efficiency in library management, bringing libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the world's information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. the first library to do online cataloging through oclc was the alden library at ohio university on august , . this was the first online cataloging by any library worldwide.[ ] membership in oclc is based on use of services and contribution of data. between and , oclc membership was limited to institutions in ohio, but in , a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. in , the governance structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the united states.[ ] as oclc expanded services in the united states outside ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with "networks", organizations that provided training, support and marketing services. by , there were independent united states regional service providers. oclc networks played a key role in oclc governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on the oclc members council. during , oclc commissioned two studies to look at distribution channels; at the same time, the council approved governance changes that had been recommended by the board of trustees severing the tie between the networks and governance. in early , oclc negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center.[ ] services[edit] oclc provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone. oclc and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain worldcat—the oclc online union catalog, the largest online public access catalog (opac) in the world.[ ] worldcat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. the online computer library center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the dewey decimal classification system when it bought forest press in . a browser[ ] for books with their dewey decimal classifications was available until july ; it was replaced by the classify service. until august , when it was sold to backstage library works, oclc owned a preservation microfilm and digitization operation called the oclc preservation service center,[ ] with its principal office in bethlehem, pennsylvania. starting in , oclc produced catalog cards for members alongside its shared online catalog; the company printed its last catalog cards on october , .[ ] questionpoint[edit] questionpoint,[ ] an around-the-clock reference service provided to users by a cooperative of participating global libraries, was acquired by springshare from oclc in and migrated to springshare's libanswers platform.[ ][ ] software[edit] oclc commercially sells software, such as: 	contentdm for managing digital collections[ ][ ][ ] 	wise, an integrated library system and "community engagement system"[ ][ ] 	worldcat discovery, a bibliographic discovery system that allows library patrons to use a single search interface to access an institution's catalog, ebooks, database subscriptions and more[ ][ ] 	worldshare management services, an electronic resource management system[ ][ ] research[edit] oclc has been conducting research for the library community for more than years. in accordance with its mission, oclc makes its research outcomes known through various publications.[ ] these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organization's website. 	oclc publications – research articles from various journals including the code lib journal, oclc research, reference and user services quarterly, college & research libraries news, art libraries journal, and national education association newsletter. the most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, starting in , are also available.[ ] 	membership reports – a number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding.[ ] 	newsletters – current and archived newsletters for the library and archive community.[ ] 	presentations – presentations from both guest speakers and oclc research from conferences, webcasts, and other events. the presentations are organized into five categories: conference presentations, dewey presentations, distinguished seminar series, guest presentations, and research staff presentations.[ ] advocacy[edit] advocacy has been a part of oclc's mission since its founding in . oclc staff members meet and work regularly with library leaders, information professionals, researchers, entrepreneurs, political leaders, trustees, students and patrons to advocate "advancing research, scholarship, education, community development, information access, and global cooperation".[ ][ ] webjunction, which provides training services to librarians,[ ] is a division of oclc funded by grants from the bill & melinda gates foundation beginning in .[ ][ ] oclc partnered with search engine providers in to advocate for libraries and share information across the internet landscape. google, yahoo!, and ask.com all collaborated with oclc to make worldcat records searchable through those search engines.[ ] oclc's advocacy campaign "geek the library", started in , highlights the role of public libraries. the campaign, funded by a grant from the bill & melinda gates foundation, uses a strategy based on the findings of the oclc report, "from awareness to funding: a study of library support in america".[ ] other past advocacy campaigns have focused on sharing the knowledge gained from library and information research. such projects have included communities such as the society of american archivists, the open archives initiative, the institute for museum and library services, the international organization for standardization, the national information standards organization, the world wide web consortium, the internet engineering task force, and internet . one of the most successful contributions to this effort was the dublin core metadata initiative, "an open forum of libraries, archives, museums, technology organizations, and software companies who work together to develop interoperable online metadata standards that support a broad range of purposes and business models."[ ] oclc has collaborated with the wikimedia foundation and the wikimedia volunteer community, through integrating library metadata with wikimedia projects, hosting a wikipedian in residence, and doing a national training program through webjunction called "wikipedia + libraries: better together".[ ][ ][ ] online database: worldcat[edit] main article: worldcat oclc's worldcat database is used by the general public and by librarians for cataloging and research. worldcat is available to the public for searching via a subscription web-based service called firstsearch,[ ] as well as through the publicly available worldcat.org.[ ] identifiers and linked data[edit] oclc assigns a unique control number (referred to as an "ocn" for "oclc control number") to each new bibliographic record in the worldcat. numbers are assigned serially, and as of mid- over a billion ocns had been created. in september , the oclc declared these numbers to be in the public domain, removing a perceived barrier to widespread use of ocns outside oclc itself.[ ] the control numbers link worldcat's records to local library system records by providing a common reference key for a record across libraries.[ ] ocns are particularly useful as identifiers for books and other bibliographic materials that do not have isbns (e.g., books published before ). ocns are used as identifiers often in wikipedia and wikidata. in october , it was reported that out of , instances of book infoboxes in wikipedia, "there were , isbns and , ocns", and regarding wikidata: "of around million wikidata items, , were books. wikidata items have an isbn associated with them, and , have ocns."[ ] oclc also runs the virtual international authority file (viaf), an international name authority file, with oversight from the viaf council composed of representatives of institutions that contribute data to viaf.[ ] viaf numbers are broadly used as standard identifiers, including in wikipedia.[ ][ ] company acquisitions[edit] oclc offices in leiden (the netherlands) oclc acquired netlibrary, a provider of electronic books and textbooks, in and sold it in to ebsco industries.[ ] oclc owns % of the shares of oclc pica, a library automation systems and services company which has its headquarters in leiden in the netherlands and which was renamed "oclc" at the end of .[ ] in july , the research libraries group (rlg) merged with oclc.[ ][ ] on january , , oclc announced[ ] that it had purchased ezproxy. it has also acquired oaister. the process started in january and from october , , oaister records are freely available via worldcat.org. in oclc acquired the dutch library automation company hka[ ][ ] and its integrated library system wise,[ ] which oclc calls a "community engagement system" that "combines the power of customer relationship management, marketing, and analytics with ils functions".[ ] oclc began offering wise to libraries in the united states in .[ ] in january , oclc acquired sustainable collection services (scs). scs offered consulting services based on analyzing library print collection data to help libraries manage and share materials.[ ] in , oclc acquired relais international, a library interlibrary loan service provider based in ottawa, canada.[ ] criticism[edit] in may , oclc was criticized by jeffrey beall for monopolistic practices, among other faults.[ ] library blogger rick mason responded that although he thought beall had some "valid criticisms" of oclc, he demurred from some of beall's statements and warned readers to "beware the hyperbole and the personal nature of his criticism, for they strongly overshadow that which is worth stating".[ ] in november , the board of directors of oclc unilaterally issued a new policy for use and transfer of worldcat records[ ] that would have required member libraries to include an oclc policy note on their bibliographic records; the policy caused an uproar among librarian bloggers.[ ][ ] among those who protested the policy was the non-librarian activist aaron swartz, who believed the policy would threaten projects such as the open library, zotero, and wikipedia, and who started a petition to "stop the oclc powergrab".[ ][ ] swartz's petition garnered signatures, but the details of his proposed actions went largely unheeded.[ ] within a few months, the library community had forced oclc to retract its policy and to create a review board to consult with member libraries more transparently.[ ] in august , oclc recommended that member libraries adopt the open data commons attribution (odc-by) license when sharing library catalog data, although some member libraries have explicit agreements with oclc that they can publish catalog data using the cc public domain dedication.[ ][ ] in july , the company was sued by skyriver, a rival startup, in an antitrust suit.[ ] library automation company innovative interfaces joined skyriver in the suit.[ ] the suit was dropped in march , however, following the acquisition of skyriver by innovative interfaces.[ ] innovative interfaces was later bought by exlibris, therefore passing oclc as the dominant supplier of ils services in the usa (over % market share for academic libraries and over % for public libraries for exlibris, versus oclc's % market share of both types of libraries in ).[ ] see also[edit] 	dynix (software) 	public library advocacy references[edit] 	^ a b c / oclc annual report. dublin, ohio: oclc. . oclc  . 	^ a b "oclc consolidated financial statements – " (pdf). oclc. september , . retrieved may , . 	^ a b "certificate of amendment of the amended articles of incorporation of oclc online computer library center, inc". ohio secretary of state. june , . retrieved august , . 	^ "about oclc". oclc. retrieved may , . 	^ a b oswald, godfrey ( ). "largest unified international library catalog". library world records ( rd ed.). jefferson, nc: mcfarland & company. p.  . isbn  . oclc  . 	^ a b "in the beginning". oclc.org. oclc. retrieved august , . 	^ intner, sheila (march–april ). "the passing of an era". technicalities. : – . issn  - . 	^ bates, marcia j; maack, mary niles, eds. ( ). encyclopedia of library and information sciences. v ( rd ed.). boca raton, florida: crc press. p.  . isbn  . oclc  . 	^ bailey-hainer, brenda (october , ). "the oclc network of regional service providers: the last years". journal of library administration. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . 	^ "oclc deweybrowser". deweybrowser.oclc.org. archived from the original on may , . retrieved may , . 	^ "preservation service center". oclc. archived from the original on december , . 	^ "oclc prints last library catalog cards". www.oclc.org. october , . retrieved may , . 	^ "questionpoint". oclc. archived from the original on february , . retrieved may , . 	^ gest, jayne (june , ). "oclc to sell questionpoint software to florida company". smart business dealmakers columbus. retrieved april , . 	^ "springshare acquires questionpoint from oclc". springshare.com. may , . retrieved april , . 	^ "contentdm". oclc. retrieved may , . 	^ gilbert, heather; mobley, tyler (april , ). "breaking up with contentdm: why and how one institution took the leap to open source". the code lib journal ( ). issn  - . 	^ mita, amanda; pelli, zachary; reamer, kimberly; ince, sharon (april ). "contentdm to digital commons: considerations and workflows". journal of archival organization. ( – ): – . doi: . / . . . 	^ a b "oclc wise: community engagement system for public libraries". oclc. retrieved april , . 	^ a b c johnson, ben (april , ). "oclc wise reimagines the ils". infotoday.com. information today. retrieved april , . 	^ "worldcat discovery". oclc. retrieved march , . 	^ a b breeding, marshall (january , ). "discovery services: bundled or separate?". american libraries. retrieved april , . should discovery services be bundled or acquired à la carte? perspectives differ regarding the benefits of pairing a discovery service (for example, ex libris primo or oclc's worldcat discovery service) with the resource management system from the same vendor (ex libris alma or oclc's worldshare management services). 	^ "worldshare management services: an advanced, cloud-based library services platform". oclc. retrieved april , . 	^ hyatt, shirley; young, jeffrey a. ( ). "oclc research publications repository". d-lib magazine. ( ). doi: . /march -hyatt. 	^ "oclc publications". retrieved august , . 	^ "oclc membership reports". retrieved august , . 	^ "oclc newsletters". retrieved august , . 	^ "oclc presentations". retrieved august , . 	^ a b c rosa, cathy de (october , ). "advocacy and oclc". journal of library administration. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . 	^ grossman, wendy m. (january , ). "why you can't find a library book in your search engine". the guardian. issn  - . retrieved may , . 	^ "webjunction". oclc. retrieved april , . 	^ block, marylaine (may , ). "gates foundation and oclc announce webjunction". infotoday.com. information today. retrieved april , . 	^ enis, matt (september , ). "grant to support oclc webjunction for five years". library journal. retrieved april , . 	^ "advocacy: from awareness to funding, the next chapter". www.oclc.org. oclc. july , . 	^ a b "libraries leverage wikimedia". www.oclc.org. oclc. retrieved april , . 	^ "wikipedia + libraries: better together". webjunction.org. retrieved april , . 	^ "wikipedia + libraries: better together: oclc webjunction". archive.org. august , . retrieved april , . training curriculum and support materials. 	^ "firstsearch: precision searching of worldcat". oclc. retrieved june , . 	^ hane, paula j. (july , ). "oclc to open worldcat searching to the world". infotoday.com. information today. retrieved june , . 	^ wallis, richard (september , ). "oclc declare oclc control numbers public domain". dataliberate.com. 	^ "oclc control number". retrieved january , . 	^ hangingtogether.org (october , ). "oclc control numbers in the wild". 	^ "viaf council". www.oclc.org. oclc. retrieved april , . 	^ klein, maximilian; kyrios, alex (october , ). "viafbot and the integration of library data on wikipedia". the code lib journal ( ). issn  - . 	^ jordan, jay (march , ). "letter to members ". oclc. archived from the original on march , . 	^ rogers, michael (october , ). "clc/oclc pica merge". library journal. new york. archived from the original on october , . 	^ wilson, lizabeth; neal, james; jordan, jay (october ). "rlg and oclc: combining for the future" (guest editorial). library and information science. vol.  , no.  . retrieved via project muse database, - - . 	^ "rlg to combine with oclc" (press release). oclc worldwide. may , . worldcat.org. retrieved - - . 	^ "news releases". www.oclc.org. 	^ "oclc acquires dutch library systems provider hka". stm publishing news. october , . retrieved april , . 	^ breeding, marshall (november ). "oclc acquires the dutch ils provider hka". smart libraries newsletter. retrieved april , . 	^ price, gary (january , ). "print collections: oclc acquires sustainable collection services". infodocket. retrieved march , . 	^ "oclc agrees to acquire relais international to provide library consortia more options for resource sharing". www.oclc.org. january , . retrieved may , . 	^ beall, jeffrey ( ). "oclc: a review" (pdf). in roberto, k.r. (ed.). radical cataloging: essays at the front. jefferson, nc: mcfarland & company. pp.  – . isbn  - . oclc  . 	^ mason, rick (june , ). "oclc: a review (a review)". libology.com. retrieved february , . 	^ "policy for use and transfer of worldcat records". marc.coffeecode.net. retrieved february , . archived image of oclc webpage dated november , . 	^ "oclc policy change". wiki.code lib.org. – . retrieved july , . 	^ a b c mckenzie, elizabeth (january ). oclc changes its rules for use of records in worldcat: library community pushback through blogs and cultures of resistance (technical report). boston: suffolk university law school. research paper - . 	^ "stop the oclc powergrab!". watchdog.net. february , . archived from the original on february , . retrieved february , . 	^ "stealing your library: the oclc powergrab (aaron swartz's raw thought)". aaronsw.com. june , . archived from the original on june , . retrieved february , . 	^ vollmer, timothy (august , ). "library catalog metadata: open licensing or public domain?". creative commons. retrieved february , . 	^ price, gary (february , ). "metadata/catalog records: national library of sweden signs agreement with oclc re: cc license". library journal. retrieved february , . 	^ coyle, karen (july , ). "skyriver sues oclc over anti-trust". karen coyle. 	^ breeding, marshall (july , ). "skyriver and innovative interfaces file major antitrust lawsuit against oclc". library journal. archived from the original on august , . 	^ price, gary (march , ). "iii drops oclc suit, will absorb skyriver". library journal. 	^ schonfeld, roger c. (december , ). "what are the larger implications of ex libris buying innovative?". sr.ithaka.org. retrieved april , . further reading[edit] 	bénaud, claire-lise; bordeianu, sever (october ). "oclc's worldshare management services: a brave new world for catalogers". cataloging & classification quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . 	blackman, cathy; moore, erica rae; seikel, michele; smith, mandi (july ). "worldcat and skyriver: a comparison of record quantity and fullness". library resources & technical services. ( ): – . doi: . /lrts. n . . 	breeding, marshall (may ). "library services platforms: a maturing genre of products". library technology reports. ( ): – . doi: . /ltr. n . 	jordan, jay, ed. ( ). weaving libraries into the web: oclc – . london; new york: routledge. isbn  . oclc  . 	maciuszko, kathleen l. ( ). oclc, a decade of development, – . littleton, colo.: libraries unlimited. isbn  . oclc  . 	matthews, joseph r. (july ). "an environmental scan of oclc alternatives: a management perspective". public library quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . 	richardson, ellen (january ). "ain't no (sky)river wide enough to keep me from getting to you: skyriver, innovative, oclc, and the fight for control over the bibliographic data, cataloging services, ill, and ils markets". legal reference services quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / x. . . 	smith, k. wayne, ed. ( ). oclc, – : thirty years of furthering access to the world's information. new york: haworth press. isbn  . oclc  . 	"worldcat data licensing" (pdf). oclc.org. retrieved december , . see also: "data licenses & attribution". oclc.org. january , . retrieved december , . information about licensing of worldcat records and some other oclc data. external links[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to oclc. 	official website 	"hanging together – the oclc research blog". 	"oclc annual reports collection". oclc archives. 	"worldcat.org". 	works by or about oclc in libraries (worldcat catalog) 	authority control 	 	bibsys: 	bne: xx 	cinii: da 	gnd: - 	isni: 	lccn: n 	lnb: 	nkc: kn 	nla: 	nli: 	nlp: a 	nsk: 	selibr: 	snac: w gb xgb 	vcba: / 	viaf: 	 worldcat identities: lccn-n retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=oclc&oldid= #oclc" 		categories: 	oclc 	 establishments in ohio 	bibliographic database providers 	companies based in dublin, ohio 	cooperatives in the united states 	library automation 	library cataloging and classification 	library centers 	library-related organizations 	organizations established in hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	use american english from may 	all wikipedia articles written in american english 	use mdy dates from september 	articles containing potentially dated statements from 	all articles containing potentially dated statements 	commons category link is on wikidata 	wikipedia articles with bibsys identifiers 	wikipedia articles with bne identifiers 	wikipedia articles with cinii identifiers 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	wikipedia articles with isni identifiers 	wikipedia articles with lccn identifiers 	wikipedia articles with lnb identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nkc identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nla identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nli identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nlp identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nsk identifiers 	wikipedia articles with selibr identifiers 	wikipedia articles with snac-id identifiers 	wikipedia articles with vcba identifiers 	wikipedia articles with viaf identifiers 	wikipedia articles with worldcatid identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			afrikaans 	العربية 	aragonés 	asturianu 	azərbaycanca 	বাংলা 	bân-lâm-gú 	Български 	boarisch 	bosanski 	català 	Čeština 	cymraeg 	dansk 	deutsch 	Ελληνικά 	español 	esperanto 	euskara 	فارسی 	français 	galego 	ગુજરાતી 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	हिन्दी 	hrvatski 	ilokano 	bahasa indonesia 	italiano 	עברית 	kapampangan 	ქართული 	kurdî 	Македонски 	മലയാളം 	bahasa melayu 	nederlands 	नेपाली 	日本語 	norsk bokmål 	ਪੰਜਾਬੀ 	polski 	português 	română 	Русский 	shqip 	simple english 	slovenčina 	slovenščina 	Српски / srpski 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	suomi 	svenska 	tagalog 	தமிழ் 	ไทย 	türkçe 	Українська 	tiếng việt 	吴语 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 philpapers - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	philpapers 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		philpapers	 	producer	centre for digital philosophy at the university of western ontario (canada) 	history	 to present 	access 	cost	free 	coverage 	disciplines	philosophy 	record depth	index and abstract 	format coverage	journals, books, open access archives, and personal web pages 	geospatial coverage	worldwide 	links 	website	http://philpapers.org/ 	title list(s)	http://philpapers.org/journals philpapers is an international, interactive academic database of journal articles for professionals and students in philosophy.[ ] it is maintained by the centre for digital philosophy at the university of western ontario. as of [update], the general editors are its founders, david bourget (anu and university of london) and david chalmers (anu). philpapers receives financial support from other organizations, including a substantial grant in early from the joint information systems committee in the united kingdom.[ ] the archive is praised for its comprehensiveness and organization,[ ] and for its regular updates.[ ] in addition to archiving papers, the editors engage in surveying academic philosophers.[ ] see also[edit] 	list of academic databases and search engines references[edit] 	^ ichikawa, ernest sosa jonathan ( ). intuition: oxford bibliographies online research guide. oxford up. p.  . isbn  . retrieved march . 	^ david bourget, "philpapers awarded jisc funding", philpapers april . 	^ press, oxford university ( ). metaphysics of mind: oxford bibliographies online research guide. oxford up. p.  . isbn  . retrieved march . 	^ hesse-biber, sharlene nagy ( ). handbook of feminist research: theory and praxis. sage. p.  . isbn  . retrieved march . 	^ bourget, david; chalmers, david j. ( ). "what do philosophers believe?". philosophical studies. 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(learn how and when to remove these template messages) 	 	this article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (january ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	 	this article possibly contains original research. please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (august ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	 	the topic of this article may not meet wikipedia's general notability guideline. please help to establish notability by citing reliable secondary sources that are independent of the topic and provide significant coverage of it beyond a mere trivial mention. if notability cannot be established, the article is likely to be merged, redirected, or deleted. find sources: "institutional trust" social sciences – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (august ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) (learn how and when to remove this template message) institutional trust is a dynamic relationship between an individual and an institution. it is a form/sub-type of trust and is distinguished by the potential magnitude of its effect. the relationship can be analyzed through techniques developed for the analysis of interpersonal ties. the form of the relationship may be explicit (or implicit) and internal (or external) to an institution in both perception and reality. the disposition of the relationship can be qualified as positive, neutral or negative. the strength of the relationship is quantifiable through a relative percentage from % (weak) to % (strong) and a degree of separation (for example, degree of separation means the trust relationship is direct, see six degrees of separation). the characteristics of the relationship may change over variable periods of time (from instantaneously to slowly). institutional trust is often expressed through a value judgment. it has major implications in all fields of study, especially power dynamics, including (but not limited to) forms of power (social and political). references[edit] 	hurley, r.f., gillespie, n., ferrin, d.f. & dietz, g. ( ). designing trustworthy organizations. sloan management review ( ): - . 	kramer, roderick; todd l. pittinsky ( ). restoring trust in organizations and leaders: enduring challenges and emerging answers. oxford university press. isbn  - - - - . 	bachmann, r.; inkpen, a. c. ( ). "understanding institutional-based trust building processes in inter-organizational relationships". organization studies ( ): – . doi: . / . issn - . 	mark saunders ( ). organizational trust: a cultural perspective. cambridge university press. isbn  - - - - . 	gillespie, n. & dietz, g. ( ). trust repair after organization-level failure. academy of management review ( ): - . retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=institutional_trust_(social_sciences)&oldid= " 		categories: 	social institutions 	sociological terminology hidden categories: 	articles lacking in-text citations from january 	all articles lacking in-text citations 	articles that may contain original research from august 	all articles that may contain original research 	articles with topics of unclear notability from august 	all articles with topics of unclear notability 	articles with multiple maintenance issues 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		add links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 identity (social science) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	identity (social science) 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from social identity) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for other uses, see identity (disambiguation). not to be confused with personal identity. qualities, beliefs, personality, looks and/or expressions that distinguish a person or group 	 	this article has multiple issues. please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. 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(october ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) (learn how and when to remove this template message) identity is the qualities, beliefs, personality, looks and/or expressions that make a person (self-identity as emphasized in psychology[ ]) or group (collective identity as pre-eminent in sociology).[citation needed][ ] one can regard the awareness and the categorizing of identity as positive[ ] or as destructive.[ ][ ][ ] a psychological identity relates to self-image (one's mental model of oneself), self-esteem, and individuality. consequently, peter weinreich gives the definition: "a person's identity is defined as the totality of one's self-construal, in which how one construes oneself in the present expresses the continuity between how one construes oneself as one was in the past and how one construes oneself as one aspires to be in the future"; this allows for definitions of aspects of identity, such as: "one's ethnic identity is defined as that part of the totality of one's self-construal made up of those dimensions that express the continuity between one's construal of past ancestry and one's future aspirations in relation to ethnicity".[ ][page needed] gender identity forms an important part of identity in psychology, as it can dictate to a significant[quantify] degree how one views oneself both as a person and in relation to other people, ideas and nature.[citation needed] other aspects of identity, such as racial, religious, ethnic, occupational… etc. may also be more or less significant – or significant in some situations but not in others.[ ] in cognitive psychology, the term "identity" refers to the capacity for self-reflection and the awareness of self.[ ] sociology places some explanatory weight on the concept of role-behavior. identity negotiation may arise from the learning of social roles through personal experience. identity negotiation is a process in which a person negotiates with society at large regarding the meaning of their identity. psychologists most commonly use the term "identity" to describe personal identity, or the idiosyncratic things that make a person unique. sociologists, however, often use the term to describe social identity, or the collection of group memberships that define the individual. however, these uses are not proprietary, and each discipline may use either concept and each discipline may combine both concepts when considering a person's identity. social psychologists may speak of "psycho-social identity".[ ] neuroscientists draw upon these fields to study the neurobiological basis of personal and social identity.[ ][ ] the description or representation of individual and group identity is a central task for psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists and those of other disciplines which see a requirement to map and define "identity".[circular definition] how should one describe the identity of another, in ways which encompass both their idiosyncratic qualities and their group memberships or identifications, both of which can shift according to circumstance? following on from the work of kelly, erikson ( – ), tajfel ( – ) and others, weinreich's identity structure analysis (isa), is "a structural representation of the individual's existential experience, in which the relationships between self and other agents are organised in relatively stable structures over time … with the emphasis on the socio-cultural milieu in which self relates to other agents and institutions".[ ] using constructs drawn from the salient discourses of the individual, the group and cultural norms, the practical operationalisation of isa provides a methodology that maps how these are used by the individual, applied across time and milieus by the "situated self" to appraise self and other agents and institutions (for example, resulting in the individual's evaluation of self and significant others and institutions).[citation needed] individuals' identities are situated, but also contextual, situationally adaptive and changing. despite their fluid character, identities often feel as if they are stable ubiquitous categories defining an individual, because of their grounding in the sense of personal identity (the sense of being a continuous and persistent self).[ ] contents 	 in psychology 	 in social psychology 	 . collective identity 	 . identity formation strategies 	 in social anthropology 	 in philosophy 	 implications 	 . identity changes 	 see also 	 references 	 bibliography 	 external links in psychology[edit] erik erikson ( – ) became one of the earliest psychologists to take an explicit interest in identity. the eriksonian framework rests upon a distinction among the psychological sense of continuity, known as the ego identity (sometimes identified simply as "the self"); the personal idiosyncrasies that separate one person from the next, known as the personal identity; and the collection of social roles that a person might play, known as either the social identity or the cultural identity. erikson's work, in the psychodynamic tradition, aimed to investigate the process of identity formation across a lifespan. progressive strength in the ego identity, for example, can be charted in terms of a series of stages in which identity is formed in response to increasingly sophisticated challenges. the process of forming a viable sense of identity for the culture is conceptualized as an adolescent task, and those who do not manage a resynthesis of childhood identifications are seen as being in a state of 'identity diffusion' whereas those who retain their initially given identities unquestioned have 'foreclosed' identities (weinreich & saunderson p - ). on some readings of erikson, the development of a strong ego identity, along with the proper integration into a stable society and culture, lead to a stronger sense of identity in general. accordingly, a deficiency in either of these factors may increase the chance of an identity crisis or confusion (cote & levine , p.  ). although the self is distinct from identity, the literature of self-psychology can offer some insight into how identity is maintained (cote & levine , p.  ). from the vantage point of self-psychology, there are two areas of interest: the processes by which a self is formed (the "i"), and the actual content of the schemata which compose the self-concept (the "me"). in the latter field, theorists have shown interest in relating the self-concept to self-esteem, the differences between complex and simple ways of organizing self-knowledge, and the links between those organizing principles and the processing of information (cote & levine ). the "neo-eriksonian" identity status paradigm emerged in later years[when?], driven largely by the work of james marcia. this paradigm focuses upon the twin concepts of exploration and commitment. the central idea is that any individual's sense of identity is determined in large part by the explorations and commitments that he or she makes regarding certain personal and social traits. it follows that the core of the research in this paradigm investigates the degrees to which a person has made certain explorations, and the degree to which he or she displays a commitment to those explorations. a person may display either relative weakness or relative strength in terms of both exploration and commitments. when assigned categories, four possible permutations result: identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement. diffusion is when a person lacks both exploration in life and interest in committing even to those unchosen roles that he or she occupies. foreclosure is when a person has not chosen extensively in the past, but seems willing to commit to some relevant values, goals, or roles in the future. a moratorium is when a person displays a kind of flightiness, ready to make choices but unable to commit to them. finally, an achievement is when a person makes identity choices and commits to them. weinreich's identity variant similarly includes the categories of identity diffusion, foreclosure and crisis, but with a somewhat different emphasis. here, with respect to identity diffusion for example, an optimal level is interpreted as the norm, as it is unrealistic to expect an individual to resolve all their conflicted identifications with others; therefore we should be alert to individuals with levels which are much higher or lower than the norm – highly diffused individuals are classified as diffused, and those with low levels as foreclosed or defensive. (weinreich & saunderson, , pp – ; – ). weinreich applies the identity variant in a framework which also allows for the transition from one to another by way of biographical experiences and resolution of conflicted identifications situated in various contexts – for example, an adolescent going through family break-up may be in one state, whereas later in a stable marriage with a secure professional role may be in another. hence, though there is continuity, there is also development and change. (weinreich & saunderson, , pp – ). laing's definition of identity closely follows erikson's, in emphasising the past, present and future components of the experienced self. he also develops the concept of the "metaperspective of self", i.e. the self's perception of the other's view of self, which has been found to be extremely important in clinical contexts such as anorexia nervosa. (saunderson and o'kane, ). harré also conceptualises components of self/identity – the "person" (the unique being i am to myself and others) along with aspects of self (including a totality of attributes including beliefs about one's characteristics including life history), and the personal characteristics displayed to others. further information: self (psychology) in social psychology[edit] at a general level, self-psychology is compelled to investigate the question of how the personal self relates to the social environment. to the extent that these theories place themselves in the tradition of "psychological" social psychology, they focus on explaining an individual's actions within a group in terms of mental events and states. however, some "sociological" social psychology theories go further by attempting to deal with the issue of identity at both the levels of individual cognition and of collective behaviour. [ ] collective identity[edit] main article: collective identity many people gain a sense of positive self-esteem from their identity groups, which furthers a sense of community and belonging. another issue that researchers have attempted to address is the question of why people engage in discrimination, i.e., why they tend to favour those they consider a part of their "in-group" over those considered to be outsiders. both questions have been given extensive attention by researchers working in the social identity tradition. for example, in work relating to social identity theory it has been shown that merely crafting cognitive distinction between in- and out-groups can lead to subtle effects on people's evaluations of others (cote & levine ).[ ] different social situations also compel people to attach themselves to different self-identities which may cause some to feel marginalized, switch between different groups and self-identifications,[ ] or reinterpret certain identity components.[ ] these different selves lead to constructed images dichotomized between what people want to be (the ideal self) and how others see them (the limited self). educational background and occupational status and roles significantly influence identity formation in this regard.[ ] identity formation strategies[edit] another issue of interest in social psychology is related to the notion that there are certain identity formation strategies which a person may use to adapt to the social world. (cote & levine , pp.  – ) developed a typology which investigated the different manners of behavior that individuals may have. ( ) their typology includes: 	 	psychological symptoms 	personality symptoms 	social symptoms 	refuser 	develops cognitive blocks that prevent adoption of adult role-schemas 	engages in childlike behavior 	shows extensive dependency upon others and no meaningful engagement with the community of adults 	drifter 	possesses greater psychological resources than the refuser (i.e., intelligence, charisma) 	is apathetic toward application of psychological resources 	has no meaningful engagement with or commitment to adult communities 	searcher 	has a sense of dissatisfaction due to high personal and social expectations 	shows disdain for imperfections within the community 	interacts to some degree with role-models, but ultimately these relationships are abandoned 	guardian 	possesses clear personal values and attitudes, but also a deep fear of change 	sense of personal identity is almost exhausted by sense of social identity 	has an extremely rigid sense of social identity and strong identification with adult communities 	 resolver 	consciously desires self-growth 	accepts personal skills and competencies and uses them actively 	is responsive to communities that provide opportunity for self-growth kenneth gergen formulated additional classifications, which include the strategic manipulator, the pastiche personality, and the relational self. the strategic manipulator is a person who begins to regard all senses of identity merely as role-playing exercises, and who gradually becomes alienated from his or her social "self". the pastiche personality abandons all aspirations toward a true or "essential" identity, instead viewing social interactions as opportunities to play out, and hence become, the roles they play. finally, the relational self is a perspective by which persons abandon all sense of exclusive self, and view all sense of identity in terms of social engagement with others. for gergen, these strategies follow one another in phases, and they are linked to the increase in popularity of postmodern culture and the rise of telecommunications technology. in social anthropology[edit] see also: australian aboriginal identity anthropologists have most frequently employed the term 'identity' to refer to this idea of selfhood in a loosely eriksonian way (erikson ) properties based on the uniqueness and individuality which makes a person distinct from others. identity became of more interest to anthropologists with the emergence of modern concerns with ethnicity and social movements in the s. this was reinforced by an appreciation, following the trend in sociological thought, of the manner in which the individual is affected by and contributes to the overall social context. at the same time, the eriksonian approach to identity remained in force, with the result that identity has continued until recently to be used in a largely socio-historical way to refer to qualities of sameness in relation to a person's connection to others and to a particular group of people. the first favours a primordialist approach which takes the sense of self and belonging to a collective group as a fixed thing, defined by objective criteria such as common ancestry and common biological characteristics. the second, rooted in social constructionist theory, takes the view that identity is formed by a predominantly political choice of certain characteristics. in so doing, it questions the idea that identity is a natural given, characterised by fixed, supposedly objective criteria. both approaches need to be understood in their respective political and historical contexts, characterised by debate on issues of class, race and ethnicity. while they have been criticized, they continue to exert an influence on approaches to the conceptualisation of identity today. these different explorations of 'identity' demonstrate how difficult a concept it is to pin down. since identity is a virtual thing, it is impossible to define it empirically. discussions of identity use the term with different meanings, from fundamental and abiding sameness, to fluidity, contingency, negotiated and so on. brubaker and cooper note a tendency in many scholars to confuse identity as a category of practice and as a category of analysis (brubaker & cooper , p.  ). indeed, many scholars demonstrate a tendency to follow their own preconceptions of identity, following more or less the frameworks listed above, rather than taking into account the mechanisms by which the concept is crystallised as reality. in this environment, some analysts, such as brubaker and cooper, have suggested doing away with the concept completely (brubaker & cooper , p.  ). others, by contrast, have sought to introduce alternative concepts in an attempt to capture the dynamic and fluid qualities of human social self-expression. hall ( , ), for example, suggests treating identity as a process, to take into account the reality of diverse and ever-changing social experience. some scholars have introduced the idea of identification, whereby identity is perceived as made up of different components that are 'identified' and interpreted by individuals. the construction of an individual sense of self is achieved by personal choices regarding who and what to associate with. such approaches are liberating in their recognition of the role of the individual in social interaction and the construction of identity. anthropologists have contributed to the debate by shifting the focus of research: one of the first challenges for the researcher wishing to carry out empirical research in this area is to identify an appropriate analytical tool. the concept of boundaries is useful here for demonstrating how identity works. in the same way as barth, in his approach to ethnicity, advocated the critical focus for investigation as being "the ethnic boundary that defines the group rather than the cultural stuff that it encloses" ( : ), social anthropologists such as cohen and bray have shifted the focus of analytical study from identity to the boundaries that are used for purposes of identification. if identity is a kind of virtual site in which the dynamic processes and markers used for identification are made apparent, boundaries provide the framework on which this virtual site is built. they concentrated on how the idea of community belonging is differently constructed by individual members and how individuals within the group conceive ethnic boundaries. as a non-directive and flexible analytical tool, the concept of boundaries helps both to map and to define the changeability and mutability that are characteristic of people's experiences of the self in society. while identity is a volatile, flexible and abstract 'thing', its manifestations and the ways in which it is exercised are often open to view. identity is made evident through the use of markers such as language, dress, behaviour and choice of space, whose effect depends on their recognition by other social beings. markers help to create the boundaries that define similarities or differences between the marker wearer and the marker perceivers, their effectiveness depends on a shared understanding of their meaning. in a social context, misunderstandings can arise due to a misinterpretation of the significance of specific markers. equally, an individual can use markers of identity to exert influence on other people without necessarily fulfilling all the criteria that an external observer might typically associate with such an abstract identity. boundaries can be inclusive or exclusive depending on how they are perceived by other people. an exclusive boundary arises, for example, when a person adopts a marker that imposes restrictions on the behaviour of others. an inclusive boundary is created, by contrast, by the use of a marker with which other people are ready and able to associate. at the same time, however, an inclusive boundary will also impose restrictions on the people it has included by limiting their inclusion within other boundaries. an example of this is the use of a particular language by a newcomer in a room full of people speaking various languages. some people may understand the language used by this person while others may not. those who do not understand it might take the newcomer's use of this particular language merely as a neutral sign of identity. but they might also perceive it as imposing an exclusive boundary that is meant to mark them off from her. on the other hand, those who do understand the newcomer's language could take it as an inclusive boundary, through which the newcomer associates herself with them to the exclusion of the other people present. equally, however, it is possible that people who do understand the newcomer but who also speak another language may not want to speak the newcomer's language and so see her marker as an imposition and a negative boundary. it is possible that the newcomer is either aware or unaware of this, depending on whether she herself knows other languages or is conscious of the plurilingual quality of the people there and is respectful of it or not. in philosophy[edit] see also: personal identity and identity (philosophy) hegel rejects cartesian philosophy, supposing that we do not always doubt and that we do not always have consciousness. in his famous master-slave dialectic hegel attempts to show that the mind (geist) only become conscious when it encounters another mind. one geist attempts to control the other, since up until that point it has only encountered tools for its use. a struggle for domination ensues, leading to lordship and bondage. nietzsche, who was influenced by hegel in some ways but rejected him in others, called for a rejection of "soul atomism" in the gay science. nietzsche supposed that the soul was an interaction of forces, an ever-changing thing far from the immortal soul posited by both descartes and the christian tradition. his "construction of the soul" in many ways resembles modern social constructivism. heidegger, following nietzsche, did work on identity. for heidegger, people only really form an identity after facing death. it's death that allows people to choose from the social constructed meanings in their world, and assemble a finite identity out of seemingly infinite meanings. for heidegger, most people never escape the "they", a socially constructed identity of "how one ought to be" created mostly to try to escape death through ambiguity. many philosophical schools derive from rejecting hegel, and diverse traditions of acceptance and rejection have developed. ricoeur has introduced the distinction between the ipse identity (selfhood, 'who am i?') and the idem identity (sameness, or a third-person perspective which objectifies identity) (ricoeur & blamey ). implications[edit] the implications are multiple as various research traditions are now[when?] heavily utilizing the lens of identity to examine phenomena.[citation needed] one implication of identity and of identity construction can be seen in occupational settings. this becomes increasing challenging in stigmatized jobs or "dirty work" (hughes, ). tracy and trethewey ( ) state that "individuals gravitate toward and turn away from particular jobs depending in part, on the extent to which they validate a "preferred organizational self" (tracy & tretheway , p.  ). some jobs carry different stigmas or acclaims. in her analysis tracy uses the example of correctional officers trying to shake the stigma of "glorified maids" (tracy & tretheway ). "the process by which people arrive at justifications of and values for various occupational choices." among these are workplace satisfaction and overall quality of life (tracy & scott , p.  ). people in these types of jobs are forced to find ways in order to create an identity they can live with. "crafting a positive sense of self at work is more challenging when one's work is considered "dirty" by societal standards" (tracy & scott , p.  ). "in other words, doing taint management is not just about allowing the employee to feel good in that job. "if employees must navigate discourses that question the viability of their work, and/ or experience obstacles in managing taint through transforming dirty work into a badge of honor, it is likely they will find blaming the client to be an efficacious route in affirming their identity" (tracy & scott , p.  ). in any case, the concept that an individual has a unique identity developed relatively recently in history. factors influencing the emphasis on personal identity may include: 	in the west, the protestant stress on one's responsibility for one's own soul 	psychology itself, emerging as a distinct field of knowledge and study from the th century onwards 	the growth of a sense of privacy since the renaissance 	specialization of worker roles during the industrial period (as opposed, for example, to the undifferentiated roles of peasants in the feudal system) 	occupation and employment's effect on identity[citation needed] 	increased emphasis on gender identity, including gender dysphoria and transgender issues[citation needed] identity changes[edit] an important implication relates to identity change, i.e. the transformation of identity. contexts include: 	radical career-change (ibarra ) 	gender identity transition 	national[citation needed] 	adoption[citation needed] see also[edit] 	gender dysphoria 	identity formation 	identity politics 	international identity federation 	otium 	online identity 	passing 	racial dysphoria 	role engulfment 	self and identity 	self-concept 	self-consciousness 	self-discovery 	self-schema 	self-knowledge 	spoiled identity references[edit] 	^ cheek, jonathan m. ( ). "identity orientations and self-interpretation". in buss, david michael; cantor, nancy (eds.). personality psychology: recent trends and emerging directions (reprint ed.). new york: springer science & business media (published ). p.  . doi: . / - - - - _ . isbn  . retrieved november . identity is the construct that defines who or what a particular person is. 	^ compare collins dictionary of sociology, quoted in covington, peter ( ). "culture and identity". success in sociology. dublin: folens limited. p.  . isbn  . retrieved november . jary and jary ( ) define identity as 'a sense of self that develops as the child differentiates from parents and the family, and takes a place in society.' 	^ smart, julie ( ). "erikson's psychosocial theory of human development". disability across the developmental life span: for the rehabilitation counselor. springer publishing company. p.  . isbn  . retrieved february . early adulthood [...] in the previous stages, the formation of one's self-identity and the resulting differentiation from others were important developmental tasks. 	^ james, paul ( ). "despite the terrors of typologies: the importance of understanding categories of difference and identity". interventions: international journal of postcolonial studies. ( ): – . doi: . / x. . . s cid  . the first argument of this essay is that categorizations about identity, even when codified and hardened into clear typologies by processes of colonization, state formation or general modernizing processes, are always full of tensions and contradictions. sometimes these contradictions are destructive, but they can also be creative and positive. 	^ a buddhist viewpoint warns against some views of self-identity: colacurcio, robert ( ). "the problem of self identity". the virtual self: beyond the gap in buddhist philosophy. p.  . isbn  . retrieved february . mistaking self to have an inherent, essential nature whose identity is permanent gives rise to suffering because this view of self is in radical opposition to the way things really are. 	^ monier-williams, monier ( ). "buddhism contrasted with christianity". buddhism, in its connexion with brahmanism and hinduism, and in its contrast with christianity (reprint ed.). new york: macmillan and co (published ). retrieved november . [...] buddhism sets forth as the highest of all aims the utter extinction of the illusion of personal identity [...] 	^ weinreich, peter ( ). " : the operationalisation of identity theory in racial and ethnic relations". in rex, john; mason, david (eds.). theories of race and ethnic relations. comparative ethnic and race relations. cambridge: cambridge university press (published ). pp.  ff. isbn  . retrieved - - . 	^ weinreich & saunderson pp – . 	^ (leary & tangney , p.  ) 	^ for example: evans, richard isadore; rozelle, richard m., eds. ( ). social psychology in life ( ed.). allyn and bacon. p.  . retrieved february . [...] american student activists are both participants and leaders in the reorganization of psycho-social identity and ideology that is gradually emerging from the unique historical conditions of the twentieth century. 	^ scheepers, daan; derks, belle ( ). "revisiting social identity theory from a neuroscience perspective". current opinion in psychology. : – . doi: . /j.copsyc. . . . 	^ decety, jean; christen, yves ( - - ). new frontiers in social neuroscience. decety, jean., christen, yves. cham. isbn  . oclc  . 	^ weinreich and saunderson, (eds) , p . 	^ kurzwelly, j ( ). "being german, paraguayan and germanino: exploring the relation between social and personal identity". identity. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . s cid  . 	^ chakkarath, p. ( ). cultural identity. in k. d. keith (ed.), encyclopedia of cross-cultural psychology (pp. – ). wiley-blackwell. doi: . / .wbeccp 	^ "social identity theory". universiteit twente. retrieved - - . 	^ benet-martínez, v., & hong, y-y. ( ) 	^ kislev, e. ( ) 	^ hurd, e. ( ). confessions of belonging: my emotional journey as a medical translator. qualitative inquiry ( ), – . doi: . / bibliography[edit] 	leary, m. r.; tangney, j. p. ( ). handbook of self and identity. new york:guilford press. isbn  - - - . 	tracy, s. j.; tretheway, a. ( ). "fracturing the real-self-fake-self dichotomy: moving toward "crystallized organizational discourses and identities"". communication theory. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. s cid  . 	tracy, s. j.; scott, c. ( ). "sexuality, masculinity and taint management among firefighters and correctional officers: getting down and dirty with america's heroes and the scum of law enforcement". management communication quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	social identity theory: cognitive and motivational basis of intergroup differentiation. universiteit twente ( ). 	anderson, b ( ). imagined communities. reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. london: verso. 	barnard, a. & spencer, j. (eds.) 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( ) stratégies identitaires. paris: presses universitaires de france. 	carey, h. c. ( ). principles of social science. philadelphia: j.b. lippincott & co. 	carey, h. c. & mclean, k. ( ). manual of social science; being a condensation of the "principles of social science" of h.c. carey, ll. d.. philadelphia: h.c. baird. 	cohen, a. ( ). two-dimensional: an essay on the anthropology of power and symbolism in complex society. london: routledge 	cohen, a. ( ). "boundaries and boundary-consciousness: politicising cultural identity," in m. anderson and e. bort (eds.), the frontiers of europe. london: printer press. 	cohen, a. ( ). self consciousness: an alternative anthropology of identity. london: routledge. 	hallam, e. m., et al. ( ). beyond the body: death and social identity. london: routledge. isbn  - - - . 	ibarra, herminia ( ). working identity: unconventional strategies for reinventing your career. harvard business press. isbn  - - - - . 	james, paul ( ). "despite the terrors of typologies: the importance of understanding categories of difference and identity". interventions: international journal of postcolonial studies. ( ): – . doi: . / x. . . s cid  . 	little, d. ( ). varieties of social explanation: an introduction to the philosophy of social science. boulder: westview press. isbn  - - - . 	meyers, d. t. ( ). being yourself: essays on identity, action, and social life. feminist constructions. lanham, md: rowman & littlefield publishers. isbn  - - - 	modood, t. & werbner p. (eds.) ( ). the politics of multiculturalism in the new europe: racism, identity and community. london: zed books. 	ricoeur, paul; blamey, kathleen ( ). oneself as another (soi-même comme un autre), trans. kathleen blamey. chicago: university of chicago press. isbn  - - - - . 	smith, a.d. ( ). the ethnic origin of nations. oxford: blackwell. 	cote, james e.; levine, charles ( ), identity formation, agency, and culture, new jersey: lawrence erlbaum associates 	mead, george h. ( ). mind, self, and society. chicago: university of chicago press. 	stryker, sheldon ( ). "identity salience and role performance". journal of marriage and the family. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	stryker, sheldon; burke, peter j. (december ). "the past, present, and future of an identity theory". social psychology quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . s cid  . 	hasan bülent paksoy ( ) [identities: how governed, who pays? malaga: entelequia nd ed. https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.eumed.net/entelequia/pdf/b .pdf] 	sökefeld, m. ( ). "debating self, identity, and culture in anthropology." current anthropology ( ), august–october, – . 	thompson, r.h. ( ). theories of ethnicity. new york: greenwood press. 	vermeulen, h. & gowers, c. (eds.) ( ). the anthropology of ethnicity: 'beyond ethnic groups and boundaries'. amsterdam: het spinhuis. 	vryan, kevin d., patricia a. adler, peter adler. . "identity." pp.  – in handbook of symbolic interactionism, edited by larry t. reynolds and nancy j. herman-kinney. walnut creek, ca: altamira. 	ward, l. f. ( ). dynamic sociology, or applied social science. new york: d. appleton and company. 	ward, l. f. ( ). dynamic sociology. series in american studies. new york: johnson reprint corp. 	weinreich, p. ( a). the operationalisation of identity theory in racial and ethnic relations, in j.rex and d.mason (eds). "theories of race and ethnic relations". cambridge: cambridge university press. 	weinreich, p and saunderson, w. (eds) ( ). "analysing identity: cross-cultural, societal and clinical contexts." london: routledge. 	werbner, p. and t. modood. (eds.) ( ). debating cultural hybridity: multi-cultural identities and the politics of anti-racism. london: zed books. 	williams, j. m. ( ). the foundations of social science; an analysis of their psychological aspects. new york: a.a. knopf. 	woodward, k. ( ). questioning identity: gender, class, ethnicity. london: routledge. isbn  - - - . external links[edit] 	stanford encyclopedia of philosophy – identity 		v 	t 	e ethnicity 	related concepts	 	clan 	ethnic group 	ethnographic group 	ethnolinguistic group 	ethnoreligious group 	ethnographic realism 	hyphenated ethnicity 	indigenous peoples 	ingroups and outgroups 	meta-ethnicity 	metroethnicity 	minority group 	monoethnicity 	nation 	nationality 	panethnicity 	polyethnicity 	population 	race 	symbolic ethnicity 	tribe 	ethnology	 	anthropology 	ethnic studies 	ethnoarchaeology 	ethnobiology 	ethnobotany 	ethnomycology 	ethnozoology 	ethnoecology 	ethnocinema 	ethnogeology 	ethnography 	autoethnography 	clinical 	critical 	cyber- 	institutional 	netnography 	online 	person-centered 	salvage 	transidioethnography 	video 	ethnohistory 	ethnolinguistics 	ethnology 	ethnomathematics 	ethnostatistics 	ethnomedicine 	ethnomethodology 	ethnomuseology 	ethnomusicology 	ethnophilosophy 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articles with lccn identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			afrikaans 	العربية 	bân-lâm-gú 	Български 	brezhoneg 	Чӑвашла 	eesti 	esperanto 	euskara 	فارسی 	français 	Հայերեն 	हिन्दी 	hrvatski 	bahasa 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fictional heroine maud muller gazes into the distance, regretting her inaction and thinking about what might have been. 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e regret is the emotion of wishing one had made a different decision in the past, because the consequences of the decision were unfavorable. regret is related to perceived opportunity. its intensity varies over time after the decision, in regard to action versus inaction, and in regard to self-control at a particular age. the self-recrimination which comes with regret is thought to spur corrective action and adaptation. in western societies adults have the highest regrets regarding choices of their education.[ ] contents 	 definition 	 models 	 life domains 	 . in health care decisions 	 . deathbed regrets 	 determinants of intensity 	 . action versus inaction 	 . age 	 . opportunity 	 . lost opportunity principle 	 neuroscience 	 in other species 	 see also 	 references definition[edit] regret has been defined by psychologists in the late s as a "negative emotion predicated on an upward, self-focused, counterfactual inference".[ ] another definition is "an aversive emotional state elicited by a discrepancy in the outcome values of chosen vs. unchosen actions".[ ] regret differs from remorse in that people can regret things beyond their control, but remorse indicates a sense of responsibility for the situation.[ ] for example, a person can feel regret that people die during natural disasters, but cannot feel remorse for that situation. however, a person who intentionally harms someone should feel remorse for those actions. agent regret is the idea that a person could be involved in a situation, and regret their involvement even if those actions were innocent, unintentional, or involuntary.[ ] for example, if someone decides to die by stepping in front of a moving vehicle, the death is not the fault of the driver, but the driver may still regret that the person died. regret is distinct from disappointment. both are negative emotional experiences relating to a loss outcome, and both have similar neuronal correlates. however, they differ in regard to feedback about the outcome, comparing the difference between outcomes for the chosen vs. unchosen action; in regret, full feedback occurs and with disappointment partial feedback. they also differ in regard to agency (self in regret versus external in disappointment).[ ] models[edit] there are conceptual models of regret in regret (decision theory) mostly in theoretical economics and finance under a field called behavioral economics. anticipated regret, or how much regret one thinks one will feel in the future, appears to be overestimated for actions and choices.[ ][ ] this appears to be, in part, due to a tendency to underestimate the extent to which people attribute bad outcomes to external factors rather than to internal factors (i.e., themselves).[ ] it can lead to inaction or inertia and omission bias.[ ] existential regret has been specifically defined as "a profound desire to go back and change a past experience in which one has failed to choose consciously or has made a choice that did not follow one’s beliefs, values, or growth needs".[ ] instruments to measure regret in people having to make medical decisions have failed to address current concepts of regret and failed to differentiate regret from disappointment. they have also not looked for positive impacts of regret.[ ] process regret may occur, if a person does not consider information about all available choices before making a decision.[ ] life domains[edit] a meta-analysis of studies ( us, one germany, one finland) about what adults regret most concluded, that overall adults regret choices regarding their education the most. subsequent rankings included decisions about career, romance, and parenting. education has been the forerunner of regret in the u.s. per gallup surveys in , , and . education was the forerunner of regret because it is seen as something where circumstances could be changed: "in contemporary society, education is open to continual modification throughout life. with the rise of community colleges and student aid programs in recent decades, education of some sort is accessible to nearly all socioeconomic groups."this finding can be attributed to the principle of perceived opportunity. "people´s biggest regrets are a reflection of where in life they see their largest opportunities; that is, where they see tangible prospects for change, growth, and renewal.[ ] in other cultures, regrets may be ranked differently depending on the perceived opportunity in a particular society.[ ] in health care decisions[edit] 	 	this section is written like a research paper or scientific journal that may use overly technical terms or may not be written like an encyclopedic article. please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (november ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) a review of past studies found risk factors for people to develop "decision regret" regarding their health care were: higher decisional conflict, lower satisfaction with the decision, adverse outcomes in physical health, and greater anxiety levels.[ ] deathbed regrets[edit] a study found that people were more likely to express "ideal-related regrets", such as failing to follow their dreams and live up to their full potential.[ ][ ] this was found to correlate with the anecdotal accounts of palliative care nurse bronnie ware about the most common regrets she had heard expressed by those nearing death, which included: 	"i wish i’d had the courage to live a life true to myself, not the life others expected of me." 	"i wish i hadn’t worked so hard." 	"i wish i’d had the courage to express my feelings." 	"i wish i had stayed in touch with my friends." 	"i wish that i had let myself be happier."[ ] determinants of intensity[edit] action versus inaction[edit] there is an interplay between action versus inaction and time. regrets of an action are more intense in the short term, whereas regrets of inaction are more intense over the long term.[ ] age[edit] see also: locus_of_control § age in a study, high intensity of regret and intrusive thoughts in older adults was related to self-control, and low internal control was expected to be self-protective and help to decrease regret. in younger adults, internal-control facilitated active change and was associated with low intensity of regret.[ ] opportunity[edit] people's biggest regrets occur where they perceive the greatest and most important opportunity for corrective action.[ ] when no opportunity exists to improve conditions, thought processes mitigate the cognitive dissonance caused by regret, e.g. by rationalization, and reconstrual.[ ] regret pushes people toward revised decision making and corrective action as part of learning that may bring improvement in life circumstances. a study measured regret in accordance to negative reviews with service providers. regret was an accurate predictor of who switched providers. as more intense regret is experienced, the likelihood of initiating change is increased. consequently, the more opportunity of corrective action available, the larger the regret felt and the more likely corrective action is achieved. feeling regret spurs future action to make sure other opportunities are taken so that regret will not be experienced again. people learn from their mistakes.[ ] lost opportunity principle[edit] with a lost opportunity regret should intensify, not diminish, when people feel that they could have made better choices in the past but now perceive limited opportunities to take corrective action in the future. "people who habitually consider future consequences (and how they may avoid future negative outcomes) experience less, rather than more, intense regret after a negative outcome." [ ] this principle offers another reason as to why education is the most regretted aspect in life. education becomes a more limited opportunity as time passes. aspects such as making friends, becoming more spiritual, and community involvement tend to be less regrettable which makes sense because these are also aspects in life that do not become limited opportunities. as the opportunity to remedy a situation passes, feelings of hopelessness may increase.[ ] an explanation of the lost opportunity principle can be seen as a lack of closure: low closure makes past occurrences feel unresolved. low closure is associated with "reductions in self-esteem and persistent negative affect over time" and with the realization and regret of lost opportunity. high closure is associated with acceptance of lost opportunity.[ ] the lost opportunity principle suggests, that regret does not serve as a corrective motive (which the opportunity principle suggests). instead, regret serves as a more general reminder to seize the day. [ ] regret lingers where opportunity existed, with the self-blame of remorse being a core element to ultimately spur corrective action in decision-making.[ ] neuroscience[edit] research upon brain injury and fmri have linked the orbitofrontal cortex to the processing of regret.[ ][ ] completeness of feedback about the outcomes after making a decision determined whether persons experienced regret (outcomes from both the choice and the alternative) vs. disappointment (partial-feedback, seeing only the outcome from the choice) in a magnetoencephalography study. another factor was the type of agency: with personal decision making the neural correlates of regret could be seen, with external agency (computer choice) those of disappointment. feedback regret showed greater brain activity in the right anterior and posterior regions, with agency regret producing greater activity in the left anterior region.[ ] both regret and disappointment activated anterior insula and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex but only with regret the lateral orbitofrontal cortex was activated.[ ] psychopathic individuals do not show regret and remorse. this was thought to be due to an inability to generate this emotion in response to negative outcomes. however, in , people with antisocial personality disorder and dissocial personality disorder were found to experience regret, but did not use the regret to guide their choice in behavior. there was no lack of regret but a problem to think through a range of potential actions and estimating the outcome values.[ ] in other species[edit] a study published in by neuroscientists based at the university of minnesota suggested that rats are capable of feeling regret about their actions. this emotion had never previously been found in any other mammals apart from humans. researchers set up situations to induce regret, and rats expressed regret through both their behavior and specific neural patterns in brain activity.[ ] see also[edit] 	regret (decision theory) 	apology references[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to regret. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: regret 		look up regret in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	^ a b c d e f roese, n.j. ( ). "what we regret most...and why". personality & social psychology bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ zeelenberg m, pieters r. a theory of regret regulation . . j consum psychol. ; ( ): – . 	^ a b mcconnell, terrance ( ), "moral dilemmas", in zalta, edward n. (ed.), the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (fall ed.), metaphysics research lab, stanford university, retrieved - - 	^ a b giorgetta, c; grecucci, a; bonini, n; coricelli, g; demarchi, g; braun, c; sanfey, ag (jan ). "waves of regret: a meg study of emotion and decision-making". neuropsychologia. ( ): – . doi: . /j.neuropsychologia. . . . pmid  . 	^ a b gilbert, daniel t.; morewedge, carey k.; risen, jane l.; wilson, timothy d. ( - - ). "looking forward to looking backward the misprediction of regret". psychological science. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /j. - . . .x. issn  - . pmid  . 	^ sevdalis, nick; harvey, nigel ( - - ). "biased forecasting of postdecisional affect". psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. issn  - . pmid  . 	^ dibonaventura, m; chapman, gb ( ). "do decision biases predict bad decisions? omission bias, naturalness bias, and inf luenza vaccination". med decis making. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / x . pmid  . 	^ lucas, marijo (january ). "existential regret: a crossroads of existential anxiety and existential guilt". journal of humanistic psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ a b joseph-williams, n; edwards, a; elwyn, g ( ). "the importance and complexity of regret in the measurement of 'good' decisions: a systematic review and a content analysis of existing assessment instruments". health expect. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmc  . pmid  . 	^ gilovich, t; wang, rf; regan, d; nishina, s ( ). "regrets of action and inaction across cultures". journal of cross-cultural psychology. : – . doi: . / . 	^ margarita becerra pérez, maria; menear, matthew; brehaut, jamie c.; légaré, france ( ). "extent and predictors of decision regret about health care decisions". medical decision making. ( ): – . doi: . / x . 	^ davidai, shai; gilovich, thomas (april ). "the ideal road not taken: the self-discrepancies involved in people's most enduring regrets" (pdf). emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /emo . retrieved january . in her book the top five regrets of the dying, bonnie [sic] ware, a palliative nurse, compiled the regrets most often expressed by patients nearing the ends of their lives (ware, ). although anecdotal, her observations are in line with our hypothesis. the most commonly cited regret mentioned by ware’s patients was, "i wish i’d had the courage to live a life true to myself, not the life others expected of me." 	^ pawlowski, agnes ( june ). "the most haunting regrets aren't about the things we've done, research finds". today.com. nbc universal. retrieved january . 	^ ware, bronnie ( january ). "regrets of the dying". bronnie ware. retrieved january . 	^ gilovich, t; medvec, vh ( ). "the experience of regret: what, when, and why". psychological review. ( ): – . doi: . / - x. . . . pmid  . 	^ wrosch, c; heckhausen, j ( ). "perceived control of life regrets: good for young and bad for old adults". psychology and aging. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ zeelenberg, m ( ). "the use of crying over spilled milk: a note on the rationality and functionality of regret" (pdf). philosophical psychology. ( – ): – . doi: . / . 	^ roese, neal j. (jan ). "counterfactual thinking". psychological bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ beike, denise (december , ). "what we regret most are lost opportunities: a theory of regret intensity". personality and social psychology bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ beike, denise; wirth-beaumont, erin ( ). "psychological closure as a memory phenomenon". memory. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . 	^ "living with regret: how to get over regret and seize the day". human growth lab. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ coricelli, g; critchley, hd; joffily, m; o'doherty, jp; sirigu, a; dolan, rj ( ). "regret and its avoidance: a neuroimaging study of choice behavior". nat neurosci. ( ): – . doi: . /nn . hdl: . / - -a -b. pmid  . 	^ coricelli, g; dolan, rj; sirigu, a ( ). "brain, emotion and decision making: the paradigmatic example of regret". trends cogn sci. ( ): – . doi: . /j.tics. . . . hdl: . / - -a -d. pmid  . 	^ chua hf , gonzalez r; taylor, sf; welsh, rc; liberzon, i (oct ). "decision-related loss: regret and disappointment". neuroimage. ( ): – . doi: . /j.neuroimage. . . . pmid  . 	^ baskin-sommers, a; stuppy-sullivan, am; buckholtz, jw ( ). "psychopathic individuals exhibit but do not avoid regret during counterfactual decision making". proc natl acad sci u s a. ( ): – . doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ steiner, adam p; redish, a david ( - - ). "behavioral and neurophysiological correlates of regret in rat decision-making on a neuroeconomic task". nature neuroscience. 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additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 personal boundaries - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	personal boundaries 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		guidelines, rules or limits that a person creates to identify reasonable, safe and permissible ways for other people to behave towards them and how they will respond when someone passes those limits. personal boundaries are guidelines, rules or limits that a person creates to identify reasonable, safe and permissible ways for other people to behave towards them and how they will respond when someone passes those limits.[ ] they are built out of a mix of conclusions, beliefs, opinions, attitudes, past experiences and social learning.[ ][ ] this concept or life skill has been widely referenced in self-help books and used in the counseling profession since the mid- s.[ ] according to some counselors, personal boundaries help to define an individual by outlining likes and dislikes, and setting the distances one allows others to approach.[ ] they include physical, mental, psychological and spiritual boundaries, involving beliefs, emotions, intuitions and self-esteem.[ ] jacques lacan considered such boundaries to be layered in a hierarchy, reflecting "all the successive envelopes of the biological and social status of the person".[ ] personal boundaries operate in two directions, affecting both the incoming and outgoing interactions between people.[ ] these are sometimes referred to as the "protection" and "containment" functions.[ ] contents 	 scope 	 types 	 setting boundaries 	 application 	 risks of reestablishing 	 complicating factors 	 . mental illness 	 . codependency 	 . dysfunctional family 	 . communal influences 	 . unequal power relations 	 anger 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading scope[edit] the three most commonly mentioned categories of values and boundaries are: 	physical – personal space and touch considerations[ ][ ][ ] 	mental – thoughts and opinions[ ][ ][ ] 	emotional – feelings some authors have expanded this list with additional or specialized categories such as spirituality,[ ][ ] truth,[ ] and time/punctuality.[ ] types[edit] nina brown proposed four boundary types:[ ] 	soft – a person with soft boundaries merges with other people's boundaries. someone with a soft boundary is easily a victim of psychological manipulation. 	spongy – a person with spongy boundaries is like a combination of having soft and rigid boundaries. they permit less emotional contagion than soft boundaries but more than those with rigid. people with spongy boundaries are unsure of what to let in and what to keep out. 	rigid – a person with rigid boundaries is closed or walled off so nobody can get close either physically or emotionally. this is often the case if someone has been the victim of physical, emotional, psychological, or sexual abuse. rigid boundaries can be selective which depend on time, place or circumstances and are usually based on a bad previous experience in a similar situation. 	flexible – similar to spongy rigid boundaries but the person exercises more control. the person decides what to let in and what to keep out, is resistant to emotional contagion and psychological manipulation, and is difficult to exploit. setting boundaries[edit] there are also main two ways that boundaries are established:[ ] 	unilateral boundaries – one person decides to impose a standard on the relationship, regardless of whether others support it. for example, one person may decide to never mention an unwanted subject and to make a habit of leaving the room, ending phone calls, or deleting messages without replying if the subject is mentioned by others. 	collaborative boundaries – everyone in the relationship group agrees, either tacitly or explicitly, that a particular standard should be upheld. for example, the group may decide not to discuss an unwanted subject, and then all members individually avoid mentioning it and work together to change the subject if someone mentions it. setting boundaries does not require telling anyone what the boundary is or what the consequences are for transgressing it. for example, if a person decides to leave a discussion, that person may give an unrelated excuse, such as claiming that it's time to do something else, rather than saying that the subject must not be mentioned. application[edit] the personal boundaries concept is particularly pertinent in environments with controlling people or people not taking responsibility for their own life.[ ] co-dependents anonymous recommends setting limits on what members will do to and for people and on what members will allow people to do to and for them, as part of their efforts to establish autonomy from being controlled by other people's thoughts, feelings and problems.[ ] the national alliance on mental illness tells its members that establishing and maintaining values and boundaries will improve the sense of security, stability, predictability and order, in a family even when some members of the family resist. nami contends that boundaries encourage a more relaxed, nonjudgmental atmosphere and that the presence of boundaries need not conflict with the need for maintaining an understanding atmosphere.[ ] risks of reestablishing[edit] in families and how to survive them, robin skynner md explains methods for how family therapists can effectively help family members to develop clearer values and boundaries by when treating them, drawing lines, and treating different generations in different compartments[ ] – something especially pertinent in families where unhealthy enmeshment overrides normal personal values.[ ] however, the establishment of personal values and boundaries in such instances may produce a negative fall-out,[ ] if the pathological state of enmeshment had been a central attraction or element of the relationship.[ ] this is especially true if the establishment of healthy boundaries results in unilateral limit setting which did not occur previously. it is important to distinguish between unilateral limits and collaborative solutions in these settings.[ ] complicating factors[edit] mental illness[edit] people with certain mental conditions are predisposed to controlling behavior including those with obsessive compulsive disorder, paranoid personality disorder,[ ] borderline personality disorder,[ ] and narcissistic personality disorder,[ ] attention deficit disorder,[ ] and the manic state of bipolar disorder.[ ] 	borderline personality disorder (bpd): there is a tendency for loved ones of people with bpd to slip into caretaker roles, giving priority and focus to problems in the life of the person with bpd rather than to issues in their own lives. too often in these relationships, the codependent will gain a sense of worth by being "the sane one" or "the responsible one".[ ] often, this shows up prominently in families with strong asian cultures because of beliefs tied to the cultures.[ ] 	narcissistic personality disorder (npd): for those involved with a person with npd, values and boundaries are often challenged as narcissists have a poor sense of self and often do not recognize that others are fully separate and not extensions of themselves. those who meet their needs and those who provide gratification may be treated as if they are part of the narcissist and expected to live up to their expectations.[ ] codependency[edit] codependency often involves placing a lower priority on one's own needs, while being excessively preoccupied with the needs of others. codependency can occur in any type of relationship, including family, work, friendship, and also romantic, peer or community relationships.[ ] while a healthy relationship depends on the emotional space provided by personal boundaries,[ ] codependent personalities have difficulties in setting such limits, so that defining and protecting boundaries efficiently may be for them a vital part of regaining mental health.[ ] in a codependent relationship, the codependent's sense of purpose is based on making extreme sacrifices to satisfy their partner's needs. codependent relationships signify a degree of unhealthy clinginess, where one person doesn't have self-sufficiency or autonomy. one or both parties depend on the other for fulfilment.[ ] there is usually an unconscious reason for continuing to put another person's life first, often for the mistaken notion that self-worth comes from other people. dysfunctional family[edit] 	demanding parent: in the dysfunctional family the child learns to become attuned to the parent's needs and feelings instead of the other way around.[ ] 	demanding child: parenting is a role that requires a certain amount of self-sacrifice and giving a child's needs a high priority. a parent can, nevertheless, be codependent towards a child if the caretaking or parental sacrifice reaches unhealthy or destructive levels.[ ] communal influences[edit] freud described the loss of conscious boundaries that may occur when an individual is in a unified, fast-moving crowd.[ ] almost a century later, steven pinker took up the theme of the loss of personal boundaries in a communal experience, noting that such occurrences could be triggered by intense shared ordeals like hunger, fear or pain, and that such methods were traditionally used to create liminal conditions in initiation rites.[ ] jung had described this as the absorption of identity into the collective unconscious.[ ] rave culture has also been said to involve a dissolution of personal boundaries, and a merger into a binding sense of communality.[ ] unequal power relations[edit] also unequal relations of political and social power influence the possibilities for marking cultural boundaries and more generally the quality of life of individuals.[ ] unequal power in personal relationships, including abusive relationships, can make it difficult for individuals to mark boundaries. anger[edit] anger is a normal emotion that involves a strong uncomfortable and emotional response to a perceived provocation. often, it indicates when one's personal boundaries are violated. anger may be utilized effectively by setting boundaries or escaping from dangerous situations.[ ] see also[edit] 	abusive power and control 	agency (sociology) 	autonomy 	bodily integrity 	boundaries of the mind 	civil inattention 	comfort zone 	control of time in power relationships 	enabling 	expressions of dominance 	hurtful communication 	mind your own business 	parentification 	persona 	plagiarism 	self-concept 	social penetration theory 	spatial empathy 	symbolic boundaries references[edit] 	^ "boundaries: psychological boundaries – healthy boundaries". www.guidetopsychology.com. 	^ a b c d graham, michael c. ( ). facts of life: ten issues of contentment. outskirts press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ rogers, vanessa ( ). working with young men. pp.  , . 	^ johnson, r. skip. "setting boundaries and setting limits". bpdfamily.com. retrieved june . 	^ lundberg, g. b.; lundberg, j. s. ( ). i don't have to make everything all better. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ porter-o'grady, timothy; malloch, kathy ( ). quantum leadership. p.  . 	^ lacan, jacques ( ). ecrits. pp.  – . 	^ a b katherine, anne ( ). where to draw the line: how to set healthy boundaries every day. pp.  – . 	^ a b c whitfield, charles l., m.d. ( ). boundaries and relationships: knowing, protecting and enjoying the self ( ed.). hci books. isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b katherine, anne ( ). boundaries: where you end and i begin. hazelden. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b c d e townsend, john, phd; cloud, henry, phd ( november ). boundaries: when to say yes, how to say no to take control of your life. nashville: harpercollins christian publishing. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ brown, nina w. ( ). coping with infuriating, mean, critical people – the destructive narcissistic pattern. isbn  - - - - . 	^ setting boundaries: meditations for codependents (moment to reflect). harpercollins. august . isbn  - - - - . 	^ bayes, kathy. "setting boundaries in a marriage complicated by mental illness". national alliance on mental illness. 	^ skynner, robin; cleese, john ( ). families and how to survive them. london. pp.  , . 	^ a b c weinhold, barry; weinhold, janae ( january ). breaking free of the co-dependency trap (second ed.). novato: new world library. pp.  , . isbn  - - - - . 	^ abell, richard g. ( ). own your own life. pp.  – . 	^ goldberg, joseph, md ( may ). "paranoid personality disorder". retrieved october . 	^ braiker, harriet b. ( ). who's pulling your strings? how to break the cycle of manipulation. 	^ brown, nina ( april ). children of the self-absorbed: a grown-up's guide to getting over narcissistic parents (second ed.). new harbinger publications. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b cermak, timmen l., m.d. ( ). "diagnostic criteria for codependency". journal of psychoactive drugs. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . pmid  . 	^ danielle, alicia ( june ). "codependency and borderline personality disorder: how to spot it". clearview women's center. archived from the original on december . retrieved december . 	^ hong, soo jung ( ). "gendered cultural identities: the influences of family and privacy boundaries, subjective norms, and stigma beliefs on family health history communication". health communication. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . issn  - . pmid  . 	^ hotchkiss, sandra, lcsw ( august ). why is it always about you? (chapter ). new york: free press. isbn  - - - - . 	^ "patterns and characteristics of codependence". coda.org. co-dependents anonymous. retrieved june . 	^ casement, patrick ( ). further learning from the patient. london. p.  . 	^ wetzler, scott, phd. "psychology division chief at albert einstein college of medicine". webmd. retrieved december . 	^ lancer, darlene ( ). conquering shame and codependency: steps to freeing the true you. minnesota: hazelden. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ codependents anonymous: patterns and characteristics archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ freud, sigmund. "le bon's description of the group mind". civilization, society and religion (pfl ): – . 	^ pinker, steven ( ). the stuff of thought. p.  . 	^ jung, carl gustav ( august ). man and his symbols. dell. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ jones, carole ( september ). disappearing men: gender disorientation in scottish fiction – (scroll: scottish cultural review of language and literature) (book ). rodopi. p.  . isbn  - . 	^ baillie, colin p. t. ( ). "power relations and its influence in the sphere of globalization since world war ii". journal of anthropology. ( ). retrieved march . 	^ videbeck, sheila l. ( ). psychiatric mental health nursing ( rd ed.). lippincott williams & wilkins. further reading[edit] 	cloud, henry; townsend, john ( ). boundaries: when to say yes, how to say no. thomas nelson publishing. isbn  - - - - . 	bottke, allison ( ). setting boundaries with your adult children. harvest house publishers. isbn  - - - - . 	katherine, anne ( ). boundaries: where you end and i begin. hazelden. isbn  - - - - . 	whitfield, charles, md ( ). boundaries and relationships. hci books. isbn  - - - - . 	hawkins, david ( ). setting boundaries on unhealthy relationships. harvest house publishers. isbn  - - - - . 		v 	t 	e borderline personality disorder 	general	 	dimensional models of personality disorders 	impulse control disorders 	trauma model of mental disorders 	misdiagnosis of borderline personality disorder 	symptoms and behaviors	 	dissociation 	eating disorders 	emotional dysregulation 	 feelings of emptiness 	hypersexuality 	idealization and devaluation 	impulsivity 	mood swings 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additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 sexual abuse - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	sexual abuse 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from sexual victimization) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for the academic journal titled sexual abuse, see sexual abuse (journal). abusive sexual behavior by person upon another 	sex and the law 	 	 social issues 	 	age of consent 	antisexualism 	bodily integrity 	censorship 	circumcision 	deviant sexual intercourse 	ethics 	freedom of speech 	homophobia 	intersex rights 	lgbt rights 	miscegenation (interracial relations) 	marriageable age 	norms 	objectification 	pornography 	public morality 	red-light district 	reproductive rights 	right to sexuality 	same-sex marriage 	sex industry 	sex workers' rights 	sexual and reproductive health and rights 	survival sex 	 specific offences (varies by jurisdiction) 	 	adultery 	bestiality 	buggery 	child grooming 	child pornography 	child prostitution 	criminal transmission of hiv 	cybersex trafficking 	female genital mutilation 	fornication 	incest 	pimping 	prostitution 	forced 	procuring 	public indecency 	rape 	statutory 	marital 	seduction 	sex trafficking 	sexting 	sexual abuse 	child 	sexual assault 	sexual harassment 	slavery 	sodomy 	uk section ( ) 	violence 	trafficking 	voyeurism 	 sex offender registration 	 	sex offender registry 	sex offender registries in the united states 	 portals 	 	 human sexuality portal 	 law portal 		v 	t 	e sexual abuse, also referred to as molestation, is abusive sexual behavior by one person upon another. it is often perpetrated using force or by taking advantage of another.[ ] when force is immediate, of short duration, or infrequent, it is called sexual assault[citation needed]. the offender is referred to as a sexual abuser or (often pejoratively) molester.[ ] the term also covers any behavior by an adult or older adolescent towards a child to stimulate any of the involved sexually. the use of a child, or other individuals younger than the age of consent, for sexual stimulation is referred to as child sexual abuse or statutory rape. live streaming sexual abuse involves trafficking and coerced sexual acts and or rape in real time on webcam.[ ][ ][ ][ ] contents 	 victims 	 . spouses 	 . children 	 . people with developmental disabilities 	 . people with dementia 	 . people in poverty 	 . elders 	 treatment 	 prevention 	 survivor 	 positions of power 	 minorities 	 other animals 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links victims spouses see also: domestic violence and marital rape spousal sexual abuse is a form of domestic violence. when the abuse involves threats of unwanted sexual contact or forced sex by a woman's husband or ex-husband, it may constitute rape, depending on the jurisdiction, and may also constitute an assault.[ ] children main article: child sexual abuse child sexual abuse is a form of child abuse in which a child is abused for the sexual gratification of an adult or older adolescent.[ ][ ] it includes direct sexual contact, the adult or otherwise older person engaging indecent exposure (of the genitals, female nipples, etc.) to a child with intent to gratify their own sexual desires or to intimidate or groom the child, asking or pressuring a child to engage in sexual activities, displaying pornography to a child, or using a child to produce child pornography.[ ][ ][ ] effects of child sexual abuse include shame, self-blame,[ ] depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, self-esteem issues, sexual dysfunction, chronic pelvic pain, addiction, self-injury, suicidal ideation, borderline personality disorder, and propensity to re-victimization in adulthood.[ ] child sexual abuse is a risk factor for attempting suicide.[ ] additionally, some studies have shown childhood sexual abuse to be a risk factor of the perpetration of intimate partner violence in men.[ ] much of the harm caused to victims becomes apparent years after the abuse happens. with specific regard to addiction, a study by reiger et al. supports previous findings that adverse life events increase sensitivity to drug rewards and bolster drug reward signaling by exposing an association between heightened limbic response to cocaine cues.[ ] sexual abuse by a family member is a form of incest, which can result in severe long-term psychological trauma, especially in the case of parental incest.[ ] globally, approximately – % of women and % of men disclose being sexually abused during their childhood.[ ][ ] the gender gap may be caused by higher victimization of girls, lower willingness of men to disclose abuse, or both.[ ] most sexual abuse offenders are acquainted with their victims; approximately % are relatives of the child, most often fathers, uncles or cousins; around % are other acquaintances such as friends of the family, babysitters, or neighbors; strangers are the offenders in approximately % of child sexual abuse cases. most child sexual abuse is committed by men; women commit approximately % of offenses reported against boys and % of offenses reported against girls.[ ] child sexual abuse offenders are not pedophiles unless they have a primary or exclusive sexual interest in prepubescent children.[ ] people with developmental disabilities main article: sexual abuse of people with developmental disabilities people with developmental disabilities are often victims of sexual abuse. according to research, people with disabilities are at a greater risk for victimization of sexual assault or sexual abuse because of lack of understanding (sobsey & varnhagen, ). people with dementia elderly people, especially those with dementia, can be at risk of abuse. there were over , "safeguarding concerns and alerts" at uk care homes from to . these included alleged inappropriate touching and worse allegations. offenders were most often other residents but staff also offended. it is suspected some care homes may deliberately overlook these offenses.[ ] sometimes abuse victims are not believed because they are not seen as credible witnesses due to their dementia. perpetrators frequently target victims who they know are unlikely to be believed. spouses and partners sometimes continue to pursue sexual relations, without realising they no longer have this right, because the person with dementia can no longer consent.[ ] people in poverty people in poverty, including those from developing countries, are vulnerable to forced prostitution,[ ][ ][ ] live streaming sexual abuse,[ ][ ][ ] and other forms of molestation. victims who come from families in poverty often have less connections, power, protection, and education about sex crimes.[ ] elders sex abuse is one of the most common forms of abuse in nursing homes[citation needed]. if a nursing home fails to do proper background checks on an employee who subsequently abuses residents, the home can be liable for negligence. if nursing homes fail to supervise staff or train staff to recognise signs of abuse, the home can also be liable for negligence.[ ] sexual activity by care givers may be a crime. victims may not report abuse or cooperate with investigations due to associated stigma and/or reluctance to mention body parts.[ ] treatment in the emergency department, contraceptive medications are offered to women raped by men because about % of such rapes result in pregnancy.[ ] preventative medication against sexually transmitted infections are given to victims of all types of sexual abuse (especially for the most common diseases like chlamydia, gonorhea, trichomoniasis and bacterial vaginosis) and a blood serum is collected to test for stis (such as hiv, hepatitis b and syphilis).[ ] any survivor with abrasions are immunized for tetanus if years have elapsed since the last immunization.[ ] short-term treatment with a benzodiazepine may help with acute anxiety and antidepressants may be helpful for symptoms of ptsd, depression and panic attacks.[ ] sexual abuse has been linked to the development of psychotic symptoms in abused children. treatment for psychotic symptoms may also be involved in sexual abuse treatment.[ ] in regards to long term psychological treatment, prolonged exposure therapy has been tested as a method of long-term ptsd treatment for victims of sexual abuse.[ ] prevention child sexual abuse prevention programmes were developed in the united states of america during the s and originally delivered to children. programmes delivered to parents were developed in the s and took the form of one-off meetings, two to three hours long.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] in the last years, web-based programmes have been developed. survivor the term survivor is sometimes used for a living victim, including victims of usually non-fatal harm, to honor and empower the strength of an individual to heal, in particular a living victim of sexual abuse or assault.[ ] for example, there are the survivors network of those abused by priests and the survivors trust. positions of power see also: abusive power and control, power harassment, and rankism sexual misconduct can occur where one person uses a position of authority to compel another person to engage in an otherwise unwanted sexual activity. for example, sexual harassment in the workplace might involve an employee being coerced into a sexual situation out of fear of being dismissed. sexual harassment in education might involve a student submitting to the sexual advances of a person in authority in fear of being punished, for example by being given a failing grade. several sexual abuse scandals have involved abuse of religious authority and often cover-up among non-abusers, including cases in the southern baptist convention,[ ] catholic church, episcopalian religion,[ ] islam,[ ] jehovah's witnesses, lutheran church,[ ] methodist church,[ ] the church of jesus christ of latter-day saints,[ ] the fundamentalist church of jesus christ of latter day saints, orthodox judaism,[ ] other branches of judaism,[ ] and various cults. in october , a powerful member of the united arab emirates’ royal family, nahyan bin mubarak al nahyan was accused of exploiting his authority by a british citizen, caitlin mcnamara, who was working on abu dhabi hay festival. on february that year, the uae's minister of tolerance called mcnamara for a dinner at his villa on private island and sexually abused the woman, who was organizing the literary festival for the country.[ ] minorities 	 	the examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the united states and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. you may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (october ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) sexual abuse is a problem in some minority communities. in , a number of hispanic victims were included in the settlement of a massive sexual abuse case involving the los angeles archdiocese of the catholic church.[ ] a qualitative study by kim et al. discusses the experiences of sexual abuse in the us population of mexican immigrant women, citing immigration, acculturation, and several other social elements as risk factors for abuse.[ ] to address the issue of sexual abuse in the african-american community, the prestigious leeway foundation[ ] sponsored a grant to develop www.blacksurvivors.org,[ ] a national online support group and resource center for african-american sexual abuse survivors. the non-profit group was founded in by sylvia coleman, an african-american sexual abuse survivor and national sexual abuse prevention expert. other animals main article: sexual coercion sexual abuse has been identified among animals as well; for example, among the adélie penguins.[ ] see also 	abuse 	auguste ambroise tardieu 	birth control sabotage 	child grooming 	cinderella effect 	circles of support and accountability 	domestic abuse 	hebephilia 	institutional abuse 	journal of sexual aggression 	#metoo 	minor (law) 	operation protect our children 	prevention project dunkelfeld 	psychological manipulation 	rape, abuse & incest national network 	sexual bullying 	sexual violence 	sex and the law 	stalking 	survivors trust 	virtuous pedophiles (online support group for preventing sexual abuse) references 	^ "sexual abuse". american psychological association. american psychological association. retrieved january . 	^ "peer commentaries on green ( ) and schmidt ( )". archives of sexual behavior. ( ): – . . doi: . /a: . s cid  . child molester is a pejorative term applied to both the pedophile and incest offender. 	^ brown, rick; napier, sarah; smith, russell g ( ), australians who view live streaming of child sexual abuse: an analysis of financial transactions, australian institute of criminology, isbn  pp. – . 	^ "child sex abuse livestreams increase during coronavirus lockdowns". npr. april , . 	^ "philippines child slavery survivors fight to heal scars of abuse". reuters. april , . 	^ "what is online child sexual abuse and exploitation?". nca. . 	^ patricia, mahoney. "the wife rape fact sheet". national violence against women prevention research center. national violence against women prevention research center. retrieved january . 	^ a b "child sexual abuse". medline plus. u.s. national library of medicine. - - . 	^ committee on professional practice and standards (copps); board of professional affairs (bpa); american psychological association (apa); catherine acuff; steven bisbing; michael gottlieb; lisa grossman; jody porter; richard reichbart; steven sparta; c. eugene walker (august ). "guidelines for psychological evaluations in child protection matters". american psychologist. ( ): – . doi: . / - x. . . . pmid  . retrieved - - . lay summary – apa psycnet ( - - ). abuse, sexual (child): generally defined as contacts between a child and an adult or other person significantly older or in a position of power or control over the child, where the child is being used for sexual stimulation of the adult or other person. 	^ martin, j.; anderson, j.; romans, s.; mullen, p; o'shea, m ( ). "asking about child sexual abuse: methodological implications of a two-stage survey". child abuse and neglect. ( ): – . doi: . / - ( ) - . pmid  . 	^ child sexual abuse definition from the nspcc 	^ whiffen, v. e.; macintosh, h. b. ( ). "mediators of the link between childhood sexual abuse and emotional distress: a critical review". trauma, violence, & abuse. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ maniglio, r. ( ). "the impact of child sexual abuse on health: a systematic review of reviews". clinical psychology review. ( ): – . doi: . /j.cpr. . . . pmid  . 	^ maniglio, r. ( ). "the role of child sexual abuse in the etiology of suicide and non-suicidal self-injury". acta psychiatrica scandinavica. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . s cid  . 	^ teitelman, am; bellamy, sl; jemmott, jb iii; icard, l; o'leary, a; ali, s; ngwane, z; makiwane, m ( ). "childhood sexual abuse and sociodemographic factors prospectively associated with intimate partner violence perpetration among south african heterosexual men". annals of behavioral medicine. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ regier, ps; monge, za; franklin, tr; wetherill, rr; teitelman, am; jagannathan, k; et al. ( ). "emotional, physical and sexual abuse are associated with a heightened limbic response to cocaine cues". addiction biology. ( ): – . doi: . /adb. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ courtois, christine a. ( ). healing the incest wound: adult survivors in therapy. w. w. norton & company. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b stoltenborgh, m.; van ijzendoorn, m. h.; euser, e. m.; bakermans-kranenburg, m. j. ( ). "a global perspective on child sexual abuse: meta-analysis of prevalence around the world". child maltreatment. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ pereda, n.; guilera, g.; forns, m.; gómez-benito, j. ( ). "the prevalence of child sexual abuse in community and student samples: a meta-analysis". clinical psychology review. ( ): – . doi: . /j.cpr. . . . hdl: / . pmid  . 	^ whealin, julia whealin ( - - ). "child sexual abuse". national center for post traumatic stress disorder, us department of veterans affairs. archived from the original on - - . 	^ seto, michael ( ). pedophilia and sexual offending against children. washington, dc: american psychological association. p. vii. 	^ sex crimes against the elderly - are they being ignored? bbc 	^ a b challenges when investigating elder sexual abuse archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ "myanmar officials blame human trafficking on poverty, unemployment". myanmar times. september , . 	^ "poverty causes trafficking to china, says report". khmer times. september , . 	^ "poverty and conflict in myanmar fuel human trafficking". caritas. 	^ "child sex abuse livestreams increase during coronavirus lockdowns". npr. april , . 	^ "philippines child slavery survivors fight to heal scars of abuse". reuters. april , . 	^ "what is online child sexual abuse and exploitation?". nca. . 	^ "china's bride trafficking problem". the diplomat. october , . 	^ sexual abuse in nursing homes 	^ a b c d varcarolis, elizabeth ( ). essentials of psychiatric mental health nursing. st. louis: elsevier. pp.  – . 	^ crush, e; arseneault, l; jaffee, sr; danese, a; fisher, hl ( ). "protective factors for psychotic symptoms among poly-victimized children". schizophrenia bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . /schbul/sbx . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ schiff, m; nacasch, n; levit, s; katz, n; foa, eb ( ). "prolonged exposure for treating ptsd among female methadone patients who were survivors of sexual abuse in israel". social work & health care. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ babatsikos, georgia ( ). "parents' knowledge, attitudes and practices about preventing child sexual abuse: a literature review". child abuse review. ( ): – . doi: . /car. . issn  - . 	^ hébert, martine; lavoie, francine; parent, nathalie ( - - ). "an assessment of outcomes following parents' participation in a child abuse prevention program". violence and victims. ( ): – . doi: . /vivi. . . . . issn  - . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ wurtele, sandy k.; moreno, tasha; kenny, maureen c. ( ). "evaluation of a sexual abuse prevention workshop for parents of young children". journal of child & adolescent trauma. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ wurtele, sandy k.; kenny, maureen c. ( ). "partnering with parents to prevent childhood sexual abuse". child abuse review. ( ): – . doi: . /car. . issn  - . 	^ williams, mike ( ). "four steps to the prevention of child sexual abuse in the home" (pdf). nspcc. 	^ williams, mike ( ). "working with a community to prevent child sexual abuse in the home" (pdf). nspcc. retrieved august . 	^ "dean of students office | clark university". clarku.edu. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ stop baptist predators 	^ episcopalian ministers archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ joe murphy ( - - ). "baroness warsi: some pakistani men think young white girls are "fair game" for sex abuse - politics - news - evening standard". thisislondon.co.uk. retrieved - - . 	^ the lutheran archived - - at the wayback machinelutheran abuse archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ methodist abuse archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ anderson, lavina ( ). case reports of the mormon alliance volume . isbn  - - - - . 	^ abuse scandal plagues hasidic jews in brooklyn by barbara bradley hagerty. all things considered, national public radio. february . 	^ amy, neustein, ed. ( ). tempest in the temple: jewish communities and child sex scandals. brandeis series in american jewish history, culture, and life. waltham, massachusetts: brandeis university press. isbn  - - - - . 	^ "gulf minister of tolerance in 'sex assault' on hay books festival worker". the times. retrieved october . 	^ npr.org 	^ kim, t; draucker, cb; bradway, c; grisso, ja; sommers, ms ( ). "somos hermanas del mismo dolor (we are sisters of the same pain): intimate partner sexual violence narratives among mexican immigrant women in the united states". violence against women. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ leeway.org 	^ blacksurvivors.org 	^ mckie, robin ( june ). "'sexual depravity' of penguins that antarctic scientist dared not reveal". guardian.co.uk. further reading 	sorenson, susan b. ( ). violence and sexual abuse at home: current issues in spousal battering and child maltreatment, new york: haworth press. isbn  - - - . 	leigh ann reynolds. "people with mental retardation & sexual abuse. the arc q & a", arc national headquarters, 	baladerian, n. ( ). "sexual abuse of people with developmental disabilities". sexuality and disability. ( ): – . doi: . /bf . s cid  . 	sobsey, d. ( ). violence and abuse in the lives of people with disabilities: the end of silent acceptance? baltimore: paul h. brookes publishing co. isbn  - - - - 	sobsey d. and varnhagen, c. ( ). "sexual abuse and exploitation of people with disabilities: toward prevention and treatment". in m. csapo and l. gougen (eds) special education across canada (pp.  – ). vancouver centre for human developmental research 	valenti-hien, d. and schwartz, l. ( ). "the sexual abuse interview for those with developmental disabilities". james stanfield company, santa barbara: california. 	baur, susan ( ), the intimate hour: love and sex in psychotherapy. boston: houghton-mifflin co. viii, p. isbn  - - -x 	walker, evelyn, and perry deane young ( ). a killing cure. new york: h. holt and co. xiv, p. n.b.: explanatory subtitle on book's dust cover: one woman's true account of sexual and drug abuse and near death at the hands of her psychiatrist. without isbn 	white-davis, donna ( ). lovers in the time of plague. external links 	sexual abuse at curlie 	child sexual abuse at the national institutes of health 	 	v 	t 	e outline of human sexuality 	physiology and biology	 	erection 	insemination 	intersex 	libido 	nocturnal emission 	orgasm 	female and male ejaculation 	pelvic thrust 	pre-ejaculate 	pregnancy 	sexual arousal 	sexual stimulation 	health and education	 	birth control 	condom 	masters and johnson 	reproductive medicine 	andrology 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attitude berlin wall monument (west view). the west side of the wall is covered with graffiti that reflects hope and optimism. optimism is an attitude reflecting a belief or hope that the outcome of some specific endeavor, or outcomes in general, will be positive, favorable, and desirable. a common idiom used to illustrate optimism versus pessimism is a glass filled with water to the halfway point: an optimist is said to see the glass as half full, while a pessimist sees the glass as half empty. the term derives from the latin optimum, meaning "best". being optimistic, in the typical sense of the word, is defined as expecting the best possible outcome from any given situation.[ ] this is usually referred to in psychology as dispositional optimism. it thus reflects a belief that future conditions will work out for the best.[ ] for this reason, it is seen as a trait that fosters resilience in the face of stress.[ ] theories of optimism include dispositional models, and models of explanatory style. methods to measure optimism have been developed within both theoretical systems, such as various forms of the life orientation test, for the original definition of optimism, or the attributional style questionnaire designed to test optimism in terms of explanatory style. variation in optimism and pessimism is somewhat heritable[ ] and reflects biological trait systems to some degree.[ ] it is also influenced by environmental factors, including family environment,[ ] with some suggesting it can be learned.[ ] optimism may also be linked to health.[ ] contents 	 psychological optimism 	 . dispositional optimism 	 . explanatory style 	 . origins 	 . assessment 	 . . life orientation test 	 . . attributional style questionnaire 	 . associations with health 	 . optimism and well-being 	 . translating association into modifiability 	 philosophical optimism 	 . optimalism 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links psychological optimism[edit] dispositional optimism[edit] an optimist and a pessimist, vladimir makovsky, researchers operationalize the term differently depending on their research. as with any trait characteristic, there are several ways to evaluate optimism, such as the life orientation test (lot). this -item scale was developed in by michael scheier and charles carver.[ ] dispositional optimism and pessimism[ ] are typically assessed by asking people whether they expect future outcomes to be beneficial or negative (see below). the lot returns separate optimism and pessimism scores for each individual. behaviourally, these two scores correlate around r = . . optimistic scores on this scale predict better outcomes in relationships,[ ] higher social status,[ ] and reduced loss of well-being following adversity.[ ] health preserving behaviors are associated with optimism while health-damaging behaviors are associated with pessimism.[ ] some have argued that optimism is the opposite end of a single dimension with pessimism,[ ] with any distinction between them reflecting factors such as social desirability. confirmatory modelling, however, supports a two-dimensional model[ ] and the two dimensions predict different outcomes.[ ] genetic modelling confirms this independence, showing that pessimism and optimism are inherited as independent traits, with the typical correlation between them emerging as a result of a general well-being factor and family environment influences.[ ] it is suggested that patients with high dispositional optimism appear to have stronger immune system since it buffers it against psychological stressors.[ ] optimists appear to live longer.[ ] explanatory style[edit] explanatory style is distinct from dispositional theories of optimism. while related to life-orientation measures of optimism, attributional style theory suggests that dispositional optimism and pessimism are reflections of the ways people explain events, i.e., that attributions cause these dispositions.[ ] here, an optimist would view defeat as temporary, does not apply to other cases, and is not considered their fault.[ ] measures of attributional style distinguish three dimensions among explanations for events: whether these explanations draw on internal versus external causes; whether the causes are viewed as stable versus unstable; and whether explanations apply globally versus being situationally specific. in addition, the measures distinguish attributions for positive and for negative events. an optimistic person attributes internal, stable, and global explanations to good things. pessimistic explanations attribute these traits of stability, globality, and internality to negative events, such as difficulty in relationships.[ ] models of optimistic and pessimistic attributions show that attributions themselves are a cognitive style – individuals who tend to focus on the global explanations do so for all types of events, and the styles correlate among each other. in addition to this, individuals vary in how optimistic their attributions are for good events, and on how pessimistic their attributions are for bad events, but these two traits of optimism and pessimism are un-correlated.[ ] there is much debate about the relationship between explanatory style and optimism. some researchers argue that optimism is simply the lay-term for what researchers know as explanatory style.[ ] more commonly, it is found that explanatory style is quite distinct from dispositional optimism,[ ][ ] and the two should not be used interchangeably as they are marginally correlated at best. more research is required to "bridge" or further differentiate these concepts.[ ] origins[edit] optimistic personality (modified from[ ]) as with all psychological traits, differences in both dispositional optimism and pessimism[ ] and in attributional style[ ] are heritable. both optimism and pessimism are strongly influenced by environmental factors, including family environment.[ ] it has been suggested that optimism may be indirectly inherited as a reflection of underlying heritable traits such as intelligence, temperament, and alcoholism.[ ] there is evidence from twin studies that show, for instance, that the inherited component of the dispositional optimism is about percent, making this trait a stable personality dimension[ ] and a predictor of life outcomes.[ ] its genetic origin, which interacts with environmental influences and other risks, also determines the vulnerability to depression across the lifespan.[ ] many theories assume optimism can be learned,[ ] and research supports a modest role of family-environment acting to raise (or lower) optimism and lower (or raise) neuroticism and pessimism.[ ] work utilising brain imaging and biochemistry suggests that at a biological trait level, optimism and pessimism reflect brain systems specialised for the tasks of processing and incorporating beliefs regarding good and bad information respectively.[ ] assessment[edit] life orientation test[edit] the life orientation test (lot) was designed by scheier and carver ( ) to assess dispositional optimism – expecting positive or negative outcomes,[ ] and is one of the more popular tests of optimism and pessimism. this was also often used in early studies that examine the effects of these dispositions in health-related domains.[ ] scheier and carver's initial research, which surveyed college students, found that optimistic participants were less likely to show an increase in symptoms like dizziness, muscle soreness, fatigue, blurred vision, and other physical complaints than pessimistic respondents.[ ] there are eight items and four filler items in the test. four are positive items (e.g. "in uncertain times, i usually expect the best") and four are negative items e.g. "if something can go wrong for me, it will."[ ] the lot has been revised twice—once by the original creators (lot-r) and also by chang, maydeu-olivares, and d'zurilla as the extended life orientation test (elot). the revised life orientation test (lot-r: scheier, carver, & bridges, ) consists of six items, each scored on a -point scale from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree" and four filler items.[ ] half of the coded items are phrased in an optimistic way while the other half in a pessimistic way. in comparison with its previous iteration, lot-r offers good internal consistency overtime although there are item overlaps, making the correlation between the lot and lot-r extremely high.[ ] attributional style questionnaire[edit] this attributional style questionnaire (asq: peterson et al. [ ]) is based on the explanatory style model of optimism. subjects read a list of six positive and negative events (e.g. "you have been looking for a job unsuccessfully for some time"), and are asked to record a possible cause for the event. they then rate whether this is internal or external, stable or changeable, and global or local to the event.[ ] there are several modified versions of the asq including the expanded attributional style questionnaire (easq), the content analysis of verbatim explanations (cave), and the asq designed for testing the optimism of children.[ ] associations with health[edit] optimism and health are correlated moderately.[ ] optimism has been shown to explain between – % of the variation in the likelihood of developing some health conditions (correlation coefficients between . and . ),[ ] notably including cardiovascular disease,[ ][ ][ ] stroke,[ ] and depression.[ ][ ] the relationship between optimism and health has also been studied with regards to physical symptoms, coping strategies and negative affect for those suffering from rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, and fibromyalgia. it has been found that among individuals with these diseases, optimists are not more likely than pessimists to report pain alleviation due to coping strategies, despite differences in psychological well-being between the two groups.[ ] a meta-analysis has confirmed the assumption that optimism is related to psychological well-being: "put simply, optimists emerge from difficult circumstances with less distress than do pessimists."[ ] furthermore, the correlation appears to be attributable to coping style: "that is, optimists seem intent on facing problems head-on, taking active and constructive steps to solve their problems; pessimists are more likely to abandon their effort to attain their goals."[ ] optimists may respond better to stress: pessimists have shown higher levels of cortisol (the "stress hormone") and trouble regulating cortisol in response to stressors.[ ] another study by scheier examined the recovery process for a number of patients that had undergone surgery.[ ] the study showed that optimism was a strong predictor of the rate of recovery. optimists achieved faster results in "behavioral milestones" such as sitting in bed, walking around, etc. they also were rated by staff as having a more favorable physical recovery. in a -month later follow-up, it was found that optimists were quicker to resume normal activities. optimism and well-being[edit] a number of studies have been done on optimism and psychological well-being. one year study undertaken by lee et al. ( ) assessed the overall optimism and longevity of cohorts of men from the veterans affairs normative aging study and women from the nurses’ health study. the study found a positive correlation between higher levels of optimism and exceptional longevity, which the study defined as a lifespan exceeding years. another study conducted by aspinwall and taylor ( ) assessed incoming freshmen on a range of personality factors such as optimism, self-esteem, locus of self-control, etc.[ ] it was found that freshmen who scored high on optimism before entering college were reported to have lower levels of psychological distress than their more pessimistic peers, while controlling for the other personality factors. over time, the more optimistic students were less stressed, less lonely, and less depressed than their pessimistic counterparts. thus, this study suggests a strong link between optimism and psychological well-being. in addition low optimism may help explain the association between caregivers' anger and reduced sense of vitality.[ ] a recent meta-analysis of optimism supported past findings that optimism is positively correlated with life satisfaction, happiness,[ ] psychological and physical well-being and negatively correlated with depression and anxiety.[ ] seeking to explain the correlation, researchers find that optimists choose healthier lifestyles. for example, optimists smoke less, are more physically active, consume more fruit, vegetables and whole-grain bread, and are more moderate in alcohol consumption.[ ] translating association into modifiability[edit] research to date has demonstrated that optimists are less likely to have certain diseases or develop certain diseases over time. by comparison, research has not yet been able to demonstrate the ability to change an individual's level of optimism through psychological interventions, and thereby alter the course of disease or likelihood for development of disease.[citation needed] though in that same vein, an article by mayo clinic argues steps to change self-talk from negative to positive may shift individuals from a negative to a more positive/optimistic outlook.[ ] strategies claimed to be of value include surrounding oneself with positive people, identifying areas of change, practicing positive self-talk, being open to humor, and following a healthy lifestyle.[ ] there is also the notion of "learned optimism" in positive psychology, which holds that joy is a talent that can be cultivated and can be achieved through specific actions such as the challenging negative self talk or overcoming "learned helplessness".[ ] there are researchers in a study involving twins who found that optimism is largely inherited at birth.[ ] along with the recognition that childhood experiences determine an individual's outlook, such studies demonstrate the genetic basis for optimism reinforces the recognized difficulty in changing or manipulating the direction of an adult's disposition from pessimist to optimist.[ ] philosophical optimism[edit] one of the earliest forms of philosophical optimism was socrates' theory of moral intellectualism, which formed part of the thinker's enlightenment model through the process of self-improvement.[ ] according to the philosopher, it is possible to attain virtuous life by leading and completing moral perfection that is attained through philosophical self-examination. he maintained that knowledge of moral truth is necessary and sufficient for leading a good life.[ ] in his philosophical investigations, socrates followed a model that did not merely focus on the intellect or reason but a balanced practice that also consider the emotion as an important contributor to the richness of human experience.[ ] distinct from a disposition to believe that things will work out, there is a philosophical idea that, perhaps in ways that may not be fully comprehended, the present moment is in an optimum state. this view that all of nature - past, present, and future - operates by laws of optimization along the lines of hamilton's principle in the realm of physics is countered by views such as idealism, realism, and philosophical pessimism. philosophers often link the concept of optimism with the name of gottfried wilhelm leibniz, who held that we live in the best of all possible worlds (le meilleur des mondes possibles), or that god created a physical universe that applies the laws of physics. the concept was also reflected in an aspect of francois-marie arouet de voltaire's early philosophy, one that was based on isaac newton's view that described a divinely ordered human condition.[ ] this philosophy would also later emerge in alexander pope's essay on man. leibniz proposed that it was not in god's power to create a perfect world, but among possible worlds, he created the best.[ ] in one of his writings, he responded to the blaise pascal's philosophy of awe and desperation in the face of the infinite by claiming that infinity should be celebrated. while pascal advocated for making man's rational aspirations more humble, leibniz was optimistic about the capacity of human reason to further extend itself.[ ] this idea was mocked by voltaire in his satirical novel candide as baseless optimism of the sort exemplified by the beliefs of one of its characters dr. pangloss, which are the opposite of his fellow traveller martin's pessimism and emphasis on free will. the optimistic position is also called panglossianism and became an adjective for excessive, even stupendous, optimism.[ ] the phrase "panglossian pessimism" has been used[by whom?][year needed] to describe the pessimistic position that, since this is the best of all possible worlds, it is impossible for anything to get any better. conversely, philosophical pessimism might be[by whom?][year needed] associated with an optimistic long-term view because it implies that no change for the worse is possible. later, voltaire found it difficult to reconcile leibniz' optimism with human suffering as demonstrated by the earthquake that devastated lisbon in as well as the atrocities committed by the pre-revolutionary france against its people.[ ] optimalism[edit] philosophical optimalism, as defined by nicholas rescher, holds that this universe exists because it is better than the alternatives.[ ] while this philosophy does not exclude the possibility of a deity, it also does not require one, and is compatible with atheism.[ ] rescher explained that the concept can stand on its own feet, arguing that there is no necessity to seeing optimalism realization as divinely instituted because it is a naturalistic theory in principle.[ ] psychological optimalism, as defined by the positive psychologist tal ben-shahar, means willingness to accept failure while remaining confident that success will follow, a positive attitude he contrasts with negative perfectionism.[ ] perfectionism can be defined as a persistent compulsive drive toward unattainable goals and valuation based solely in terms of accomplishment.[ ] perfectionists reject the realities and constraints of human ability. they cannot accept failures, delaying any ambitious and productive behavior in fear of failure again.[ ] this neuroticism can even lead to clinical depression and low productivity.[ ] as an alternative to negative perfectionism, ben-shahar suggests the adoption of optimalism. optimalism allows for failure in pursuit of a goal, and expects that while the trend of activity is towards the positive, it is not necessary to always succeed while striving towards goals. this basis in reality prevents the optimalist from being overwhelmed in the face of failure.[ ] optimalists accept failures and also learn from them, which encourages further pursuit of achievement.[ ] dr. tal ben-shahar believes that optimalists and perfectionists show distinct different motives. optimalists tend to have more intrinsic, inward desires, with a motivation to learn, while perfectionists are highly motivated by a need to consistently prove themselves worthy.[ ] optimalism has also been classified into two: product optimalism and process optimalism. the former is described as an outlook that looks to provide the realization of the best possible result while the latter looks for a maximization of the chances of achieving the best possible result.[ ] others classify it either as full-scale, one that implies determinism, or weak determinism, which claims that we have the best laws and initial conditions.[ ] some sources also distinguish the concept from optimism since it does not focus on how things are going well but on how things are going as well as possible.[ ] see also[edit] 	affirmations (new age) 	agathism 	explanatory style (attributional style) 	mood (psychology) 	moral idealism 	new thought 	optimism bias 	pessimism 	philosophy 	philosophy of happiness 	positive mental attitude 	positive psychology 	pronoia (psychology) 	self-efficacy 	silver 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( ): – . doi: . /strokeaha. . . pmid  . 	^ giltay, erik j.; zitman, frans g.; kromhout, daan (march ). "dispositional optimism and the risk of depressive symptoms during years of follow-up: the zutphen elderly study". journal of affective disorders. ( ): – . doi: . /j.jad. . . . pmid  . 	^ patton, george c.; tollit, michelle m.; romaniuk, helena; spence, susan h.; sheffield, jeannie; sawyer, michael g. (february ). "a prospective study of the effects of optimism on adolescent health risks". pediatrics. ( ): – . doi: . /peds. - . pmid  . 	^ affleck, glenn; tennen, howard; apter, andrea ( ). "optimism, pessimism, and daily life with chronic illness". in chang, e. (ed.). optimism & pessimism: implications for theory, research, and practice. washington, dc: american psychological association. pp.  – . isbn  . 	^ a b scheier, michael f.; carver, charles s.; bridges, michael w. ( ). "optimism, pessimism, and psychological well-being". in chang, e. (ed.). optimism & pessimism: implications for theory, research, and practice. washington, dc: american psychological association. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ bergland, christopher. "optimism stabilizes cortisol levels and lowers stress."psychology today: health, help, happiness + find a therapist. n.p., n.d. web. . http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-athletes-way/ /optimism-stabilizes-cortisol-levels-and-lowers-stress. 	^ a b scheier, michael f.; carver, charles s. (april ). "effects of optimism on psychological and physical well-being: theoretical overview and empirical update". cognitive therapy and research. ( ): – . doi: . /bf . s cid  . 	^ lópez, j.; romero-moreno, r.; márquez-gonzález, m.; losada, a. ( - - ). "anger and health in dementia caregivers: exploring the mediation effect of optimism". stress and health. ( ): – . doi: . /smi. . issn  - . pmid  . 	^ staff (may ), how optimism affects happiness? 	^ alarcon, gene m.; bowling, nathan a.; khazon, steven (may ). "great expectations: a meta-analytic examination of optimism and hope". personality and individual differences. ( ): – . doi: . /j.paid. . . . 	^ giltay, erik j.; geleijnse, johanna m.; zitman, frans g.; buijsse, brian; kromhout, daan (november ). "lifestyle and dietary correlates of dispositional optimism in men: the zutphen elderly study". journal of psychosomatic research. ( ): – . doi: . /j.jpsychores. . . . pmid  . 	^ a b "positive thinking: stop negative self-talk to reduce stress". mayo clinic. march , . archived from the original on september , . retrieved september , . 	^ rockwell, sylvia ( ). you can't make me!: from chaos to cooperation in the elementary classroom. thousand oaks, ca: corwin press. p.  . isbn  - . 	^ a b wehmeyer, michael ( ). the oxford handbook of positive psychology and disability. new york: oxford university press. p.  . isbn  . 	^ a b wallgren, thomas ( ). transformative philosophy: socrates, wittgenstein, and the democratic spirit of philosophy. lanham, md: lexington books. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ schultz, anne-marie ( - - ). plato's socrates as narrator: a philosophical muse. lanham, md: lexington books. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ craig, edward ( ). the shorter routledge encyclopedia of philosophy. oxon: routledge. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ cronk, nicholas ( ). the cambridge companion to voltaire. cambridge: cambridge university press. p.  . isbn  . 	^ garber, daniel; rutherford, donald ( ). oxford studies in early modern philosophy, volume . : oxford university press. p.  . isbn  .cs maint: location (link) 	^ olick, jeffrey ( ). the politics of regret: on collective memory and historical responsibility. new york: routledge. p.  . isbn  . 	^ zack, naomi ( ). the handy philosophy answer book. detroit: visible ink press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ rescher, nicholas (june ). "optimalism and axiological metaphysics". the review of metaphysics. ( ): – . issn  - . 	^ steinhart, eric. "platonic atheism" (pdf). archived (pdf) from the original on july . retrieved july . 	^ rescher, nicholas ( ). issues in the philosophy of religion. piscataway, nj: transaction books. p.  . isbn  . 	^ a b c tal ben-shahar ( march ). the pursuit of perfect: how to stop chasing perfection and start living a richer, happier life. mcgraw-hill professional. pp.  –. isbn  - - - - . retrieved july . 	^ parker, w. d.; adkins, k. k. ( ), "perfectionism and the gifted", roeper review, ( ): – , doi: . / 	^ a b horne, amanda. "positive psychology news daily". archived from the original on june , . retrieved july , . 	^ staff (may ), "perfectionism: impossible dream", psychology today, archived from the original on - - 	^ rescher, nicholas ( ). being and value and other philosophical essays. frankfurt: ontos verlag. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ shook, john r.; ghiraldelli, paulo ( ). symposium on nicholas rescher. amsterdam: rodopi. pp.  , . isbn  - - - . 	^ rescher, nicholas ( ). axiogenesis: an essay in metaphysical optimalism. lanham, md: lexington books. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	mayo clinic staff. "positive thinking: stop negative self-talk to reduce stress". mayoclinic.org. mayo clinic, march . web. march . further reading[edit] 	chang, e. ( ). optimism & pessimism: implications for theory, research, and practice, washington, dc: american psychological association. isbn  - - - . 	huesemann, michael h., and joyce a. huesemann ( ). technofix: why technology won't save us or the environment, chapter , "technological optimism and belief in progress", new society publishers, gabriola island, british columbia, canada, isbn  , pp. 	seligman, m.e.p., ( ). learned optimism: how to change your mind and your life, vintage, isbn  . 	sharot, tali ( ). the optimism bias: a tour of the irrationally positive brain, vintage, isbn  . external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: optimism 		wikiversity has learning resources about positive thinking 		wikiversity has learning resources about optimism 		wikimedia commons has media related to optimism. 	"being optimistic"—optimism as character strength 	ehrenreich, barbara ( ). bright-sided: how positive thinking is undermining america. picador. p.  . isbn  . retrieved - - . 	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(al arabiya english) 	electronics industry in india 	authorities vow to crack down on workers who went on a violent rampage at a wistron iphone factory near bangalore, india over allegations of unpaid wages and exploitation. over people have been arrested. videos of the violence show glass panels smashed with rods and cars flipped on their side. (ctv) 	lindsey boylan, a former aide to new york governor andrew cuomo, accuses him of sexually harassing her. cuomo's office denies the claims made by boylan. (cnbc) 	cisa, a federal agency of the united states was breached by suspected russian hackers, but russia denies the allegation. the perpetrator(s) are still unknown, along with the cause and what was breached. 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(usa today) 	covid- pandemic in asia 	covid- pandemic in japan 	tokyo reports a new single-day record of cases, according to data from the tokyo metropolitan government, bringing the cumulative number of cases in the prefecture to , . (nhk world) 	japan records a new single-day record of , cases. the japan self-defense forces are deployed to asahikawa, hokkaido, where hospitals are facing shortages of medical staff to treat covid- patients. (kyodo news) 	covid- pandemic in bangladesh 	bangladesh surpasses , total deaths from covid- . (dhaka tribune) 	covid- pandemic in south korea 	south korea reports a new record of cases in the past hours, bringing the nationwide total to , cases. of the new cases are locally transmitted and more than % of these are from the seoul capital area. (cna) 	covid- pandemic in europe 	covid- pandemic in belarus 	belarus reports , cases in the past hours, a new single-day record. (the star) 	covid- pandemic in italy 	italy reaches , total deaths from covid- , surpassing the united kingdom to have the highest death toll in europe. (newsweek) 	covid- pandemic in australia 	victoria reports a new case in a person currently quarantining in a hotel. it is the first time that the state has reported a covid- case in more than days. ( news) 	covid- vaccine 	peru temporarily suspends phase iii trials of sinopharm's vaccine after detecting neurological problems in one of its volunteers. peru's trials for the vaccine were due to conclude this week, after testing around , people. (cna) 	 h n outbreak 	south korea issues a -hour standstill order on all poultry farms across the country following a series of highly pathogenic bird flu (h n ) cases. (yonhap news agency) international relations 	covid- pandemic in australia, covid- pandemic in new zealand, travel restrictions related to the covid- pandemic 	queensland reopens its borders to travellers from new zealand after days without any community transmission cases. (the canberra times) 	foreign relations of switzerland, international reactions to the belarusian presidential election and protests 	switzerland freezes belarusian president alexander lukashenko's assets in the country. lukashenko, his son viktor, and other officials will be banned from entering switzerland following violent protests that occurred following the election. (reuters) 	international recognition of israel, foreign relations of bhutan 	bhutan and israel agree to establish full diplomatic relations for the first time. (the jerusalem post) law and crime 	aftermath of – iranian protests, capital punishment in iran 	iranian authorities execute once-exiled dissident journalist ruhollah zam over his online work that helped inspire the – iranian protests. this comes after the supreme court upheld the death sentence on tuesday. (dw) 	 united states election protests 	pro-donald trump protests over the united states presidential election results are held in washington, d.c. participants included members of the far-right group proud boys. during the demonstrations, four people are stabbed, one is shot, and others are arrested, six for assaulting police officers. (cnn) (slate) current events of december  ,   ( - - ) (friday) edithistorywatch armed conflicts and attacks 	insurgency in the north caucasus, terrorism in russia 	six law enforcement officers are wounded when a man they were trying to arrest blew himself up in the village of uchkeken, karachay-cherkessia. the federal security service says no civilians were hurt and authorities were trying to establish his identity. (reuters) 	crime in nigeria 	kankara kidnapping 	pupils are kidnapped from a boys' boarding secondary school by an armed gang in kankara, katsina state, nigeria. (bbc) health and environment 	climate change mitigation 	the european council agrees to lower greenhouse gas emissions in the european union, compared to levels in , by at least % before . (ap) 	covid- pandemic 	covid- pandemic in europe 	covid- pandemic in the united kingdom 	covid- pandemic in northern ireland 	restaurants, cafés, non-essential shops, and other venues that serve food, reopen in northern ireland after two weeks of lockdown. however, pubs that do not serve food will remain closed. (bbc) 	covid- pandemic in germany 	germany reports a record , new cases and deaths in the past hours, according to data from the robert koch institute, bringing the total number of confirmed cases to . million and the death toll to , . (dw) 	due to an increasing number of new cases and deaths, chancellor angela merkel and the leaders of states are expected to discuss new restrictions at a meeting on december . (bloomberg) 	covid- pandemic in belarus 	belarus reports , cases, a new single-day record. (xinhua news agency) 	covid- pandemic in portugal 	portugal reports a record new deaths in the past hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to , . (yahoo! news) 	covid- pandemic in russia 	russia reports a record new deaths in the past hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to , . (the moscow times) 	covid- pandemic in switzerland 	switzerland orders restaurants, bars and shops in most parts of the country to close at pm, as the country faces a persistently high level of new cases and deaths. (reuters) 	covid- pandemic in ukraine 	ukraine reports a record new deaths in the past hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to , . (kyiv post) 	covid- pandemic in asia 	covid- pandemic in indonesia 	indonesia reports a record new deaths in the past hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to , . (kompas) 	covid- pandemic in malaysia 	malaysia surpasses , total cases of covid- . (the edge markets my) 	covid- pandemic in south korea 	the number of confirmed cases in south korea increases by , the highest single-day increase reported in the country since late february, bringing the nationwide total to , cases. (yonhap news agency) 	covid- pandemic in the united states 	covid- pandemic in california 	california reports , new cases in the past hours, a new single-day record since the pandemic began. it also reports a record number of hospitalized patients: , , and record number of , intensive care patients. (kabc-tv) 	covid- pandemic in nebraska 	nebraska governor pete ricketts announces that the state will lift their restrictions on indoor gatherings after hospitalizations in the state dropped to %. however, he also urges people to stay vigilant to prevent the spread of covid- . (omaha world-herald) (ketv) 	the u.s. reports , deaths from covid- , a new one-day record. (market watch) 	covid- vaccine 	tozinameran 	the food and drug administration announces that they have formally approved tozinameran, the covid- vaccine developed by pfizer and biontech. (cnbc) 	mexico approves the pfizer-biontech vaccine. (ap) 	egypt receives its first shipment of , of sinopharm's vaccine, making it the first african country to receive covid- vaccines. the shipment was provided as a gift from the united arab emirates, which recently announced that the vaccine had an % efficacy based on phase iii testing results. (egyptian streets) 	australia stops a clinical trial of a covid- vaccine candidate made by csl limited and the university of queensland after trial participants returned false positive hiv results. (abc australia) 	sanofi and glaxosmithkline announce that their covid- vaccine candidate will not be ready until the end of . (france ) 	the trump administration announces that they will purchase an additional million doses of moderna's vaccine. (cbs news) 	covid- pandemic in namibia 	namibia reports a new single-day record of cases, bringing the total number of confirmed cases since the start of the pandemic to , . (xinhua) 	covid- pandemic in new zealand, travel restrictions related to the covid- pandemic 	new zealand creates its first "travel bubble" with the cook islands, citing low covid- infection rates and their "special ties". the travel bubble will allow citizens to travel between both countries without having to quarantine in early . (reuters) law and crime 	face masks during the covid- pandemic in the united states, covid- pandemic in pennsylvania 	john e. jones iii, a federal judge for the middle district of pennsylvania, announces that he has rejected a bid to temporarily block governor tom wolf's statewide mask mandate and contact tracking system. (the patriot-news) 	hong kong national security law 	pro-democracy tycoon jimmy lai is charged under the new national security law. lai faces a lengthy prison sentence for allegedly "conspiring with foreign forces" to endanger national security. (bbc) 	assassination of rafic hariri 	the united nations-backed special tribunal for lebanon sentences a hezbollah operative to five concurrent life terms in absentia for his role in the assassination of rafic hariri. (al jazeera) 	kyoto animation arson attack 	shinji aoba, who is accused of killing people by setting them on fire in last year's attack, is to be indicted on charges of murder after being found mentally competent to stand trial following a mental health evaluation. (the japan times) 	islam in austria 	austria's constitutional court overturns a government ban on school children wearing specific religious head coverings, ruling it discriminatory, and saying that the ban could lead to the "marginalisation of muslim girls". (bbc) 	after years, a team of volunteer codebreakers solved a cipher by the infamous zodiac killer, according to the federal bureau of investigation. the cipher says "i hope you are having lots of fun trying to catch me", and "i am not afraid of the gas chamber because it will send me to paradice [sic] all the sooner because i now have enough slaves to work for me". (reuters) politics and elections 	post-election lawsuits related to the united states presidential election 	the united states supreme court denies texas v. pennsylvania, a lawsuit filed by texas attorney general ken paxton to invalidate president-elect joe biden's victories in georgia, michigan, wisconsin, and pennsylvania. (bbc) 	 armenian protests 	anti-government protesters block streets in the armenian capital yerevan, continuing calls for prime minister nikol pashinyan to resign over the nagorno-karabakh ceasefire agreement with azerbaijan. riot police detain more than protesters. (rferl) 	the united states senate approves the $ billion national defense authorization act for fiscal year (ndaa) by votes to , overriding a possible presidential veto. president donald trump objects to section of the communications decency act that currently provides legal immunity to social media companies, and also to a provision in the ndaa that will prohibit military bases to be named for confederate generals. (reuters) current events of december  ,   ( - - ) (thursday) edithistorywatch armed conflicts and attacks 	war in afghanistan 	journalist malalai maiwand, an activist for women's and children's rights, and her driver are shot dead on their way to work in jalalabad, nangarhar. the islamic state – khorasan province claimed responsibility for the attack. (dw) (reuters) 	 nagorno-karabakh war 	a large military parade is held in baku to celebrate azerbaijan's victory over armenia in nagorno-karabakh. turkish president recep tayyip erdoğan is among the foreign attendees. the parade includes thousands of soldiers, flyovers from helicopters and fighter jets, and a turkish special forces brigade. (al jazeera) business and economy 	economic impact of the covid- pandemic 	the european central bank expands its pandemic emergency purchase programme by € billion to € . trillion and extends the scheme to march , saying it expects "a more pronounced near-term impact of the pandemic on the eurozone economy and a more protracted weakness in inflation than previously envisaged". (reuters) 	mastercard and visa cut financial ties with pornhub following an investigation by the new york times into child sexual abuse content and rape pornography on the website. pornhub says that the moves are "exceptionally disappointing" as well as crushing news for the "hundreds of thousands of models who rely on our platform for their livelihoods". (bloomberg) health and environment 	covid- pandemic 	covid- pandemic in asia 	covid- pandemic in japan 	tokyo reports a record new cases in the past hours, bringing the total number of confirmed cases in the prefecture to , . (nikkei asia) 	japan reports a record , new cases in the past hours, according to official figures released by the government. (kyodo news) 	covid- pandemic in malaysia 	malaysia reports a new single-day record of , cases in the last hours, bringing the nationwide number of confirmed cases to , . (malay mail) 	covid- pandemic in singapore, covid- pandemic on cruise ships 	the singapore government said that a suspected covid- case aboard a "cruise-to-nowhere" was a false alarm after a passenger aboard royal caribbean's quantum of the seas cruise ship who tested positive for covid- has been found not to have contracted the virus. (afp via cbs news) 	covid- pandemic in south korea 	south korea surpasses , total cases of covid- . (kbs world) 	covid- pandemic in europe 	covid- pandemic in belarus 	belarus reports a new single-day record of , cases, bringing the total number of confirmed cases to , . (belta) 	covid- pandemic in denmark 	health minister magnus heunicke announces the expansion of the country's partial lockdown measures to other municipalities, beginning tomorrow at : pm local time. this comes after the country reports a record , new cases in the past hours. (the local denmark) 	covid- pandemic in france 	prime minister jean castex announces that the country will delay the reopening of cultural venues and introduce a night-time curfew from : p.m. to : a.m. local time, where stay-at-home order will be lifted as planned on december as it struggles to curb the spread of covid- . (bbc) 	covid- pandemic in germany 	germany reports a new single-day record of , cases, according to the robert koch institute, bringing the total number of confirmed cases to , , . (rnd) 	covid- pandemic in sweden 	sweden reports a record , new cases in the past hours. (reuters) 	covid- pandemic in north america 	covid- pandemic in canada 	covid- pandemic in ontario 	ontario reports a new single-day record of , cases, bringing the total number of confirmed cases in the province to , . (cfto-dt) 	covid- pandemic in british columbia 	british columbia reports a record new deaths in the past hours, bringing the provincial death toll to . (global news) 	covid- pandemic in the united states 	covid- pandemic in north dakota 	north dakota governor doug burgum announces that the state has extended their mask mandate and limits on gatherings until january . (wcco-tv) 	tv personality ellen degeneres announces that she has contracted covid- . her contraction of the virus prompts production of her show, the ellen degeneres show, to be halted until january .(nbc news) 	covid- vaccine 	covid- pandemic in argentina 	argentine president alberto fernández announces the purchase of million doses of the russian sputnik v vaccine, and says that he will be the first person to receive the vaccine in order to prove that it is safe. an initial shipment of , doses will be received before the end of the year. (france ) 	tozinameran 	an expert panel advising the fda recommends granting tozinameran emergency approval for usage in the united states. (npr) 	saudi arabia approves tozinameran as a safe vaccine. (arab news) 	moderna announces that they will begin testing their vaccine candidate, mrna- , on adolescents aged – years. (cnbc) 	 h n outbreak 	the japanese agricultural ministry reports new cases of a highly pathogenic strain of avian influenza (h n ) at poultry farms in saiki, oita and kinokawa, wakayama. authorities have started culling , chickens at the farm in saiki as well as about , chickens at the farm in kinokawa. (nippon.com) international relations 	israel–morocco normalization agreement, international recognition of israel, israel–morocco relations, political status of western sahara, western saharan clashes 	the united states says that morocco will normalize diplomatic relations with israel, becoming the fourth arab country to do so in recent months, in an agreement mediated by the united states. u.s. president donald trump also says that he recognizes "moroccan sovereignty over the entire western sahara territory". morocco says that the united states "will open a consulate in western sahara as part of morocco’s deal with israel". (the jerusalem post) (reuters) 	foreign relations of norway 	norway's storting votes to lower the country's financial assistance package to the palestinian national authority and the palestinian territories by $ . million over concerns of anti-semitic content and incitement to violence in palestinian school curricula. (ynet news) (european jewish press) 	netherlands–russia relations 	the netherlands expels two russian diplomats based in the hague, who it accuses of being part of a foreign intelligence service-led "espionage network" targeting the high-tech sector. russia describes the dutch accusations as "unfounded", and says that the expulsion of its citizens was "provocative". (bbc) law and crime 	lgbt rights in bhutan 	bhutan's parliament passes a bill decriminalizing homosexuality. the bill will need to be approved by king jigme khesar namgyel wangchuck in order to become law. (reuters) politics and elections 	european union response to the covid- pandemic 	the european council agrees on a compromise deal to unlock € . trillion for the budget of the european union and for the next generation eu recovery plan. (the new york times) current events of december  ,   ( - - ) (wednesday) edithistorywatch armed conflicts and attacks 	iraq war, operation telic 	international criminal court chief prosecutor fatou bensouda announces that an inquiry into british war crimes in iraq has been formally abandoned. in a final report, bensouda says her office "found a reasonable basis to believe" that british troops committed war crimes in , murdering at least seven iraqi detainees, however she accepted the uk has taken "genuine action" to investigate itself. (reuters) health and environment 	covid- pandemic 	covid- pandemic in north america 	covid- pandemic in the united states 	nationally, the number of new daily deaths surpasses the death toll of / for the first time, topping at , . (cnn) 	covid- pandemic in washington, d.c. 	officials from the pentagon say that they will receive , doses of the pfizer-biontech's tozinameran vaccine. however, it will not be mandatory for soldiers to receive the vaccine. (cbs news) (u.s. news & world report) 	covid- pandemic in maryland 	on his first full day in office, baltimore mayor brandon scott announces that the city will close all indoor and outdoor dining at restaurants to reduce the spread of covid- . (the baltimore sun) 	covid- pandemic in alabama 	governor kay ivey announces that the statewide mask mandate and stay-at-home order will be extended until january . (montgomery advertiser) 	covid- pandemic in pennsylvania 	pennsylvania governor tom wolf tests positive for covid- and begins quarantining at his home. (pittsburgh tribune-review) 	covid- pandemic in michigan 	after nearly members and staffers of the michigan house of representatives test positive for covid- , scheduled voting sessions for december and were cancelled. (yahoo! news), (wxyz-tv) 	covid- pandemic in canada 	canada approves pfizer-biontech's covid- vaccine and expects to receive , doses by the end of the year. (cbc) 	covid- pandemic in europe 	covid- pandemic in cyprus 	the government announces that malls and food and beverage establishments will be closed from december at : p.m. local time until the end of the year. restaurants will only be allowed to offer takeaway service. (phile news) 	covid- pandemic in germany 	germany reports new deaths from covid- in the past hours, the most since the start of the pandemic and bringing the nationwide death toll to , . (bloomberg) 	covid- pandemic in moldova 	prime minister ion chicu tests positive for covid- . (antara news) 	covid- pandemic in slovakia 	prime minister igor matovič announces that non-essential shops and schools will be closed for at least three weeks beginning december . he also said that the outdoor terraces of restaurants, cafés and similar facilities will be closed beginning december and only takeaway services will be allowed. (the slovak spectator) 	covid- pandemic in turkey 	turkey reports a new single-day record of deaths, bringing the nationwide death toll to , . (reuters) 	covid- pandemic in asia 	covid- pandemic in indonesia 	indonesia reports a record new deaths in the past hours, bringing the nationwide death toll to , . (cnn indonesia) 	covid- pandemic in japan 	japan reports a record , new cases in the past hours. (the japan times) 	covid- pandemic in singapore, covid- pandemic on cruise ships 	a royal caribbean ship, quantum of the seas, that had , guests and , crew on board, returned to singapore on the third day of a four-day "cruise to nowhere" after a passenger tested positive for covid- . (bbc) 	covid- pandemic in south korea 	the number of new confirmed cases in south korea reaches a nine-month high of cases in the last hours. the country now has , total confirmed cases, according to data from the korea disease control and prevention agency. (yonhap news agency) 	covid- pandemic in united arab emirates, covid- vaccine 	the ministry of health and prevention announces the registration of sinopharm's inactivated virus vaccine bbicp-corv, after an interim analysis of the phase iii trials showed bbibp-corv to have an % efficacy against covid- infection. (reuters) international relations 	european union–united kingdom relations, trade negotiation between the uk and the eu 	uk prime minister boris johnson and president of the european commission ursula von der leyen agree to set a deadline for a trade agreement between the uk and eu by december. if no agreement is reached by then, the united kingdom will leave the european single market and european union customs union without a deal on january . (the guardian) law and crime 	 european medicines agency cyberattack 	the european medicines agency announces that it has been cyberattacked and that an investigation is ongoing. (the guardian) politics and elections 	 indonesian local elections 	 million people in indonesia go to the polls to choose governors in nine of provinces as well as mayors and district leaders in regencies and cities in regions across the country. the elections were originally scheduled in september but were delayed due to the covid- pandemic. (abc news) 	the eldest son of president joko widodo, gibran rakabuming raka, is elected as mayor of surakarta with a landslide victory based on some quick count results. (bloomberg) science and technology 	starship development history 	spacex starship (prototype sn ) is destroyed in a crash landing at the boca chica launch site in texas, following a high-altitude test flight. (the independent) more december events... time: : utc|day: december 	◀	december 	▶ 	s	m	t	w	t	f	s 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	     	     	     	      	     	     	     	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	  	more december events...    about this page report a dispute • news about wikipedia ongoing events business 	covid- recession 	fincen files leak disasters 	covid- pandemic 	 – european windstorm season 	 central vietnam floods 	 h n outbreak 	 – locust infestation 	 north indian ocean cyclone season 	 pacific typhoon season 	 – southern africa drought 	 wildfire season 	yemeni famine politics 	afghan peace process 	armenian protests 	belarusian protests 	bulgarian protests 	chilean protests 	hong kong protests 	indian farmers protests 	kashmir lock-down 	libyan peace process 	nicaraguan protests 	nigerian protests 	persian gulf crisis 	peruvian protests 	philippine protests (timeline) 	polish protests 	post-brexit diplomatic talks (trade negotiations) 	second arab spring 	sudanese protests 	thai protests 	united states election protests 	united states racial unrest 	venezuelan presidential crisis (protests) 	yellow vests movement edit section elections and referendums recent 	december 	 : kuwait, national assembly 	 : romania, senate, chamber of deputies 	 : venezuela, national assembly 	 : ghana, president, parliament 	 – : egypt, parliament ( nd− ) 	 : liberia, senate, constitutional referendum upcoming 	december 	 : central african republic, president ( st), national assembly ( st) 	 : niger, president ( st), national assembly edit section trials recently concluded 	greece: nikolaos michaloliakos ongoing 	argentina: rodolfo martín villa 	armenia: serzh sargsyan 	colombia: Álvaro uribe 	france: nicolas sarkozy 	israel: benjamin netanyahu 	kyrgyzstan: almazbek atambayev 	malta: yorgen fenech 	south africa: jacob zuma 	spain: bárcenas affair, catalonia attacks 	sudan: omar al-bashir 	united states: fat leonard scandal, varsity blues scandal 	international: the gambia v. myanmar upcoming 	indonesia: edhy prabowo, juliari batubara, muhammad rizieq shihab 	kosovo: hashim thaçi, kadri veseli 	lesotho: maesiah thabane 	rwanda: paul rusesabagina 	spain: jordi pujol 	united states: khalid sheikh mohammed, elizabeth holmes, meng wanzhou, r. kelly, ghislaine maxwell, steve bannon 	vanuatu: charlot salwai 	zimbabwe: ignatius chombo edit section sport 	association football 	 – premier league 	 campeonato brasileiro série a 	 major league soccer season 	 – uefa nations league 	 copa libertadores 	 – uefa champions league group stage 	 – uefa europa league group stage 	women's association football 	 – champions league 	 – division féminine 	 – fa wsl 	 nwsl challenge cup 	american football 	 nfl season 	 ncaa division i fbs 	baseball 	 mlb season 	 npb season 	basketball 	 – nba season 	 – ncaa division i men's basketball season 	 – ncaa division i women's basketball season 	golf 	 european tour 	 – pga tour 	ice hockey 	 – khl season 	 – nhl season 	motorsport 	 formula one championship 	 rally championship 	rugby sevens 	 – world rugby women's sevens series 	rugby union 	 – premiership rugby 	 – pro 	 – top 	tennis 	other sports seasons 	 – international cricket season 	 – snooker season 	 – curling season more details – current sports events edit section recent deaths december 	 : gérard houllier 	 : huang zongying 	 : ambrose mandvulo dlamini 	 : nur hossain kasemi 	 : john le carré 	 : charley pride 	 : ruhollah zam 	 : kenneth alwyn 	 : kim ki-duk 	 : tommy lister jr. 	 : barbara windsor 	 : paolo rossi 	 : mohammad yazdi 	 : harold budd 	 : alejandro sabella 	 : yevgeny shaposhnikov 	 : dick allen 	 : chuck yeager 	 : paul sarbanes 	 : tabaré vázquez 	 : peter alliss 	 : david lander 	 : james odongo 	 : mahashay dharampal gulati 	 : warren berlinger 	 : richard corben 	 : valéry giscard d'estaing 	 : zafarullah khan jamali 	 : rafer johnson 	 : pat patterson 	 : walter e. williams 	 : hugh keays-byrne 	 : brian kerr november 	 : david prowse 	 : mohsen fakhrizadeh 	 : tony hsieh 	 : f. c. kohli 	 : sadiq al-mahdi 	 : daria nicolodi 	 : diego maradona 	 : ahmed patel 	 : flor silvestre 	 : james wolfensohn 	 : fasih bokhari 	 : fred sasakamoose 	 : mamadou tandja 	 : david dinkins 	 : hal ketchum 	 : sidi ould cheikh abdallahi 	 : patrick quinn 	 : irinej 	 : jan morris 	 : sebouh chouldjian 	 : khadim hussain rizvi 	 : jake scott 	 : umar ghalib 	 : juan roldán 	 : mridula sinha 	 : eddie borysewicz 	 : sheldon solow 	 : shawkat ali 	 : henryk gulbinowicz 	 : walid muallem edit section ongoing conflicts africa 	algeria, libya and tunisia 	maghreb insurgency 	cameroon 	anglophone crisis 	cameroon, chad, niger, and nigeria 	boko haram insurgency 	central african republic 	civil war 	democratic republic of the congo 	kivu conflict 	allied democratic forces insurgency 	ituri conflict 	lord's resistance army insurgency 	ethiopia 	tigray conflict 	mali 	mali war 	mozambique 	insurgency in cabo delgado 	nigeria 	communal conflicts in nigeria 	somalia 	civil war 	south sudan 	ethnic violence (south sudanese civil war) 	sudan 	war in darfur 	south kordofan conflict 	sudanese nomadic conflicts 	western sahara 	western sahara conflict 	 western saharan clashes americas 	colombia 	colombian conflict 	mexico 	mexican war on drugs 	peru 	internal conflict in peru asia-pacific 	afghanistan 	afghanistan war 	china 	xinjiang conflict 	india 	naxalite–maoist insurgency 	insurgency in northeast india 	india and pakistan 	kashmir conflict 	border skirmishes 	indonesia, malaysia and the philippines 	moro conflict 	cross border attacks in sabah 	indonesia 	papua conflict 	myanmar 	internal conflict in myanmar 	kachin conflict 	karen conflict 	rohingya conflict 	pakistan 	insurgency in khyber pakhtunkhwa 	insurgency in balochistan 	philippines 	communist rebellion in the philippines 	philippine drug war 	thailand 	south thailand insurgency europe 	armenia and azerbaijan 	nagorno-karabakh conflict 	russia 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the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 lust - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	lust 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		human emotion this article is about the carnal desire. for other uses, see lust (disambiguation). 	 	this article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (january ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) detail: luxuria (lust), in the seven deadly sins and the four last things, by hieronymus bosch 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e lust is a psychological force producing intense desire for an object, or circumstance fulfilling the emotion while already having a significant other or amount of the desired object.[ ] lust can take any form such as the lust for sexuality (see libido), love, money, or power. it can take such mundane forms as the lust for food (see gluttony) as distinct from the need for food. contents 	 in religion 	 . abrahamic religions 	 . . judaism 	 . . christianity 	 . . . new testament 	 . . . catholicism 	 . . . protestantism 	 . . islam 	 . indian religions 	 . . hinduism 	 . . buddhism 	 . . sikhism 	 . indian spirituality 	 . . brahma kumaris 	 . . meher baba's teachings 	 . paganism 	 in culture 	 . medieval prostitutes 	 in art 	 . literature 	 in philosophy 	 . schopenhauer 	 . st thomas aquinas 	 in psychoanalysis and psychology 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links in religion[edit] see also: religious views on pornography, religious views on masturbation, and fornication religions tend to draw a distinction between passion and lust by further categorizing lust as an immoral desire and passion as morally accepted. lust is defined as immoral because its object or action of affection is improperly ordered according to natural law and/or the appetite for the particular object (eg sexual desire) is governing the person's intellect and will rather than the intellect and will governing the appetite for that object. whereas passion, regardless of its strength is maintained to be something god-given and moral, because the purpose, actions and intentions behind it are benevolent and ordered toward creation, while also being governed by the person's intellect and will. a primary school of thought on this is thomism, which speaks on the intellect, will and appetite, and draws from principles defined by aristotle. however, the exact definitions assigned to what is morally definite and ordered toward creation depend on the religion. for example, differences between religions based in pantheism and theism will differ what is moral according to the nature of the "god" acknowledged or worshipped. abrahamic religions[edit] judaism[edit] main article: yetzer hara § the evil inclination in jewish tradition in judaism, all evil inclinations and lusts of the flesh are characterized by yetzer hara (hebrew, יצר הרע, the evil inclination). yetzer hara is not a demonic force; rather, it is man's misuse of the things which the physical body needs to survive, and is often contrasted with yetzer hatov (hebrew, יצר הטוב, the positive desire). yetzer hara is often identified with satan and the angel of death,[ ] and there is sometimes a tendency to give a personality and separate activity to the yetzer. for the yetzer, like satan, misleads man in this world, and testifies against him in the world to come. the yetzer is, however, clearly distinguished from satan, and on other occasions is made exactly parallel to sin. the torah is considered the great antidote against this force. though, like all things which god has made, the yetzer hara (evil inclination) can be manipulated into doing good: for without it, man would never marry, beget a child, build a house, or occupy himself in a trade. christianity[edit] new testament[edit] in many translations of the new testament, the word "lust" translates the greek word ἐπιθυμέω, particularly in matthew : - : ye have heard that it was said by them of old time, thou shalt not commit adultery: but i say unto you, that whosoever looketh on a woman to lust (ἐπιθυμέω) after her hath committed adultery with her already in his heart. in english-speaking countries, the term "lust" is often associated with sexual desire, probably because of this verse. however, just as the english word was originally a general term for 'desire', the greek word ἐπιθυμέω was also a general term for desire. the lsj lexicon suggests "set one's heart upon a thing, long for, covet, desire" as glosses for ἐπιθυμέω, which is used in verses that clearly have nothing to do with sexual desire. in the septuagint, ἐπιθυμέω is the word used in the commandment to not covet: you shall not covet your neighbour's wife; you shall not covet your neighbour's house or his field or his male slave or his female slave or his ox or his draft animal or any animal of his or whatever belongs to your neighbour. — exodus : , new english translation of the septuagint while coveting your neighbour's wife may involve sexual desire, it's unlikely that coveting a neighbour's house or field is sexual in nature. and in most new testament uses, the same greek word, ἐπιθυμέω, does not have a clear sexual connotation. for example, from the american standard version the same word is used outside of any sexual connotation: 	matthew : : for verily i say unto you, that many prophets and righteous men desired to see the things which ye see, and saw them not; and to hear the things which ye hear, and heard them not. 	luke : - : and he said unto them, with desire i have desired to eat this passover with you before i suffer: for i say unto you, i shall not eat it, until it be fulfilled in the kingdom of god. 	acts : : i coveted no man's silver, or gold, or apparel. ye yourselves know that these hands ministered unto my necessities, and to them that were with me. 	luke : - : and when he had spent all, there arose a mighty famine in that country; and he began to be in want. and he went and joined himself to one of the citizens of that country; and he sent him into his fields to feed swine. and he would fain have filled his belly with the husks that the swine did eat: and no man gave unto him. catholicism[edit] a demon satiating his lust in a th-century manuscript romanesque capital representing lust according to the catholic encyclopedia, a christian's heart is lustful when "venereal satisfaction is sought for either outside wedlock or, at any rate, in a manner which is contrary to the laws that govern marital intercourse".[ ] pope john paul ii said that lust devalues the eternal attraction of male and female, reducing personal riches of the opposite sex to an object for gratification of sexuality.[ ] lust is considered by catholicism to be a disordered desire for sexual pleasure, where sexual pleasure is "sought for itself, isolated from its procreative and unitive purposes".[ ] in catholicism, sexual desire in itself is good, and is considered part of god's plan for humanity. however, when sexual desire is separated from god's love, it becomes disordered and self-seeking. this is seen as lust. st thomas aquinas differentiates between sexual intercourse within marriage, which is seen as meritorious through giving justice to one's spouse, and sins of lust which can themselves be differentiated in magnitude of immorality according to intention and action. for example, aquinas and other medieval theologians would consider rape a greater sin than masturbation, because rape is a sin against justice, while masturbation is a sin against chastity; and justice is a supernatural property of god, making it a greater virtue than chastity, a property of man's human nature.[ ] the latin for extravagance (latin: luxuria) was used by st jerome to translate a variety of biblical sins, including drunkenness and sexual excess.[ ] gregory the great placed luxuria as one of the seven capital sins (it is often considered the least serious of the seven deadly sins), narrowing its scope to disordered desire,[ ] and it was in this sense that the middle ages generally took luxuria, (although the old french cognate was adopted into english as luxury without its sexual meaning by the th century[citation needed]). detail of lust at the sankt bartholomäus church (reichenthal), pulpit ( ) in romanesque art, the personified luxuria is generally feminine,[ ] often represented by a siren or a naked woman with breasts being bitten by snakes. prudentius in his psychomachia or 'battle of the soul' had described[ ] luxury, lavish of her ruined fame, loose-haired, wild-eyed, her voice a dying fall, lost in delight.... for dante, luxuria was both the first of the circles of incontinence (or self-indulgence) on the descent into hell, and the last of the cornices of mount purgatory, representing the excessive (disordered) love of individuals;[ ] while for edmund spenser, luxuria was synonymous with the power of desire.[ ] for gregory and subsequent thomists, the 'daughters' (by-products) of luxuria included mental blindness, self-love, haste, and excessive attachment to the present.[ ] marianne dashwood has been seen as embodying such characteristics for a later age – as a daughter of luxuria.[ ] protestantism[edit] the evangelical melvin tinker states that: "the principle is clear isn't it, 'you shall not commit adultery'? how does the pharisee handle it according to the minimum requirement method? he says, 'sex outside marriage is ok for us because neither of us are really married. i am not sleeping with another man's wife, so it isn't adultery, she's my girlfriend'. or it is also not adultery because 'i have not had sex with that woman.' to quote president clinton's plea in the monica lewinski [sic] saga. so he can abuse his position as president by messing around with a girl who is hardly younger than his daughter, he can engage in all kinds of sexual activities with her, but because he technically doesn't have intercourse he can hold up his hands and say, 'i have not had sex with that woman.' that is a pharisee speaking. "but the maximum application method says, adultery doesn't just happen when you have sexual intercourse, it happens in your heart. however, the mistranslation is unfortunate at this point. in the greek it says, 'if anyone looks upon a woman in order to lust, has already committed adultery with her in his heart.' that is an important distinction. i need to point that out because sexual arousal, sexual interest, sexual attraction are essential for the continuation of the human species... it is about looking in order to lust. the striptease show, the dirty movie or video, the internet pornography. that is becoming a real problem... and if this is a difficulty for you, then do talk to someone about it in confidence. you see, it is the intending to look in order to have that arousal that jesus has in his sights."[ ] islam[edit] in islam, lust is considered as one of the primitive states of the self, called the nafs. muslims are encouraged to overcome their baser instincts and intentional lascivious glances are forbidden. lascivious thoughts are disliked, for they are the first step towards adultery, rape and other antisocial behaviors. prophet muhammad also stressed the magnitude of the "second glance", as while the first glance towards an attractive member of the opposite sex could be just accidental or observatory, the second glance could be that gate into lustful thinking.[ ] indian religions[edit] hinduism[edit] in the bhagavad gita, lord krishna, an avatar of vishnu, declared in chapter , verse that lust is one of the gates to naraka or hell. arjuna said: o descendant of vrsni, by what is one impelled to sinful acts, even unwillingly, as if engaged by force? then krishna said: it is lust only, arjuna, which is born of contact with the material mode of passion and later transformed into wrath, and which is the all-devouring sinful enemy of this world. as fire is covered by smoke, as a mirror is covered by dust, or as the embryo is covered by the womb, the living entity is similarly covered by different degrees of this lust. thus the wise living entity's pure consciousness becomes covered by his eternal enemy in the form of lust, which is never satisfied and which burns like fire. the senses, the mind and the intelligence are the sitting places of this lust. through them lust covers the real knowledge of the living entity and bewilders him. therefore, o arjuna, best of the bharatas, in the very beginning curb this great symbol of sin—(lust) by regulating the senses, and slay this destroyer of knowledge and self-realization. the working senses are superior to dull matter; mind is higher than the senses; intelligence is still higher than the mind; and he [the soul] is even higher than the intelligence. thus knowing oneself to be transcendental to the material senses, mind and intelligence, o mighty-armed arjuna, one should steady the mind by deliberate spiritual intelligence and thus—by spiritual strength—conquer this insatiable enemy known as lust. (bhagavad-gita, . – ) in this ancient manuscript the idea behind the word 'lust' is best comprehended as the psychological force called 'wanting'. buddhism[edit] main article: taṇhā lust holds a critical position in the philosophical underpinnings of buddhist reality. it is named in the second of the four noble truths, which are that 	suffering (dukkha) is inherent in all life. 	suffering is caused by desire. 	there is a natural way to eliminate all suffering from one's life. 	the ending of desire eliminates all suffering from someones life. lust is the attachment to, identification with, and passionate desire for certain things in existence, all of which relate to the form, sensation, perception, mentality, and consciousness that certain combinations of these things engender within us. lust is thus the ultimate cause of general imperfection and the most immediate root cause of a certain suffering. the passionate desire for either non-existence or for freedom from lust is a common misunderstanding. for example, the headlong pursuit of lust (or other "deadly sin") in order to fulfill a desire for death is followed by a reincarnation accompanied by a self-fulfilling karma, resulting in an endless wheel of life, until the right way to live, the right worldview, is somehow discovered and practiced. beholding an endless knot puts one, symbolically, in the position of the one with the right worldview, representing that person who attains freedom from lust. in existence are four kinds of things that engender the clinging: rituals, worldviews, pleasures, and the self. the way to eliminate lust is to learn of its unintended effects and to pursue righteousness as concerns a worldview, intention, speech, behavior, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration, in the place where lust formerly sat. sikhism[edit] in sikhism, lust is counted among the five cardinal sins or sinful propensities, the others being wrath, ego, greed and attachment. uncontrollable expression of sexual lust, as in rape or sexual addiction, is an evil. indian spirituality[edit] brahma kumaris[edit] according to brahma kumaris, a spiritual organization which is based on hindu philosophy, sexual lust is the greatest enemy to all mankind[ ] and the gateway to hell.[ ] for this reason followers do not eat onions, garlic, eggs, or non-vegetarian food, as the "sulphur" in them can excite sexual lust in the body, otherwise bound to celibacy. the physical act of sex is "impure", leading to body-consciousness and other crimes. this impurity "poisons" the body and leads to many kinds of "diseases". the brahma kumaris teaches that sexuality is like foraging about in a dark sewer. students at spiritual university must conquer lust in order to find the golden age, a heaven on earth, where children are conceived by an asexual power of mind, and lasting for , years in the peace and purity of a holy swan moving on earth, over water, and in air.[ ][ ] meher baba's teachings[edit] the spiritual teacher meher baba described the differences between lust and love: in lust there is reliance upon the object of sense and consequent spiritual subordination of the soul to it, but love puts the soul into direct and co-ordinate relation with the reality which is behind the form. therefore, lust is experienced as being heavy and love is experienced as being light. in lust there is a narrowing down of life and in love there is an expansion in being...if you love the whole world you vicariously live in the whole world, but in lust there is an ebbing down of life and a general sense of hopeless dependence upon a form which is regarded as another. thus, in lust there is the accentuation of separateness and suffering, but in love there is the feeling of unity and joy....[ ] paganism[edit] few ancient, pagan religions actually considered lust to be a vice.[citation needed] the most famous example of a widespread religious movement practicing lechery as a ritual is the bacchanalia of the ancient roman bacchantes. however, this activity was soon outlawed by the roman senate in bc in the decree senatus consultum de bacchanalibus. the practice of sacred prostitution, however, continued to be an activity practiced often by the dionysians. in culture[edit] medieval prostitutes[edit] medieval prostitutes lived officially sanctioned in "red light districts". in ruth mazo karras' book common women, the author discusses the meaning of prostitution and how people thought the proper use of prostitutes by unmarried men helped contain male lust. prostitution was thought of as having a beneficial effect by reducing the sexual frustration in the community.[ ] in art[edit] goya's man mocked by two women (dos mujeres y un hombre), c. literature[edit] from ovid to the works of les poètes maudits, characters have always been faced with scenes of lechery, and long since has lust been a common motif in world literature. many writers, such as georges bataille, casanova and prosper mérimée, have written works wherein scenes take place at bordellos and other unseemly locales. baudelaire, author of les fleurs du mal, had once remarked, in regard to the artist, that: the more a man cultivates the arts, the less randy he becomes... only the brute is good at coupling, and copulation is the lyricism of the masses. to copulate is to enter into another—and the artist never emerges from himself. the most notable work to touch upon the sin of lust, and all of the seven deadly sins, is dante's la divina commedia. dante's criterion for lust was an "excessive love of others", insofar as an excessive love for man would render one's love of god secondary. in the first canticle of dante's inferno, the lustful are punished by being continuously swept around in a whirlwind, which symbolizes their passions. the damned who are guilty of lust, like the two famous lovers, paolo and francesca, receive what they desired in their mortal lives, their passions never give them rest for all eternity. in purgatorio, of the selfsame work, the penitents choose to walk through flames in order to purge themselves of their lustful inclinations. in philosophy[edit] the link between love and lust has always been a problematic question in philosophy. schopenhauer[edit] schopenhauer notes the misery which results from sexual relationships. according to him, this directly explains the sentiments of shame and sadness which tend to follow the act of sexual intercourse; for, he states, the only power that reigns is the inextinguishable desire to face, at any price, the blind love present in human existence without any consideration of the outcome. he estimates that a genius of his species is an industrial being who wants only to produce, and wants only to think. the theme of lust for schopenhauer is thus to consider the horrors which will almost certainly follow the culmination of lust. st thomas aquinas[edit] st thomas aquinas defines the sin of lust in questions and of his summa theologica. aquinas says the sin of lust is of "voluptuous emotions", and makes the point that sexual pleasures, "unloosen the human spirit", and set aside right reason (pg. ). aquinas restricts lust's subject matter to physical desires specifically arising from sexual acts, but he does not assume all sex-acts are sinful. sex is not a sin in marriage, because sex is the only way for humans to reproduce. if sex is used naturally and the end purpose is reproduction there is no sin. aquinas says, "if the end be good and if what is done is well-adapted to that, then no sin is present" (pg. ). however, sex simply for the sake of pleasure is lustful, and therefore a sin. a man who uses his body for lechery wrongs the lord. sex may have the attributes of being sinless; however, when a person seeks sex for pleasure, he or she is sinning with lust. lust is best defined by its specific attribute of rape, adultery, wet dreams, seduction, unnatural vice, and simple fornication. wet dreams: st thomas aquinas defined and discussed the topic of nocturnal emission, which occurs when one dreams of physical pleasure. aquinas argues those who say that wet dreams are a sin and comparable to the actual experience of sex are wrong. aquinas believes that such an action is sinless, for a dream is not under a person's control or free judgment. when one has a "nocturnal orgasm", it is not a sin, but it can lead to sins (pg. ). aquinas says that wet dreams come from a physical cause of inappropriate pictures within your imagination, a psychological cause when thinking of sex while you fall asleep and a demonical cause whereby demons act upon the sleeper's body, "stirring the sleeper's imagination to bring about a orgasm" (pg. ). in the end, though, dreaming of lustful acts is not sinful. the "mind's awareness is less hindered", as the sleeper lacks right reason; therefore, a person cannot be accountable for what they dream while sleeping (pg. ). adultery: one of the main forms of lust seen frequently during the middle ages was the sin of adultery. the sin of adultery occurs when a person is unfaithful to his or her spouse, hence "invading of a bed not one's own" (pg. ). adultery is a special kind of ugliness and many difficulties arise from it. when a man enters the bed of a married woman it not only is a sin, but it "wrongs the offspring", because the woman now calls into question the legitimacy of children (pg. ). if a wife has committed adultery before, then, her husband will question if all his wife's children are his offspring. simple fornication: simple fornication is having sex with one's wife for enjoyment rather than for bearing children. fornication is also sex between two unmarried people, which is also a mortal sin. aquinas says that "fornication is a deadly crime" (pg. ). fornication is a mortal sin, but as aquinas notes, "pope gregory treated sins of the flesh as less grievous than those of the spirit" (pg. ). fornication was a grave sin such as that against property. fornication, however, is not as grave as a sin directly against god and human life; therefore, murder is much worse than fornication. property in this case means that a daughter is the property of her father, and if one does wrong to her, one then does wrong to him; therefore seducing a virgin or seeking pleasure from an unmarried woman is an invasion of a father's property. rape: rape is a kind of lust that often coincides with seduction and is defined as a type of lechery. rape comes with force and violence: rape occurs when a person craves the pleasures of sex so intensely that he uses force to obtain it. rape is committed when violence is used to seduce, or deflower a virgin. rape harms both the unmarried girl and her father, because the girl is property of her father. rape and seduction can be discussed together, because both sins involve the deflowering of a virgin; however, rape can happen without seduction, as when a man attacks a widow or a sexually experienced woman and violates her. therefore, wherever violence accompanies sex, you have the quality of rape and the sin of lust. seduction: seduction is a type of lust, because seduction is a sex act, which ravishes a virgin. lust is a sin of sexual activity, and "...a special quality of wrong that appears if a maid still under her father's care is debauched" (pg. ). seduction involves a discussion of property, as an unmarried girl is property of her father. a virgin, even though free from the bond of marriage, is not free from the bond of her family. when a virgin is violated without a promise of engagement, she is prevented from having honorable marriage, which is shameful to herself and her family. a man who performs sexual acts with a virgin must "endow her and have her to wife", and if the father, who is responsible for her, says no, then a man must pay a dowry to compensate for her loss of virginity and future chance of marriage. (pg. ) unnatural vice: unnatural vice is the worst kind of lust because it is unnatural in act and purpose. many varieties of unnatural vice exist; aquinas provides several examples, including bestiality or intercourse with a "thing of another species" (for example, an animal), incest, sodomy and "not observing the right manner of copulation".[ ] in psychoanalysis and psychology[edit] main article: libido lust, in the domain of psychoanalysis and psychology, is often treated as a case of "heightened libido". see also[edit] 	adultery 	concupiscence 	desire 	fornication 	kam 	kama 	libido 	love 	masturbation 	matthew : – 	pornography 	religious views on masturbation 	religious views on pornography 	sexual attraction 	sexual fantasy 	taṇhā references[edit] 	^ richard lazarus with bernice n. lazarus, passion and reason: making sense of our emotions. new york: oxford university press, . isbn  - - - - 	^ bava bathra. pp.  a. 	^ herbermann, charles, ed. ( ). "lust" . catholic encyclopedia. new york: robert appleton company. 	^ pope john paul ii, mutual attraction differs from lust. l'osservatore romano, weekly edition in english, september , p. . available at http://www.ewtn.com/library/papaldoc/jp tb .htm . 	^ 'catechism of the catholic church, n° sq. 	^ "aquinas on sexual sin - the dangers of speaking formally". retrieved february . 	^ mark d. jordan, the invention of sodomy ( ) p. 	^ mark d. jordan, the invention of sodomy ( ) pp. – ; julien théry, "luxure cléricale, gouvernement de l’Église et royauté capétienne au temps de la 'bible de saint louis'", revue mabillon, , , pp. – 	^ j. jerman/a. weir, images of lust ( ) p. 	^ helen waddell, the wandering scholars ( ) p. 	^ dante, hell ( ) p. ; dante, purgatory ( ) p. and p. 	^ c. j. berry, the idea of luxury ( ) pp. – 	^ mark d. jordan, the invention of sodomy ( ) pp. – 	^ robert liddell, the novels of jane austen (london ) p. 	^ [ ] 	^ jami' at-tirmidhi, "the messenger of allaah (peace & blessings of allaah be upon him) said: "o ali, do not follow a glance with another, for you will be forgiven for the first, but not for the second.". 	^ through open doors: a view of asian cultures in kenya. cynthia salvadori, andrew fedders, 	^ exploring new religions. p. , george d. chryssides, 	^ peace & purity: the story of the brahma kumaris : a spiritual revolution by liz hodgkinson 	^ a history of celibacy, p. . elizabeth abbott, 	^ baba, meher ( ). discourses. volume i. san francisco: sufism reoriented. pp. – . isbn  - . 	^ karras, ruth mazo. common women: prostitution and sexuality in medieval england. new york: oxford university press, . 	^ https://ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa/summa.ss_q _a .html further reading[edit] 	froböse, gabriele, rolf froböse, and michael gross (translator). lust and love: is it more than chemistry? royal society of chemistry, . isbn  - - - . external links[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to lust. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: lust 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site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 postmodernity - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	postmodernity 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from post-modernity) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		societal state after modernity this article is about the condition or state of being. for the philosophy, see postmodernism. postmodernity (post-modernity or the postmodern condition) is the economic or cultural state or condition of society which is said to exist after modernity.[nb ] some schools of thought hold that modernity ended in the late th century – in the s or early s – and that it was replaced by postmodernity, and still others would extend modernity to cover the developments denoted by postmodernity, while some believe that modernity ended sometime after world war ii. the idea of the post-modern condition is sometimes characterized as a culture stripped of its capacity to function in any linear or autonomous state like regressive isolationism, as opposed to the progressive mind state of modernism.[ ] postmodernity can mean a personal response to a postmodern society, the conditions in a society which make it postmodern or the state of being that is associated with a postmodern society as well as a historical epoch. in most contexts it should be distinguished from postmodernism, the adoption of postmodern philosophies or traits in the arts, culture and society. in fact, today, historical perspectives on the developments of postmodern art (postmodernism) and postmodern society (postmodernity) can be best described as two umbrella terms for processes engaged in an ongoing dialectical relationship like post-postmodernism, the result of which is the evolving culture of the contemporary world.[ ] some commentators deny that modernity ended, and consider the post-wwii era to be a continuation of modernity, which they refer to as late modernity. contents 	 uses of the term 	 postmodernism 	 history 	 descriptions 	 . distinctions in philosophy and critical theory 	 . postmodern society 	 . social sciences 	 . postmodernity as a shift of epistemology 	 criticisms 	 quotes 	 see also 	 notes 	 references 	 sources 	 further reading 	 external links uses of the term[edit] postmodernity is the state or condition of being postmodern – after or in reaction to that which is modern, as in postmodern art (see postmodernism). modernity is defined as a period or condition loosely identified with the progressive era, the industrial revolution, or the enlightenment. in philosophy and critical theory postmodernity refers to the state or condition of society which is said to exist after modernity, a historical condition that marks the reasons for the end of modernity. this usage is ascribed to the philosophers jean-françois lyotard and jean baudrillard. one "project" of modernity is said by habermas to have been the fostering of progress by incorporating principles of rationality and hierarchy into public and artistic life. (see also postindustrial, information age.) lyotard understood modernity as a cultural condition characterized by constant change in the pursuit of progress. postmodernity then represents the culmination of this process where constant change has become the status quo and the notion of progress obsolete. following ludwig wittgenstein's critique of the possibility of absolute and total knowledge, lyotard further argued that the various metanarratives of progress such as positivist science, marxism, and structuralism were defunct as methods of achieving progress. the literary critic fredric jameson and the geographer david harvey have identified postmodernity with "late capitalism" or "flexible accumulation", a stage of capitalism following finance capitalism, characterised by highly mobile labor and capital and what harvey called "time and space compression". they suggest that this coincides with the breakdown of the bretton woods system which, they believe, defined the economic order following the second world war. (see also consumerism, critical theory.) those who generally view modernity as obsolete or an outright failure, a flaw in humanity's evolution leading to disasters like auschwitz and hiroshima, see postmodernity as a positive development. other philosophers, particularly those seeing themselves as within the modern project, see the state of postmodernity as a negative consequence of holding postmodernist ideas. for example, jürgen habermas and others contend that postmodernity represents a resurgence of long running counter-enlightenment ideas, that the modern project is not finished and that universality cannot be so lightly dispensed with. postmodernity, the consequence of holding postmodern ideas, is generally a negative term in this context. postmodernism[edit] main article: postmodernism postmodernity is a condition or a state of being associated with changes to institutions and creations (giddens, ) and with social and political results and innovations, globally but especially in the west since the s, whereas postmodernism is an aesthetic, literary, political or social philosophy, the "cultural and intellectual phenomenon", especially since the s' new movements in the arts. both of these terms are used by philosophers, social scientists and social critics to refer to aspects of contemporary culture, economics and society that are the result of features of late th century and early st century life, including the fragmentation of authority and the commoditization of knowledge (see "modernity").[citation needed] the relationship between postmodernity and critical theory, sociology and philosophy is fiercely contested. the terms "postmodernity" and "postmodernism" are often hard to distinguish, the former being often the result of the latter. the period has had diverse political ramifications: its "anti-ideological ideas" appear to have been associated with the feminist movement, racial equality movements, gay rights movements, most forms of late th century anarchism and even the peace movement as well as various hybrids of these in the current anti-globalization movement. though none of these institutions entirely embraces all aspects of the postmodern movement in its most concentrated definition they all reflect, or borrow from, some of its core ideas.[citation needed] history[edit] some authors, such as lyotard and baudrillard, believe that modernity ended in the late th century and thus have defined a period subsequent to modernity, namely postmodernity, while others, such as bauman and giddens, would extend modernity to cover the developments denoted by postmodernity. others still contend that modernity ended with the victorian age in the s.[ ] postmodernity has gone through two relatively distinct phases the first beginning in the late s and s and ending with the cold war (when analog media with limited bandwidth encouraged a few, authoritative media channels) and the second beginning at the end of the cold war (marked by the spread of cable television and "new media" based on digital means of information dissemination and broadcast). the first phase of postmodernity overlaps the end of modernity and is part of the modern period (see lumpers/splitters, periodization). television became the primary news source, manufacturing decreased in importance in the economies of western europe and the united states but trade volumes increased within the developed core. in – a crucial cultural explosion took place within the developed world as the baby boom generation, which had grown up with postmodernity as its fundamental experience of society, demanded entrance into the political, cultural and educational power structure. a series of demonstrations and acts of rebellion – ranging from nonviolent and cultural, through violent acts of terrorism – represented the opposition of the young to the policies and perspectives of the previous age. opposition to the algerian war and the vietnam war, to laws allowing or encouraging racial segregation and to laws which overtly discriminated against women and restricted access to divorce, increased use of marijuana and psychedelics, the emergence of pop cultural styles of music and drama, including rock music and the ubiquity of stereo, television and radio helped make these changes visible in the broader cultural context. this period is associated with the work of marshall mcluhan, a philosopher who focused on the results of living in a media culture and argued that participation in a mass media culture both overshadows actual content disseminated and is liberating because it loosens the authority of local social normative standards. the second phase of postmodernity is "digitality" – the increasing power of personal and digital means of communication including fax machines, modems, cable and high speed internet, which has altered the condition of postmodernity dramatically: digital production of information allows individuals to manipulate virtually every aspect of the media environment. this has brought producers into conflict with consumers over intellectual capital and intellectual property and led to the creation of a new economy whose supporters argue that the dramatic fall in information costs will alter society fundamentally. digitality, or what esther dyson referred to as "being digital", emerged as a separate condition from postmodernity. the ability to manipulate items of popular culture, the world wide web, the use of search engines to index knowledge, and telecommunications were producing a "convergence" marked by the rise of "participatory culture" in the words of henry jenkins. one demarcation point of this era is the collapse of the soviet union and the liberalization of china in . francis fukuyama wrote "the end of history" in in anticipation of the fall of the berlin wall. he predicted that the question of political philosophy had been answered, that large scale wars over fundamental values would no longer arise since "all prior contradictions are resolved and all human needs satisfied." this is a kind of 'endism' also taken up by arthur danto who in acclaimed that andy warhol's brillo boxes asked the right question of art and hence art had ended. descriptions[edit] distinctions in philosophy and critical theory[edit] the debate on postmodernity has two distinct elements that are often confused; ( ) the nature of contemporary society and ( ) the nature of the critique of contemporary society. the first of these elements is concerned with the nature of changes that took place during the late th century. there are three principal analyses. theorists such as callinicos ( ) and calhoun ( ) offer a conservative position on the nature of contemporary society, downplaying the significance and extent of socio-economic changes and emphasizing a continuity with the past. second a range of theorists have tried to analyze the present as a development of the "modern" project into a second, distinct phase that is nevertheless still "modernity": this has been termed the "second" or "risk" society by ulrich beck ( ), "late" or "high" modernity by giddens ( , ), "liquid" modernity by zygmunt bauman ( ), and the "network" society by castells ( , ). third are those who argue that contemporary society has moved into a literally post-modern phase distinct from modernity. the most prominent proponents of this position are lyotard and baudrillard. another set of issues concerns the nature of critique, often replaying debates over (what can be crudely termed) universalism and relativism, where modernism is seen to represent the former and postmodernity the latter. seyla benhabib ( ) and judith butler ( ) pursue this debate in relation to feminist politics, benhabib arguing that postmodern critique comprises three main elements; an anti-foundationalist concept of the subject and identity, the death of history and of notions of teleology and progress, and the death of metaphysics defined as the search for objective truth. benhabib argues forcefully against these critical positions, holding that they undermine the bases upon which feminist politics can be founded, removing the possibility of agency, the sense of self-hood and the appropriation of women's history in the name of an emancipated future. the denial of normative ideals removes the possibility for utopia, central for ethical thinking and democratic action. butler responds to benhabib by arguing that her use of postmodernism is an expression of a wider paranoia over anti-foundationalist philosophy, in particular, poststructuralism. a number of positions are ascribed to postmodernism – discourse is all there is, as if discourse were some kind of monistic stuff out of which all things are composed; the subject is dead, i can never say “i” again; there is no reality, only representation. these characterizations are variously imputed to postmodernism or poststructuralism, which are conflated with each other and sometimes conflated with deconstruction, and understood as an indiscriminate assemblage of french feminism, deconstruction, lacanian psychoanalysis, foucauldian analysis, rorty’s conversationalism, and cultural studies ... in reality, these movements are opposed: lacanian psychoanalysis in france positions itself officially against poststructuralism, that foucauldian rarely relate to derridideans ... lyotard champions the term, but he cannot be made into the example of what all the rest of the purported postmodernists are doing. lyotard’s work is, for instance, seriously at odds with that of derrida butler uses the debate over the nature of the post-modernist critique to demonstrate how philosophy is implicated in power relationships and defends poststructuralist critique by arguing that the critique of the subject itself is the beginning of analysis, not the end, because the first task of enquiry is the questioning of accepted "universal" and "objective" norms. the benhabib-butler debate demonstrates that there is no simple definition of a postmodern theorist as the very definition of postmodernity itself is contested. michel foucault rejected the label of postmodernism explicitly in interviews yet is seen by many, such as benhabib, as advocating a form of critique that is "postmodern" in that it breaks with utopian and transcendental "modern" critiques by calling universal norms of the enlightenment into question. giddens ( ) rejects this characterisation of "modern critique", pointing out that a critique of enlightenment universals was central to philosophers of the modern period, most notably nietzsche. postmodern society[edit] jameson views a number of phenomena as distinguishing postmodernity from modernity. he speaks of "a new kind of superficiality" or "depthlessness" in which models that once explained people and things in terms of an "inside" and an "outside" (such as hermeneutics, the dialectic, freudian repression, the existentialist distinction between authenticity and inauthenticity, and the semiotic distinction of signifier and signified) have been rejected. second is a rejection of the modernist "utopian gesture", evident in van gogh, of the transformation through art of misery into beauty whereas in the postmodernism movement the object world has undergone a "fundamental mutation" so that it has "now become a set of texts or simulacra" (jameson : ). whereas modernist art sought to redeem and sacralize the world, to give life to world (we might say, following graff, to give the world back the enchantment that science and the decline of religion had taken away from it), postmodernist art bestows upon the world a "deathly quality… whose glacéd x-ray elegance mortifies the reified eye of the viewer in a way that would seem to have nothing to do with death or the death obsession or the death anxiety on the level of content" (ibid.). graff sees the origins of this transformative mission of art in an attempted substitution of art for religion in giving meaning to the world that the rise of science and enlightenment rationality had removed – but in the postmodern period this is seen as futile. the third feature of the postmodern age that jameson identifies is the "waning of affect" – not that all emotion has disappeared from the postmodern age but that it lacks a particular kind of emotion such as that found in "rimbaud's magical flowers 'that look back at you'". he notes that "pastiche eclipses parody" as "the increasing unavailability of the personal style" leads to pastiche becoming a universal practice. jameson argues that distance "has been abolished" in postmodernity, that we "are submerged in its henceforth filled and suffused volumes to the point where our now postmodern bodies are bereft of spatial co-ordinates". this "new global space" constitutes postmodernity's "moment of truth". the various other features of the postmodern that he identifies "can all now be seen as themselves partial (yet constitutive) aspects of the same general spatial object". the postmodern era has seen a change in the social function of culture. he identifies culture in the modern age as having had a property of "semi-autonomy", with an "existence… above the practical world of the existent" but, in the postmodern age, culture has been deprived of this autonomy, the cultural has expanded to consume the entire social realm so that all becomes "cultural". "critical distance", the assumption that culture can be positioned outside "the massive being of capital" upon which left-wing theories of cultural politics are dependent, has become outmoded. the "prodigious new expansion of multinational capital ends up penetrating and colonizing those very pre-capitalist enclaves (nature and the unconscious) which offered extraterritorial and archimedean footholds for critical effectivity". (jameson : ) social sciences[edit] postmodern sociology can be said to focus on conditions of life which became increasingly prevalent in the late th century in the most industrialized nations, including the ubiquity of mass media and mass production, the rise of a global economy and a shift from manufacturing to service economies. jameson and harvey described it as consumerism, where manufacturing, distribution and dissemination have become exceptionally inexpensive but social connectedness and community have become rarer. other thinkers assert that postmodernity is the natural reaction to mass broadcasting in a society conditioned to mass production and mass politics. the work of alasdair macintyre informs the versions of postmodernism elaborated by such authors as murphy ( ) and bielskis ( ), for whom macintyre's postmodern revision of aristotelianism poses a challenge to the kind of consumerist ideology that now promotes capital accumulation. the sociological view of postmodernity ascribes it to more rapid transportation, wider communication and the ability to abandon standardization of mass production, leading to a system which values a wider range of capital than previously and allows value to be stored in a greater variety of forms. harvey argues that postmodernity is an escape from "fordism", a term coined by antonio gramsci to describe the mode of industrial regulation and accumulation which prevailed during the keynesian era of economic policy in oecd countries from the early s to the s. fordism for harvey is associated with keynesianism in that the first concerns methods of production and capital-labor relations while the latter concerns economic policy and regulation. post-fordism is therefore one of the basic aspects of postmodernity from harvey's point of view. artifacts of postmodernity include the dominance of television and popular culture, the wide accessibility of information and mass telecommunications. postmodernity also exhibits a greater resistance to making sacrifices in the name of progress discernible in environmentalism and the growing importance of the anti-war movement. postmodernity in the industrialised core is marked by increasing focus on civil rights and equal opportunity as well as movements such as feminism and multiculturalism and the backlash against these movements. the postmodern political sphere is marked by multiple arenas and possibilities of citizenship and political action concerning various forms of struggle against oppression or alienation (in collectives defined by sex or ethnicity) while the modernist political arena remains restricted to class struggle. theorists such as michel maffesoli believe that postmodernity is corroding the circumstances that provide for its subsistence and will eventually result in a decline of individualism and the birth of a new neo-tribal era. according to theories of postmodernity, economic and technological conditions of our age have given rise to a decentralized, media-dominated society in which ideas are only simulacra, inter-referential representations and copies of each other with no real, original, stable or objective source of communication and meaning. globalization, brought on by innovations in communication, manufacturing and transportation, is often[citation needed] cited as one force which has driven the decentralized modern life, creating a culturally pluralistic and interconnected global society lacking any single dominant center of political power, communication or intellectual production. the postmodernist view is that inter-subjective, not objective, knowledge will be the dominant form of discourse under such conditions and that ubiquity of dissemination fundamentally alters the relationship between reader and that which is read, between observer and the observed, between those who consume and those who produce. in spaces of hope harvey argues that postmodern political movements have been indirectly responsible for weakening class issues (in the marxist sense) and the critical consciousness of this field of action which, in his opinion, is now more significant than during the fordist period. for harvey this class conflict is far from solved (something postmodern theorists ignore, according to his argument): globalization has made it more difficult for labour organisations to tackle underpaid work in poor conditions without labour rights and the amount of surplus value earned by corporations is far larger because of the differential between the high prices paid by western consumers and the low wages earned by south-east asian labourers. postmodernity as a shift of epistemology[edit] another conceptualization has argued that postmodernity might be best described within the framework of epistemological shifts. this argument presupposes that epistemological shifts occur as a result of changes in culture, society, and technology and suggests that the political, cultural, and technological changes of the s and s stimulated an epistemological shift from modernity to postmodernity. or said differently, the ways in which people communicate, receive, and justify knowledge (i.e. epistemology) change and these changes are argued to broadly influence cultures, worldviews, and people groups. [see french ( ),[ ] french & ehrman ( ),[ ] or sørensen ( ).[ ] criticisms[edit] main article: criticism of postmodernism criticisms of the postmodern condition can broadly be put into four categories: criticisms of postmodernity from the perspective of those who reject modernism and its offshoots, criticisms from supporters of modernism who believe that postmodernity lacks crucial characteristics of the modern project, critics from within postmodernity who seek reform or change based on their understanding of postmodernism, and those who believe that postmodernity is a passing, and not a growing, phase in social organization. quotes[edit] 	"we could say that every age has its own postmodern, just as every age has its own form of mannerism (in fact, i wonder if postmodern is not simply the modern name for *manierismus*...). i believe that every age reaches moments of crisis like those described by nietzsche in the second of the untimely considerations, on the harmfulness of the study of history (historiography). the sense that the past is restricting, smothering, blackmailing us." — umberto eco as quoted in "a correspondence on postmodernism" by stefano rosso and carolyn springer, boundary , vol. , no. . (autumn, ), pp.  – ., esp. p.  [ ][ ] see also[edit] 	postmodern philosophy 	postmodernism 	post-materialism 	hypermodernity 	postmodernism: the absent father 	futurism 	hauntology 	intellectualism 	continuity thesis 	late modernity 	second modernity 	integral theory 	post-postmodernism notes[edit] 	^ in this context, "modern" is not used in the sense of "contemporary", but merely as a name for a specific period in history. references[edit] 	^ jameson, fredric, the cultural logic of late capitalism, postmodernism (london ), p. 	^ nilges, mathias (spring ). "the presence of postmodernism in contemporary american literature". american literary history. ( ): – . doi: . /alh/aju . 	^ wright, william d. ( ). black intellectuals, black cognition, and a black aesthetic. new york: praeger. isbn  - - - . 	^ french, robert p. ( - - ). "deconstructing the end of leadership". sage open. ( ): . doi: . / . issn  - . 	^ french ii, robert p.; ehrman, james e. ( - - ). "postmodernity as an epistemological shift: kony as a case study for the global influence of postmodernity". journal of world christianity. ( ): – . doi: . /jworlchri. . . . jstor  . /jworlchri. . . . 	^ sorensen, jorgen skov ( - - ). missiological mutilations - prospective paralogies: language and power in contemporary mission theory ( ed.). peter lang pub inc. isbn  . 	^ "a correspondence with umberto eco" (jstor) 	^ "a correspondence with umberto eco" (cam.ac.uk) sources[edit] 	anderson, perry ( ). the origins of postmodernity. london: verso. 	deely, john ( ). four ages of understanding: the first postmodern survey of philosophy from ancient times to the turn of the twenty-first century. toronto: university of toronto press. 	giddens, anthony ( ). the consequences of modernity. cambridge: polity press. 	giddens, anthony ( ). modernity and self identity. cambridge: polity press. 	zygmunt bauman ( ). liquid modernity. cambridge: polity press. 	ulrich beck ( ). risk society: towards a new modernity. 	seyla benhabib ( ). "feminism and postmodernism" in (ed. nicholson) feminism contentions: a philosophical exchange. new york: routledge. 	judith butler ( ). "contingent foundations" in (ed. nicholson) feminist contentions: a philosophical exchange. new york: routledge. 	manuel castells ( ). the network society. 	guénon, rené ( ). the crisis of the modern world. hillsdale: sophia perennis. 	guénon, rené ( ). the reign of quantity & the signs of the times. hillsdale: sophia perennis. 	harvey, david ( ). the condition of postmodernity. an enquiry into the origins of cultural change. oxford: blackwell. 	ihab hassan ( ), from postmodernism to postmodernity: the local/global context, text online. 	jean-françois lyotard ( – ) was a french philosopher and literary theorist well known for his embracing of postmodernism after the late s. he published "la condition postmoderne: rapport sur le savoir" (the postmodern condition: a report on knowledge) ( ) 	charles arthur willard. liberalism and the problem of knowledge: a new rhetoric for modern democracy. university of chicago press. ( ). further reading[edit] 	albrow, martin ( ). the global age: state and society beyond modernity. stanford, ca: stanford university press. isbn  - - - . 	ballesteros, jesús, . postmodernity: decadence or resistance, pamplona, emise. 	baudrillard, j. . simulations. new york: semiotext(e). 	berman, marshall. . all that is solid melts into air. the experience of modernity. london: verso. 	bielskis, andrius. . towards a postmodern understanding of the political. houndmills, new york: palgrave macmillan. 	chan, evans. . "against postmodernism, etcetera – a conversation with susan sontag" in postmodern culture, vol. no. , baltimore: johns hopkins university press. 	docherty, thomas. . (ed.), postmodernism: a reader, new york: harvester wheatsheat. 	docker, john. . postmodernism and popular culture: a cultural history. cambridge: cambridge university press. 	eagleton, terry. "capitalism, modernism and postmodernism". against the grain: essays – . london: verso, . pp.  – . 	foster, h. . the anti-aesthetic. usa: bay press. 	fuery, patrick and mansfield, nick. . cultural studies and critical theory. melbourne: oxford university press. 	graff, gerald. . "the myth of the postmodernist breakthrough" in triquarterly, no. , winter , pp.  – . 	grebowicz, margret. . gender after lyotard. ny: suny press. 	grenz, stanley j. . a primer on postmodernism. grand rapids: eerdmans 	habermas, jürgen "modernity – an incomplete project" (in docherty ibid) 	habermas, jürgen. . trans. by seyla ben-habib. "modernity versus postmodernity". in v taylor & c winquist; originally published in new german critique, no. , winter , pp.  – . 	jameson, f. . "postmodernism, or the cultural logic of late capitalism" (in docherty, ibid). 	jencks, charles. . what is postmodernism? new york: st. martin's press, and london: academy editions. 	joyce, james. . ulysses. london: bodley head. 	lipovetsky, gilles. . hypermodern times. cornwall: polity press. 	lyotard, j. . the postmodern condition: a report on knowledge. manchester: manchester university press 	mansfield, n. . subjectivity: theories of the self from freud to harroway. sydney: allen & unwin. 	mchale, brian. . "constructing (post) modernism: the case of ulysses" in style, vol. no. , pp.  – , dekalb, illinois: northern illinois university english department. 	murphy, mark c. (ed.) . alasdair macintyre. cambridge: cambridge university press. 	palmeri, frank. . "other than postmodern? – foucault, pynchon, hybridity, ethics" in postmodern culture, vol. no. , baltimore: johns hopkins university press. 	pinkney, tony. . "modernism and cultural theory", editor's introduction to williams, raymond. the politics of modernism: against the new conformists. london: verso. 	taylor, v & winquist, (ed). . postmodernism: critical concepts (vol. – ). london: routledge. 	wheale, n. . the postmodern arts: an introductory reader. new york: routledge. external links[edit] 		look up postmodernity in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	martin irvine on postmodernism and postmodernity in contrast to modernism and modernity 	postmodern warfare, by philip hammond 	mikhail epstein on "postmodernism's position in postmodernity" 	extensive list of names related to postmodernism and postmodernity 	on the distinction of postmodernity from postmodernism, by egypt-american critic ihab hassan 	david harvey, the condition of postmodernity 	decadeology wiki, postmodern article retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=postmodernity&oldid= " 		categories: 	postmodern theory 	historiography 	western culture 	postmodernism 	historical eras 	 th century 	 st century 	cynicism 	relativism 	modernity hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from september 	articles with unsourced statements from june 	articles with unsourced statements from april 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Български 	català 	dansk 	eesti 	español 	esperanto 	euskara 	فارسی 	français 	Қазақша 	日本語 	polski 	português 	română 	Русский 	türkçe 	Українська 	tiếng việt 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 sorrow (emotion) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	sorrow (emotion) 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		emotion of prolonged, resigned sadness sorrow, drawing by vincent van gogh, 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e sorrow is an emotion, feeling, or sentiment. sorrow "is more 'intense' than sadness... it implies a long-term state".[ ] at the same time "sorrow — but not unhappiness — suggests a degree of resignation... which lends sorrow its peculiar air of dignity".[ ] moreover, "in terms of attitude, sorrow can be said to be half way between sadness (accepting) and distress (not accepting)".[ ] contents 	 cult 	 postponement 	 shand and mcdougall 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading cult[edit] romanticism saw a cult of sorrow develop, reaching back to the sorrows of young werther of , and extending through the nineteenth century with contributions like tennyson's "in memoriam" — "o sorrow, wilt thou live with me/no casual mistress, but a wife"[ ] — up to w. b. yeats in , still "of his high comrade sorrow dreaming".[ ] while it may be that "the romantic hero's cult of sorrow is largely a matter of pretence",[ ] as jane austen pointed out satirically through marianne dashwood, "brooding over her sorrows... this excess of suffering"[ ] may nevertheless have serious consequences. partly in reaction, the th century has by contrast been pervaded by the belief that "acting sorrowful can actually make me sorrowful, as william james long ago observed".[ ] certainly "in the modern anglo-emotional culture, characterized by the 'dampening of the emotions' in general... sorrow has largely given way to the milder, less painful, and more transient sadness".[ ] a latter-day werther is likely to be greeted by the call to '"come off it, gordon. we all know there is no sorrow like unto your sorrow"';[ ] while any conventional 'valeoftearishness and deathwhereisthystingishness' would be met by the participants 'looking behind the sombre backs of one another's cards and discovering their brightly-colored faces'.[ ] perhaps only the occasional subculture like the jungian would still seek to 'call up from the busy adult man the sorrow of animal life, the grief of all nature, "the tears of things"'.[ ] late modernity has (if anything) only intensified the shift: 'the postmodern is closer to the human comedy than to the abyssal discontent...the abyss of sorrow'.[ ] postponement[edit] 'not feeling sorrow invites fear into our lives. the longer we put off feeling sorrow, the greater our fear of it becomes. postponing the expression of the feeling causes its energy to grow'.[ ] at the same time, it would seem that 'grief in general is a "taming" of the primitive violent discharge affect, characterized by fear and self-destruction, to be seen in mourning'.[ ] julia kristeva suggests that 'taming sorrow, not fleeing sadness at once but allowing it to settle for a while...is what one of the temporary and yet indispensable phases of analysis might be'.[ ] shand and mcdougall[edit] sadness is one of four interconnected sentiments in the system of alexander faulkner shand, the others being fear, anger, and joy. in this system, when an impulsive tendency towards some important object is frustrated, the resultant sentiment is sorrow.[ ] in shand's view, the emotion of sorrow, which he classifies as a primary emotion, has two impulses: to cling to the object of sorrow, and to repair the injuries done to that object that caused the emotion in the first place. thus the primary emotion of sorrow is the basis for the emotion of pity, which shand describes as a fusion of sorrow and joy: sorrow at the injury done to the object of pity, and joy as an "element of sweetness" tinging that sorrow.[ ] william mcdougall disagreed with shand's view, observing that shand himself recognized that sorrow was itself derived from simpler elements. to support this argument, he observes that grief, at a loss, is a form of sorrow where there is no impulse to repair injury, and that therefore there are identifiable subcomponents of sorrow. he also observes that although there is an element of emotional pain in sorrow, there is no such element in pity, thus pity is not a compound made from sorrow as a simpler component.[ ] see also[edit] 	grief 	regret (emotion) 	suffering references[edit] 	^ anna wierzbicka, emotions across languages and cultures ( ) p. 	^ a b wierzbicka, p. 	^ in memoriam (london ) p. 	^ w. b. yeats, the poems (london ) p. 	^ lilian r. furst, romanticism in perspective ( ) p. - 	^ jane austen, sense and sensibility (london ) p. and p. 	^ jenefer robinson, deeper than reason ( ) p. 	^ wierzbicka, p. 	^ c. p. snow, last things (penguin ) p. 	^ günter grass, the meeting at telgte (london ) p. 	^ robert bly, iron john (dorset ) p. 	^ julia kristeva, black sun (new york ) p. - and p. 	^ erika m. hunter, little book of big emotions (london ) p. 	^ otto fenichel, the psychoanalytic theory of neurosis (london p. 	^ kristeva, p. - 	^ beatrice edgell ( ). "sentiments, character, free will". ethical problems. london: methuen & co. ltd. pp.  . 	^ a b william mcdougall ( ). introduction to social psychology. atlantic publishers & distributors. pp.  – . isbn  . further reading[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to sorrow. 	william lyons ( ). emotion (reprint ed.). cambridge university press. pp.  – . isbn  . 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=sorrow_(emotion)&oldid= " 		categories: 	emotions hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	commons category link is on wikidata 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	français 	Հայերեն 	Íslenska 	jawa 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	tagalog 	தமிழ் 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 power (social and political) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	power (social and political) 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from power (philosophy)) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		ability to influence the behavior of others "public power" redirects here. for public electric utilities, see public utility. "political power" redirects here. for the steven universe episode, see political power (steven universe). 	part of a series on 	sociology 	 	 	history 	outline 	index 	 theories 	conflict theory 	structural functionalism 	symbolic interactionism 	critical theory 	positivism 	social change 	social constructionism 	social movement theory 	 methods 	quantitative 	qualitative 	comparative 	computational 	ethnographic 	conversation analysis 	historical 	interview 	mathematical 	network analysis 	survey 	 subfields 	criminology 	culture 	demography 	development 	deviance 	economic 	education 	environmental 	family 	feminist 	gender 	health 	immigration 	industrial 	knowledge 	law 	literature 	medical 	military 	organizational 	political 	race and ethnicity 	religion 	rural 	science 	social anthropology 	social psychology in sociology 	sociolinguistics 	stratification 	technology 	terrorism 	urban 	 people 	Émile durkheim 	herbert spencer 	max weber 	friedrich engels 	auguste comte 	george herbert mead 	georg simmel 	w.e.b. du bois 	roland barthes 	ernest burgess 	michel foucault 	erving goffman 	antonio gramsci 	jürgen habermas 	thorstein veblen 	ferdinand tönnies 	william graham sumner 	 lists 	bibliography 	terminology 	journals 	organizations 	people 	timeline 	by country 	 	 society portal 		v 	t 	e in social science and politics, power is the capacity of an individual to influence the actions, beliefs, or conduct (behaviour) of others. the term authority is often used for power that is perceived as legitimate by the social structure, not to be confused with authoritarianism. power can be seen as evil or unjust; however, power can also be seen as good and as something inherited or given for exercising humanistic objectives that will help, move, and empower others as well. in general, it is derived by the factors of interdependence between two entities and the environment. in business, the ethical instrumentality of power is achievement, and as such it is a zero-sum game. in simple terms, it can be expressed as being upward or downward. with downward power, a company's superior influences subordinates for attaining organizational goals. when a company exerts upward power, it is the subordinates who influence the decisions of their leader or leaders.[ ] the use of power need not involve force or the threat of force (coercion). an example of using power without oppression is the concept "soft power," as compared to hard power. much of the recent sociological debate about power revolves around the issue of its means to enable – in other words, power as a means to make social actions possible as much as it may constrain or prevent them. contents 	 theories 	 . five bases 	 . . legitimate power 	 . . referent power 	 . . expert power 	 . . reward power 	 . . coercive power 	 . principles in interpersonal relationships 	 . rational choice framework 	 . cultural hegemony 	 . tarnow 	 . foucault 	 . clegg 	 . galbraith 	 . gene sharp 	 . björn kraus 	 . unmarked categories 	 . counterpower 	 . other theories 	 psychological research 	 . empathy gap 	 . . past research 	 . . bargaining games 	 . . . conclusion 	 . abusive power and control 	 tactics 	 . balance of power 	 effects 	 . approach/inhibition theory 	 . positive 	 . negative 	 reactions 	 . tactics 	 . resistance to coercive influence 	 . kelman's compliance-identification-internalization theory of conversion 	 power literacy 	 see also 	 references 	 external links theories[edit] five bases[edit] main article: french and raven's five bases of power in a now-classic study ( ),[ ] social psychologists john r. p. french and bertram raven developed a schema of sources of power by which to analyse how power plays work (or fail to work) in a specific relationship. according to french and raven, power must be distinguished from influence in the following way: power is that state of affairs which holds in a given relationship, a-b, such that a given influence attempt by a over b makes a's desired change in b more likely. conceived this way, power is fundamentally relative – it depends on the specific understandings a and b each apply to their relationship, and requires b's recognition of a quality in a which would motivate b to change in the way a intends. a must draw on the 'base' or combination of bases of power appropriate to the relationship, to effect the desired outcome. drawing on the wrong power base can have unintended effects, including a reduction in a's own power. french and raven argue that there are five significant categories of such qualities, while not excluding other minor categories. further bases have since been adduced – in particular by gareth morgan in his book, images of organization.[ ] legitimate power[edit] main article: legitimate power also called "positional power," legitimate power is the power of an individual because of the relative position and duties of the holder of the position within an organization. legitimate power is formal authority delegated to the holder of the position. it is usually accompanied by various attributes of power such as a uniform, a title, or an imposing physical office. referent power[edit] main article: referent power referent power is the power or ability of individuals to attract others and build loyalty. it is based on the charisma and interpersonal skills of the power holder. a person may be admired because of specific personal trait, and this admiration creates the opportunity for interpersonal influence. here the person under power desires to identify with these personal qualities, and gains satisfaction from being an accepted follower. nationalism and patriotism count towards an intangible sort of referent power. for example, soldiers fight in wars to defend the honor of the country. this is the second least obvious power, but the most effective. advertisers have long used the referent power of sports figures for products endorsements, for example. the charismatic appeal of the sports star supposedly leads to an acceptance of the endorsement, although the individual may have little real credibility outside the sports arena.[ ] abuse is possible when someone that is likable, yet lacks integrity and honesty, rises to power, placing them in a situation to gain personal advantage at the cost of the group's position. referent power is unstable alone, and is not enough for a leader who wants longevity and respect. when combined with other sources of power, however, it can help a person achieve great success. expert power[edit] main article: expert power expert power is an individual's power deriving from the skills or expertise of the person and the organization's needs for those skills and expertise. unlike the others, this type of power is usually highly specific and limited to the particular area in which the expert is trained and qualified. when they have knowledge and skills that enable them to understand a situation, suggest solutions, use solid judgment, and generally outperform others, then people tend to listen to them. when individuals demonstrate expertise, people tend to trust them and respect what they say. as subject matter experts, their ideas will have more value, and others will look to them for leadership in that area. reward power[edit] main article: reward power reward power depends on the ability of the power wielder to confer valued material rewards, it refers to the degree to which the individual can give others a reward of some kind such as benefits, time off, desired gifts, promotions or increases in pay or responsibility. this power is obvious but also ineffective if abused. people who abuse reward power can become pushy or be reprimanded for being too forthcoming or 'moving things too quickly'. if others expect to be rewarded for doing what someone wants, there's a high probability that they'll do it. the problem with this basis of power is that the rewarder may not have as much control over rewards as may be required. supervisors rarely have complete control over salary increases, and managers often can't control promotions all by themselves. and even a ceo needs permission from the board of directors for some actions. so when somebody uses up available rewards, or the rewards don't have enough perceived value to others, their power weakens. (one of the frustrations of using rewards is that they often need to be bigger each time if they're to have the same motivational impact. even then, if rewards are given frequently, people can become satiated by the reward, such that it loses its effectiveness). coercive power[edit] main article: coercive power see also: coercive control coercive power is the application of negative influences. it includes the ability to demote or to withhold other rewards. the desire for valued rewards or the fear of having them withheld can ensure the obedience of those under power. coercive power tends to be the most obvious but least effective form of power as it builds resentment and resistance from the people who experience it. threats and punishment are common tools of coercion. implying or threatening that someone will be fired, demoted, denied privileges, or given undesirable assignments – these are characteristics of using coercive power. extensive use of coercive power is rarely appropriate in an organizational setting, and relying on these forms of power alone will result in a very cold, impoverished style of leadership. this is a type of power commonly seen in fashion industry by coupling with legitimate power, it is referred in the industry specific literature's as "glamorization of structural domination and exploitation."[ ] principles in interpersonal relationships[edit] according to laura k. guerrero and peter a. andersen in close encounters: communication in relationships:[ ] 	power as a perception: power is a perception in a sense that some people can have objective power, but still have trouble influencing others. people who use power cues and act powerfully and proactively tend to be perceived as powerful by others. some people become influential even though they don't overtly use powerful behavior. 	power as a relational concept: power exists in relationships. the issue here is often how much relative power a person has in comparison to one's partner. partners in close and satisfying relationships often influence each other at different times in various arenas. 	power as resource based: power usually represents a struggle over resources. the more scarce and valued resources are, the more intense and protracted are power struggles. the scarcity hypothesis indicates that people have the most power when the resources they possess are hard to come by or are in high demand. however, scarce resource leads to power only if it's valued within a relationship. 	the principle of least interest and dependence power: the person with less to lose has greater power in the relationship. dependence power indicates that those who are dependent on their relationship or partner are less powerful, especially if they know their partner is uncommitted and might leave them. according to interdependence theory, quality of alternatives refers to the types of relationships and opportunities people could have if they were not in their current relationship. the principle of least interest suggests that if a difference exists in the intensity of positive feelings between partners, the partner who feels the most positive is at a power disadvantage. there's an inverse relationship between interest in relationship and the degree of relational power. 	power as enabling or disabling: power can be enabling or disabling. research[citation needed] has shown that people are more likely to have an enduring influence on others when they engage in dominant behavior that reflects social skill rather than intimidation. personal power is protective against pressure and excessive influence by others and/or situational stress. people who communicate through self-confidence and expressive, composed behavior tend to be successful in achieving their goals and maintaining good relationships. power can be disabling when it leads to destructive patterns of communication. this can lead to the chilling effect where the less powerful person often hesitates to communicate dissatisfaction, and the demand withdrawal pattern which is when one person makes demands and the other becomes defensive and withdraws (mawasha, ). both effects have negative consequences for relational satisfaction. 	power as a prerogative: the prerogative principle states that the partner with more power can make and break the rules. powerful people can violate norms, break relational rules, and manage interactions without as much penalty as powerless people. these actions may reinforce the powerful person's dependence power. in addition, the more powerful person has the prerogative to manage both verbal and nonverbal interactions. they can initiate conversations, change topics, interrupt others, initiate touch, and end discussions more easily than less powerful people. (see expressions of dominance.) rational choice framework[edit] game theory, with its foundations in the walrasian theory of rational choice, is increasingly used in various disciplines to help analyze power relationships. one rational choice definition of power is given by keith dowding in his book power. in rational choice theory, human individuals or groups can be modelled as 'actors' who choose from a 'choice set' of possible actions in order to try to achieve desired outcomes. an actor's 'incentive structure' comprises (its beliefs about) the costs associated with different actions in the choice set, and the likelihoods that different actions will lead to desired outcomes. in this setting we can differentiate between: 	outcome power – the ability of an actor to bring about or help bring about outcomes; 	social power – the ability of an actor to change the incentive structures of other actors in order to bring about outcomes. this framework can be used to model a wide range of social interactions where actors have the ability to exert power over others. for example, a 'powerful' actor can take options away from another's choice set; can change the relative costs of actions; can change the likelihood that a given action will lead to a given outcome; or might simply change the other's beliefs about its incentive structure. as with other models of power, this framework is neutral as to the use of 'coercion'. for example: a threat of violence can change the likely costs and benefits of different actions; so can a financial penalty in a 'voluntarily agreed' contract, or indeed a friendly offer. cultural hegemony[edit] in the marxist tradition, the italian writer antonio gramsci elaborated the role of ideology in creating a cultural hegemony, which becomes a means of bolstering the power of capitalism and of the nation-state. drawing on niccolò machiavelli in the prince, and trying to understand why there had been no communist revolution in western europe, while it was claimed there had been one in russia, gramsci conceptualised this hegemony as a centaur, consisting of two halves. the back end, the beast, represented the more classic, material image of power, power through coercion, through brute force, be it physical or economic. but the capitalist hegemony, he argued, depended even more strongly on the front end, the human face, which projected power through 'consent'. in russia, this power was lacking, allowing for a revolution. however, in western europe, specifically in italy, capitalism had succeeded in exercising consensual power, convincing the working classes that their interests were the same as those of capitalists. in this way, a revolution had been avoided. while gramsci stresses the significance of ideology in power structures, marxist-feminist writers such as michele barrett stress the role of ideologies in extolling the virtues of family life. the classic argument to illustrate this point of view is the use of women as a 'reserve army of labour'. in wartime, it is accepted that women perform masculine tasks, while after the war the roles are easily reversed. therefore, according to barrett, the destruction of capitalist economic relations is necessary but not sufficient for the liberation of women.[ ] tarnow[edit] eugen tarnow considers what power hijackers have over air plane passengers and draws similarities with power in the military.[ ] he shows that power over an individual can be amplified by the presence of a group. if the group conforms to the leader's commands, the leader's power over an individual is greatly enhanced while if the group does not conform the leader's power over an individual is nil. foucault[edit] see also: biopower for michel foucault, the real power will always rely on the ignorance of its agents. no single human, group nor single actor runs the dispositif (machine or apparatus) but power is dispersed through the apparatus as efficiently and silently as possible, ensuring its agents to do whatever is necessary. it is because of this action that power is unlikely to be detected that it remains elusive to 'rational' investigation. foucault quotes a text reputedly written by political economist jean baptiste antoine auget de montyon, entitled recherches et considérations sur la population de la france ( ), but turns out to be written by his secretary jean-baptise moheau ( – ) and by emphasizing biologist jean-baptiste lamarck who constantly refers to milieus as a plural adjective and sees into the milieu as an expression as nothing more than water air and light confirming the genus within the milieu, in this case the human species, relates to a function of the population and its social and political interaction in which both form an artificial and natural milieu. this milieu (both artificial and natural) appears as a target of intervention for power according to foucault which is radically different from the previous notions on sovereignty, territory and disciplinary space inter woven into from a social and political relations which function as a species (biological species).[ ] foucault originated and developed the concept of "docile bodies" in his book discipline and punish. he writes, "a body is docile that may be subjected, used, transformed and improved.[ ] clegg[edit] stewart clegg proposes another three-dimensional model with his "circuits of power"[ ] theory. this model likens the production and organizing of power to an electric circuit board consisting of three distinct interacting circuits: episodic, dispositional, and facilitative. these circuits operate at three levels, two are macro and one is micro. the episodic circuit is the micro level and is constituted of irregular exercise of power as agents address feelings, communication, conflict, and resistance in day-to-day interrelations. the outcomes of the episodic circuit are both positive and negative. the dispositional circuit is constituted of macro level rules of practice and socially constructed meanings that inform member relations and legitimate authority. the facilitative circuit is constituted of macro level technology, environmental contingencies, job design, and networks, which empower or disempower and thus punish or reward, agency in the episodic circuit. all three independent circuits interact at "obligatory passage points" which are channels for empowerment or disempowerment. galbraith[edit] john kenneth galbraith summarizes the types of power as being "condign" (based on force), "compensatory" (through the use of various resources) or "conditioned" (the result of persuasion), and their sources as "personality" (individuals), "property" (their material resources) and "organizational" (whoever sits at the top of an organisational power structure).[ ] gene sharp[edit] gene sharp, an american professor of political science, believes that power depends ultimately on its bases. thus a political regime maintains power because people accept and obey its dictates, laws and policies. sharp cites the insight of Étienne de la boétie. sharp's key theme is that power is not monolithic; that is, it does not derive from some intrinsic quality of those who are in power. for sharp, political power, the power of any state – regardless of its particular structural organization – ultimately derives from the subjects of the state. his fundamental belief is that any power structure relies upon the subjects' obedience to the orders of the ruler(s). if subjects do not obey, leaders have no power.[ ] his work is thought to have been influential in the overthrow of slobodan milošević, in the arab spring, and other nonviolent revolutions.[ ] björn kraus[edit] björn kraus deals with the epistemological perspective upon power regarding the question about possibilities of interpersonal influence by developing a special form of constructivism (named relational constructivism).[ ] instead of focussing on the valuation and distribution of power, he asks first and foremost what the term can describe at all.[ ] coming from max weber's definition of power,[ ] he realizes that the term of power has to be split into "instructive power" and "destructive power".[ ]: [ ]: more precisely, instructive power means the chance to determine the actions and thoughts of another person, whereas destructive power means the chance to diminish the opportunities of another person.[ ] how significant this distinction really is, becomes evident by looking at the possibilities of rejecting power attempts: rejecting instructive power is possible – rejecting destructive power is not. by using this distinction, proportions of power can be analyzed in a more sophisticated way, helping to sufficiently reflect on matters of responsibility.[ ]: f. this perspective permits to get over an "either-or-position" (either there is power, or there isn't), which is common especially in epistemological discourses about power theories,[ ][ ][ ] and to introduce the possibility of an "as well as-position".[ ]: unmarked categories[edit] the idea of unmarked categories originated in feminism. the theory analyzes the culture of the powerful. the powerful comprise those people in society with easy access to resources, those who can exercise power without considering their actions. for the powerful, their culture seems obvious; for the powerless, on the other hand, it remains out of reach, élite and expensive. the unmarked category can form the identifying mark of the powerful. the unmarked category becomes the standard against which to measure everything else. for most western readers, it is posited that if a protagonist's race is not indicated, it will be assumed by the reader that the protagonist is caucasian; if a sexual identity is not indicated, it will be assumed by the reader that the protagonist is heterosexual; if the gender of a body is not indicated, will be assumed by the reader that it is male; if a disability is not indicated, it will be assumed by the reader that the protagonist is able bodied, just as a set of examples. one can often overlook unmarked categories. whiteness forms an unmarked category not commonly visible to the powerful, as they often fall within this category. the unmarked category becomes the norm, with the other categories relegated to deviant status. social groups can apply this view of power to race, gender, and disability without modification: the able body is the neutral body. counterpower[edit] main article: dual power the term 'counter-power' (sometimes written 'counterpower') is used in a range of situations to describe the countervailing force that can be utilised by the oppressed to counterbalance or erode the power of elites. a general definition has been provided by the anthropologist david graeber as 'a collection of social institutions set in opposition to the state and capital: from self-governing communities to radical labor unions to popular militias'.[ ] graeber also notes that counter-power can also be referred to as 'anti-power' and 'when institutions [of counter-power] maintain themselves in the face of the state, this is usually referred to as a 'dual power' situation'.[ ] tim gee, in his book counterpower: making change happen,[ ] put forward a theory that those disempowered by governments' and elite groups' power can use counterpower to counter this.[ ] in gee's model, counterpower is split into three categories: idea counterpower, economic counterpower, and physical counterpower.[ ] although the term has come to prominence through its use by participants in the global justice/anti-globalization movement of the s onwards,[ ] the word has been used for at least years; for instance martin buber's book 'paths in utopia' includes the line 'power abdicates only under the stress of counter-power'.[ ][ ]: other theories[edit] 	thomas hobbes ( – ) defined power as a man's "present means, to obtain some future apparent good" (leviathan, ch. ). 	the thought of friedrich nietzsche underlies much th century analysis of power. nietzsche disseminated ideas on the "will to power," which he saw as the domination of other humans as much as the exercise of control over one's environment. 	some schools of psychology, notably that associated with alfred adler, place power dynamics at the core of their theory (where orthodox freudians might place sexuality). 	a generalization of power is given as "what counts as a means of determining a subject's position in a given competition".[ ] psychological research[edit] recent experimental psychology suggests that the more power one has, the less one takes on the perspective of others, implying that the powerful have less empathy. adam galinsky, along with several coauthors, found that when those who are reminded of their powerlessness are instructed to draw es on their forehead, they are times more likely to draw them such that they are legible to others than those who are reminded of their power.[ ][ ] powerful people are also more likely to take action. in one example, powerful people turned off an irritatingly close fan twice as much as less powerful people. researchers have documented the bystander effect: they found that powerful people are three times as likely to first offer help to a "stranger in distress".[ ] a study involving over college students suggested that those primed to feel powerful through stating 'power words' were less susceptible to external pressure, more willing to give honest feedback, and more creative.[ ] empathy gap[edit] main article: empathy gap "power is defined as a possibility to influence others."[ ]: the use of power has evolved from centuries.[citation needed] gaining prestige, honor and reputation is one of the central motives for gaining power in human nature.[citation needed] power also relates with empathy gaps because it limits the interpersonal relationship and compares the power differences. having power or not having power can cause a number of psychological consequences. it leads to strategic versus social responsibilities.[citation needed] research experiments were done[by whom?] as early as to explore power conflict.[ ] past research[edit] earlier[when?], research proposed that increased power relates to increased rewards and leads one to approach things more frequently.[citation needed] in contrast, decreased power relates to more constraint, threat and punishment which leads to inhibitions. it was concluded[by whom?] that being powerful leads one to successful outcomes, to develop negotiation strategies and to make more self-serving offers.[citation needed] later[when?], research proposed that differences in power lead to strategic considerations. being strategic can also mean to defend when one is opposed or to hurt the decision-maker. it was concluded[by whom?] that facing one with more power leads to strategic consideration whereas facing one with less power leads to a social responsibility.[ ] bargaining games[edit] bargaining games were explored[by whom?] in and . these studies compared behavior done in different power given[clarification needed] situations.[ ] in an ultimatum game, the person in given power offers an ultimatum and the recipient would have to accept that offer or else both the proposer and the recipient will receive no reward.[ ] in a dictator game, the person in given power offers a proposal and the recipient would have to accept that offer. the recipient has no choice of rejecting the offer.[ ] conclusion[edit] the dictator game gives no power to the recipient whereas the ultimatum game gives some power to the recipient. the behavior observed was that the person offering the proposal would act less strategically than would the one offering in the ultimatum game. self-serving also occurred and a lot of pro-social behavior was observed.[ ] when the counterpart recipient is completely powerless, lack of strategy, social responsibility and moral consideration is often observed from the behavior of the proposal given (the one with the power).[ ] abusive power and control[edit] main article: abusive power and control see also: coercive power abusive power and control (or controlling behaviour or coercive control) involve the ways in which abusers gain and maintain power and control over victims for abusive purposes such as psychological, physical, sexual, or financial abuse. such abuse can have various causes - such as personal gain, personal gratification, psychological projection, devaluation, envy or just for the sake of it - as the abuser may simply enjoy exercising power and control. controlling abusers may use multiple tactics to exert power and control over their victims. the tactics themselves are psychologically and sometimes physically abusive. control may be helped through economic abuse, thus limiting the victim's actions as they may then lack the necessary resources to resist the abuse.[ ] abusers aim to control and intimidate victims or to influence them to feel that they do not have an equal voice in the relationship.[ ] manipulators and abusers may control their victims with a range of tactics, including:[ ] 	positive reinforcement (such as praise, superficial charm, flattery, ingratiation, love bombing, smiling, gifts, attention) 	negative reinforcement 	intermittent or partial reinforcement 	psychological punishment (such as nagging, silent treatment, swearing, threats, intimidation, emotional blackmail, guilt trips, inattention) 	traumatic tactics (such as verbal abuse or explosive anger) the vulnerabilities of the victim are exploited, with those who are particularly vulnerable being most often selected as targets.[ ][ ][ ] traumatic bonding can occur between the abuser and victim as the result of ongoing cycles of abuse in which the intermittent reinforcement of reward and punishment fosters powerful emotional bonds that are resistant to change, as well as a climate of fear.[ ] an attempt may be made to normalise, legitimise, rationalise, deny, or minimise the abusive behaviour, or to blame the victim for it.[ ][ ][ ] isolation, gaslighting, mind games, lying, disinformation, propaganda, destabilisation, brainwashing and divide and rule are other strategies that are often used. the victim may be plied with alcohol or drugs or deprived of sleep to help disorientate them.[ ][ ] certain personality-types[which?] feel particularly compelled to control other people.[citation needed] tactics[edit] in everyday situations people use a variety of power tactics to push or prompt other people into particular actions. many examples exist of common power tactics employed every day. some of these tactics include bullying, collaboration, complaining, criticizing, demanding, disengaging, evading, humor, inspiring, manipulating, negotiating, socializing, and supplicating. one can classify such power tactics along three different dimensions:[ ][ ] 	soft and hard: soft tactics take advantage of the relationship between the influencer and the target. they are more indirect and interpersonal (e.g., collaboration, socializing). conversely, hard tactics are harsh, forceful, direct, and rely on concrete outcomes. however, they are not more powerful than soft tactics. in many circumstances, fear of social exclusion can be a much stronger motivator than some kind of physical punishment. 	rational and nonrational: rational tactics of influence make use of reasoning, logic, and sound judgment, whereas nonrational tactics may rely on emotionality or misinformation. examples of each include bargaining and persuasion, and evasion and put-downs[disambiguation needed], respectively. 	unilateral and bilateral: bilateral tactics, such as collaboration and negotiation, involve reciprocity on the part of both the person influencing and their target. unilateral tactics, on the other hand, develop without any participation on the part of the target. these tactics include disengagement and the deployment of faits accomplis. people tend to vary in their use of power tactics, with different types of people opting for different tactics. for instance, interpersonally oriented people tend to use soft and rational tactics.[ ] moreover, extroverts use a greater variety of power tactics than do introverts.[ ] people will also choose different tactics based on the group situation, and based on whom they wish to influence. people also tend to shift from soft to hard tactics when they face resistance.[ ][ ] balance of power[edit] because power operates both relationally and reciprocally, sociologists speak of the "balance of power" between parties to a relationship:[ ][ ] all parties to all relationships have some power: the sociological examination of power concerns itself with discovering and describing the relative strengths: equal or unequal, stable or subject to periodic change. sociologists usually analyse relationships in which the parties have relatively equal or nearly equal power in terms of constraint rather than of power.[citation needed] in this context, "power" has a connotation of unilateralism. if this were not so, then all relationships could be described in terms of "power", and its meaning would be lost. given that power is not innate and can be granted to others, to acquire power one must possess or control a form of power currency.[ ][need quotation to verify][ ] effects[edit] power changes those in the position of power and those who are targets of that power.[ ] approach/inhibition theory[edit] developed by d. keltner and colleagues,[ ] approach/inhibition theory assumes that having power and using power alters psychological states of individuals. the theory is based on the notion that most organisms react to environmental events in two common ways. the reaction of approach is associated with action, self-promotion, seeking rewards, increased energy and movement. inhibition, on the contrary, is associated with self-protection, avoiding threats or danger, vigilance, loss of motivation and an overall reduction in activity. overall, approach/inhibition theory holds that power promotes approach tendencies, while a reduction in power promotes inhibition tendencies. positive[edit] 	power prompts people to take action 	makes individuals more responsive to changes within a group and its environment[ ] 	powerful people are more proactive, more likely to speak up, make the first move, and lead negotiation[ ] 	powerful people are more focused on the goals appropriate in a given situation and tend to plan more task-related activities in a work setting[ ] 	powerful people tend to experience more positive emotions, such as happiness and satisfaction, and they smile more than low-power individuals[ ] 	power is associated with optimism about the future because more powerful individuals focus their attention on more positive aspects of the environment[ ] 	people with more power tend to carry out executive cognitive functions more rapidly and successfully, including internal control mechanisms that coordinate attention, decision-making, planning, and goal-selection[ ] negative[edit] 	powerful people are prone to take risky, inappropriate, or unethical decisions and often overstep their boundaries[ ][ ] 	they tend to generate negative emotional reactions in their subordinates, particularly when there is a conflict in the group[ ] 	when individuals gain power, their self-evaluation become more positive, while their evaluations of others become more negative[ ] 	power tends to weaken one's social attentiveness, which leads to difficulty understanding other people's point of view[ ] 	powerful people also spend less time collecting and processing information about their subordinates and often perceive them in a stereotypical fashion[ ] 	people with power tend to use more coercive tactics, increase social distance between themselves and subordinates, believe that non-powerful individuals are untrustworthy, and devalue work and ability of less powerful individuals[ ] reactions[edit] tactics[edit] a number of studies demonstrate that harsh power tactics (e.g. punishment (both personal and impersonal), rule-based sanctions, and non-personal rewards) are less effective than soft tactics (expert power, referent power, and personal rewards).[ ][ ] it is probably because harsh tactics generate hostility, depression, fear, and anger, while soft tactics are often reciprocated with cooperation.[ ] coercive and reward power can also lead group members to lose interest in their work, while instilling a feeling of autonomy in one's subordinates can sustain their interest in work and maintain high productivity even in the absence of monitoring.[ ] coercive influence creates conflict that can disrupt entire group functioning. when disobedient group members are severely reprimanded, the rest of the group may become more disruptive and uninterested in their work, leading to negative and inappropriate activities spreading from one troubled member to the rest of the group. this effect is called disruptive contagion or ripple effect and it is strongly manifested when reprimanded member has a high status within a group, and authority's requests are vague and ambiguous.[ ] resistance to coercive influence[edit] coercive influence can be tolerated when the group is successful,[ ] the leader is trusted, and the use of coercive tactics is justified by group norms.[ ] furthermore, coercive methods are more effective when applied frequently and consistently to punish prohibited actions.[ ] however, in some cases, group members chose to resist the authority's influence. when low-power group members have a feeling of shared identity, they are more likely to form a revolutionary coalition, a subgroup formed within a larger group that seeks to disrupt and oppose the group's authority structure.[ ] group members are more likely to form a revolutionary coalition and resist an authority when authority lacks referent power, uses coercive methods, and asks group members to carry out unpleasant assignments. it is because these conditions create reactance, individuals strive to reassert their sense of freedom by affirming their agency for their own choices and consequences. kelman's compliance-identification-internalization theory of conversion[edit] herbert kelman[ ][ ] identified three basic, step-like reactions that people display in response to coercive influence: compliance, identification, and internalization. this theory explains how groups convert hesitant recruits into zealous followers over time. at the stage of compliance, group members comply with authority's demands, but personally do not agree with them. if authority does not monitor the members, they will probably not obey. identification occurs when the target of the influence admires and therefore imitates the authority, mimics authority's actions, values, characteristics, and takes on behaviours of the person with power. if prolonged and continuous, identification can lead to the final stage – internalization. when internalization occurs, individual adopts the induced behaviour because it is congruent with his/her value system. at this stage, group members no longer carry out authority orders but perform actions that are congruent with their personal beliefs and opinions. extreme obedience often requires internalization. power literacy[edit] power literacy refers to how one perceives power, how it is formed and accumulates, and the structures that support it and who is in control of it. education[ ][ ] can be helpful for heightening power literacy. in a ted talk eric liu notes that "we don't like to talk about power" as "we find it scary" and "somehow evil" with it having a "negative moral valence" and states that the pervasiveness of power illiteracy causes a concentration of knowledge, understanding and clout.[ ] joe l. kincheloe describes a "cyber-literacy of power" that is concerned with the forces that shape knowledge production and the construction and transmission of meaning, being more about engaging knowledge than "mastering" information, and a "cyber-power literacy" that is focused on transformative knowledge production and new modes of accountability.[ ] see also[edit] 	amity-enmity complex 	authority bias 	control of time in power relationships 	discourse of power 	discipline 	separation of powers 	speaking truth to power 	social control 	social norm 	state collapse 	the anatomy of revolution 	veto, the power to forbid an action references[edit] 	^ schein, larry e. greiner, virginia e. 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( - - ). knowledge and critical pedagogy: an introduction. springer science & business media. isbn  . retrieved february . external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: power 		wikimedia commons has media related to power. 	dolata, ulrich; schrape, jan-felix ( ). collectivity and power on the internet. a sociological perspective. london cham: springer. doi: . / - - - - . isbn  . 	vatiero m. ( ), understanding power. a 'law and economics' approach, vdm verlag. isbn  - - - - 	michael eldred, social ontology: recasting political philosophy through a phenomenology of whoness ontos, frankfurt isbn  - - - - 	simmel, georg superiority and subordination as subject-matter of sociology 	simmel, georg superiority and subordination as subject-matter of sociology ii 	kanter, r. m. 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		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 stereotype - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	stereotype 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		over-generalized belief about a particular category of people for other uses, see stereotype (disambiguation). not to be confused with stereotypy. 	part of a series on 	discrimination 	 general forms 	age 	caste 	class 	disability 	education 	economic 	employment 	genetic 	hair texture 	height 	housing 	language 	looks 	race / ethnicity / nationality 	rank 	sanity 	sex 	sexual orientation 	size 	skin color 	 specific forms 	   	 social 	acephobia 	adultism 	amatonormativity 	anti-albinism 	anti-autism 	anti-homelessness 	anti-intellectualism 	anti-intersex 	anti-left handedness 	anti-masonry 	antisemitism (judeophobia) 	aporophobia 	audism 	biphobia 	clannism 	cronyism 	drug use 	elitism 	ephebiphobia 	fatism 	gerontophobia 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and africa in their typical dress. shown below are an englishman, a dutchman, a german and a frenchman. police officers buying doughnuts and coffee, an example of perceived stereotypical behavior[ ] in north america. in social psychology, a stereotype is an over-generalized belief about a particular category of people.[ ] it is an expectation that people might have about every person of a particular group. the type of expectation can vary; it can be, for example, an expectation about the group's personality, preferences, appearance or ability. stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information (and sometimes accurate).[ ] while such generalizations about groups of people may be useful when making quick decisions, they may be erroneous when applied to particular individuals and are among the reasons for prejudice attitudes. contents 	 explicit stereotypes 	 implicit stereotypes 	 etymology 	 relationship with other types of intergroup attitudes 	 content 	 functions 	 . relationship between cognitive and social functions 	 . cognitive functions 	 . social functions: social categorization 	 . . explanation purposes 	 . . justification purposes 	 . . intergroup differentiation 	 . social functions: self-categorization 	 . social functions: social influence and consensus 	 formation 	 . correspondence bias 	 . illusory correlation 	 . common environment 	 . socialization and upbringing 	 . intergroup relations 	 activation 	 . automatic behavioral outcomes 	 accuracy 	 effects 	 . attributional ambiguity 	 . stereotype threat 	 . self-fulfilling prophecy 	 . discrimination and prejudice 	 . self-stereotyping 	 . substitute for observations 	 role in art and culture 	 see also 	 . examples of stereotypes 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links explicit stereotypes[edit] an explicit stereotype refers to stereotypes that one is aware that one holds, and is aware that one is using to judge people. if person a is making judgments about a particular person b from a group g, and person a has an explicit stereotype for group g, their decision bias can be partially mitigated using conscious control; however, attempts to offset bias due to conscious awareness of a stereotype often fail at being truly impartial, due to either underestimating or overestimating the amount of bias being created by the stereotype. implicit stereotypes[edit] implicit stereotypes are those that lay on individuals' subconsciousness, that they have no control or awareness of.[ ] in social psychology, a stereotype is any thought widely adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of behaving intended to represent the entire group of those individuals or behaviors as a whole.[ ] these thoughts or beliefs may or may not accurately reflect reality.[ ][ ] within psychology and across other disciplines, different conceptualizations and theories of stereotyping exist, at times sharing commonalities, as well as containing contradictory elements. even in the social sciences and some sub-disciplines of psychology, stereotypes are occasionally reproduced and can be identified in certain theories, for example, in assumptions about other cultures.[ ] etymology[edit] the term stereotype comes from the french adjective stéréotype and derives from the greek words στερεός (stereos), "firm, solid"[ ] and τύπος (typos), impression,[ ] hence "solid impression on one or more idea/theory." the term was first used in the printing trade in by firmin didot, to describe a printing plate that duplicated any typography. the duplicate printing plate, or the stereotype, is used for printing instead of the original. outside of printing, the first reference to "stereotype" was in , as a noun that meant image perpetuated without change.[ ] however, it was not until that "stereotype" was first used in the modern psychological sense by american journalist walter lippmann in his work public opinion.[ ] relationship with other types of intergroup attitudes[edit] stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination[ ] are understood as related but different concepts.[ ][ ][ ][ ] stereotypes are regarded as the most cognitive component and often occurs without conscious awareness, whereas prejudice is the affective component of stereotyping and discrimination is one of the behavioral components of prejudicial reactions.[ ][ ][ ] in this tripartite view of intergroup attitudes, stereotypes reflect expectations and beliefs about the characteristics of members of groups perceived as different from one's own, prejudice represents the emotional response, and discrimination refers to actions.[ ][ ] although related, the three concepts can exist independently of each other.[ ][ ] according to daniel katz and kenneth braly, stereotyping leads to racial prejudice when people emotionally react to the name of a group, ascribe characteristics to members of that group, and then evaluate those characteristics.[ ] possible prejudicial effects of stereotypes[ ] are: 	justification of ill-founded prejudices or ignorance 	unwillingness to rethink one's attitudes and behavior 	preventing some people of stereotyped groups from entering or succeeding in activities or fields[ ] content[edit] stereotype content model, adapted from fiske et al. ( ): four types of stereotypes resulting from combinations of perceived warmth and competence. stereotype content refers to the attributes that people think characterize a group. studies of stereotype content examine what people think of others, rather than the reasons and mechanisms involved in stereotyping.[ ] early theories of stereotype content proposed by social psychologists such as gordon allport assumed that stereotypes of outgroups reflected uniform antipathy.[ ][ ] for instance, katz and braly argued in their classic study that ethnic stereotypes were uniformly negative.[ ] by contrast, a newer model of stereotype content theorizes that stereotypes are frequently ambivalent and vary along two dimensions: warmth and competence. warmth and competence are respectively predicted by lack of competition and status. groups that do not compete with the in-group for the same resources (e.g., college space) are perceived as warm, whereas high-status (e.g., economically or educationally successful) groups are considered competent. the groups within each of the four combinations of high and low levels of warmth and competence elicit distinct emotions.[ ] the model explains the phenomenon that some out-groups are admired but disliked, whereas others are liked but disrespected. this model was empirically tested on a variety of national and international samples and was found to reliably predict stereotype content.[ ][ ] functions[edit] early studies suggested that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, and authoritarian people. this idea has been refuted by contemporary studies that suggest the ubiquity of stereotypes and it was suggested to regard stereotypes as collective group beliefs, meaning that people who belong to the same social group share the same set of stereotypes.[ ] modern research asserts that full understanding of stereotypes requires considering them from two complementary perspectives: as shared within a particular culture/subculture and as formed in the mind of an individual person.[ ] relationship between cognitive and social functions[edit] stereotyping can serve cognitive functions on an interpersonal level, and social functions on an intergroup level.[ ][ ] for stereotyping to function on an intergroup level (see social identity approaches: social identity theory and self-categorization theory), an individual must see themselves as part of a group and being part of that group must also be salient for the individual.[ ] craig mcgarty, russell spears, and vincent y. yzerbyt ( ) argued that the cognitive functions of stereotyping are best understood in relation to its social functions, and vice versa.[ ] cognitive functions[edit] stereotypes can help make sense of the world. they are a form of categorization that helps to simplify and systematize information. thus, information is more easily identified, recalled, predicted, and reacted to.[ ] stereotypes are categories of objects or people. between stereotypes, objects or people are as different from each other as possible.[ ] within stereotypes, objects or people are as similar to each other as possible.[ ] gordon allport has suggested possible answers to why people find it easier to understand categorized information.[ ] first, people can consult a category to identify response patterns. second, categorized information is more specific than non-categorized information, as categorization accentuates properties that are shared by all members of a group. third, people can readily describe objects in a category because objects in the same category have distinct characteristics. finally, people can take for granted the characteristics of a particular category because the category itself may be an arbitrary grouping. a complementary perspective theorizes how stereotypes function as time- and energy-savers that allow people to act more efficiently.[ ] yet another perspective suggests that stereotypes are people's biased perceptions of their social contexts.[ ] in this view, people use stereotypes as shortcuts to make sense of their social contexts, and this makes a person's task of understanding his or her world less cognitively demanding.[ ] social functions: social categorization[edit] in the following situations, the overarching purpose of stereotyping is for people to put their collective self (their in-group membership) in a positive light:[ ] 	when stereotypes are used for explaining social events 	when stereotypes are used for justifying activities of one's own group (ingroup) to another group (outgroup) 	when stereotypes are used for differentiating the ingroup as positively distinct from outgroups explanation purposes[edit] an anti-semitic caricature depicting the stereotypical physical features of a jewish male. as mentioned previously, stereotypes can be used to explain social events.[ ][ ] henri tajfel[ ] described his observations of how some people found that the anti-semitic contents of the protocols of the elders of zion only made sense if jews have certain characteristics. therefore, according to tajfel,[ ] jews were stereotyped as being evil and yearning for world domination to match the anti-semitic 'facts' as presented in the protocols of the elders of zion. justification purposes[edit] people create stereotypes of an outgroup to justify the actions that their in-group has committed (or plans to commit) towards that outgroup.[ ][ ][ ] for example, according to tajfel,[ ] europeans stereotyped turkish, indian, and chinese people as being incapable of achieving financial advances without european help. this stereotype was used to justify european colonialism in turkey, india, and china. intergroup differentiation[edit] an assumption is that people want their ingroup to have a positive image relative to outgroups, and so people want to differentiate their ingroup from relevant outgroups in a desirable way.[ ] if an outgroup does not affect the ingroup's image, then from an image preservation point of view, there is no point for the ingroup to be positively distinct from that outgroup.[ ] people can actively create certain images for relevant outgroups by stereotyping. people do so when they see that their ingroup is no longer as clearly and/or as positively differentiated from relevant outgroups, and they want to restore the intergroup differentiation to a state that favours the ingroup.[ ][ ] social functions: self-categorization[edit] stereotypes can emphasize a person's group membership in two steps: stereotypes emphasize the person's similarities with ingroup members on relevant dimensions, and also the person's differences from outgroup members on relevant dimensions.[ ] people change the stereotype of their ingroups and outgroups to suit context.[ ] once an outgroup treats an ingroup member badly, they are more drawn to the members of their own group.[ ] this can be seen as members within a group are able to relate to each other though a stereotype because of identical situations. a person can embrace a stereotype to avoid humiliation such as failing a task and blaming it on a stereotype.[ ] social functions: social influence and consensus[edit] stereotypes are an indicator of ingroup consensus.[ ] when there are intragroup disagreements over stereotypes of the ingroup and/or outgroups, ingroup members take collective action to prevent other ingroup members from diverging from each other.[ ] john c. turner proposed in [ ] that if ingroup members disagree on an outgroup stereotype, then one of three possible collective actions follow: first, ingroup members may negotiate with each other and conclude that they have different outgroup stereotypes because they are stereotyping different subgroups of an outgroup (e.g., russian gymnasts versus russian boxers). second, ingroup members may negotiate with each other, but conclude that they are disagreeing because of categorical differences amongst themselves. accordingly, in this context, it is better to categorise ingroup members under different categories (e.g., democrats versus republican) than under a shared category (e.g., american). finally, ingroup members may influence each other to arrive at a common outgroup stereotype. formation[edit] different disciplines give different accounts of how stereotypes develop: psychologists may focus on an individual's experience with groups, patterns of communication about those groups, and intergroup conflict. as for sociologists, they may focus on the relations among different groups in a social structure. they suggest that stereotypes are the result of conflict, poor parenting, and inadequate mental and emotional development. once stereotypes have formed, there are two main factors that explain their persistence. first, the cognitive effects of schematic processing (see schema) make it so that when a member of a group behaves as we expect, the behavior confirms and even strengthens existing stereotypes. second, the affective or emotional aspects of prejudice render logical arguments against stereotypes ineffective in countering the power of emotional responses.[ ] correspondence bias[edit] main article: correspondence bias correspondence bias refers to the tendency to ascribe a person's behavior to disposition or personality, and to underestimate the extent to which situational factors elicited the behavior. correspondence bias can play an important role in stereotype formation.[ ] for example, in a study by roguer and yzerbyt ( ) participants watched a video showing students who were randomly instructed to find arguments either for or against euthanasia. the students that argued in favor of euthanasia came from the same law department or from different departments. results showed that participants attributed the students' responses to their attitudes although it had been made clear in the video that students had no choice about their position. participants reported that group membership, i.e., the department that the students belonged to, affected the students' opinions about euthanasia. law students were perceived to be more in favor of euthanasia than students from different departments despite the fact that a pretest had revealed that subjects had no preexisting expectations about attitudes toward euthanasia and the department that students belong to. the attribution error created the new stereotype that law students are more likely to support euthanasia.[ ] nier et al. ( ) found that people who tend to draw dispositional inferences from behavior and ignore situational constraints are more likely to stereotype low-status groups as incompetent and high-status groups as competent. participants listened to descriptions of two fictitious groups of pacific islanders, one of which was described as being higher in status than the other. in a second study, subjects rated actual groups – the poor and wealthy, women and men – in the united states in terms of their competence. subjects who scored high on the measure of correspondence bias stereotyped the poor, women, and the fictitious lower-status pacific islanders as incompetent whereas they stereotyped the wealthy, men, and the high-status pacific islanders as competent. the correspondence bias was a significant predictor of stereotyping even after controlling for other measures that have been linked to beliefs about low status groups, the just-world hypothesis and social dominance orientation.[ ] illusory correlation[edit] main article: illusory correlation research has shown that stereotypes can develop based on a cognitive mechanism known as illusory correlation – an erroneous inference about the relationship between two events.[ ][ ][ ] if two statistically infrequent events co-occur, observers overestimate the frequency of co-occurrence of these events. the underlying reason is that rare, infrequent events are distinctive and salient and, when paired, become even more so. the heightened salience results in more attention and more effective encoding, which strengthens the belief that the events are correlated.[ ][ ][ ] in the intergroup context, illusory correlations lead people to misattribute rare behaviors or traits at higher rates to minority group members than to majority groups, even when both display the same proportion of the behaviors or traits. black people, for instance, are a minority group in the united states and interaction with blacks is a relatively infrequent event for an average white american.[ ] similarly, undesirable behavior (e.g. crime) is statistically less frequent than desirable behavior. since both events "blackness" and "undesirable behavior" are distinctive in the sense that they are infrequent, the combination of the two leads observers to overestimate the rate of co-occurrence.[ ] similarly, in workplaces where women are underrepresented and negative behaviors such as errors occur less frequently than positive behaviors, women become more strongly associated with mistakes than men.[ ] in a landmark study, david hamilton and richard gifford ( ) examined the role of illusory correlation in stereotype formation. subjects were instructed to read descriptions of behaviors performed by members of groups a and b. negative behaviors outnumbered positive actions and group b was smaller than group a, making negative behaviors and membership in group b relatively infrequent and distinctive. participants were then asked who had performed a set of actions: a person of group a or group b. results showed that subjects overestimated the frequency with which both distinctive events, membership in group b and negative behavior, co-occurred, and evaluated group b more negatively. this despite the fact the proportion of positive to negative behaviors was equivalent for both groups and that there was no actual correlation between group membership and behaviors.[ ] although hamilton and gifford found a similar effect for positive behaviors as the infrequent events, a meta-analytic review of studies showed that illusory correlation effects are stronger when the infrequent, distinctive information is negative.[ ] hamilton and gifford's distinctiveness-based explanation of stereotype formation was subsequently extended.[ ] a study by mcconnell, sherman, and hamilton found that people formed stereotypes based on information that was not distinctive at the time of presentation, but was considered distinctive at the time of judgement.[ ] once a person judges non-distinctive information in memory to be distinctive, that information is re-encoded and re-represented as if it had been distinctive when it was first processed.[ ] common environment[edit] one explanation for why stereotypes are shared is that they are the result of a common environment that stimulates people to react in the same way.[ ] the problem with the 'common environment' is that explanation in general is that it does not explain how shared stereotypes can occur without direct stimuli.[ ] research since the s suggested that people are highly similar with each other in how they describe different racial and national groups, although those people have no personal experience with the groups they are describing.[ ] socialization and upbringing[edit] another explanation says that people are socialised to adopt the same stereotypes.[ ] some psychologists believe that although stereotypes can be absorbed at any age, stereotypes are usually acquired in early childhood under the influence of parents, teachers, peers, and the media. if stereotypes are defined by social values, then stereotypes only change as per changes in social values.[ ] the suggestion that stereotype content depends on social values reflects walter lippman's argument in his publication that stereotypes are rigid because they cannot be changed at will.[ ] studies emerging since the s refuted the suggestion that stereotype contents cannot be changed at will. those studies suggested that one group's stereotype of another group would become more or less positive depending on whether their intergroup relationship had improved or degraded.[ ][ ][ ] intergroup events (e.g., world war two, persian gulf conflict) often changed intergroup relationships. for example, after wwii, black american students held a more negative stereotype of people from countries that were the united states's wwii enemies.[ ] if there are no changes to an intergroup relationship, then relevant stereotypes do not change.[ ] intergroup relations[edit] according to a third explanation, shared stereotypes are neither caused by the coincidence of common stimuli, nor by socialisation. this explanation posits that stereotypes are shared because group members are motivated to behave in certain ways, and stereotypes reflect those behaviours.[ ] it is important to note from this explanation that stereotypes are the consequence, not the cause, of intergroup relations. this explanation assumes that when it is important for people to acknowledge both their ingroup and outgroup, they will emphasise their difference from outgroup members, and their similarity to ingroup members.[ ] international migration creates more opportunities for intergroup relations, but the interactions do not always disconfirm stereotypes. they are also known to form and maintain them.[ ] activation[edit] the dual-process model of cognitive processing of stereotypes asserts that automatic activation of stereotypes is followed by a controlled processing stage, during which an individual may choose to disregard or ignore the stereotyped information that has been brought to mind.[ ] a number of studies have found that stereotypes are activated automatically. patricia devine ( ), for example, suggested that stereotypes are automatically activated in the presence of a member (or some symbolic equivalent) of a stereotyped group and that the unintentional activation of the stereotype is equally strong for high- and low-prejudice persons. words related to the cultural stereotype of blacks were presented subliminally. during an ostensibly unrelated impression-formation task, subjects read a paragraph describing a race-unspecified target person's behaviors and rated the target person on several trait scales. results showed that participants who received a high proportion of racial words rated the target person in the story as significantly more hostile than participants who were presented with a lower proportion of words related to the stereotype. this effect held true for both high- and low-prejudice subjects (as measured by the modern racism scale). thus, the racial stereotype was activated even for low-prejudice individuals who did not personally endorse it.[ ][ ][ ] studies using alternative priming methods have shown that the activation of gender and age stereotypes can also be automatic.[ ][ ] subsequent research suggested that the relation between category activation and stereotype activation was more complex.[ ][ ] lepore and brown ( ), for instance, noted that the words used in devine's study were both neutral category labels (e.g., "blacks") and stereotypic attributes (e.g., "lazy"). they argued that if only the neutral category labels were presented, people high and low in prejudice would respond differently. in a design similar to devine's, lepore and brown primed the category of african-americans using labels such as "blacks" and "west indians" and then assessed the differential activation of the associated stereotype in the subsequent impression-formation task. they found that high-prejudice participants increased their ratings of the target person on the negative stereotypic dimensions and decreased them on the positive dimension whereas low-prejudice subjects tended in the opposite direction. the results suggest that the level of prejudice and stereotype endorsement affects people's judgements when the category – and not the stereotype per se – is primed.[ ] research has shown that people can be trained to activate counterstereotypic information and thereby reduce the automatic activation of negative stereotypes. in a study by kawakami et al. ( ), for example, participants were presented with a category label and taught to respond "no" to stereotypic traits and "yes" to nonstereotypic traits. after this training period, subjects showed reduced stereotype activation.[ ][ ] this effect is based on the learning of new and more positive stereotypes rather than the negation of already existing ones.[ ] automatic behavioral outcomes[edit] empirical evidence suggests that stereotype activation can automatically influence social behavior.[ ][ ][ ][ ] for example, bargh, chen, and burrows ( ) activated the stereotype of the elderly among half of their participants by administering a scrambled-sentence test where participants saw words related to age stereotypes. subjects primed with the stereotype walked significantly more slowly than the control group (although the test did not include any words specifically referring to slowness), thus acting in a way that the stereotype suggests that elderly people will act. and the stereotype of the elder will affect the subjective perception of them through depression.[ ] in another experiment, bargh, chen, and burrows also found that because the stereotype about blacks includes the notion of aggression, subliminal exposure to black faces increased the likelihood that randomly selected white college students reacted with more aggression and hostility than participants who subconsciously viewed a white face.[ ] similarly, correll et al. ( ) showed that activated stereotypes about blacks can influence people's behavior. in a series of experiments, black and white participants played a video game, in which a black or white person was shown holding a gun or a harmless object (e.g., a mobile phone). participants had to decide as quickly as possible whether to shoot the target. when the target person was armed, both black and white participants were faster in deciding to shoot the target when he was black than when he was white. when the target was unarmed, the participants avoided shooting him more quickly when he was white. time pressure made the shooter bias even more pronounced.[ ] accuracy[edit] a magazine feature from beauty parade from march stereotyping women drivers. it features bettie page as the model. stereotypes can be efficient shortcuts and sense-making tools. they can, however, keep people from processing new or unexpected information about each individual, thus biasing the impression formation process.[ ] early researchers believed that stereotypes were inaccurate representations of reality.[ ] a series of pioneering studies in the s found no empirical support for widely held racial stereotypes.[ ] by the mid- s, gordon allport wrote that, "it is possible for a stereotype to grow in defiance of all evidence."[ ] research on the role of illusory correlations in the formation of stereotypes suggests that stereotypes can develop because of incorrect inferences about the relationship between two events (e.g., membership in a social group and bad or good attributes). this means that at least some stereotypes are inaccurate.[ ][ ][ ][ ] empirical social science research shows that stereotypes are often accurate.[ ][ ] jussim et al. reviewed four studies of racial stereotypes, and seven studies of gender stereotypes regarding demographic characteristics, academic achievement, personality and behavior. based on that, the authors argued that some aspects of ethnic and gender stereotypes are accurate while stereotypes concerning political affiliation and nationality are much less accurate.[ ] a study by terracciano et al. also found that stereotypic beliefs about nationality do not reflect the actual personality traits of people from different cultures.[ ] marlene mackie argues that while stereotypes are inaccurate, this is a definition rather than empirical claim – stereotypes were simply defined as inaccurate, even though the supposed inaccuracy of stereotypes was treated as though it was an empirical discovery.[ ] effects[edit] attributional ambiguity[edit] main article: attributional ambiguity attributive ambiguity refers to the uncertainty that members of stereotyped groups experience in interpreting the causes of others' behavior toward them. stereotyped individuals who receive negative feedback can attribute it either to personal shortcomings, such as lack of ability or poor effort, or the evaluator's stereotypes and prejudice toward their social group. alternatively, positive feedback can either be attributed to personal merit or discounted as a form of sympathy or pity.[ ][ ][ ] crocker et al. ( ) showed that when black participants were evaluated by a white person who was aware of their race, black subjects mistrusted the feedback, attributing negative feedback to the evaluator's stereotypes and positive feedback to the evaluator's desire to appear unbiased. when the black participants' race was unknown to the evaluator, they were more accepting of the feedback.[ ] attributional ambiguity has been shown to affect a person's self-esteem. when they receive positive evaluations, stereotyped individuals are uncertain of whether they really deserved their success and, consequently, they find it difficult to take credit for their achievements. in the case of negative feedback, ambiguity has been shown to have a protective effect on self-esteem as it allows people to assign blame to external causes. some studies, however, have found that this effect only holds when stereotyped individuals can be absolutely certain that their negative outcomes are due to the evaluators's prejudice. if any room for uncertainty remains, stereotyped individuals tend to blame themselves.[ ] attributional ambiguity can also make it difficult to assess one's skills because performance-related evaluations are mistrusted or discounted. moreover, it can lead to the belief that one's efforts are not directly linked to the outcomes, thereby depressing one's motivation to succeed.[ ] stereotype threat[edit] the effect of stereotype threat (st) on math test scores for girls and boys. data from osborne ( ).[ ] main article: stereotype threat stereotype threat occurs when people are aware of a negative stereotype about their social group and experience anxiety or concern that they might confirm the stereotype.[ ] stereotype threat has been shown to undermine performance in a variety of domains.[ ][ ] claude m. steele and joshua aronson conducted the first experiments showing that stereotype threat can depress intellectual performance on standardized tests. in one study, they found that black college students performed worse than white students on a verbal test when the task was framed as a measure of intelligence. when it was not presented in that manner, the performance gap narrowed. subsequent experiments showed that framing the test as diagnostic of intellectual ability made black students more aware of negative stereotypes about their group, which in turn impaired their performance.[ ] stereotype threat effects have been demonstrated for an array of social groups in many different arenas, including not only academics but also sports,[ ] chess[ ] and business.[ ] not only has stereotype threat been widely criticized by on a theoretical basis,[ ][ ] but has failed several attempts to replicate its experimental evidence.[ ][ ][ ][ ] the findings in support of the concept have been suggested by multiple methodological reviews to be the product of publication bias.[ ][ ] self-fulfilling prophecy[edit] main article: self-fulfilling prophecy stereotypes lead people to expect certain actions from members of social groups. these stereotype-based expectations may lead to self-fulfilling prophecies, in which one's inaccurate expectations about a person's behavior, through social interaction, prompt that person to act in stereotype-consistent ways, thus confirming one's erroneous expectations and validating the stereotype.[ ][ ][ ] word, zanna, and cooper ( ) demonstrated the effects of stereotypes in the context of a job interview. white participants interviewed black and white subjects who, prior to the experiments, had been trained to act in a standardized manner. analysis of the videotaped interviews showed that black job applicants were treated differently: they received shorter amounts of interview time and less eye contact; interviewers made more speech errors (e.g., stutters, sentence incompletions, incoherent sounds) and physically distanced themselves from black applicants. in a second experiment, trained interviewers were instructed to treat applicants, all of whom were white, like the whites or blacks had been treated in the first experiment. as a result, applicants treated like the blacks of the first experiment behaved in a more nervous manner and received more negative performance ratings than interviewees receiving the treatment previously afforded to whites.[ ] a study by snyder, tanke, and berscheid found a similar pattern in social interactions between men and women. male undergraduate students were asked to talk to female undergraduates, whom they believed to be physically attractive or unattractive, on the phone. the conversations were taped and analysis showed that men who thought that they were talking to an attractive woman communicated in a more positive and friendlier manner than men who believed that they were talking to unattractive women. this altered the women's behavior: female subjects who, unknowingly to them, were perceived to be physically attractive behaved in a friendly, likeable, and sociable manner in comparison with subjects who were regarded as unattractive.[ ] a study by j. thomas kellow and brett d. jones looked at the effects of self-fulfilling prophecy on african american and caucasian high school freshman students. both white and black students were informed that their test performance would be predictive of their performance on a statewide, high stakes standardized test. they were also told that historically, white students had outperformed black students on the test. this knowledge created a self-fulfilling prophecy in both the white and black students, where the white students scored statistically significantly higher than the african american students on the test. the stereotype threat of underperforming on standardized tests affected the african american students in this study.[ ] discrimination and prejudice[edit] because stereotypes simplify and justify social reality, they have potentially powerful effects on how people perceive and treat one another.[ ] as a result, stereotypes can lead to discrimination in labor markets and other domains.[ ] for example, tilcsik ( ) has found that employers who seek job applicants with stereotypically male heterosexual traits are particularly likely to engage in discrimination against gay men, suggesting that discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation is partly rooted in specific stereotypes and that these stereotypes loom large in many labor markets.[ ] agerström and rooth ( ) showed that automatic obesity stereotypes captured by the implicit association test can predict real hiring discrimination against the obese.[ ] similarly, experiments suggest that gender stereotypes play an important role in judgments that affect hiring decisions.[ ][ ] stereotypes can cause racist prejudice. for example, scientists and activists have warned that the use of the stereotype "nigerian prince" for referring to advance-fee scammers is racist, i.e. "reducing nigeria to a nation of scammers and fraudulent princes, as some people still do online, is a stereotype that needs to be called out".[ ]. self-stereotyping[edit] main article: self-stereotyping stereotypes can affect self-evaluations and lead to self-stereotyping.[ ][ ] for instance, correll ( , ) found that specific stereotypes (e.g., the stereotype that women have lower mathematical ability) affect women's and men's evaluations of their abilities (e.g., in math and science), such that men assess their own task ability higher than women performing at the same level.[ ][ ] similarly, a study by sinclair et al. ( ) has shown that asian american women rated their math ability more favorably when their ethnicity and the relevant stereotype that asian americans excel in math was made salient. in contrast, they rated their math ability less favorably when their gender and the corresponding stereotype of women's inferior math skills was made salient. sinclair et al. found, however, that the effect of stereotypes on self-evaluations is mediated by the degree to which close people in someone's life endorse these stereotypes. people's self-stereotyping can increase or decrease depending on whether close others view them in stereotype-consistent or inconsistent manner.[ ] stereotyping can also play a central role in depression, when people have negative self-stereotypes about themselves, according to cox, abramson, devine, and hollon ( ).[ ] this depression that is caused by prejudice (i.e., "deprejudice") can be related to group membership (e.g., me–gay–bad) or not (e.g., me–bad). if someone holds prejudicial beliefs about a stigmatized group and then becomes a member of that group, they may internalize their prejudice and develop depression. people may also show prejudice internalization through self-stereotyping because of negative childhood experiences such as verbal and physical abuse.[ ] substitute for observations[edit] stereotypes are traditional and familiar symbol clusters, expressing a more or less complex idea in a convenient way. they are often simplistic pronouncements about gender, racial, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds and they can become a source of misinformation and delusion. for example, in a school when students are confronted with the task of writing a theme, they think in terms of literary associations, often using stereotypes picked up from books, films, and magazines that they have read or viewed. the danger in stereotyping lies not in its existence, but in the fact that it can become a substitute for observation and a misinterpretation of a cultural identity.[ ] promoting information literacy is a pedagogical approach that can effectively combat the entrenchment of stereotypes. the necessity for using information literacy to separate multicultural "fact from fiction" is well illustrated with examples from literature and media.[ ] role in art and culture[edit] american political cartoon titled the usual irish way of doing things, depicting a drunken irishman lighting a powder keg and swinging a bottle. published in harper's weekly, . stereotypes are common in various cultural media, where they take the form of dramatic stock characters. the instantly recognizable nature of stereotypes mean that they are effective in advertising and situation comedy.[ ] alexander fedorov ( ) proposed a concept of media stereotypes analysis. this concept refers to identification and analysis of stereotypical images of people, ideas, events, stories, themes, etc. in media context.[ ] the characters that do appear in movies greatly affect how people worldwide perceive gender relations, race, and cultural communities. because approximately % of worldwide ticket sales are directed toward hollywood movies, the american movie industry has been greatly responsible for portraying characters of different cultures and diversity to fit into stereotypical categories.[ ] this has led to the spread and persistence of gender, racial, ethnic, and cultural stereotypes seen in the movies.[ ] for example, russians are usually portrayed as ruthless agents, brutal mobsters and villains in hollywood movies.[ ][ ][ ] according to russian american professor nina l. khrushcheva, "you can’t even turn the tv on and go to the movies without reference to russians as horrible."[ ] the portrayals of latin americans in film and print media are restricted to a narrow set of characters. latin americans are largely depicted as sexualized figures such as the latino macho or the latina vixen, gang members, (illegal) immigrants, or entertainers. by comparison, they are rarely portrayed as working professionals, business leaders or politicians.[ ] in hollywood films, there are several latin american stereotypes that have historically been used. some examples are el bandido, the halfbreed harlot, the male buffoon, the female clown, the latin lover, the dark lady, the wise old man, and the poor peon. many hispanic characters in hollywood films consists of one or more of these basic stereotypes, but it has been rare to view latin american actors representing characters outside of this stereotypical criteria.[ ] media stereotypes of women first emerged in the early th century. various stereotypic depictions or "types" of women appeared in magazines, including victorian ideals of femininity, the new woman, the gibson girl, the femme fatale, and the flapper.[ ][ ] stereotypes are also common in video games, with women being portrayed as stereotypes such as the "damsel in distress" or as sexual objects (see gender representation in video games).[ ] studies show that minorities are portrayed most often in stereotypical roles such as athletes and gangsters (see racial representations in video games).[ ] in literature and art, stereotypes are clichéd or predictable characters or situations. throughout history, storytellers have drawn from stereotypical characters and situations to immediately connect the audience with new tales.[ ] see also[edit] 	 	archetype 	attribute substitution 	attribution bias 	base rate fallacy 	cognitive bias 	conjunction fallacy (linda problem) 	counterstereotype (antonym) 	echo chamber (media) 	face-ism 	filter bubble 	implicit stereotype 	in-group favoritism 	labeling theory 	negativity effect 	out-group homogeneity 	role 	role reversal 	scapegoating 	statistical syllogism 	stigma management 	stigmatization 	trait ascription bias 	women-are-wonderful effect 	gender 	gender stereotypes 	femininity 	masculinity 	 	psychology portal 	society portal examples of stereotypes[edit] 	cultural and ethnic 	ethnic stereotype 	list of anti-cultural, anti-national, and anti-ethnic terms 	list of ethnic slurs 	stereotypes of americans 	stereotypes of the british 	stereotypes of germans 	stereotypes of groups within the united states 	stereotypes of african americans 	stereotypes of argentines 	stereotypes of hispanic and latino americans in the united states 	stereotypes of south asians 	stereotypes of arabs and muslims in the united states 	stereotypes of jews 	sexuality related 	lgbt stereotypes 	list of sexuality related phobias 	other 	stereotypes of animals 	blonde stereotypes 	nurse stereotypes 	physical attractiveness stereotype references[edit] 	^ critchfield, austi ( november ). 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( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ arthur robert jensen "the g factor: the science of mental ability" isbn  - - - ,praeger publishers, post road west, westport, ct , pages – : "the phenomenon of stereotype threat can be explained in terms of a more general construct, test anxiety, which has been studied since the early days of psychometrics. test anxiety tends to lower performance levels on tests in proportion to the degree of complexity and the amount of mental effort they require of the subject. the relatively greater effect of test anxiety in the black samples, who had somewhat lower sat scores, than the white subjects in the stanford experiments constitutes an example of the yerkes-dodson law ... by conducting the same type of experiment using exclusively white (or black) subjects, divided into lower- and higher-ability groups, it might be shown that the phenomenon attributed to stereotype threat has nothing to do with race as such, but results from the interaction of ability level with test anxiety as a function of test complexity." 	^ a b stoet, g.; geary, d. c. 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( ): – . doi: . / . . . s cid  . 	^ auracher, jan; hirose, akiko ( ). "the influence of reader's stereotypes on the assessment of fictional characters". comparative literature studies. ( ): – . doi: . /complitstudies. . . . jstor  . /complitstudies. . . . further reading[edit] 	hilton, james l.; von hippel, william ( ). "stereotypes". annual review of psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /annurev.psych. . . . pmid  . 	stuart ewen, elizabeth ewen, typecasting: on the arts and sciences of human inequality. new york (seven stories press) 	stereotype & society a major resource: constantly updated and archived 	regenberg, nina ( ). "are blonds really dumb?". the inquisitive mind ( ). archived from the original on july . retrieved may . 	are stereotypes true? 	turner, chris ( ). planet simpson: how a cartoon masterpiece documented an era and defined a generation. foreword by douglas coupland. ( st ed.). toronto: random house canada. isbn  - . oclc  . . 	crawford, m. & unger, r. ( ). women and gender: a feminist psychology. mcgraw hill new york. new york. – . 	spitzer, b.l.; henderson, k; zavian, m. t. ( ). "gender differences in population versus media body sizes: a comparison over four decades". sex roles. ( / ): – . doi: . /a: . s cid  . external links[edit] 		look up stereotype in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	interview with social psychologists susan fiske and mike north about the stereotyping of older people 	how gender stereotypes influence emerging career aspirations – lecture by stanford university sociologist shelley correll on october 	social psychology network stereotyping 	stereotypes – media smarts, canada's centre for digital and media literacy 	age and health based stereotyping age and health based stereotyping 	the danger of a single story tedtalk by chimamanda adichie 	 	v 	t 	e social psychology 	interpersonal relationships	 	attachment theory 	falling in love 	mere-exposure effect 	similarity 	physical attractiveness 	triangular theory of love 	parenting style 	divorce 	adoption 	 	conflict	 	prejudice 	stereotype 	outgroup homogeneity effect 	stereotype threat 	implicit association test 	minimal group paradigm 	realistic conflict theory 	discrimination 	social 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a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e 	 	this article needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "surprise" emotion – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (september ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) surprise (pronunciation (help·info)) is a brief mental and physiological state, a startle response experienced by animals and humans as the result of an unexpected event. surprise can have any valence; that is, it can be neutral/moderate, pleasant, unpleasant, positive, or negative. surprise can occur in varying levels of intensity ranging from very-surprised, which may induce the fight-or-flight response, or little-surprise that elicits a less intense response to the stimuli. contents 	 construct 	 non-verbal responses 	 verbal responses 	 physiological responses 	 familiarity 	 see also 	 references 	 external links construct[edit] facial expressions of astonishment a child looks at her ipad (not pictured) with surprise. surprise is intimately connected to the idea of acting in accordance with a set of rules. when the rules of reality generating events of daily life separate from the rule-of-thumb expectations, surprise is the outcome. surprise represents the difference between expectations and reality, the gap between our assumptions and expectations about worldly events and the way that those events actually turn out.[ ] this gap can be deemed an important foundation on which new findings are based since surprises can make people aware of their own ignorance. the acknowledgement of ignorance, in turn, can mean a window to new knowledge.[ ] play media violation of expectancies. surprise can also occur due to a violation of expectancies. in the specific case of interpersonal communication, the expectancy violation theory (evt) says that three factors influence a person's expectations: interactant variables, environmental variables, and variables related to the nature of the interaction or environmental variables.[ ] 	interactant variables involve traits of the persons involved in the communication and in this instance the communication leading to surprise, including: sex, socio-economic status, age, race, and appearance.[ ] 	environmental variables that effect the communication of surprise include: proxemics, chronemics, and the nature of the surroundings of the interaction.[ ] 	interaction variables that influence surprise include: social norms, cultural norms, physiological influences, biological influences and unique individual behavioral patterns.[ ] surprise may occur due to a violation of one, two, or a combination of all three factors. surprise does not always have to have a negative valence. evt proposes that expectancy's will influence the outcome of the communication as a confirmation, behaviors within the expected range, or violation, behaviors outside the expected range.[ ] evt also postulates that positive interactions will increase the level of attraction of the violator, where as negative violations decrease the attraction.[ ] positive violations would then cause positive surprise, such as a surprise birthday party, and negative violations would cause negative surprise, such as a parking ticket. positive violations of surprise may enhance credibility, power, attraction, and persuasiveness, where as negative violations of surprise may reduce credibility, power, attraction, and persuasiveness.[ ] non-verbal responses[edit] belshazzar's feast, by rembrandt. representation of the biblical passage in daniel : – comedian carol burnett looking surprised. surprise is expressed in the face by the following features: 	eyebrows that are raised so they become curved and high. 	horizontal wrinkles across the forehead. 	open eyelids: the upper lid is raised and the lower lid is drawn down, often exposing the white sclera above and below the iris. 	pupil dilation mydriasis[ ] or pupil constriction miosis 	dropped jaw so that the lips and teeth are parted, with no tension around the mouth. spontaneous, involuntary surprise is often expressed for only a fraction of a second. it may be followed immediately by the emotion of fear, joy or confusion. the intensity of the surprise is associated with how much the jaw drops, but the mouth may not open at all in some cases. the raising of the eyebrows, at least momentarily, is the most distinctive and predictable sign of surprise.[ ] despite the facial feedback hypothesis (that facial display is necessary in the experience of emotion or a major determinant of feelings), in the case of surprise, some research has shown a strong lack of connection between the facial display of surprise and the actual experience of surprise. this suggests that there are variations in the expression of surprise.[ ] it has been suggested that surprise is an envelope term for both the startle response and also disbelief. more recent research shows that raising of the eyebrows does provide facial feedback to disbelief but not to the startle.[ ] pupil dilation and constriction can determine the valence of surprise from the action to the reaction of the individual. positive valence to surprise is shown through a dilation or expansion of the pupil, where as negative valence in surprise is associated with pupil constriction.[ ] but, newer studies show pupil dilation for negative as well as positive stimuli, indicating a general autonomous arousal associated with pupil dilation and not affective valence.[ ] non-verbal responses to surprise can also be affected by voice inflection, distance, time, environment, volume, rate, quality, pitch, speaking style, and even the level of eye contact made by an individual trying to cause a surprise.[ ] these non-verbal cues help to define whether the perceived surprise will have a positive or negative valence and to what degree the surprise will be induced by the individual. verbal responses[edit] linguistics may play a role in the formulation of surprise. the language expectancy theory (let) states that people develop norms and expectations concerning appropriate usage of a language in a given situation.[ ] when norms or expectations of verbal language are violated surprise may occur. the evt model supports that expectations can be violated verbally[ ] and this violation may cause a surprise within the individual. expectations of verbal language that may lead to surprise may include but are not limited to, expletives, shouts, screams, and gasps. the aforementioned expectations of verbal language are more closely associated to negative expectancies of surprise, but positive surprise can occur from verbal interaction as well. a positive violation of expectations that could result in a positive surprise may include a low credibility source making a persuasive argument that leads to the change of beliefs or emotions thus enhancing the speakers credibility.[ ] the move from a low credibility source to a high credibility source can elicit a positive surprise among individuals. the act of being persuaded by said speaker can also elicit a positive surprise, as an individual may have perceived the speaker as having too low of a credibility to elicit change and the change of beliefs or emotion then causes surprise. physiological responses[edit] sunday at the museum, honoré daumier the physiological response of surprise falls under the category of the startle response. the main function of surprise or the startle response is to interrupt an ongoing action and reorient attention to a new, possibly significant event. there is an automatic redirection of focus to the new stimuli and, for a brief moment, this causes tenseness in the muscles, especially the neck muscles. studies show that this response happens extremely fast, with information (in this case a loud noise) reaching the pons within to ms and the full startle reflex occurring in less than two tenths of a second.[ ] if the startle response is strongly elicited through surprise then it will bring on the fight-or-flight response, which is a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival[ ] that causes a release of adrenaline for a boost of energy as a means to escape or fight. this response generally has a negative valence in terms of surprise. surprise has one core appraisal-appraising something as new and unexpected-but new appraisals can shift the experience of surprise to another. appraising an event as new predicts surprise, but the appraisal of the coping mechanism predicts the response beyond surprise, such as confusion or interest.[ ] familiarity[edit] as individuals become more accustomed to particular types of surprise, over time the level of surprise will decrease in intensity. this does not necessarily mean that an individual, for instance, will not be surprised during the jump scene of a scary movie, it implies that the individual may expect the jump scene due to familiarity with scary movies, thus lowering the level of surprise.[ ] the evt model helps to support this claim because as individuals become more accustomed to a situation or communication, it becomes less and less likely that the situation or communication will cause a violation of expectation, and without violating an expectation, surprise cannot occur. see also[edit] 	affective neuroscience 	paul ekman 	interest (emotion) 	carroll izard 	ignorance 	nihil admirari 	postponement of affect 	predictable surprise 	startle response references[edit] 	^ john casti; complexification: explaining a paradoxical world through the science of surprise . new york: harpercollins, . 	^ matthias gross; ignorance and surprise: science, society, and ecological design. cambridge, ma: mit press, . 	^ a b c d e f g h burgoon, j. k.; jones, s. b. ( ). "toward a theory of personal space expectations and their violations". human communication research. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	^ burgoon, j. k.; hale, j. l. ( ). "nonverbal expectancy violations: model elaboration and application to immediacy behaviors". communication monographs. : – . doi: . / . 	^ ellis, cj ( ). "the pupillary light reflex in normal subjects". br j ophthalmol. ( ): – . doi: . /bjo. . . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ ekman, p. & friesen, w. v. ( ). unmasking the face. englewood cliffs, nj: prentice hall, inc. 	^ reisenzein, rainer; bordgen, sandra; holtbernd, thomas; matz, denise (august ). "evidence for strong dissociation between emotion and facial displays: the case of surprise" (pdf). journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . retrieved october , . 	^ "exploring the positive and negative implications of facial feedback". apa psycnet. retrieved - - . 	^ hess, eckhard h.; polt, james m. ( ). "pupil size as related to interest value of visual stimuli". science. ( ): – . doi: . /science. . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ partala, timo; surakka, veikko. ( ), "pupil size variation as an indication of affective processing", international journal of human-computer studies .  : – 	^ burgoon, j.k., dunbar, n.e, & segrin, c. ( ). non-verbal influence "the persuasion handbook". p. - . 	^ a b burgoon, m. & miller. ( ). language expectancy theory. the persuasion handbook.p. - 	^ "robert plutchik's psychoevolutionary theory of basic emotions" (pdf). adliterate.com. retrieved - - . 	^ jonathan turner ( june ). on the origins of human emotions: a sociological inquiry into the evolution of human affect. stanford university press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ atifa athar; m. saleem khan; khalil ahmed; aiesha ahmed; nida anwar (june ). "a fuzzy inference system for synergy estimation of simultaneous emotion dynamics in agents". international journal of scientific & engineering research. ( ). 	^ kalat, james w. ( ). biological psychology ( th ed.). belmont, calif.: wadsworth, cengage learning. pp.  – . 	^ cannon, walter ( ). wisdom of the body. united states: w.w. norton & company. isbn  . 	^ silva, paul j. ( ). "looking past pleasure: anger, confusion, disgust, pride, surprise, and other unusual aesthetic emotions" (pdf). psychology of aesthetics, creativity, and the arts. 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ingroup favoritism) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		this article is about favoring of one's own group's behavior and cognition in a strategic sense. for other phenomena related to psychological group formation, see ingroups and outgroups. in-group favoritism, sometimes known as in-group–out-group bias, in-group bias, intergroup bias, or in-group preference, is a pattern of favoring members of one's in-group over out-group members. this can be expressed in evaluation of others, in allocation of resources, and in many other ways.[ ][ ] this effect has been researched by many psychologists and linked to many theories related to group conflict and prejudice. the phenomenon is primarily viewed from a social psychology standpoint. studies have shown that in-group favoritism arises as a result of the formation of cultural groups.[ ][ ] these cultural groups can be divided based on seemingly trivial observable traits, but with time, populations grow to associate certain traits with certain behavior, increasing covariation. this then incentivizes in-group bias. two prominent theoretical approaches to the phenomenon of in-group favoritism are realistic conflict theory and social identity theory. realistic conflict theory proposes that intergroup competition, and sometimes intergroup conflict, arises when two groups have opposing claims to scarce resources. in contrast, social identity theory posits a psychological drive for positively distinct social identities as the general root cause of in-group favoring behavior. contents 	 origins of the research tradition 	 explanations 	 . competition 	 . self-esteem 	 . biological basis as an effect of oxytocin 	 . self-identity and social identity 	 evolution of in-groups 	 . formation of cultural groups 	 gender differences 	 . automatic bias for own gender 	 . competition 	 . ethnicity-based favoritism 	 . developmental age 	 real-world examples 	 . us presidential elections 	 . wikipedia 	 versus out-group negativity 	 . biological relationship 	 in-group derogation 	 see also 	 references origins of the research tradition[edit] in , the sociologist william sumner posited that humans are a species that join together in groups by their very nature. however, he also maintained that humans had an innate tendency to favor their own group over others, proclaiming how "each group nourishes its own pride and vanity, boasts itself superior, exists in its own divinities, and looks with contempt on outsiders".[ ] this is seen on the group level with ingroup–outgroup bias. when experienced in larger groups such as tribes, ethnic groups, or nations, it is referred to as ethnocentrism. explanations[edit] competition[edit] realistic conflict theory (or realistic group conflict) posits that competition between groups for resources is the cause of in-group bias and the corresponding negative treatment of members of the out-group. muzafer sherif's robbers cave experiment is the most widely known demonstration of realistic conflict theory. in the experiment, eleven-year-old boys with similar backgrounds were studied in a mock summer camp situation, with researchers posing as camp personnel. the boys were divided into two equal groups and encouraged to bond, with the aim of fostering an in-group mentality. the researchers then introduced a series of competitive activities which pitted groups against each other for a valuable prize. hostility and out-group negativity ensued.[ ] lastly, researchers attempted to reverse the hostility by engaging the boys in situations of mutual interdependence, an effort which eventually resulted in relative harmony between the two groups. sherif concluded from this experiment that negative attitudes toward out-groups arise when groups compete for limited resources.[ ] however, he also theorized that inter-group frictions could be reduced and positive relations created,[ ] but only in the presence of an over-arching goal, which could only be achieved with the two groups' cooperation.[ ][ ] self-esteem[edit] according to social identity theory, one of the key determinants of group biases is the need to improve self-esteem. the desire to view one's self positively is transferred onto the group, creating a tendency to view one's own group in a positive light, and by comparison, outside groups in a negative light.[ ] that is, individuals will find a reason, no matter how insignificant, to prove to themselves why their own group is superior. this phenomenon was pioneered and studied most extensively by henri tajfel, a british social psychologist who looked at the psychological root of in-group/out-group bias. to study this in the lab, tajfel and colleagues created minimal groups (see minimal group paradigm), which occur when "complete strangers are formed into groups using the most trivial criteria imaginable". in tajfel's studies, participants were split into groups by flipping a coin, and each group then was told to appreciate a certain style of painting none of the participants were familiar with when the experiment began. what tajfel and his colleagues discovered was that—regardless of the facts that a) participants did not know each other, b) their groups were completely meaningless, and c) none of the participants had any inclination as to which "style" they like better—participants almost always "liked the members of their own group better and they rated the members of their in-group as more likely to have pleasant personalities". by having a more positive impression of individuals in the in-group, individuals are able to boost their own self-esteem as members of that group.[ ] robert cialdini and his research team looked at the number of university t-shirts being worn on college campuses following either a win or loss at the football game. they found that the monday after a win, there were more t-shirts being worn, on average, than following a loss.[ ][ ] in another set of studies, done in the s by jennifer crocker and colleagues using the minimal group paradigm, individuals with high self-esteem who suffered a threat to the self-concept exhibited greater ingroup biases than did people with low self-esteem who suffered a threat to the self-concept.[ ] while some studies have supported this notion of a negative correlation between self-esteem and in-group bias,[ ] other researchers have found that individuals with low self-esteem showed more bias toward both in-group and out-group members.[ ] some studies have even shown that high-self-esteem groups showed more bias than did lower self-esteem groups.[ ] this research may suggest that there is an alternative explanation and additional reasoning as to the relationship between self-esteem and in-group/out-group biases. alternatively, it is possible that researchers have used the wrong sort of self-esteem measures to test the link between self-esteem and in-group bias (global personal self-esteem rather than specific social self-esteem).[ ] biological basis as an effect of oxytocin[edit] main article: oxytocin in a meta-analysis and review of the effect of oxytocin on social behavior done by carsten de dreu, the research reviewed shows that oxytocin enables the development of trust, specifically towards individuals with similar characteristics—categorized as 'in-group' members—promoting cooperation with and favoritism towards such individuals.[ ] this bias of oxytocin-induced goodwill towards those with features and characteristics perceived to be similar may have evolved as a biological basis for sustaining in-group cooperation and protection, fitting with the darwinian insight that acts of self-sacrifice and cooperation contribute to the functioning of the group and hence improve the odds of survival for members of said group.[ ] race can be used as an example of in-group and out-group tendencies because society often categorizes individuals into groups based on race (caucasian, african american, latino, etc.). one study that examined race and empathy found that participants receiving nasally administered oxytocin had stronger reactions to pictures of in-group members making pained faces than to pictures of out-group members with the same expression.[ ] this shows that oxytocin may be implicated in our ability to empathize with individuals of different races, with individuals of one race potentially biased towards helping individuals of the same race than individuals of another race when they are experiencing pain. oxytocin has also been implicated in lying when lying would prove beneficial to other in-group members. in a study where such a relationship was examined, it was found that when individuals were administered oxytocin, rates of dishonesty in the participants' responses increased for their in-group members when a beneficial outcome for their group was expected.[ ] both of these examples show the tendency to act in ways that benefit in-group members. self-identity and social identity[edit] main article: social identity theory as noted in two recent theoretical reviews,[ ] the theoretical basis for the inclusion of self-identity in the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior has many similarities to social identity theory [ ] and its extension, self-categorization theory.[ ] according to social identity theory, an important component of the self-concept is derived from memberships in social groups and categories. when people define and evaluate themselves in terms of a self-inclusive social category (e.g., sex, class, team) two processes come into play: ( ) categorization, which perceptually accentuates differences between the in-group and out-group, and similarities among in-group members (including the self) on stereotypical dimensions; and ( ) self-enhancement which, because the self-concept is defined in terms of group membership, seeks behaviorally and perceptually to favor the in-group over the out-group. social identities are cognitively represented as group prototypes that describe and prescribe beliefs, attitudes, feelings and behaviors that optimize a balance between minimization of in-group differences and maximization of intergroup differences. more specifically, according to social identity theory, there is a continuum between personal and social identity shifts along this continuum that determine the extent to which group-related or personal characteristics influence a person's feelings and actions.[ ] if a particular social identity is a salient basis for self-conception, then the self is assimilated to the perceived in-group prototype which can be thought of as a set of perceived in-group norms such that self-perception, beliefs, attitudes, feelings and behaviors are defined in terms of the group prototype. thus, social identities should influence behavior through the mediating role of group norms. people will be more likely to engage in a particular behavior if it is in accord with the norms of a behaviorally relevant group membership, particularly if the identity is a salient basis for self-definition. if the group membership is not salient, then people's behavior and feelings should be in accord with their own personal and idiosyncratic characteristics rather than group norms. on the other hand, the self-identity theory poses that the self is often a reflection of expected norms and practices in a person's social role. at the center of it is the proposition that the self is made up of multi-faceted and differentiated components that exist in an organized manner for the sake of filling in roles in society.[ ] people are able to create an identity for themselves only through talking to others, and often what roles they are taking on differ from one group to another. these differing roles and positions people fill are a result of their interactions with others and are called role identities. role identities may be self-realized, or may be facts like being a mother, a social worker, or a blood donor. role identities lead people to act in certain ways due to assumed expectations for the roles. because there is satisfaction in complying with expectations of the role, there is often distress behind an inability to appear congruent to one's identity as defined by societal norms. there is also an existing hierarchy of importance for roles that individuals take on, and according to the hierarchical standing of roles, people become more representative of roles that stand higher hierarchically, according to them. identity salience, the likelihood of role identities being invoked in different situations, is the result of role identities being placed hierarchically in different orders from person to person. people who hold the same roles may act differently because some roles are valued over others.[ ] for example, a working mother may have less time to spend with her child as opposed to a mother that does not work. behaviors are reflective of the identities that are held higher hierarchically by people, so people act out in self-worth and self-meaning according to these hierarchies.[ ] someone who holds the identity of being a psychologist higher than the identity of being a linguist will find that while he/she may become competitive when meeting another person that is better at psychology than he/she, he/she won't care when in contact with someone who is much better at being a linguist than he/she. in a similar way, social relationships are influenced by this salience. self-identity often places individuals in social contexts and a commitment to the role within that context becomes a big part of perpetrating the idea of self. it also finds people relating more to others that hold similar role identities at the top of their hierarchies. because people have self-concepts that are derived from a role they define for themselves within the context of a group, when staying within their roles, intergroup similarities are accentuated while intergroup differences are diminished.[ ] in an attempt to assimilate oneself according to the tendencies of a group, often people reconfigure their intragroup representations or identities. certain prototypes form about these groups that reaffirm rules that members of the group are encouraged to follow. shared information and views are discussed more often than novel and unshared information within a group, therefore a norm is established where the majority views are perpetuated and others silenced.[ ] this norm is fluid and changing according to different contexts, but those within the group who want to keep up with the majority views in all matters have to keep an active role in affirming the views of the in-group in contest to out-groups. evolution of in-groups[edit] formation of cultural groups[edit] studies have shown that in-group favoritism arises endogenously, through the formation of cultural groups.[ ] symbolic markers in certain conditions can result in trivial groupings developing into cultural groups. the formation of such cultural groups then results in a higher degree of in-group favoritism. efferson, lalive and fehr published such a study in , utilizing a series of coordination games to mimic cooperation between individuals. the study found that cultural groups were able to form endogenously through creation of a linkage between a payoff-relevant behavior and a payoff-irrelevant marker. subsequently, in-group favoritism occurred in ensuing social interactions.[ ] participants were first divided into one of several populations of people, and then further divided into subpopulations of . each group had different payoff for coordinating on one of choices, behavior a or behavior b. in group , participants were awarded points for coordinating (choosing a themselves and choosing another participant who also chose a) on a and for coordinating on b. the payoffs were switched in the nd group. in both groups participants were awarded just point for mis-coordinating. during each turn participants were also allowed to choose a payoff-irrelevant marker (circle or triangle). players from both subpopulations were mixed to create a coordination problem, and every turn, an unidentified player from each subpopulation would be randomly switched. the experiment created a situation in which participants were strongly incentivized to develop a sense of expected behaviors in his or her subpopulation, but occasionally would find themselves in a totally new situation in which their behaviors were not in-line with social norms.[ ] the results showed that players generally developed an inclination to pair behavior with a marker, especially if it had resulted in a positive payoff. as linkages at an individual level increase, covariation (of marker and behavior) at an aggregate level also increases. in the experiment, there was a significant increase in participants requesting for partners with the same-shape choice as it progressed, although the initial choice of shape had no effect on payoffs. toward the end of the experiment, this number stood at a substantial %, indicating the presence of in-group favoritism. their study supported the hypothesis that the formation of cultural groups alters selective pressure facing individuals, and thus leads to certain behavioral traits being advantageous.[ ][ ] thus, if such selective pressures were present in past civilizations, where membership in a certain group is correlated with a certain behavioral norm, the emergence of in-group biases where it is beneficial to act in differing manners to members of the same group is certainly plausible.[ ] gender differences[edit] automatic bias for own gender[edit] rudman and goodwin conducted research on gender bias that measured gender preferences without directly asking the participants. subjects at purdue and rutgers university participated in computerized tasks that measured automatic attitudes based on how quickly a person categorizes pleasant and unpleasant attributes with each gender. such a task was done to discover whether people associate pleasant words (good, happy, and sunshine) with women, and unpleasant words (bad, trouble, and pain) with men.[ ] this research found that while both women and men have more favorable views of women, women's in-group biases were . times stronger[ ] than those of men and only women (not men) showed cognitive balance among in-group bias, identity, and self-esteem, revealing that men lack a mechanism that bolsters automatic preference for their own gender.[ ] competition[edit] using a publics-goods game, van vugt, de cremer, and janssen found that men contributed more to their group in the face of outside competition from another group; there was no distinct difference amongst women's contributions.[ ] ethnicity-based favoritism[edit] in fershtman and gneezy found that men showed in-group biases in a "trust" game based on ethnicity, whereas this tendency was not present in women.[ ] the study aims to identify ethnic discrimination in israeli jewish society, and was conducted on israeli undergraduates. groups were separated based on whether the participant's name was typically ethnically eastern or ashkenazic. similar to a dictator game, subjects were instructed to divide a sum of money ( nis) between themselves and another player. player a was told that any money sent over to player b would be tripled, and player b would receive details of the experiment, including the name of player a and the transferred sum. subsequently, player b would have a choice of whether to send any money back. the experiment found that despite sharing similar average transfer values ( . for women and . for men), women did not display significant in-group biases when it came to recipients with either ashkenazic or eastern sounding names. however, a bias against eastern sounding names was present amongst men.[ ] furthermore, men showed more bias for ashkenazic men compared to women, but the opposite was true for eastern names.[ ] this result may seem counter-intuitive, as participants appear to share more in common if they were both male. thus, we would expect eastern females to be more marginalized, but is actually consistent with other studies which studied discrimination against afro-american women.[ ] developmental age[edit] in fehr, bernhard, and rockenbach, in a study conducted on children, found that boys displayed in-group favoritism from ages – , whereas girls did not display such tendencies.[ ] the experiment involved usage of an "envy game", a modified version of the dictator game. a possible explanation posited by researchers relied on an evolutionary basis.[ ] they theorized that parochialism and favoring members of the same group may have been particularly advantageous as it strengthened the individuals group position in intergroup conflicts.[ ] as males were the ones who were frequently at the forefront of such conflicts in the past, and thus bore the majority of the costs of conflicts in terms of injury or death, evolution may have favored a greater sensitivity in males in situations which resulted in an advantageous payoff for their in-group. thus males tended to show in-group biases from a younger age than females, as was evident in the experiment.[ ] real-world examples[edit] us presidential elections[edit] a study conducted during the presidential elections showcased how group identities were dynamic.[ ] the study was carried out among democrats from cambridge, ma, using an economics dictator game. subjects were given $ to divide between themselves and another person. the recipients remained anonymous, apart from which candidate they supported in the democratic primaries. data were collected in three separate periods. june to (after hillary clinton's concession speech on june ); august to , before the democratic national convention on the ; and september to , in the buildup to the presidential elections. the results showed that men displayed significant in-group favoritism from june all the way to the dnc in august. this in-group bias, however, was not present in september. women displayed no significant in-group favoritism throughout. the experiment suggested that group identities are flexible and can change over time.[ ] researchers theorized that in-group bias was strong in june, as the competition to be the democratic nominee in the elections was still recent and thus salient. a lack of actual electoral conflict (against the republicans) caused perception of salient groupings to remain throughout august.[ ] only in september did the in-group favoritism subside as a superordinate goal shared between groups was now present. wikipedia[edit] research analyzing articles about inter-group conflicts (e.g., falklands war) by comparing the corresponding language versions of wikipedia (e.g., english, spanish) found evidence for in-group favoritism: while the "in-group" was systematically preferred and presented in a more favorable light, the "out-group" was presented as more immoral and more responsible for the conflict.[ ] there were substantial variations between conflicts, however, and additional analyses revealed in-group favoritism to be more pronounced in more recent conflicts and in articles written predominantly by "in-group" members.[ ] versus out-group negativity[edit] main article: group conflict social psychologists have long made the distinction between ingroup favoritism and outgroup negativity, where outgroup negativity is the act of punishing or placing burdens upon the outgroup.[ ] indeed, a significant body of research exists that attempts to identify the relationship between ingroup favoritism and outgroup negativity, as well as conditions that will lead to outgroup negativity.[ ][ ][ ] for example, struch and schwartz found support for the predictions of belief congruence theory.[ ] the belief congruence theory concerns itself with the degree of similarity in beliefs, attitudes, and values perceived to exist between individuals. this theory also states that dissimilarity increases negative orientations towards others. when applied to racial discrimination, the belief congruence theory argues that the perceived dissimilarity of beliefs has more of an impact on racial discrimination than does race itself. research finds evidence of in-group bias in police investigations[ ] and judicial decisions.[ ] biological relationship[edit] oxytocin is not only correlated with the preferences of individuals to associate with members of their own group, but it is also evident during conflicts between members of different groups. during conflict, individuals receiving nasally administered oxytocin demonstrate more frequent defense-motivated responses toward in-group members than out-group members. further, oxytocin was correlated with participant desire to protect vulnerable in-group members, despite that individual's attachment to the conflict.[ ] similarly, it has been demonstrated that when oxytocin is administered, individuals alter their subjective preferences in order to align with in-group ideals over out-group ideals.[ ] these studies demonstrate that oxytocin is associated with intergroup dynamics. further, oxytocin influences the responses of individuals in a particular group to those of another group. the in-group bias is evident in smaller groups; however, it can also be extended to groups as large as one's entire country leading toward a tendency of strong national zeal. a study done in the netherlands showed that oxytocin increased the in-group favoritism of their nation while decreasing acceptance of members of other ethnicities and foreigners.[ ] people also show more affection for their country's flag while remaining indifferent to other cultural objects when exposed to oxytocin.[ ] it has thus been hypothesized that this hormone may be a factor in xenophobic tendencies secondary to this effect. thus, oxytocin appears to affect individuals at an international level where the in-group becomes a specific "home" country and the out-group grows to include all other countries. in-group derogation[edit] cross-cultural studies have found that in-group derogation, the tendency to criticize members of one's own group or culture more harshly than members of outside groups, is more common among members of disadvantaged and minority groups than among members of the majority or dominant group. according to ma-kellams, spencer-rodgers and peng, system justification theory seeks to explain why "minorities sometimes endorse system-justifying views of their group". they said their research into in-group favoritism and derogation partially supported this theory, but that the theory failed to address all of the nuances.[ ] ma-kellams et al. also found that, compared to individualist cultures, people from collectivist cultures, such as east asian cultures, tended to judge their own group members less favorably than they judged outsiders, whereas people from individualist cultures were inclined to judge members of their own group more favorably than they judged outsiders.[ ] social identity theory[citation needed] and freudian theorists explain in-group derogation as the result of a negative self-image, which they believe is then extended to the group.[ ] ma-kellams et al. theorized that "ingroup derogation may be more culturally normative and less troubling for east asians" as evidenced by the fact that east asians were also likely to report high levels of positive affect (emotion) towards members of their in-group, demonstrating ambivalence towards the unfavorable characteristics they had acknowledged about their in-group. according to ma-kellam et al., culturally-ingrained attitudes and beliefs, rather than low self-esteem, may play a role in collectivist cultures' in-group derogation, due to their ability to tolerate holding seemingly contradictory views.[ ] see also[edit] 	psychology portal 	collective narcissism 	common ingroup identity 	cronyism 	groupthink 	linguistic intergroup bias 	marginalization 	marking your own homework 	nepotism 	old boy network 	out-group homogeneity 	priming 	psychological projection 	protectionism 	scapegoating 	social projection 	terror management theory 	xenophobia references[edit] 	^ a b c d aronson, e., wilson, t. d., & akert, r. 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( ). intergroup conflict and cooperation: the robbers cave experiment. norman, ok: the university book exchange. pp. – . 	^ billig, michael; tajfel, henri ( ). "social categorization and similarity in intergroup behaviour". european journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /ejsp. . 	^ cialdini, robert b.; borden, richard j.; thorne, avril; walker, marcus randall; freeman, stephen; sloan, lloyd reynolds ( ). "basking in reflected glory: three (football) field studies". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . s cid  . 	^ a b crocker, jennifer; thompson, leigh l.; mcgraw, kathleen m.; ingerman, cindy (may ). "downward comparison, prejudice, and evaluations of others: effects of self-esteem and threat". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ abrams, dominic; hogg, michael a. ( ). "comments on the motivational status of self-esteem in social identity and intergroup discrimination". european journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /ejsp. . 	^ sachdev, itesh; bourhis, richard y. (september ). "status differentials and intergroup behaviour". european journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /ejsp. . 	^ rubin, mark; hewstone, miles (february ). "social identity theory's self-esteem hypothesis: a review and some suggestions for clarification". personality and social psychology review. ( ): – . doi: . /s pspr _ . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ a b de dreu, carsten k.w. ( ). "oxytocin modulates cooperation within and competition between groups: an integrative review and research agenda". hormones and behavior. ( ): – . doi: . /j.yhbeh. . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ sheng f, liu y, zhou b, zhou w, han s (february ). "oxytocin modulates the racial bias in neural responses to others' suffering". biological psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /j.biopsycho. . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ shalvi s, de dreu ck (april ). "oxytocin promotes group-serving dishonesty". proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america. ( ): – . bibcode: pnas.. . s. doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ hogg, michael a.; terry, deborah j.; white, katherine m. ( ). "a tale of two theories: a critical comparison of identity theory with social identity theory". social psychology quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ tajfel, henri ( - - ). "social identity and intergroup behaviour". social science information. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ turner, john c. ( ). "social categorization and the self-concept: a social cognitive theory of group behavior". in lawler, e. j. (ed.). advances in group processes: theory and research, vol. . greenwich, ct: jai. pp.  – . isbn  . oclc  . 	^ a b tajfel, henri; turner, john c. ( ). "an integrative theory of intergroup conflict". in austin, w. g.; worchel, s. (eds.). the social psychology of intergroup relations. brooks-cole. pp.  – . isbn  . 	^ stryker, sheldon; serpe, richard t. ( ). "commitment, identity salience, and role behavior: theory and research example". in ickes, william; knowles, eric s. (eds.). personality, roles, and social behavior. springer new york. pp.  – . doi: . / - - - - _ . isbn  - - - - . 	^ nuttbrock, larry; freudiger, patricia ( ). "identity salience and motherhood: a test of stryker's theory". social psychology quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ callero, peter l. ( ). "role-identity salience". social psychology quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ tajfel, h. ( ). "quantitative judgement in social perception". british journal of psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. pmid  . 	^ larson, james r.; foster-fishman, pennie g.; keys, christopher b. ( ). "discussion of shared and unshared information in decision-making groups". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . 	^ a b c rudman, laurie a.; goodwin, stephanie a. ( ). "gender differences in automatic in-group bias: why do women like women more than men like men?" (pdf). journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . archived (pdf) from the original on july , . retrieved september , . 	^ van vugt, mark; de cremer, david; janssen, dirk p. ( ). "gender differences in cooperation and competition: the male-warrior hypothesis". psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . s cid  . 	^ a b c fershtman, chaim; gneezy, uri ( ). "discrimination in a segmented society: an experimental approach". the quarterly journal of economics. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ epstein, cynthia fuchs ( ). "positive effects of the multiple negative: explaining the success of black professional women". american journal of sociology. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ a b c d fehr, ernst; bernhard, helen; rockenbach, bettina ( ). "egalitarianism in young children" (pdf). nature. ( ): – . bibcode: natur. . f. doi: . /nature . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ a b c rand, david g.; pfeiffer, thomas; dreber, anna; sheketoff, rachel w.; wernerfelt, nils c.; benkler, yochai ( - - ). "dynamic remodeling of in-group bias during the presidential election". proceedings of the national academy of sciences. ( ): – . bibcode: pnas.. . r. doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b oeberst, aileen; beck, ina; matschke, christina; ihme, toni alexander; cress, ulrike (december ). "collectively biased representations of the past: ingroup bias in wikipedia articles about intergroup conflicts". british journal of social psychology: bjso. . doi: . /bjso. . issn  - . pmid  . 	^ bourhis, richard y.; gagnon, andré ( ). "social orientations in the minimal group paradigm". in brown, r.; gaertner, s. l. (eds.). blackwell handbook of social psychology: intergroup processes. oxford, uk: blackwell publishers ltd. pp.  – . doi: . / .ch . isbn  - - - - . 	^ mummendey, amélie; otten, sabine ( ). "aversive discrimination". in brown, r.; gaertner, s. l. (eds.). blackwell handbook of social psychology: intergroup processes. oxford, uk: blackwell publishers ltd. pp.  – . doi: . / .ch . isbn  - - - - . 	^ turner, john c.; reynolds, katherine j. ( ). "the social identity perspective in intergroup relations: theories, themes, and controversies". in brown, r.; gaertner, s. l. (eds.). blackwell handbook of social psychology: intergroup processes. oxford, uk: blackwell publishers ltd. pp.  – . doi: . / .ch . isbn  - - - - . 	^ struch, naomi; schwartz, shalom h. (march ). "intergroup aggression: its predictors and distinctness from in-group bias". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ west, jeremy (february ). "racial bias in police investigations" (pdf). working paper. 	^ depew, briggs; eren, ozkan; mocan, naci ( ). "judges, juveniles, and in-group bias" (pdf). journal of law and economics. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ de dreu ck, shalvi s, greer ll, van kleef ga, handgraaf mj ( ). "oxytocin motivates non-cooperation in intergroup conflict to protect vulnerable in-group members". plos one. ( ): e . bibcode: ploso... d. doi: . /journal.pone. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ stallen m, de dreu ck, shalvi s, smidts a, sanfey ag ( ). "the herding hormone: oxytocin stimulates in-group conformity". psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ de dreu ck, greer ll, van kleef ga, shalvi s, handgraaf mj (january ). "oxytocin promotes human ethnocentrism". proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america. ( ): – . bibcode: pnas.. . d. doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ ma x, luo l, geng y, zhao w, zhang q, kendrick km ( ). "oxytocin increases liking for a country's people and national flag but not for other cultural symbols or consumer products". frontiers in behavioral neuroscience. : . doi: . /fnbeh. . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b c d ma-kellams, christine; spencer-rodgers, julie; peng, kaiping ( ). "i am against us? unpacking cultural differences in ingroup favoritism via dialecticism". personality and social psychology bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=in-group_favoritism&oldid= " 		categories: 	cognitive biases 	group processes 	barriers to critical thinking 	sociological terminology 	error 	prejudice and discrimination 	appeals to emotion 	narcissism hidden categories: 	cs maint: multiple names: authors list 	use american english from may 	all wikipedia articles written in american english 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from august 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			afrikaans 	العربية 	español 	فارسی 	português 	Русский 	Українська 	tiếng việt 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 joy - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	joy 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		feeling of happiness for other uses, see joy (disambiguation). 	 	this article may need to be rewritten to comply with wikipedia's quality standards. you can help. the talk page may contain suggestions. (january ) laughter, like that of these bangladeshi children, is a typical expression of joy. 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e the word joy means a feeling of great pleasure and happiness.[ ] contents 	 distinction vs similar states 	 causes 	 see also 	 references distinction vs similar states[edit] c. s. lewis saw a clear distinction between joy, pleasure, and happiness: "i sometimes wonder whether all pleasures are not substitutes for joy",[ ] and "i call it joy, which is here a technical term and must be sharply distinguished both from happiness and pleasure. joy (in my sense) has indeed one characteristic, and one only, in common with them; the fact that anyone who has experienced it will want it again... i doubt whether anyone who has tasted it would ever, if both were in his power, exchange it for all the pleasures in the world. but then joy is never in our power and pleasure often is."[ ] causes[edit] the causes of joy have been ascribed to various sources. "when the mind is pure, joy follows like a shadow that never leaves.” - gautama buddha,[ ] "[joy is] the emotional dimension of the good life, of a life that is both going well and is being lived well." - miroslav volf[ ] "this is the true joy in life, the being used for a purpose recognized by yourself as a mighty one; the being thoroughly worn out before you are thrown on the scrap heap; the being a force of nature instead of a feverish selfish little clod of ailments and grievances complaining that the world will not devote itself to making you happy." - george bernard shaw[ ] arianna huffington has also been a big advocate of joy triggers, evoking joy through certain triggers.[ ] these are triggers which related to activities that stimulate certain neurochemicals such as dopamine.[ ] according to huffington, activities that are able to evoke a positive neurochemical response are producers of joy and are a great source of goodness. ingrid fetell lee has studied the sources of joy. she wrote the book "joyful: the surprising power of ordinary things to create extraordinary happiness",[ ] and gave a ted talk on the subject, titled "where joy hides and how to find it."[ ] through her design studies she has found out that joy hides in colorful objects, an abundant number of objects, round objects, and elevating objects. see also[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to happiness. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: joy 	joie de vivre 	happiness 	reward system 	pleasure references[edit] 	^ "joy - definition of joy in english by oxford dictionaries". oxford dictionaries - english. retrieved november . 	^ surprised by joy: the shape of my early life. (p. ) houghton mifflin harcourt. kindle edition. 	^ surprised by joy: the shape of my early life. (p. ) houghton mifflin harcourt. kindle edition. 	^ "a quote by gautama buddha". goodreads.com. retrieved november . 	^ volf, miroslav (spring ). joy and human flourishing. fortress press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ "man and superman - wikiquote". en.wikiquote.org. retrieved november . 	^ huffington, ariana. "joy triggers". 	^ jiang, daniel. "getting high naturally - happiness on demand". happyness by design. retrieved september . 	^ lee, ingrid fetell. joyful: the surprising power of ordinary things to create extraordinary happiness. 	^ lee, ingrid fetell, where joy hides and how to find it, retrieved - - 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=joy&oldid= " 		categories: 	emotions 	happiness hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	wikipedia articles needing rewrite from january 	all articles needing rewrite 	commons category link is locally defined 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	avañe'ẽ 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	eesti 	Ελληνικά 	español 	esperanto 	euskara 	français 	frysk 	Հայերեն 	ido 	বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী 	עברית 	lietuvių 	nederlands 	norsk bokmål 	norsk nynorsk 	occitan 	polski 	português 	română 	runa simi 	Русиньскый 	Русский 	sicilianu 	slovenščina 	suomi 	svenska 	türkçe 	Українська 	اردو 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 stanford encyclopedia of philosophy - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	stanford encyclopedia of philosophy 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		online philosophy encyclopedia and collection of peer-reviewed papers stanford encyclopedia of philosophy	 	type of site 	online encyclopedia of philosophy 	owner	the metaphysics research lab, center for the study of language and information, stanford university 	created by	edward n. zalta 	editor	edward n. zalta 	url	plato.stanford.edu 	launched	 ;  years ago ( ) 	issn	 - 	oclc number	 the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (sep) combines an online encyclopedia of philosophy with peer-reviewed publication of original papers in philosophy, freely accessible to internet users.[ ][ ] it is maintained by stanford university. each entry is written and maintained by an expert in the field, including professors from many academic institutions worldwide.[ ] authors contributing to the encyclopedia give stanford university the permission to publish the articles, but retain the copyright to those articles.[ ] contents 	 approach and history 	 see also 	 references 	 external links approach and history[edit] play media "the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy: issues faced by academic reference works that may be of interest to wikipedians" by edward n. zalta. wikimania , mexico city as of march [update], the sep has nearly , published entries.[ ] apart from its online status, the encyclopedia uses the traditional academic approach of most encyclopedias and academic journals to achieve quality by means of specialist authors selected by an editor or an editorial committee that is competent (although not necessarily considered specialists) in the field covered by the encyclopedia and peer review.[ ] the encyclopedia was created in by edward n. zalta,[ ] with the explicit aim of providing a dynamic encyclopedia that is updated regularly, and so does not become dated in the manner of conventional print encyclopedias.[ ][ ] the charter for the encyclopedia allows for rival articles on a single topic to reflect reasoned disagreements among scholars. initially, the sep was developed with u.s. public funding from the national endowment for the humanities and the national science foundation. a long-term fundraising plan to preserve open access to the encyclopedia is supported by many university libraries and library consortia. these institutions contribute under a plan devised by the sep in collaboration with the scholarly publishing and academic resources coalition, the international coalition of library consortia, and the southeastern library network, with matching funding from the national endowment for the humanities.[ ] see also[edit] 	encyclopedia of philosophy 	internet encyclopedia of philosophy 	nelson's perpetual loose leaf encyclopaedia 	routledge encyclopedia of philosophy 	list of online encyclopedias references[edit] 	^ a b sonnad, nikhil; sonnad, nikhil. "this free online encyclopedia has achieved what wikipedia can only dream of". quartz. retrieved - - . 	^ a b zalta, edward ( - - ). "the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy: a university/library partnership in support of scholarly communication and open access". college & research libraries news. ( ): – . doi: . /crln. . . . issn  - . 	^ a b allen, colin; jagodzinski, cecile ( - - ). "from sep to sepia: how and why indiana university is helping the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy". against the grain. ( ). doi: . / - x. . issn  - x. 	^ "stanford encyclopedia of philosophy copyright information". retrieved december , . 	^ "about the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy". plato.stanford.edu. retrieved october . 	^ tananbaum, greg ( ). "i hear the train a comin' -- stanford encyclopedia of philosophy". against the grain. ( ). doi: . / - x. . issn  - x. 	^ allen, colin; nodelman, uri; zalta, edward n. ( ). "the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy: a developed dynamic reference work". metaphilosophy. 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statement 		 	 	 jealousy - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	jealousy 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		emotion referring to the thoughts and feelings of insecurity, fear, and envy over relative lack of possessions, status or something of great personal value "green-eyed monster" redirects here. for other uses, see green-eyed monster (disambiguation), jealousy (disambiguation), and jealous (disambiguation). 	 relationships (outline) 	 types 	 genetic or adoptive 	 	kinship 	family 	parent 	father 	mother 	grandparent 	sibling 	cousin 	 by marriage 	 	spouse 	husband 	wife 	open marriage 	polygamy 	polyandry 	polygyny 		group marriage 	mixed-orientation 	 partner(s) 	 	 	significant other 	boyfriend 	girlfriend 	cohabitation 	same-sex 	life partner 	friendship (romantic / cross-sex / zone) 	 sexual 	 	casual 	monogamy 	non-monogamy 	mutual monogamy 	polyamory 	polyfidelity 	cicisbeo 	concubinage 	courtesan 	mistress 	 activities 	bonding 	courtship 	dating 	engagement 	bachelor's day 	mating 	meet market 	romance 	singles event 	wedding 	 endings 	breakup 	separation 	annulment 	divorce 	widowhood 	 emotions and feelings 	affinity 	attachment 	intimacy 	jealousy 	limerence 	love 	platonic 	unconditional 	passion 	sexuality 	 practices 	bride price 	dower 	dowry 	service 	hypergamy 	infidelity 	sexual activity 	transgression 	repression 	 abuse 	child 	dating 	domestic 	elderly 	narcissistic parent 	power and control 		v 	t 	e 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	v 	t 	e jealousy generally refers to the thoughts or feelings of insecurity, fear, and concern over a relative lack of possessions or safety. jealousy can consist of one or more emotions such as anger, resentment, inadequacy, helplessness or disgust. in its original meaning, jealousy is distinct from envy, though the two terms have popularly become synonymous in the english language, with jealousy now also taking on the definition originally used for envy alone. jealousy is a typical experience in human relationships, and it has been observed in infants as young as five months.[ ][ ][ ][ ] some researchers claim that jealousy is seen in all cultures and is a universal trait.[ ][ ][ ] however, others claim jealousy is a culture-specific emotion.[ ] jealousy can either be suspicious or reactive,[ ] and it is often reinforced as a series of particularly strong emotions and constructed as a universal human experience. psychologists have proposed several models to study the processes underlying jealousy and have identified factors that result in jealousy. sociologists have demonstrated that cultural beliefs and values play an important role in determining what triggers jealousy and what constitutes socially acceptable expressions of jealousy. biologists have identified factors that may unconsciously influence the expression of jealousy. throughout history, artists have also explored the theme of jealousy in photographs, paintings, films, songs, plays, poems, and books, and theologians have offered religious views of jealousy based on the scriptures of their respective faiths. contents 	 etymology 	 theories 	 . scientific definitions 	 . . comparison with envy 	 . in psychology 	 . in sociology 	 romantic jealousy 	 . communicative responses 	 sexual jealousy 	 gender-based differences 	 in animals 	 applications 	 . in fiction, film, and art 	 . in religion 	 . cross culture 	 see also 	 references 	 notes 	 further reading 	 external links etymology[edit] the word stems from the french jalousie, formed from jaloux (jealous), and further from low latin zelosus (full of zeal), in turn from the greek word ζήλος (zēlos), sometimes "jealousy", but more often in a positive sense "emulation, ardour, zeal"[ ][ ] (with a root connoting "to boil, ferment"; or "yeast"). the "biblical language" zeal would be known as "tolerating no unfaithfulness" while in middle english zealous is good.[ ] one origin word gelus meant "possessive and suspicious" the word then turned into jelus.[ ] since william shakespeare's use of terms like "green-eyed monster",[ ] the color green has been associated with jealousy and envy, from which the expressions "green with envy", are derived. theories[edit] scientific definitions[edit] jealousy ( ), lászló moholy-nagy people do not express jealousy through a single emotion or a single behavior.[ ][ ][ ] they instead express jealousy through diverse emotions and behaviors, which makes it difficult to form a scientific definition of jealousy. scientists instead define jealousy in their own words, as illustrated by the following examples: 	"romantic jealousy is here defined as a complex of thoughts, feelings, and actions which follow threats to self-esteem and/or threats to the existence or quality of the relationship, when those threats are generated by the perception of potential attraction between one's partner and a (perhaps imaginary) rival."[ ] 	"jealousy, then, is any aversive reaction that occurs as the result of a partner's extradyadic relationship that is considered likely to occur."[ ] 	"jealousy is conceptualized as a cognitive, emotional, and behavioral response to a relationship threat. in the case of sexual jealousy, this threat emanates from knowing or suspecting that one's partner has had (or desires to have) sexual activity with a third party. in the case of emotional jealousy, an individual feels threatened by her or his partner's emotional involvement with and/or love for a third party."[ ] 	"jealousy is defined as a defensive reaction to a perceived threat to a valued relationship, arising from a situation in which the partner's involvement with an activity and/or another person is contrary to the jealous person's definition of their relationship."[ ] 	"jealousy is triggered by the threat of separation from, or loss of, a romantic partner, when that threat is attributed to the possibility of the partner's romantic interest in another person."[ ] these definitions of jealousy share two basic themes. first, all the definitions imply a triad composed of a jealous individual, a partner, and a perception of a third party or rival. second, all the definitions describe jealousy as a reaction to a perceived threat to the relationship between two people, or a dyad. jealous reactions typically involve aversive emotions and/or behaviors that are assumed to be protective for their attachment relationships. these themes form the essential meaning of jealousy in most scientific studies. comparison with envy[edit] popular culture uses the word jealousy as a synonym for envy. many dictionary definitions include a reference to envy or envious feelings. in fact, the overlapping use of jealousy and envy has a long history. the terms are used indiscriminately in such popular 'feelgood' books as nancy friday's jealousy, where the expression 'jealousy' applies to a broad range of passions, from envy to lust and greed. while this kind of usage blurs the boundaries between categories that are intellectually valuable and psychologically justifiable, such confusion is understandable in that historical explorations of the term indicate that these boundaries have long posed problems. margot grzywacz's fascinating etymological survey of the word in romance and germanic languages[ ] asserts, indeed, that the concept was one of those that proved to be the most difficult to express in language and was therefore among the last to find an unambiguous term. classical latin used invidia, without strictly differentiating between envy and jealousy. it was not until the postclassical era that latin borrowed the late and poetic greek word zelotypia and the associated adjective zelosus. it is from this adjective that are derived french jaloux, provençal gelos, italian geloso, and spanish celoso.[ ] perhaps the overlapping use of jealousy and envy occurs because people can experience both at the same time. a person may envy the characteristics or possessions of someone who also happens to be a romantic rival.[ ] in fact, one may even interpret romantic jealousy as a form of envy.[ ] a jealous person may envy the affection that his or her partner gives to a rival – affection the jealous person feels entitled to himself or herself. people often use the word jealousy as a broad label that applies to both experiences of jealousy and experiences of envy.[ ] although popular culture often uses jealousy and envy as synonyms, modern philosophers and psychologists have argued for conceptual distinctions between jealousy and envy. for example, philosopher john rawls[ ] distinguishes between jealousy and envy on the ground that jealousy involves the wish to keep what one has, and envy the wish to get what one does not have. thus, a child is jealous of her parents' attention to a sibling, but envious of her friend's new bicycle. psychologists laura guerrero and peter andersen have proposed the same distinction.[ ] they claim the jealous person "perceives that he or she possesses a valued relationship, but is in danger of losing it or at least of having it altered in an undesirable manner," whereas the envious person "does not possess a valued commodity, but wishes to possess it." gerrod parrott draws attention to the distinct thoughts and feelings that occur in jealousy and envy.[ ][ ] the common experience of jealousy for many people may involve: 		fear of loss 	suspicion of or anger about a perceived betrayal 	low self-esteem and sadness over perceived loss 	uncertainty and loneliness 	fear of losing an important person to another 	distrust the experience of envy involves: 		feelings of inferiority 	longing 	resentment of circumstances 	ill will towards envied person often accompanied by guilt about these feelings 	motivation to improve 	desire to possess the attractive rival's qualities 	disapproval of feelings 	sadness towards other's accomplishments parrott acknowledges that people can experience envy and jealousy at the same time. feelings of envy about a rival can even intensify the experience of jealousy.[ ] still, the differences between envy and jealousy in terms of thoughts and feelings justify their distinction in philosophy and science. in psychology[edit] jealousy involves an entire "emotional episode," including a complex "narrative": the circumstances that lead up to jealousy, jealousy itself as emotion, any attempt at self regulation, subsequent actions and events and the resolution of the episode.  the narrative can originate from experienced facts, thoughts, perceptions, memories, but also imagination, guess and assumptions. the more society and culture matter in the formation of these factors, the more jealousy can have a social and cultural origin. by contrast, jealousy can be a "cognitively impenetrable state", where education and rational belief matter very little. one possible explanation of the origin of jealousy in evolutionary psychology is that the emotion evolved in order to maximize the success of our genes: it is a biologically based emotion selected to foster the certainty about the paternity of one's own offspring. a jealous behavior, in men, is directed into avoiding sexual betrayal and a consequent waste of resources and effort in taking care of someone else's offspring. there are, additionally, cultural or social explanations of the origin of jealousy. according to one, the narrative from which jealousy arises can be in great part made by the imagination. imagination is strongly affected by a person's cultural milieu. the pattern of reasoning, the way one perceives situations, depends strongly on cultural context. it has elsewhere been suggested that jealousy is in fact a secondary emotion in reaction to one's needs not being met, be those needs for attachment, attention, reassurance or any other form of care that would be otherwise expected to arise from that primary romantic relationship. while mainstream psychology considers sexual arousal through jealousy a paraphilia, some authors on sexuality have argued that jealousy in manageable dimensions can have a definite positive effect on sexual function and sexual satisfaction. studies have also shown that jealousy sometimes heightens passion towards partners and increases the intensity of passionate sex.[ ][ ] jealousy in children and teenagers has been observed more often in those with low self-esteem and can evoke aggressive reactions. one such study suggested that developing intimate friends can be followed by emotional insecurity and loneliness in some children when those intimate friends interact with others. jealousy is linked to aggression and low self-esteem.[ ] research by sybil hart, phd, at texas tech university indicates that children are capable of feeling and displaying jealousy at as young as six months.[ ] infants showed signs of distress when their mothers focused their attention on a lifelike doll. this research could explain why children and infants show distress when a sibling is born, creating the foundation for sibling rivalry.[ ] in addition to traditional jealousy comes obsessive jealousy, which can be a form of obsessive compulsive disorder.[ ] this jealousy is characterized by obsessional jealousy and thoughts of the partner. in sociology[edit] main article: social aspects of jealousy anthropologists have claimed that jealousy varies across cultures. cultural learning can influence the situations that trigger jealousy and the manner in which jealousy is expressed. attitudes toward jealousy can also change within a culture over time. for example, attitudes toward jealousy changed substantially during the s and s in the united states. people in the united states adopted much more negative views about jealousy. as men and women became more equal it became less appropriate or acceptable to express jealousy. romantic jealousy[edit] romantic jealousy arises as a result of romantic interest. it is defined as “a complex of thoughts, feelings, and actions that follow threats to self-esteem and/or threats to the existence or quality of the relationship when those threats are generated by the perception of a real or potential romantic attraction between one's partner and a (perhaps imaginary) rival.”[ ] different from sexual jealousy, romantic jealousy is triggered by threats to self and relationship (rather than sexual interest in another person). factors, such as feelings of inadequacy as a partner, sexual exclusivity, and having put relatively more effort into the relationship, are positively related to relationship jealousy in both genders. communicative responses[edit] as romantic jealousy is a complicated reaction that has multiple components, i.e., thoughts, feelings, and actions, one aspect of romantic jealousy that is under study is communicative responses. communicative responses serve three critical functions in a romantic relationship, i.e., reducing uncertainty, maintaining or repairing relationship, and restoring self-esteem.[ ] if done properly, communicative responses can lead to more satisfying relationships after experiencing romantic jealousy.[ ][ ] there are two subsets of communicative responses: interactive responses and general behavior responses. interactive responses is face-to-face and partner-directed while general behavior responses may not occur interactively.[ ] guerrero and colleagues further categorize multiple types of communicative responses of romantic jealousy. interactive responses can be broken down to six types falling in different places on continua of threat and directness: 	avoidance/denial (low threat and low directness). example: becoming silent; pretending nothing is wrong. 	integrative communication (low threat and high directness). example: explaining feelings; calmly questioning partner. 	active distancing (medium threat and medium directness). example: decreasing affection. 	negative affect expression (medium threat and medium directness). example: venting frustration; crying or sulking. 	distributive communication (high threat and high directness). example: acting rude; making hurtful or abrasive comments. 	violent communication/threats (high threat and high directness). example: using physical force. guerrero and colleagues have also proposed five general behavior responses. the five sub-types differ in whether a response is ) directed at partner or rival(s), ) directed at discovery or repair, and ) positively or negatively valenced: 	surveillance/ restriction (rival-targeted, discovery-oriented, commonly negatively valenced). example: observing rival; trying to restrict contact with partner. 	rival contacts (rival-targeted, discovery-oriented/repair-oriented, commonly negatively valenced). example: confronting rival. 	manipulation attempts (partner-targeted, repair-oriented, negatively valenced). example: tricking partner to test loyalty; trying to make partner feel guilty. 	compensatory restoration (partner-targeted, repair-oriented, commonly positively valenced). example: sending flowers to partner. 	violent behavior (-, -, negatively valenced). example: slamming doors. while some of these communicative responses are destructive and aggressive, e.g., distributive communication and active distancing, some individuals respond to jealousy in a more constructive way.[ ] integrative communication, compensatory restoration, and negative affect expression have been shown to lead to positive relation outcomes.[ ] one factor that affects the type of communicative responses elicited in an individual is emotions. jealousy anger is associated with more aggressive communicative response while irritation tends to lead to more constructive communicative behaviors. researchers also believe that when jealousy is experienced it can be caused by differences in understanding the commitment level of the couple, rather than directly being caused by biology alone. the research identified that if a person valued long-term relationships more than being sexually exclusive, those individuals were more likely to demonstrate jealousy over emotional rather than physical infidelity.[ ] through a study conducted in three spanish-speaking countries, it was determined that facebook jealousy also exists. this facebook jealousy ultimately leads to increased relationship jealousy and study participants also displayed decreased self esteem as a result of the facebook jealousy.[ ] sexual jealousy[edit] main article: sexual jealousy woman displaying jealousy while imagining her partner with another woman sexual jealousy may be triggered when a person's partner displays sexual interest in another person.[ ] the feeling of jealousy may be just as powerful if one partner suspects the other is guilty of infidelity. fearing that their partner will experience sexual jealousy the person who has been unfaithful may lie about their actions in order to protect their partner. experts often believe that sexual jealousy is in fact a biological imperative. it may be part of a mechanism by which humans and other animals ensure access to the best reproductive partners. it seems that male jealousy in heterosexual relationships may be influenced by their female partner's phase in her menstrual cycle. in the period around and shortly before ovulation, males are found to display more mate-retention tactics, which are linked to jealousy.[ ] furthermore, a male is more likely to employ mate-retention tactics if their partner shows more interest in other males, which is more likely to occur in the pre-ovulation phase.[ ] gender-based differences[edit] according to the parental investment model based on parental investment theory, more men than women ratify sex differences in jealousy. in addition, more women over men consider emotional infidelity (fear of abandonment) as more distressing than sexual infidelity.[ ] according to the attachment theory, sex and attachment style makes significant and unique interactive contributions to the distress experienced. security within the relationship also heavily contributes to one's level of distress. these findings imply that psychological and cultural mechanisms regarding sex differences may play a larger role than expected. the attachment theory also claims to reveal how infants' attachment patterns are the basis for self-report measures of adult attachment. although there are no sex differences in childhood attachment, individuals with dismissing behavior were more concerned with the sexual aspect of relationships. as a coping mechanism these individuals would report sexual infidelity as more harmful. moreover, research shows that audit attachment styles strongly conclude with the type of infidelity that occurred. thus psychological and cultural mechanisms are implied as unvarying differences in jealousy that play a role in sexual attachment.[ ] emotional jealousy was predicted to be nine times more responsive in females than in males. the emotional jealousy predicted in females also held turn to state that females experiencing emotional jealousy are more violent than men experiencing emotional jealousy. there are distinct emotional responses to gender differences in romantic relationships. for example, due to paternity uncertainty in males, jealousy increases in males over sexual infidelity rather than emotional. according to research more women are likely to be upset by signs of resource withdraw (i.e. another female) than by sexual infidelity. a large amount of data supports this notion. however, one must consider for jealousy the life stage or experience one encounters in reference to the diverse responses to infidelity available. research states that a componential view of jealousy consist of specific set of emotions that serve the reproductive role.[citation needed] however, research shows that both men and women would be equally angry and point the blame for sexual infidelity, but women would be more hurt by emotional infidelity. despite this fact, anger surfaces when both parties involved are responsible for some type of uncontrollable behavior, sexual conduct is not exempt. some behavior and actions are controllable such as sexual behavior. however hurt feelings are activated by relationship deviation. no evidence is known to be sexually dimorphic in both college and adult convenience samples.[clarification needed] the jealousy specific innate model (jsim) proved to not be innate, but may be sensitive to situational factors. as a result, it may only activate at stages. one study discovered serious relationships are reserved for older adults rather than undergraduates. for example, it was predicted that male jealousy decreases as females reproductive values decreases. a second possibility that the jsim effect is not innate but is cultural. differences have been highlighted in socio-economic status specific such as the divide between high school and collegiate individuals. moreover, individuals of both genders were angrier and blamed their partners more for sexual infidelities but were more hurt by emotional infidelity. jealousy is composed of lower-level emotional states (e.g., anger and hurt) which may be triggered by a variety of events, not by differences in individuals' life stage. although research has recognized the importance of early childhood experiences for the development of competence in intimate relationships, early family environment is recently being examined as we age). research on self-esteem and attachment theory suggest that individuals internalize early experiences within the family which subconsciously translates into their personal view of worth of themselves and the value of being close to other individuals, especially in an interpersonal relationship.[ ] in animals[edit] a study by researches at the university of california, san diego, replicated jealousy studies done on humans on canines. they reported, in a paper published in plos one in , that a significant number of dogs exhibited jealous behaviors when their human companions paid attention to dog-like toys, compared to when their human companions paid attention to nonsocial objects.[ ] applications[edit] in fiction, film, and art[edit] a painting by miyagawa isshō shows a young onnagata catching his older lover with a love letter from a rival. artistic depictions of jealousy occur in fiction, films, and other art forms such as painting and sculpture. jealousy is a common theme in literature, art, theatre, and film. often, it is presented as a demonstration of particularly deep feelings of love, rather than a destructive obsession. a study done by ferris, smith, greenberg, and smith[ ] looked into the way people saw dating and romantic relationships based on how many reality dating shows they watched.[ ] people who spent a large amount of time watching these reality dating shows "endorsed" or supported the "dating attitudes" that would be shown on the show.[ ] while the other people who do not spend time watching reality dating shows did not mirror the same ideas.[ ] this means if someone watches a reality dating show that displays men and women reacting violently or aggressively towards their partner due to jealousy they can mirror that.[ ] this is reflected in romantic movies as well.[ ] jessica r. frampton conducted a study looking into romantic jealousy in movies. the study found that there were " instances of romantic jealousy were identified in the top-grossing romantic comedies from – "[ ] some of the films did not display romantic jealousy however, some featured many examples of romantic jealousy.[ ] this was due to the fact that some of the top-grossing movies did not contain a rival or romantic competition.[ ] while others such as forgetting sarah marshal was said to contain " instances of romantic jealousy."[ ] out of the instances % were reactive jealousy while % showed possessive jealousy.[ ] the last % displayed anxious jealousy it was seen the least in all cases.[ ] out of the reactions to the jealousy found % were found to be "destructive responses."[ ] only % of responses were constructive while % showed avoidant responses.[ ] the last % were considered "rival focused responses" which lead to the finding that "there was a higher than expected number of rival-focused responses to possessive jealousy."[ ] in religion[edit] main article: jealousy in religion jealousy in religion examines how the scriptures and teachings of various religions deal with the topic of jealousy. religions may be compared and contrasted on how they deal with two issues: concepts of divine jealousy, and rules about the provocation and expression of human jealousy. cross culture[edit] a study was done in order to cross examine jealousy among four different cultures.[ ] the four cultures were chosen to try to reveal the difference in expression when moving from culture to culture. these four cultures were ireland, thailand, india and the united states.[ ] the overall findings discovered that in male dominate cultures are more likely to express and reveal jealousy than other cultures.[ ] this was proven when the survey found that thais are less likely to express jealousy than the other three cultures.[ ] this is because the men in these cultures are rewarded in a way for showing jealousy due to the fact that some women interpret it as love.[ ] this can also be seen when watching romantic comedies when males show they are jealous of a rival or emotionally jealous women perceive it as men caring more.[ ] see also[edit] 	compersion — empathizing with the joy of another. 	crime of passion 	delusional disorder, jealous subtype 	pathological jealousy 	emotion 	relational transgression references[edit] 	pistole, johthan; roberts, carole; mosko, amber ( ). 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"when infants lose exclusive maternal attention: is it jealousy?". infancy. : – . doi: . /s in _ . 	^ shackelford, t.k.; voracek, m.; schmitt, d.p.; buss, d.m.; weekes-shackelford, v.a.; michalski, r.l. ( ). "romantic jealousy in early adulthood and in later life". human nature. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /s - - -z. pmid  . s cid  . 	^ buss, d.m. ( ). the dangerous passion: why jealousy is as necessary as love and sex. new york: free press. 	^ buss dm (december ), "human nature and culture: an evolutionary psychological perspective", j pers, ( ): – , citeseerx  . . . . , doi: . / - . , pmid  . 	^ white, g.l., & mullen, p.e. ( ). jealousy: theory, research, and clinical practice. new york, ny: guilford press. 	^ peter salovey ( ). the psychology of jealousy and envy. guilford press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ rydell rj, bringle rg differentiating reactive and suspicious jealousy social behavior and personality an international journal ( ): - jan 	^ jealous, online etymology dictionary 	^ zelos, henry george liddell, robert scott, "a greek-english lexicon", at perseus 	^ a b "jealous | origin and meaning of jealous by online etymology dictionary". www.etymonline.com. retrieved november . 	^ othello, act iii, scene , 	^ darwin, c. ( ). the expression of emotions in man and animals. 	^ clanton, g. & smith, l. ( ) jealousy. new jersey: prentice- hall, inc. 	^ bram buunk, b. ( ). jealousy as related to attributions for the partner's behavior. social psychology quarterly, , – . 	^ white, g.l. ( ). "jealousy and partner's perceived motives for attraction to a rival". social psychology quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ bringle, r.g. & buunk, b.p. ( ). extradyadic relationships and sexual jealousy. in k. mckinney and s. sprecher (eds.), sexuality in close relationships (pp. – ) hillsdale, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. 	^ guerrero, l.k., spitzberg, b.h., & yoshimura, s.m. ( ). sexual and emotional jealousy. in j.h. harvey, s. sprecher, and a. wenzel (eds.), the handbook of sexuality in close relationships (pp. – ). mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. 	^ bevan, j.l. ( ). "general partner and relational uncertainty as consequences of another person's jealousy expression". western journal of communication. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ sharpsteen, d.j.; kirkpatrick, l.a. ( ). "romantic jealousy and adult romantic attachment". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . 	^ margot grzywacz, "eifersucht" in den romanischen sprachen (bochum-langendreer, germany: h. pöppinghaus, ), p. 	^ lloyd, r. ( ). closer & closer apart: jealousy in literature. ithaca, ny: cornell university press. 	^ parrot, w.g.; smith, r.h. ( ). "distinguishing the experiences of envy and jealousy". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ kristjansson, k. ( ). justifying emotions: pride and jealousy. 	^ smith, r.h.; kim, s.h.; parrott, w.g. ( ). "envy and jealousy: semantic problems and experiential distinctions". personality and social psychology bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ rawls, j. ( ). a theory of justice. cambridge, massachusetts: belknap press of harvard university press. 	^ guerrero, l.k., & andersen, p.a. ( ). the dark side of jealousy and envy: desire, delusion, desperation, and destructive communication. in w.r. cupach and b.h. spitzberg (eds.), the dark side of close relationships, (pp. ). mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. 	^ parrott, w.g. ( ). the emotional experiences of envy and jealousy. in p. salovey (ed.), the psychology of jealousy and envy (pp. – ). new york, ny: the guilford press. 	^ staff, p.t. (january–february ), "a devastating difference", psychology today, document id , archived from the original on april , retrieved july 	^ pines, a.; aronson, e. ( ). "antecedents, correlates, and consequences of sexual jealousy". journal of personality. : – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	^ emotions and sexuality. in k. mckinney and s. sprecher (eds.), sexuality, in close relationships (pp. – ). hillsdale, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. 	^ pines, a. ( ). romantic jealousy: understanding and conquering the shadow of love. new york: st. martin's press. 	^ "study links jealousy with aggression, low self-esteem". apa.org. retrieved march . 	^ hart, s.; carrington, h. ( ). "jealousy in six-month-old infants". infancy. ( ): – . doi: . /s in _ . 	^ hart, s.; carrington, h.; tronick, e. z.; carroll, s. ( ). "when infants lose exclusive maternal attention: is it jealousy?". infancy. : – . doi: . /s in _ . 	^ "cognitive analytic therapy for obsessive morbid jealousy: a case series | scinapse | academic search engine for paper". scinapse. retrieved february . 	^ white, gregory l. ( december ). "a model of romantic jealousy". motivation and emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /bf . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ a b guerrero, laura k.; andersen, peter a.; jorgensen, peter f.; spitzberg, brian h.; eloy, sylvie v. ( december ). "coping with the green‐eyed monster: conceptualizing and measuring communicative responses to romantic jealousy". western journal of communication. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . 	^ salovey, peter; rodin, judith ( march ). "coping with envy and jealousy". journal of social and clinical psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /jscp. . . . . issn  - . 	^ bringle, robert g; renner, patricia; terry, roger l; davis, susan ( september ). "an analysis of situation and person components of jealousy". journal of research in personality. ( ): – . doi: . / - ( ) - . 	^ guerrero, laura k.; trost, melanie r.; yoshimura, stephen m. ( june ). "romantic jealousy: emotions and communicative responses". personal relationships. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. issn  - . 	^ bevan, jennifer l.; lannutti, pamela j. ( june ). "the experience and expression of romantic jealousy in same‐sex and opposite‐sex romantic relationships". communication research reports. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ ammon, rebecca ( january ). "the influence of biology and commitment beliefs on jealousy responses". all volumes ( – ). 	^ moyano, nieves; sánchez-fuentes, maría del mar; chiriboga, ariana; flórez-donado, jennifer ( october ). "factors associated with facebook jealousy in three spanish-speaking countries" (pdf). sexual and relationship therapy. ( – ): – . doi: . / . . . hdl: / . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ buunk, bram; hupka, ralph b ( ). "cross-cultural differences in the elicitation of sexual jealousy". the journal of sexual research. : – . doi: . / . 	^ burriss, r., & little, a. ( ). "effects of partner conception risk phase of male perception of dominance in faces" (pdf). evolution and human behavior. ( ): – . doi: . /j.evolhumbehav. . . .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ gangestad, s. w., thornhill, r., & garver, c. e. ( ). "changes in women's sexual interest and their partner's mate retention tactics across the menstrual cycle: evidence for shifting conflicts of interest". proceedings. biological sciences. ( ): – . doi: . /rspb. . . pmc  . pmid  .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ ammon, rebecca l. ( ). "the influence of biology and commitment beliefs on jealousy responses". the osprey journal of ideas and inquiry at unf digital commons. all volumes ( – ). 	^ rydell, mcconnell, bringle , p. . 	^ green, sabini , p. 	^ harris, christine r.; prouvost, caroline ( july ). "jealousy in dogs". plos one. ( ): e . bibcode: ploso... h. doi: . /journal.pone. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ ferris, amber l.; smith, sandi w.; greenberg, bradley s.; smith, stacy l. ( august ). "the content of reality dating shows and viewer perceptions of dating". journal of communication. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. issn  - . 	^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n frampton, jessica r.; linvill, darren l. ( july ). "green on the screen: types of jealousy and communicative responses to jealousy in romantic comedies". southern communication journal. ( ): – . doi: . / x. . . issn  - x. s cid  . 	^ a b c d e f croucher, stephen m.; homsey, dini; guarino, linda; bohlin, bethany; trumpetto, jared; izzo, anthony; huy, adrienne; sykes, tiffany (october ). "jealousy in four nations: a cross-cultural analysis". communication research reports. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . issn  - . s cid  . further reading[edit] 	peter goldie. the emotions, a philosophical exploration . oxford university press, 	w. gerrod parrott. emotions in social psychology . psychology press, 	jesse j. prinz. gut reactions: a perceptual theory of emotions. oxford university press, 	staff, p.t. (january–february ), "a devastating difference", psychology today, document id , archived from the original on april , retrieved july 	jealousy among the sangha quoting jeremy hayward from his book on chögyam trungpa rinpoche warrior-king of shambhala: remembering chögyam trungpa 	hart, s. l. & legerstee, m. (eds.) "handbook of jealousy: theory, research, and multidisciplinary approaches" . wiley-blackwell, . 	pistole, m.; roberts, a.; mosko, j. e. ( ). "commitment predictors: long-distance versus geographically close relationships". journal of counseling & development. ( ): . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	levy, kenneth n., kelly, kristen m feb ; sex differences in jealousy: a contribution from attachment theory psychological science, vol. : pp.  – 	green, m. c.; sabini, j. ( ). "gender, socioeconomic status, age, and jealousy: emotional responses to infidelity in a national sample". emotion. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	rauer, a. j.; volling, b. l. ( ). "differential parenting and sibling jealousy: developmental correlates of young adults' romantic relationships". personal relationships. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmc  . pmid  . 	pistole, m.; roberts, a.; mosko, j. e. ( ). "commitment predictors: long-distance versus geographically close relationships". journal of counseling & development. ( ): . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	tagler, m. j. ( ). "sex differences in jealousy: comparing the influence of previous infidelity among college students and adults". social psychological and personality science. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	tagler, m. j.; gentry, r. h. ( ). "gender, jealousy, and attachment: a (more) thorough examination across measures and samples". journal of research in personality. ( ): – . doi: . /j.jrp. . . . external links[edit] 		wikiquote has quotations related to: jealousy 		wikimedia commons has media related to jealousy. 		look up jealousy in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	"jealousy" . encyclopædia britannica ( th ed.). . 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 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withdrawal 	perfectionism 	self-esteem 	self-righteousness 	shamelessness 	superficial charm 	superiority complex 	true self and false self 	vanity 	defences	 	denial 	idealization and devaluation 	distortion 	projection 	splitting 	cultural phenomena	 	control freak 	don juanism 	dorian gray syndrome 	my way or the highway 	selfie 	related articles	 	codependency 	counterdependency 	dark triad 	ego ideal 	"egomania" (film) 	egotheism 	empire-building 	god complex 	history of narcissism 	messiah complex 	micromanagement 	narcissism of small differences 	narcissistic leadership 	narcissistic parent 	narcissistic personality inventory 	narcissus (mythology) 	on narcissism 	sam vaknin 	self-love 	self-serving bias 	spoiled child 	the culture of narcissism 	workplace bullying retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=jealousy&oldid= " 		categories: 	jealousy 	emotions 	narcissism 	philosophy of love 	personal life hidden categories: 	cs maint: multiple names: authors list 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december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 hatred - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	hatred 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		deep and emotional extreme dislike for other uses, see hatred (disambiguation). "hate" redirects here. for other uses, see hate (disambiguation). "hates" redirects here. for the german singer, see adrian hates. "loathe" redirects here. for the british band, see loathe (band). 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e hatred is a feeling that can cause an angry, or resentful emotional response, which can be used against certain people, or ideas.[ ] hatred is often associated with feelings of anger, disgust and a disposition towards the source of hostility. contents 	 as emotion 	 psychoanalytic views 	 legal issues 	 neurological research 	 ethnolinguistics 	 religious perspectives 	 philosophical views 	 literary explications 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading as emotion[edit] as an emotion, hatred can be short-lived or long-lasting.[ ] it can be of low intensity - 'i hate broccoli' - or high intensity: 'i hate the whole world'.[ ] robert sternberg saw three main elements in hatred: 	a negation of intimacy, by creating distance when closeness had become threatening; 	an infusion of passion, such as fear or anger; 	a decision to devalue a previously valued object.[ ] the important self-protective function, to be found in hatred,[ ] can be illustrated by steinberg's analysis of 'mutinous' hatred, whereby a dependent relationship is repudiated in a quest for autonomy.[ ] psychoanalytic views[edit] sigmund freud defined hate as an ego state that wishes to destroy the source of its unhappiness, stressing that it was linked to the question of self-preservation.[ ] donald winnicott highlighted the developmental step involved in hatred, with its recognition of an outside object: "as compared to magical destruction, aggressive ideas and behaviour take on a positive value, and hate becomes a sign of civilization".[ ] in his wake, object relations theory has emphasised the importance of recognising hate in the analytic setting: the analyst acknowledges his own hate (as revealed in the strict time-limits and the fee charged),[ ] which in turn may make it possible for the patient to acknowledge and contain their previously concealed hate for the analyst.[ ] adam phillips went so far as to suggest that true kindness is impossible in a relationship without hating and being hated, so that an unsentimental acknowledgement of interpersonal frustrations and their associated hostilities can allow real fellow-feeling to emerge.[ ] legal issues[edit] in the english language, a hate crime (also known as a "bias-motivated crime") generally refers to criminal acts which are seen to have been motivated by hate. those who commit hate crimes target victims because of their perceived membership in a certain social group, usually defined by race, gender, religion, sexual orientation, mental disorder, disability, class, ethnicity, nationality, age, gender identity, or political affiliation.[ ] incidents may involve physical assault, destruction of property, bullying, harassment, verbal abuse or insults, or offensive graffiti or letters (hate mail).[ ] hate speech is speech perceived to disparage a person or group of people based on their social or ethnic group,[ ] such as race, sex, age, ethnicity, nationality, religion, sexual orientation, gender identity, mental disorder, disability, language ability, ideology, social class, occupation, appearance (height, weight, skin color, etc.), mental capacity, and any other distinction that might be considered a liability. the term covers written as well as oral communication and some forms of behaviors in a public setting. it is also sometimes called antilocution and is the first point on allport's scale which measures prejudice in a society. in many countries, deliberate use of hate speech is a criminal offence prohibited under incitement to hatred legislation. it is often alleged that the criminalization of hate speech is sometimes used to discourage legitimate discussion of negative aspects of voluntary behavior (such as political persuasion, religious adherence and philosophical allegiance). there is also some question as to whether or not hate speech falls under the protection of freedom of speech in some countries. both of these classifications have sparked debate, with counter-arguments such as, but not limited to, a difficulty in distinguishing motive and intent for crimes, as well as philosophical debate on the validity of valuing targeted hatred as a greater crime than general misanthropy and contempt for humanity being a potentially equal crime in and of itself. neurological research[edit] the neural correlates of hate have been investigated with an fmri procedure. in this experiment, people had their brains scanned while viewing pictures of people they hated. the results showed increased activity in the middle frontal gyrus, right putamen, bilaterally in the premotor cortex, in the frontal pole, and bilaterally in the medial insular cortex of the human brain.[ ] ethnolinguistics[edit] hate, like love, takes different shapes and forms in different languages.[ ] while it may be fair to say that one single emotion exists in english, french (haine), and german (hass), hate is historically situated and culturally constructed: it varies in the forms in which it is manifested. thus a certain relationless hatred is expressed in the french expression j'ai la haine, which has no precise equivalent in english; while for english-speakers, loving and hating invariably involve an object, or a person, and therefore, a relationship with something or someone, j'ai la haine (literally, i have hate) precludes the idea of an emotion directed at a person.[ ] this is a form of frustration, apathy and animosity which churns within the subject but establishes no relationship with the world, other than an aimless desire for destruction. french forms of anti-americanism have been seen as a specific form of cultural resentment, registering joy-in-hate.[ ] religious perspectives[edit] a united nations special rapporteur on freedom and religion cited the concept of collective hatred based on religion, which he described as a man-made phenomenon caused by deliberate actions and omissions of hate-mongers.[ ] hatred can also be sanctioned by religion. the hebrew word describing david's "perfect hatred" (kjv) means that it "brings a process to completion".[ ] there also sources that explain how islam developed around hatred for unbelief since it is considered the source of evil and that adherents endeavor to spread the qur'anic faith as the vehicle for its eradication.[ ] a specific example is hate speech. it is explained that religion aims to convert new adherents and that extreme speech made against other religion or its adherents is considered a tool so that changing other's beliefs is effective.[ ] philosophical views[edit] philosophers from the ancient time sought to describe hatred and today, there are different definitions available. aristotle, for instance, viewed it as distinct from anger and rage, describing hate as a desire to annihilate an object and is incurable by time.[ ] david hume also offered his own conceptualization, maintaining that hatred is an irreducible feeling that is not definable at all.[ ] literary explications[edit] 	w b yeats had his (imaginary) hermit ribh proclaim: i study hatred with great diligence, for that's a passion in my own control, a sort of besom that can clear the soul of everything that is not mind or sense."[ ] 	doris lessing considered there was a hate-region of the mind that could be tapped rather like a radio: "you discover hatred is a kind of wavelength you can tune into...plugged into hater."[ ] see also[edit] 		look up hatred or hate in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: hatred 	discrimination 	forgiveness 	gossip 	misanthropy 	moral emotions 	nineteen eighty-four 	resentment 	revenge 	self-compassion 	self-loathing 	two minutes hate 	zelyonka attack references[edit] 	^ reber, a.s., & reber, e. ( ). the penguin dictionary of psychology. new york: penguin books. 	^ y ito ed., encyclopedia of emotion ( ) p. 	^ s kucuk, brand hate ( ) p. - 	^ y ito ed., encyclopedia of emotion ( ) p. 	^ i craib, psychoanalysis (cambridge ) p. 	^ y ito ed., encyclopedia of emotion ( ) p. 	^ s freud, 'the instincts and their vicissitudes' ( ) in on metapsychology (pfl ) p. - . 	^ d w winnicott, the child, the family, and the outside world (penguin ) p. 	^ j malcolm, psychoanalysis (london ) p. 	^ i craib, psychoanalysis (cambridge ) p. 	^ a phillips/b taylor, on kindness (london ) p. - 	^ stotzer, r.: comparison of hate crime rates across protected and unprotected groups, williams institute, – . retrieved on - - . 	^ hate crime archived november , , at the wayback machine, home office 	^ "dictionary.com: hate speech". dictionary.reference.com. retrieved - - . 	^ zeki, s.; romaya, j.p. (october ). lauwereyns, jan (ed.). "neural correlates of hate". plos one. ( ): e . bibcode: ploso... . z. doi: . /journal.pone. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ james w. underhill, ethnolinguistics and cultural concepts: truth, love, hate & war, ( ) p. 	^ james w. underhill, ethnolinguistics and cultural concepts: truth, love, hate & war, ( ) p. - 	^ james w. underhill, ethnolinguistics and cultural concepts: truth, love, hate & war, ( ) p. - 	^ temperman, jeroen ( ). religious hatred and international law: the prohibition of incitement to violence or discrimination. cambridge: cambridge university press. p.  . isbn  . 	^ harris, r laird ( - - ). theological wordbook of the old testament. moody publishers; new edition. isbn  - . 	^ johnson, james turner ( ). holy war idea in western and islamic traditions. university park, pa: the pennsylvania state university press. p.  . isbn  . 	^ howard, erica ( - - ). freedom of expression and religious hate speech in europe. routledge. isbn  . 	^ smith, tiffany watt ( - - ). the book of human emotions: from ambiguphobia to umpty -- words from around the world for how we feel. little, brown. isbn  . 	^ spencer, f. scott ( ). mixed feelings and vexed passions: exploring emotions in biblical literature. atlanta, ga: sbl press. p.  . isbn  . 	^ w. b. yeats, the poems (london ) p. 	^ d lessing, the four-gated city (london ) p. and p. further reading[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to hate. 	the psychology of hate by robert sternberg (ed.) 	hatred: the psychological descent into violence by willard gaylin 	why we hate by jack levin 	the psychology of good and evil: why children, adults, and groups help and harm others by ervin staub 	prisoners of hate: the cognitive basis of anger, hostility, and violence by aaron t. beck 	becoming evil: how ordinary people commit genocide and mass killing by james waller 	ethnolinguistics and cultural concepts: truth, love, hate & war, by james w. underhill, cambridge: cambridge university press. 	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is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 [pdf] the dynamics of contractual and relational governance: evidence from long-term public-private procurement arrangements | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /j.pursup. . . corpus id: the dynamics of contractual and relational governance: evidence from long-term public-private procurement arrangements @inproceedings{zheng thedo, title={the dynamics of contractual and relational governance: evidence from long-term public-private procurement arrangements}, author={j. zheng and j. roehrich and michael a. lewis}, year={ } } 	j. zheng, j. roehrich, michael a. lewis 	published 	business this paper investigates the detail and dynamics of how contractual and relational governance mechanisms are deployed in managing complex, long-term public–private supply arrangements. using empirical data from two uk private finance initiative (pfi) cases, the paper analyses the interplay of governance mechanisms along a timeline of project phases. conceptual and practical findings confirm that relational and contractual mechanisms are indeed complementary forms of exchange governance but also… continue reading view on ssrn purehost.bath.ac.uk save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationshighly influencial citations background citations methods citations results citations view all citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency the dynamics of inter-organisational governance: contractual and relational mechanisms in public-private supply arrangements 	j. roehrich 	business 	 	 	highly influenced 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed interplay of relational and contractual governance in public-private partnerships: the mediating role of relational norms, trust and partners' contribution 	camilo benítez-Ávila, andreas hartmann, g. dewulf, j. henseler 	business 	 	 	highly influenced 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background, results and methods save alert research feed revisiting the interplay between contractual and relational governance: a qualitative and meta-analytic investigation 	z. cao, fabrice lumineau 	sociology 	 	 	highly influenced 	view excerpts, cites background and methods save alert research feed relationship between governance mechanisms and contract performance 	dayashankar maurya, a. k. srivastava 	economics 	 	 save alert research feed governance dynamics in multi-partner r & d alliances: integrating the control and coordination perspectives 	f. barbic, a. hidalgo, r. cagliano 	business 	 	 save alert research feed the interplay of structural and relational governance in innovation alliances 	p. garbade, s. omta, f. fortuin 	business 	 	 	 save alert research feed towards a model of governance in complex (product–service) inter‐organizational systems 	j. roehrich, m. lewis 	economics 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed the interplay of governance mechanisms in complex procurement projects 	marjolein c. j. caniëls, c. gelderman, n. p. vermeulen 	business 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed toward a unified theory of project governance: economic, sociological and psychological supports for relational contracting 	witold j. henisz, r. levitt, w. scott 	business 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed mix and match: how contractual and relational conditions are combined in successful public–private partnerships 	r. warsen, e. klijn, j. koppenjan 	business 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	 	 	› references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency contractual governance, relational governance, and the performance of interfirm service exchanges: the influence of boundary-spanner closeness 	r. j. ferguson, m. paulin, j. bergeron 	business 	 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed transaction costs, relational contracting and public private partnerships: a case study of uk defence 	david parker, k. hartley 	business 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed relational contracts in china: relational governance and contractual assurance 	k. zhou, l. poppo 	business 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed do formal contracts and relational governance function as substitutes or complements 	l. poppo, t. zenger 	economics 	 	 , 	highly influential 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed post-contractual lock-in and the uk private finance initiative (pfi): the cases of national savings and investments and the lord chancellor's department 	c. lonsdale 	economics 	 	 	highly influential 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed partnerships and public procurement: building social capital through supply relations 	a. erridge, j. greer 	economics 	 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed relational contracts and the theory of the firm 	g. baker, robert r. gibbons, k. murphy 	economics, business 	 	 , 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed uncertainty, opportunism and governance: the effects of volatility and ambiguity on formal and relational contracting 	stephen j. carson, a. madhok, a. madhok, t. wu 	economics 	 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed modern governance: new government-society interactions 	j. kooiman 	political science 	 	 , 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed going privately: partnership and outsourcing in uk public services 	d. grimshaw, s. vincent, h. willmott 	economics 	 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	 	 	› related papers 	abstract 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue profit margin - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	profit margin 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		ratio between turnover and profit profit margin, net margin, net profit margin or net profit ratio is a measure of profitability. it is calculated by finding the net profit as a percentage of the revenue.[ ] 	 net profit margin = net profit revenue = revenue − cost revenue {\displaystyle {\text{net profit margin}}={{\text{net profit}} \over {\text{revenue}}}={{{\text{revenue}}-{\text{cost}}} \over {\text{revenue}}}} contents 	 overview 	 profit percentage 	 see also 	 references overview[edit] profit margin is calculated with selling price (or revenue) taken as base times . it is the percentage of selling price that is turned into profit, whereas "profit percentage" or "markup" is the percentage of cost price that one gets as profit on top of cost price. while selling something one should know what percentage of profit one will get on a particular investment, so companies calculate profit percentage to find the ratio of profit to cost. the profit margin is used mostly for internal comparison. it is difficult to accurately compare the net profit ratio for different entities. individual businesses' operating and financing arrangements vary so much that different entities are bound to have different levels of expenditure, so that comparison of one with another can have little meaning. a low profit margin indicates a low margin of safety: higher risk that a decline in sales will erase profits and result in a net loss, or a negative margin. profit margin is an indicator of a company's pricing strategies and how well it controls costs. differences in competitive strategy and product mix cause the profit margin to vary among different companies.[ ] 	if an investor makes $ revenue and it cost them $ to earn it, when they take their cost away they are left with % margin. they made % profit on their $ investment. 	if an investor makes $ revenue and it cost them $ to earn it, when they take their cost away they are left with % margin. they made % profit on their $ investment. 	if an investor makes $ revenue and it cost them $ to earn it, when they take their cost away they are left with % margin. they made . % profit on their $ investment. profit percentage[edit] on the other hand, profit percentage is calculated with cost price taken as base 	 profit percentage = net profit cost price ⋅ % {\displaystyle {\text{profit percentage}}={{\text{net profit}} \over {\text{cost price}}}\cdot \%} suppose that something is bought for $ and sold for $ . 	cost price = $ 	selling price (revenue) = $ 	profit = $ − $ = $ 	profit percentage = $ /$ = % 	profit margin = ($ - $ )/$ = % 	return on investment multiple = $ / $ (profit divided by cost). if the revenue is the same as the cost, profit percentage is %. the result above or below % can be calculated as the percentage of return on investment. in this example, the return on investment is a multiple of . of the investment, resulting in a % gain. see also[edit] 	earnings before interest and taxes 	earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization 	gross profit margin 	net income references[edit] 	^ "profit margin definition". investor words. investorguide.com. retrieved december , . 	^ "profit margin". thefreedictionary.com. retrieved december , . retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=profit_margin&oldid= " 		categories: 	profit 	financial ratios hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	azərbaycanca 	deutsch 	español 	فارسی 	français 	latviešu 	lietuvių 	nederlands 	norsk bokmål 	polski 	Русский 	Српски / srpski 	svenska 	Українська 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 suffering - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	suffering 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		pain, mental, or emotional unhappiness caused by bad things happening for physical pain, see pain. for other uses, see suffer (disambiguation) and the suffering (disambiguation). tragic mask on the façade of the royal dramatic theatre in stockholm, sweden. 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e suffering, or pain in a broad sense,[ ] may be an experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with the perception of harm or threat of harm in an individual.[ ] suffering is the basic element that makes up the negative valence of affective phenomena. the opposite of suffering is pleasure or happiness. suffering is often categorized as physical[ ] or mental.[ ] it may come in all degrees of intensity, from mild to intolerable. factors of duration and frequency of occurrence usually compound that of intensity. attitudes toward suffering may vary widely, in the sufferer or other people, according to how much it is regarded as avoidable or unavoidable, useful or useless, deserved or undeserved. suffering occurs in the lives of sentient beings in numerous manners, often dramatically. as a result, many fields of human activity are concerned with some aspects of suffering. these aspects may include the nature of suffering, its processes, its origin and causes, its meaning and significance, its related personal, social, and cultural behaviors[ ], its remedies, management, and uses. contents 	 terminology 	 philosophy 	 . ancient greek philosophy 	 . modern philosophy 	 religion 	 arts and literature 	 social sciences 	 biology, neurology, psychology 	 health care 	 relief and prevention in society 	 uses 	 see also 	 selected bibliography 	 references terminology[edit] the word suffering is sometimes used in the narrow sense of physical pain, but more often it refers to psychological pain, or more often yet it refers to pain in the broad sense, i.e. to any unpleasant feeling, emotion or sensation. the word pain usually refers to physical pain, but it is also a common synonym of suffering. the words pain and suffering are often used both together in different ways. for instance, they may be used as interchangeable synonyms. or they may be used in 'contradistinction' to one another, as in "pain is physical, suffering is mental", or "pain is inevitable, suffering is optional". or they may be used to define each other, as in "pain is physical suffering", or "suffering is severe physical or mental pain". qualifiers, such as physical, mental, emotional, and psychological, are often used to refer to certain types of pain or suffering. in particular, mental pain (or suffering) may be used in relationship with physical pain (or suffering) for distinguishing between two wide categories of pain or suffering. a first caveat concerning such a distinction is that it uses physical pain in a sense that normally includes not only the 'typical sensory experience of physical pain' but also other unpleasant bodily experiences including air hunger, hunger, vestibular suffering, nausea, sleep deprivation, and itching. a second caveat is that the terms physical or mental should not be taken too literally: physical pain or suffering, as a matter of fact, happens through conscious minds and involves emotional aspects, while mental pain or suffering happens through physical brains and, being an emotion, involves important physiological aspects. the word unpleasantness, which some people use as a synonym of suffering or pain in the broad sense, may refer to the basic affective dimension of pain (its suffering aspect), usually in contrast with the sensory dimension, as for instance in this sentence: "pain-unpleasantness is often, though not always, closely linked to both the intensity and unique qualities of the painful sensation."[ ] other current words that have a definition with some similarity to suffering include distress, unhappiness, misery, affliction, woe, ill, discomfort, displeasure, disagreeableness. philosophy[edit] ancient greek philosophy[edit] many of the hellenistic philosophies addressed suffering. in cynicism (philosophy) suffering is alleviated by achieving mental clarity or lucidity (ἁτυφια) (literally "freedom from smoke (τύφος)" which signified false belief, mindlessness, folly, and conceit), developing self-sufficiency (αὐτάρκεια), equanimity, arete, love of humanity, parrhesia, and indifference to the vicissitudes of life (adiaphora ἁδιαφορία). for pyrrhonism, suffering comes from dogmas (i.e. beliefs regarding non-evident matters), most particularly beliefs that certain things are either good or bad by nature. suffering can be removed by developing epoche (suspension of judgment) regarding beliefs, which leads to ataraxia (mental tranquility). 	part of a series on 	hedonism 	 thinkers 	ajita kesakambali 	jeremy bentham 	julien offray de la mettrie 	aristippus 	epicurus 	fred feldman 	theodorus the atheist 	michel onfray 	aristippus the younger 	hermarchus 	lucretius 	pierre gassendi 	metrodorus of lampsacus 	david pearce 	zeno of sidon 	yang zhu 	torbjörn tännsjö 	esperanza guisán 	 schools of hedonism 	cārvāka 	cyrenaics 	epicureanism 	christian hedonism 	utilitarianism 	yangism 	 key concepts 	aponia 	ataraxia 	eudaimonia 	happiness 	hedone 	pain 	pleasure 	sensation 	suffering 	tetrapharmakos 	libertine 	 related articles 	paradox of hedonism 	hedonic treadmill 	 	v 	t 	e epicurus (contrary to common misperceptions of his doctrine) advocated that we should first seek to avoid suffering (aponia) and that the greatest pleasure lies in ataraxia, free from the worrisome pursuit or the unwelcome consequences of ephemeral pleasures. epicureanism's version of hedonism, as an ethical theory, claims that good and bad consist ultimately in pleasure and pain. for stoicism, the greatest good lies in reason and virtue, but the soul best reaches it through a kind of indifference (apatheia) to pleasure and pain: as a consequence, this doctrine has become identified with stern self-control in regard to suffering. modern philosophy[edit] 	part of a series on 	utilitarianism 	 predecessors 	epicurus 	Śāntideva 	david hume 	claude adrien helvétius 	william godwin 	francis hutcheson 	william paley 	 key proponents 	jeremy bentham 	john stuart mill 	henry sidgwick 	r. m. hare 	peter singer 	 types of utilitarianism 	negative 	rule 	act 	two-level 	total 	average 	preference 	classical 	 key concepts 	pain 	suffering 	pleasure 	utility 	happiness 	eudaimonia 	consequentialism 	felicific calculus 	 problems 	demandingness objection 	mere addition paradox 	paradox of hedonism 	utility monster 	 related topics 	rational choice theory 	game theory 	social choice 	neoclassical economics 	population ethics 	effective altruism 	 politics portal 	 	v 	t 	e jeremy bentham developed hedonistic utilitarianism, a popular doctrine in ethics, politics, and economics. bentham argued that the right act or policy was that which would cause "the greatest happiness of the greatest number". he suggested a procedure called hedonic or felicific calculus, for determining how much pleasure and pain would result from any action. john stuart mill improved and promoted the doctrine of hedonistic utilitarianism. karl popper, in the open society and its enemies, proposed a negative utilitarianism, which prioritizes the reduction of suffering over the enhancement of happiness when speaking of utility: "i believe that there is, from the ethical point of view, no symmetry between suffering and happiness, or between pain and pleasure. (...) human suffering makes a direct moral appeal for help, while there is no similar call to increase the happiness of a man who is doing well anyway." david pearce, for his part, advocates a utilitarianism that aims straightforwardly at the abolition of suffering through the use of biotechnology (see more details below in section biology, neurology, psychology). another aspect worthy of mention here is that many utilitarians since bentham hold that the moral status of a being comes from its ability to feel pleasure and pain: therefore, moral agents should consider not only the interests of human beings but also those of (other) animals. richard ryder came to the same conclusion in his concepts of 'speciesism' and 'painism'. peter singer's writings, especially the book animal liberation, represent the leading edge of this kind of utilitarianism for animals as well as for people. another doctrine related to the relief of suffering is humanitarianism (see also humanitarian principles, humanitarian aid, and humane society). "where humanitarian efforts seek a positive addition to the happiness of sentient beings, it is to make the unhappy happy rather than the happy happier. (...) [humanitarianism] is an ingredient in many social attitudes; in the modern world it has so penetrated into diverse movements (...) that it can hardly be said to exist in itself."[ ] pessimists hold this world to be mainly bad, or even the worst possible, plagued with, among other things, unbearable and unstoppable suffering. some identify suffering as the nature of the world and conclude that it would be better if life did not exist at all. arthur schopenhauer recommends us to take refuge in things like art, philosophy, loss of the will to live, and tolerance toward 'fellow-sufferers'. friedrich nietzsche, first influenced by schopenhauer, developed afterward quite another attitude, arguing that the suffering of life is productive, exalting the will to power, despising weak compassion or pity, and recommending us to embrace willfully the 'eternal return' of the greatest sufferings.[citation needed] philosophy of pain is a philosophical speciality that focuses on physical pain and is, through that, relevant to suffering in general. religion[edit] mahaviratorch-bearer of ahimsa suffering plays an important role in a number of religions, regarding matters such as the following: consolation or relief; moral conduct (do no harm, help the afflicted, show compassion); spiritual advancement through life hardships or through self-imposed trials (mortification of the flesh, penance, asceticism); ultimate destiny (salvation, damnation, hell). theodicy deals with the problem of evil, which is the difficulty of reconciling the existence of an omnipotent and benevolent god with the existence of evil: a quintessential form of evil, for many people, is extreme suffering, especially in innocent children, or in creatures destined to an eternity of torments (see problem of hell). the 'four noble truths' of buddhism are about dukkha, a term often translated as suffering. they state the nature of suffering, its cause, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation, the noble eightfold path. buddhism considers liberation from dukkha and the practice of compassion (karuna) as basic for leading a holy life and attaining nirvana. hinduism holds that suffering follows naturally from personal negative behaviors in one's current life or in a past life (see karma in hinduism).[ ] one must accept suffering as a just consequence and as an opportunity for spiritual progress. thus the soul or true self, which is eternally free of any suffering, may come to manifest itself in the person, who then achieves liberation (moksha). abstinence from causing pain or harm to other beings, called ahimsa, is a central tenet of hinduism, and even more so of another indian religion, jainism (see ahimsa in jainism). in judaism, suffering is often seen as a punishment for sins and a test of a person's faith, like the book of job illustrates. for christianity, redemptive suffering is the belief that human suffering, when accepted and offered up in union with the passion of jesus[ ], can remit the just punishment for sins and allow to grow in the love of god, others and oneself.[ ] in islam, the faithful must endure suffering with hope and faith, not resist or ask why, accept it as allah's will and submit to it as a test of faith. allah never asks more than can be endured. one must also work to alleviate the suffering of others, as well as one's own. suffering is also seen as a blessing. through that gift, the sufferer remembers god and connects with him. suffering expunges the sins of human beings and cleanses their soul for the immense reward of the afterlife, and the avoidance of hell.[ ] according to the bahá'í faith, all suffering is a brief and temporary manifestation of physical life, whose source is the material aspects of physical existence, and often attachment to them, whereas only joy exists in the spiritual worlds.[ ] arts and literature[edit] landscape with the fall of icarusby pieter brueghel the elder artistic and literary works often engage with suffering, sometimes at great cost to their creators or performers. the literature, arts, and medicine database offers a list of such works under the categories art, film, literature, and theater. be it in the tragic, comic or other genres, art and literature offer means to alleviate (and perhaps also exacerbate) suffering, as argued for instance in harold schweizer's suffering and the remedy of art.[ ] this brueghel painting is among those that inspired w. h. auden's poem musée des beaux arts: about suffering they were never wrong, the old masters; how well, they understood its human position; how it takes place while someone else is eating or opening a window or just walking dully along; (...) in breughel's icarus, for instance: how everything turns away quite leisurely from the disaster; (...)[ ] social sciences[edit] social suffering, according to arthur kleinman and others, describes "collective and individual human suffering associated with life conditions shaped by powerful social forces".[ ] such suffering is an increasing concern in medical anthropology, ethnography, mass media analysis, and holocaust studies, says iain wilkinson,[ ] who is developing a sociology of suffering.[ ] the encyclopedia of world problems and human potential is a work by the union of international associations. its main databases are about world problems ( , profiles), global strategies and solutions ( , profiles), human values ( , profiles), and human development ( , profiles). it states that "the most fundamental entry common to the core parts is that of pain (or suffering)" and "common to the core parts is the learning dimension of new understanding or insight in response to suffering".[ ] ralph g.h. siu, an american author, urged in the "creation of a new and vigorous academic discipline, called panetics, to be devoted to the study of the infliction of suffering",[ ] the international society for panetics was founded in to study and develop ways to reduce the infliction of human suffering by individuals acting through professions, corporations, governments, and other social groups.[ ] in economics, the following notions relate not only to the matters suggested by their positive appellations, but to the matter of suffering as well: well-being or quality of life, welfare economics, happiness economics, gross national happiness, genuine progress indicator. in law, "pain and suffering" is a legal term that refers to the mental distress or physical pain endured by a plaintiff as a result of injury for which the plaintiff seeks redress. assessments of pain and suffering are required to be made for attributing legal awards. in the western world these are typical made by juries in a discretionary fashion and are regarded as subjective, variable, and difficult to predict, for instance in the us,[ ] uk,[ ] australia,[ ] and new zealand.[ ] see also, in us law, negligent infliction of emotional distress and intentional infliction of emotional distress. in management and organization studies, drawing on the work of eric cassell, suffering has been defined as the distress a person experiences when they perceive a threat to any aspect of their continued existence, whether physical, psychological, or social.[ ] other researchers have noted that suffering results from an inability to control actions that usually define one's view of one's self and that the characteristics of suffering include the loss of autonomy, or the loss of valued relationships or sense of self. suffering is therefore determined not by the threat itself but, rather, by its meaning to the individual and the threat to their personhood.[ ] biology, neurology, psychology[edit] suffering and pleasure are respectively the negative and positive affects, or hedonic tones, or valences that psychologists often identify as basic in our emotional lives.[ ] the evolutionary role of physical and mental suffering, through natural selection, is primordial: it warns of threats, motivates coping (fight or flight, escapism), and reinforces negatively certain behaviors (see punishment, aversives). despite its initial disrupting nature, suffering contributes to the organization of meaning in an individual's world and psyche. in turn, meaning determines how individuals or societies experience and deal with suffering. neuroimaging sheds light on the seat of suffering many brain structures and physiological processes are involved in suffering (particularly the anterior insula and cingulate cortex, both implicated in nociceptive and empathic pain).[ ] various hypotheses try to account for the experience of suffering. one of these, the pain overlap theory[ ] takes note, thanks to neuroimaging studies, that the cingulate cortex fires up when the brain feels suffering from experimentally induced social distress or physical pain as well. the theory proposes therefore that physical pain and social pain (i.e. two radically differing kinds of suffering) share a common phenomenological and neurological basis. according to david pearce’s online manifesto "the hedonistic imperative,"[ ] suffering is the avoidable result of darwinian genetic design. pearce promotes replacing the pain/pleasure axis with a robot-like response to noxious stimuli[ ] or with gradients of bliss,[ ] through genetic engineering and other technical scientific advances. hedonistic psychology,[ ] affective science, and affective neuroscience are some of the emerging scientific fields that could in the coming years focus their attention on the phenomenon of suffering. health care[edit] disease and injury may contribute to suffering in humans and animals. for example, suffering may be a feature of mental or physical illness[ ] such as borderline personality disorder[ ][ ] and occasionally in advanced cancer.[ ] health care addresses this suffering in many ways, in subfields such as medicine, clinical psychology, psychotherapy, alternative medicine, hygiene, public health, and through various health care providers. however..."if people feel unhappy when burdened by negative life events, this is no mental disorder, but “healthy suffering” . it is of great importance not to medicalize such everyday problems."[ ] health care approaches to suffering, however, remain problematic. physician and author eric cassell, widely cited on the subject of attending to the suffering person as a primary goal of medicine, has defined suffering as "the state of severe distress associated with events that threaten the intactness of the person".[ ] cassell writes: "the obligation of physicians to relieve human suffering stretches back to antiquity. despite this fact, little attention is explicitly given to the problem of suffering in medical education, research or practice." mirroring the traditional body and mind dichotomy that underlies its teaching and practice, medicine strongly distinguishes pain from suffering, and most attention goes to the treatment of pain. nevertheless, physical pain itself still lacks adequate attention from the medical community, according to numerous reports.[ ] besides, some medical fields like palliative care, pain management (or pain medicine), oncology, or psychiatry, do somewhat address suffering 'as such'. in palliative care, for instance, pioneer cicely saunders created the concept of 'total pain' ('total suffering' say now the textbooks),[ ] which encompasses the whole set of physical and mental distress, discomfort, symptoms, problems, or needs that a patient may experience hurtfully. relief and prevention in society[edit] since suffering is such a universal motivating experience, people, when asked, can relate their activities to its relief and prevention. farmers, for instance, may claim that they prevent famine, artists may say that they take our minds off our worries, and teachers may hold that they hand down tools for coping with life hazards. in certain aspects of collective life, however, suffering is more readily an explicit concern by itself. such aspects may include public health, human rights, humanitarian aid, disaster relief, philanthropy, economic aid, social services, insurance, and animal welfare. to these can be added the aspects of security and safety, which relate to precautionary measures taken by individuals or families, to interventions by the military, the police, the firefighters, and to notions or fields like social security, environmental security, and human security. the nongovernmental research organization center on long-term risk, formerly known as the foundational research institute, focuses on reducing risks of astronomical suffering (s-risks) from emerging technologies.[ ]. another organization also focused on research, the center on reducing suffering, has a similar focus, with a stress on clarifying what priorities there should be at a practical level to attain the goal of reducing intense suffering in the future.[ ] uses[edit] philosopher leonard katz wrote: "but nature, as we now know, regards ultimately only fitness and not our happiness (...), and does not scruple to use hate, fear, punishment and even war alongside affection in ordering social groups and selecting among them, just as she uses pain as well as pleasure to get us to feed, water and protect our bodies and also in forging our social bonds."[ ] people make use of suffering for specific social or personal purposes in many areas of human life, as can be seen in the following instances: 	in arts, literature, or entertainment, people may use suffering for creation, for performance, or for enjoyment. entertainment particularly makes use of suffering in blood sports and violence in the media, including violent video games depiction of suffering.[ ] a more or less great amount of suffering is involved in body art. the most common forms of body art include tattooing, body piercing, scarification, human branding. another form of body art is a sub-category of performance art, in which for instance the body is mutilated or pushed to its physical limits. 	in business and various organizations, suffering may be used for constraining humans or animals into required behaviors. 	in a criminal context, people may use suffering for coercion, revenge, or pleasure. 	in interpersonal relationships, especially in places like families, schools, or workplaces, suffering is used for various motives, particularly under the form of abuse and punishment. in another fashion related to interpersonal relationships, the sick, or victims, or malingerers, may use suffering more or less voluntarily to get primary, secondary, or tertiary gain. 	in law, suffering is used for punishment (see penal law ); victims may refer to what legal texts call "pain and suffering" to get compensation; lawyers may use a victim's suffering as an argument against the accused; an accused's or defendant's suffering may be an argument in their favor; authorities at times use light or heavy torture in order to get information or a confession. 	in the news media, suffering is often the raw material.[ ] 	in personal conduct, people may use suffering for themselves, in a positive way.[ ] personal suffering may lead, if bitterness, depression, or spitefulness is avoided, to character-building, spiritual growth, or moral achievement;[ ] realizing the extent or gravity of suffering in the world may motivate one to relieve it and may give an inspiring direction to one's life. alternatively, people may make self-detrimental use of suffering. some may be caught in compulsive reenactment of painful feelings in order to protect them from seeing that those feelings have their origin in unmentionable past experiences; some may addictively indulge in disagreeable emotions like fear, anger, or jealousy, in order to enjoy pleasant feelings of arousal or release that often accompany these emotions; some may engage in acts of self-harm aimed at relieving otherwise unbearable states of mind. 	in politics, there is purposeful infliction of suffering in war, torture, and terrorism; people may use nonphysical suffering against competitors in nonviolent power struggles; people who argue for a policy may put forward the need to relieve, prevent or avenge suffering; individuals or groups may use past suffering as a political lever in their favor. 	in religion, suffering is used especially to grow spiritually, to expiate, to inspire compassion and help, to frighten, to punish. 	in rites of passage (see also hazing, ragging), rituals that make use of suffering are frequent. 	in science, humans and animals are subjected on purpose to aversive experiences for the study of suffering or other phenomena. 	in sex, especially in a context of sadism and masochism or bdsm, individuals may use a certain amount of physical or mental suffering (e.g. pain, humiliation). 	in sports, suffering may be used to outperform competitors or oneself; see sports injury, and no pain, no gain; see also blood sport and violence in sport as instances of pain-based entertainment. see also[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to human suffering. 		look up suffering in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: suffering 	 	topics related to suffering 	physical pain-related topics 	pain · pain in animals · pain in invertebrates · pain (philosophy) · psychogenic pain · chronic pain 	ethics-related topics 	evil · problem of evil · hell · good and evil: welfarist theories  · negative consequentialism  · suffering-focused ethics 	compassion-related topics 	compassion · compassion fatigue · pity · mercy · sympathy · empathy 	cruelty-related topics 	cruelty · schadenfreude · sadistic personality disorder · abuse · physical abuse · psychological or emotional abuse · self-harm · cruelty to animals 	death-related topics 	euthanasia · animal euthanasia · suicide 	other related topics 	eradication of suffering · dukkha · weltschmerz · negative affectivity · psychological pain · amor fati · dystopia · victimology · penology · pleasure · pain and pleasure · happiness · hedonic treadmill · wild animal suffering selected bibliography[edit] 	joseph a. amato. victims and values: a history and a theory of suffering. new york: praeger, . isbn  - - - 	james davies. the importance of suffering: the value and meaning of emotional discontent. london: routledge isbn  - - - 	cynthia halpern. suffering, politics, power: a genealogy in modern political theory. albany: state university of new york press, . isbn  - - - 	jamie mayerfeld. suffering and moral responsibility. new york: oxford university press, . isbn  - - - 	thomas metzinger. suffering.in kurt almqvist & anders haag ( )[eds.], the return of consciousness. stockholm: axel and margaret ax:son johnson foundation. isbn  - - - - 	david b. morris. the culture of pain. berkeley: university of california, . isbn  - - - 	elaine scarry. the body in pain: the making and unmaking of the world. new york: oxford university press, . isbn  - - - 	ronald anderson. world suffering and quality of life, social indicators research series, volume , . isbn  - - - - ; also: human suffering and quality of life, springerbriefs in well-being and quality of life research, . isbn  - - - - references[edit] 	^ see 'terminology'. see also the entry 'pleasure' in stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, which begins with this paragraph: "pleasure, in the inclusive usages most important in moral psychology, ethical theory, and the studies of mind, includes all joy and gladness – all our feeling good, or happy. it is often contrasted with similarly inclusive pain or suffering, which is similarly thought of as including all our feeling bad." it should be mentioned that most encyclopedias, like the one mentioned above and britannica, do not have an article about suffering and describe pain in the physical sense only. 	^ for instance, wayne hudson in historicizing suffering, chapter of perspectives on human suffering (jeff malpas and norelle lickiss, editors, springer, ) : "according to the standard account suffering is a universal human experience described as a negative basic feeling or emotion that involves a subjective character of unpleasantness, aversion, harm or threat of harm to body or mind (spelman ; cassell )." 	^ examples of physical suffering: pain of various types, excessive heat, excessive cold, itching, hunger, thirst, nausea, air hunger, sleep deprivation. "iasp pain terminology". archived from the original on september , . retrieved september , . "uab – school of medicine – center for palliative and supportive care". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . other examples are given by l. w. sumner, on p. of welfare, happiness, and ethics: "think for a moment of the many physical symptoms which, when persistent, can make our lives miserable: nausea, hiccups, sneezing, dizziness, disorientation, loss of balance, itching, 'pins and needles', 'restless legs', tics, twitching, fatigue, difficulty in breathing, and so on." 	^ mental suffering can also be called psychological or emotional (see psychological pain). examples of mental suffering: depression (mood) / hopelessness, grief, sadness / loneliness / heartbreak, disgust, irritation, anger, jealousy, envy, craving or yearning, frustration, anguish, angst, fear, anxiety / panic, shame / guilt, regret, embarrassment / humiliation, restlessness. 	^ eggerman, panter brick, mark, catherine ( ). "suffering, hope, and entrapment: resilience and cultural values in afghanistan". social science & medicine. ( ): – . doi: . /j.socscimed. . . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ donald d. price, central neural mechanisms that interrelate sensory and affective dimensions of pain archived - - at the wayback machine, ‘’molecular interventions’’ : – ( ). 	^ crane brinton, article humanitarianism, encyclopaedia of the social sciences, 	^ kane, p.v. history of the dharmaśāstras vol. p. 	^ r. peteet, m.d., john ( ). "putting suffering into perspective". the journal of psychotherapy practice and research. ( ): – . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ on the christian meaning of human suffering archived september , , at the wayback machine. 	^ suffering an islamic point of view:"sufferings are divine grace". - - . archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ in the words of `abdu'l-bahá: "all these examples are to show you that the trials which beset our every step, all our sorrow, pain, shame and grief, are born in the world of matter; whereas the spiritual kingdom never causes sadness. a man living with his thoughts in this kingdom knows perpetual joy." paris talks, p. . 	^ schweizer, harold ( ). suffering and the remedy of art. albany, ny: state university of new york press. isbn  - - - . 	^ w.h. auden, musée des beaux arts ( ) in collected poems p. (e. mendelson ed. ) 	^ social suffering. daedalus. proc amer acad arts sciences ; ( ). 	^ iain wilkinson, suffering – a sociological introduction, polity press, 	^ "school of social policy, sociology and social research". archived from the original on september , . retrieved july , . 	^ "encyclopedia of world problems and human potential project – commentaries | union of international associations (uia)". uia.be. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ ralph g.h. siu, panetics − the study of the infliction of suffering, journal of humanistic psychology, vol. no. , summer . see also ralph g. h. siu, panetics trilogy, washington: the international society for panetics, , isbn  - - - . 	^ "isp". panetics.info. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ ronen avraham. "putting a price on pain-and-suffering damages: a critique of the current approaches and a preliminary peoposal for change" (pdf). archived from the original (pdf) on july , . retrieved february , . 	^ personal injuries – citizens advice scotland archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ australia 	^ "archived copy" (pdf). archived (pdf) from the original on - - . retrieved - - .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) 	^ a b gill, m j. ( ). "the significance of suffering in organizations: understanding variation in workers' responses to multiple modes of control". academy of management review. ( ): – . doi: . /amr. . . 	^ giovanna colombetti, appraising valence archived september , , at the wayback machine, journal of consciousness studies ( - ), pp. – ( ). 	^ zaki, jamil; wager, tor d.; singer, tania; keysers, christian; gazzola, valeria (april ). "the anatomy of suffering: understanding the relationship between nociceptive and empathic pain". trends in cognitive sciences. ( ): – . doi: . /j.tics. . . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ "pain overlap theory" (pdf). archived from the original (pdf) on february , . retrieved - - . 	^ the hedonistic imperative: table of contents archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ see vanity fair interview with pearce archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ see life in the far north – an information-theoretic perspective on heaven archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ kahneman, d., e. diener and n. schwartz (eds.) well-being: the foundations of hedonistic psychology, russell sage foundation, 	^ s, fleischman ( ). "journal of medical humanities". kluwer academic publishers-plenum publishers. : : – . doi: . /a: . s cid  . 	^ fertuck, ea.; jekal, a.; song, i.; wyman, b.; morris, mc.; wilson, st.; brodsky, bs.; stanley, b. (december ). "enhanced 'reading the mind in the eyes' in borderline personality disorder compared to healthy controls". psychological medicine. ( ): – . doi: . /s x. pmc  . pmid  . 	^ diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (dsm-iv) ( th ed.). washington, dc: american psychiatric association. . isbn  - - - - . 	^ wilson, kg.; chochinov, hm.; mcpherson, cj.; lemay, k.; allard, p.; chary, s.; gagnon, pr.; macmillan, k.; de luca, m.; o'shea, f.; kuhl, d.; fainsinger, rl. (may , ). "suffering with advanced cancer". journal of clinical oncology. ( ): – . doi: . /jco. . . . pmid  . 	^ m., linden ( ). "euthymic suffering and wisdom psychology. world psychiatry". world psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . /wps. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ eric j cassell, the nature of suffering and the goals of medicine, . 	^ see for instance the national pain care policy act of archived may , , at the wayback machine 	^ see existential pain – an entity, a provocation, or a challenge? in journal of pain symptom and management, volume , issue , pp. – (march ) 	^ "about us". center on long-term risk. retrieved may , . we currently focus on efforts to reduce the worst risks of astronomical suffering (s-risks) from emerging technologies, with a focus on transformative artificial intelligence. 	^ center on reducing suffering ( ) "about us". 	^ katz, leonard david ( ). evolutionary origins of morality: cross-disciplinary perspectives. devon: imprint academic. p. xv. isbn  - - -x. 	^ carlsson, ulla. "children and media violence". altruistic world online library. retrieved november . 	^ see for instance francisco ibáñez-carrasco, erica r. meiners (eds.); suzanne de castell (foreword) ( ). public acts: disruptive readings on making curriculum public. new york: routledgefalmer. p.  . isbn  - - - .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) : "in our era of information saturation, media uses pain, suffering, and desire to distract and to create spectacular roadkill out of poverty, deviancy, and violence (...)". see also for instance arthur kleinman about the uses and abuses of images of suffering in the media. 	^ see for instance viktor frankl's man's search for meaning 	^ fukuyama, francis ( ). our posthuman future: consequences of the biotechnology revolution. new york: farrar, straus and giroux. isbn  - - - . 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 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navigation 		jump to search 		swift trust is a form of trust occurring in temporary organizational structures, which can include quick starting groups or teams. it was first explored by debra meyerson and colleagues in . in swift trust theory, a group or team assumes trust initially, and later verifies and adjusts trust beliefs accordingly.[ ] traditionally, trust has been examined in the context of long-term relationships. the establishment of trust has been thought to rely largely on the history of a group and the interactions between members. this traditional view of trust generally assumes that trust builds over time. however, this view is becoming problematic with the increase in globalization, change in technologies, and an increased reliance on temporary teams by organizations. meyerson et al. propose that swift trust provides the necessary, initial, cognitive confidence for a temporary team to interact as if trust were present. however, swift trust requires an individual to verify that a team can manage vulnerabilities and expectations.[ ] contents 	 trust in teams 	 conventional models of trust 	 conventional models of time-dependent trust 	 in organizations 	 components 	 . cognitive components 	 . normative components 	 swift trust in different work teams 	 . swift trust in global virtual teams 	 . swift trust in swift starting action teams 	 criticisms 	 see also 	 references trust in teams[edit] researchers study trust at the group or team level because of trust's relationship to overall group performance. high levels of trust are related to increased positive attitudes toward the organization, increased attitudinal commitment to the group, and team satisfaction.[ ] trust is also related to higher levels of autonomy in the team.[ ] therefore, it is interesting that groups that are short lived, and do not experience traditional forms of trust building, are still able to experience the benefits of trust within the group. conventional models of trust[edit] the trust literature distinguishes two antecedents of trust: trustworthiness and trust propensity. trustworthiness is the ability, benevolence, and integrity of a trustee, and trust propensity is a dispositional willingness to rely on others.[ ] traditional forms of trust formation center on the "unique effects of ability, benevolence, and integrity on trust; the mediating role of trust in explaining the relationships between trustworthiness, trust propensity, and behavioral outcomes" (p.  ).[ ] there are three dimensions of trustworthiness that have significant, unique relationships with trust (ability, benevolence, and integrity). these trustworthiness dimensions reflect both cognition-based and affect-based sources of trust. of course, trust often still requires a leap beyond the expectations that ability, benevolence, and integrity can create. trust propensity may then play a role in driving that leap.[ ] this categorization of antecedents of trust is partially relevant, but not a sufficient explanation for the formation of swift trust. situations that arise that would require a form of swift trust may be unable to foster the antecedents necessary for traditional trust formation. integrity and ability would not have adequate time to establish themselves in a swift starting group setting. however, benevolence as an antecedent may be helpful in the explanation of swift trust in that it is a more affective acknowledgment of mutual concern inherent in the relationship.[ ] additionally, higher levels of trust propensity might foster greater levels of trust in a situation that would require swift trust. conventional models of time-dependent trust[edit] deterrence-based trust occurs when an individual fears punishment; as a result, an individual holds true to his or her responsibilities. in knowledge-based trust, some knowledge is known of the trustee and this allows the trustor to understand and predict the trustee's actions. identification-based trust allows for one member to act as an agent for another member because they identify with each other based on their common goals and shared values.[ ] there is also an institutional, or impersonal, form of trust, which, according to luhmann ( ),[ ] is based on the norms of an institution rather than emotional bonds or past history between members. for example, institutional trust is what allows seeming strangers to engage in contracts, due to the faith in the legal system. however, both the interpersonal and impersonal forms of trust assume that the relationship will have some longevity. benefits that a team gains from being trustful tend to be long term, and conversely, the benefits of acting in an untrustful manner are generally short term.[ ] because both the impersonal and interpersonal forms for trust assume some sort of longevity, swift trust addresses the ability of a temporary team to form and maintain high levels of trust. in organizations[edit] given the fact that temporary work teams are frequently utilized in an organization, it is necessary to understand how trust is being formed within these teams. generally, trust is assumed to build over time, with a trustor updating beliefs about the trust-related attributes of the trustee.[ ][ ] swift trust is an explanation of trust development in these temporary, nonconventional teams. swift trust is "a unique form of collective perception and relating that is capable of managing issues of vulnerability, uncertainty, risk, and expectations".[ ]: instead of trust being an evidence-driven information process, swift trust is created from category-driven processes. because a temporary group is under time constraints, the group only has time for quick categorization of team members. this can result in groupings based on surface characteristics like tone of voice or style of dress.[ ] meyerson et al. propose that a temporary team interacts as if trust were present, but then must verify that the team can manage expectations. in other words, because time is limited, the team assumes trust initially, and later verifies and adjusts trust beliefs accordingly. although swift trust can still be a strong form of trust, it is conditional and in need of reinforcement and calibration by actions.[ ] as previously mentioned, trust is not always time-dependent. one of the ways researchers examine the interaction between trust and time is through the classic prisoner's dilemma experiments. in these experiments, many participants were willing to share money with a stranger in the hope that he or she would also share his or her money, allowing both participants to split the money equally. the results indicated that participants were more likely to share their earnings with a fellow participant rather than steal from them. given that these participants had no prior interaction, it is interesting to examine the trust between them. these prisoner's dilemma experiments highly relate to swift trust theory because in both instances trust is present almost immediately, despite the lack of prior interaction between the individuals.[ ] components[edit] swift trust has both cognitive and normative (i.e., ideal or standard) components. the cognitive components of swift trust involve early trusting beliefs, while the normative components reinforce this trust. meyerson et al. explain the normative components as providing "social proofs" and "fail-safe mechanisms" that can regulate trust and "avoid exaggerated confidence".[ ][ ] cognitive components[edit] the cognitive components of swift trust relate to collective perceptions of the group that are immediately apparent and are based on expectations related to social identities and self-categorizations.[ ][ ] when individual group members are not able to rely on prior interactions with other team members, they rely on these social or self-categories to promote favorable in-group beliefs and actions that foster early trusting behavior. these early trusting beliefs tend to be self reinforcing in that individuals focus on information that validates their trusting beliefs while contrary evidence may go unnoticed.[ ] normative components[edit] while cognitive components of swift trust are important for the start-up of the team, they may not be sufficient for maintaining trust, especially in the face of high uncertainty and in electronic contexts like virtual teams.[ ] therefore, many believe that normative action components are necessary components in swift trust. according to meyerson et al.,[ ] swift trust erodes with "deviations from or violations of group norms and presumptions about competent...behavior" of the team (p.  ). crisp and jarvenpaa[ ] propose that the normative influence on swift trust may be much more important than originally theorized by meyerson et al. norms promote adaptive behavior by providing guidelines for what is considered acceptable in a group or team.[ ] normative actions build on early trusting beliefs and help increase confidence in the team's abilities and can help the team overcome obstacles. by setting norms and mutually agreed upon standards, and acting in accordance, the team reinforces the social attraction to the group. normative actions also promote positive attributions of other group member's behavior.[ ] normative and cognitive components interact in swift trust by working in conjunction with one another. cognitive components continue to interrelate with normative actions, complementing one another, not replacing one another. for example, if teams have low early trusting beliefs, strong normative actions may be seen as controlling and inhibiting rather than coordinating and helpful.[ ] some researchers have noted that because many temporary teams are geographically separated or have members from different cultures and social systems, accepted norms could vary significantly.[ ] in fact, in a study by postmes, spears, and lea, ( ),[ ] normative influences emerged over time, not through preconceived rules. in essence, interaction over time defined appropriate group behavior not preconceived norms. while norms may provide a source for influencing behavior, it is the normative actions that provide the mechanisms for explaining the nature of normative influence.[ ] swift trust in different work teams[edit] swift trust has been studied in a variety of work groups, like global virtual teams (gvt) and swift starting action teams (stats). as of [update], a contract-based, temporary workforce is becoming the norm rather than the exception. this shift is seen in many organizations' reliance on ad-hoc, non-traditional teams.[ ] swift trust in global virtual teams[edit] a virtual team, as defined by kristof et al. ,[ ] is "a self-managed knowledge work team, with distributed expertise, that forms and disbands to address a specific organizational goal." these teams generally have limited communication due to large time and space differences and rely largely on electronic communication.[ ] swift trust is critical to virtual teams when there is limited or no time to build interpersonal relationships. trust is based on an early assumption that the given team is trustworthy, but this assumption is verified through actions around the joint task, scheduling, and monitoring.[ ] swift trust in swift starting action teams[edit] swift starting action teams (stats) are highly independent teams composed of skilled individuals that work together to quickly and effectively complete a demanding, complex, time-pressured, and high-stakes project. these individuals have no prior experience with one another and must perform their task almost immediately upon formation. traditional theories of trust formation do not adequately explain how trust forms in stats, given that there is no prior experience with team members to establish trust and the team must work immediately. like gvts, researchers believe that stats also utilize swift trust. swift trust provides a basis for explaining how stats are able to have trust within the team.[ ] criticisms[edit] swift trust theory is not without its criticisms. swift trust is fragile and cannot be sustained without subsequent communication. jarvenpaa and leidner note that it is necessary but not sufficient for the communication of trustworthiness.[ ] additionally, some researchers have suggested that swift trust as theorized by meyerson et al.[ ] is not a true form of trust, but rather a substitution of trust. it is suggested that swift trust is simply a risk management strategy. furthermore, swift trust might inhibit actual trust building between the trustor and trustee.[ ] see also[edit] 	industrial-organizational psychology 	psychology portal 	virtual team references[edit] 	^ a b c d e f g h meyerson, d., weick, k. e., & kramer, r. m. ( ). swift trust and temporary groups. in	thousand oaks, ca: sage. 	^ costa, a. c. ( ). work team trust and effectiveness. personnel review, ( ), - . 	^ langfred, c. ( ). too much of a good thing? negative effects of high trust and individual autonomy in self-managing teams. academy of management journal, ( ), . 	^ a b c d colquitt, j. a., scott, b. a., & lepine, j. a. ( ). trust, trustworthiness, and trust propensity: a meta-analytic test of their unique relationships with risk taking and job performance. journal of applied psychology, ( ), . 	^ shapiro, d. l., sheppard, b. h., charaskin, l. ( ). "business on a handshake," negotiation journal, , - . 	^ luhmann, n. ( ). trust and power. new york: wiley & sons inc. 	^ a b jarvenpaa, s. l., shaw, t. r., & staples, d. ( ). toward contextualized theories of trust: the role of trust in global virtual teams. information systems research, ( ), - .doi: . /isre. . 	^ bhattacharya, a. ( ). formal model of trust based on outcomes. the academy of management review, ( ), – 	^ mayer, r. c., davis, j., h., & schoorman, d. f., an integrative model of trust. the academy of management review, ( ), - 	^ a b kohler, t., cortina, j. m., salas, e., & garven, a. j., ( ). trust in temporary work groups. unpublished manuscript, department of management and marketing, the university of melbourne. 	^ a b mcknight, d. h. ( ). initial trust formation in new organizational relationships. (special topic forum on trust in and between organizations). the academy of management review, ( ), . 	^ a b c d e f g h crisp, c. b. & jarvenpaa, s.l., ( ). swift trust in global virtual teams trusting beliefs and normative actions. journal of personnel psychology, ( ), - . 	^ hogg, m. a., terry, d. j. ( ). social identity and self-categorization processes in organizational contexts. the academy of management review, ( ), – . 	^ cialdini, r. b., & trost, m. r. ( ). social influence: social norms, conformity, and compliance. in d. t. gilbert, s. t. fiske, & g. lindzey (eds.), the handbook of social psychology (vol. , pp. – ). new york, ny: mcgraw-hill. 	^ postmes, t., spears, r., & lea, m. ( ). the formation of group norms in computer-mediated communication. human communication research, , – . 	^ ehrhart, m.g., & naumann, s.e. ( ). organizational citizenship behavior in work groups: a group norms approach.. journal of applied psychology. ( ), – . 	^ kristof, a. l., brown, k. g., sims, h. p., smith, k. a. ( ). the virtual team: a case study and inductive model. beyerlein, m. m., johnshon, d. a., beyerlein, s. t., eds. advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: knowledge work in teams, vol. . jai press, greenwich, ct, – . 	^ wildman, j. l. ( ). trust development in swift starting action teams: a multilevel framework. group & organization management, ( ), – . 	^ jarvenpaa, s. l., & leidner, d. e. 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"human relations" redirects here. for the theory, see human relations movement. for the psychology and communication studies concept, see interpersonal communication. for other uses, see the sociology concept. for the mathematical concept, see interpersonal tie. 	 	this article needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "interpersonal relationship" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (april ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	 relationships (outline) 	 types 	 genetic or adoptive 	 	kinship 	family 	parent 	father 	mother 	grandparent 	sibling 	cousin 	 by marriage 	 	spouse 	husband 	wife 	open marriage 	polygamy 	polyandry 	polygyny 		group marriage 	mixed-orientation 	 partner(s) 	 	 	significant other 	boyfriend 	girlfriend 	cohabitation 	same-sex 	life partner 	friendship (romantic / cross-sex / zone) 	 sexual 	 	casual 	monogamy 	non-monogamy 	mutual monogamy 	polyamory 	polyfidelity 	cicisbeo 	concubinage 	courtesan 	mistress 	 activities 	bonding 	courtship 	dating 	engagement 	bachelor's day 	mating 	meet market 	romance 	singles event 	wedding 	 endings 	breakup 	separation 	annulment 	divorce 	widowhood 	 emotions and feelings 	affinity 	attachment 	intimacy 	jealousy 	limerence 	love 	platonic 	unconditional 	passion 	sexuality 	 practices 	bride price 	dower 	dowry 	service 	hypergamy 	infidelity 	sexual activity 	transgression 	repression 	 abuse 	child 	dating 	domestic 	elderly 	narcissistic parent 	power and control 		v 	t 	e 	part of a series on 	love 	 	 types of love 	affection 	bonding 	broken heart 	compassionate love 	conjugal love 	courtly love 	courtship 	troubadours 	falling in love 	friendship 	cross-sex 	romantic 	zone 	interpersonal relationship 	intimacy 	limerence 	love addiction 	love at first sight 	love triangle 	lovesickness 	lovestruck 	obsessive love 	passion 	platonic love 	puppy love 	relationship 	romance 	self-love 	amour de soi 	unconditional love 	unrequited love 	 social views 	anarchist 	free love 	chinese 	ren 	yuanfen 	french 	amour-propre 	greek 	words for love 	agape 	eros 	ludus 	mania 	philautia 	philia 	philos 	pragma 	storge 	xenia 	indian 	kama 	bhakti 	maitrī 	islamic 	ishq 	jewish 	chesed 	latin 	amore 	charity 	portuguese 	saudade 	yaghan 	mamihlapinatapai 	 concepts 	color wheel theory of love 	biological basis 	love letter 	love magic 	valentine's day 	philosophy 	religious views 	love deities 	mere-exposure effect 	similarity 	physical attractiveness 	triangular theory of love 	 	v 	t 	e the concept of interpersonal relationship involves social associations, connections, or affiliations between two or more people. interpersonal relationships vary in their degree of intimacy or self-disclosure, but also in their duration, in their reciprocity and in their power distribution, to name only a few dimensions. the context can vary from family or kinship relations, friendship, marriage, relations with associates, work, clubs, neighborhoods, and places of worship. relationships may be regulated by law, custom, or mutual agreement, and form the basis of social groups and of society as a whole.[citation needed] this association may be based on inference,[further explanation needed] love, solidarity, support, regular business interactions, or some other type of social connection or commitment. interpersonal relationships thrive through equitable and reciprocal compromise,[citation needed] they form in the context of social, cultural and other influences. the study of interpersonal relationships involves several branches of the social sciences, including such disciplines as communication studies, psychology, anthropology, social work, sociology, and mathematics. the scientific study of relationships evolved during the s and came to be referred to as "relationship science",[ ] after research done by ellen berscheid and elaine hatfield. this field of study distinguishes itself from anecdotal evidence or from pseudo-experts by basing conclusions on data and on objective analysis. contents 	 types 	 . intimate relationships 	 . . romantic relationships generally 	 . . romance 	 . . platonic love 	 . . life stages 	 . . significant other 	 . . marital relationship 	 . familial relationships 	 . . parent-child 	 . . siblings 	 . other examples of interpersonal relationship 	 stages 	 . terminating a relationship 	 pathological relationships 	 . abusive 	 . codependent 	 . narcissists 	 importance 	 . need to belong 	 . social exchange 	 . relational self 	 power and dominance 	 relationship satisfaction 	 . theories and empirical research 	 . . confucianism 	 . . minding relationships 	 in popular culture 	 . popular perceptions 	 . social media 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links types[edit] main article: outline of relationships § types of relationships intimate relationships[edit] romantic relationships generally[edit] romantic relationships have been defined in countless ways, by writers, philosophers, religions, scientists, and in the modern day, relationship counselors. two popular definitions of love are sternberg's triangular theory of love and fisher's theory of love.[ ][ ][ ] sternberg defines love in terms of intimacy, passion, and commitment, which he claims exist in varying levels in different romantic relationships. fisher defines love as composed of three stages: attraction, romantic love, and attachment. romantic relationships may exist between two people of any gender, or among a group of people (see polyamory). romance[edit] the single defining quality of a romantic relationship is the presence of love. love is therefore equally difficult to define. hazan and shaver[ ] define love, using ainsworth's attachment theory, as comprising proximity, emotional support, self-exploration, and separation distress when parted from the loved one. other components commonly agreed to be necessary for love are physical attraction, similarity,[ ] reciprocity,[ ] and self-disclosure.[ ] platonic love[edit] as the merriam webster dictionary explains platonic love as, " love conceived by plato as ascending from passion for the individual to contemplation of the universal and ideal."[ ] it is a love that is affectionate but not sexual; in modern terms it can be easily be mistaken for a sexual relationship. life stages[edit] early adolescent relationships are characterized by companionship, reciprocity, and sexual experiences. as emerging adults mature, they begin to develop attachment and caring qualities in their relationships, including love, bonding, security, and support for partners. earlier relationships also tend to be shorter and exhibit greater involvement with social networks.[ ] later relationships are often marked by shrinking social networks, as the couple dedicates more time to each other than to associates.[ ] later relationships also tend to exhibit higher levels of commitment.[ ] most psychologists and relationship counselors predict a decline of intimacy and passion over time, replaced by a greater emphasis on companionate love (differing from adolescent companionate love in the caring, committed, and partner-focused qualities). however, couple studies have found no decline in intimacy nor in the importance of sex, intimacy, and passionate love to those in longer or later-life relationships.[ ] older people tend to be more satisfied in their relationships, but face greater barriers to entering new relationships than do younger or middle-aged people.[ ] older women in particular face social, demographic, and personal barriers; men aged and older are nearly twice as likely as women to be married, and widowers are nearly three times as likely to be dating months following their partner's loss compared to widows. significant other[edit] the term significant other gained popularity during the s, reflecting the growing acceptance of 'non-heteronormative' relationships. it can be used to avoid making an assumption about the gender or relational status (e.g. married, cohabitating, civil union) of a person's intimate partner. cohabiting relationships continue to rise, with many partners considering cohabitation to be nearly as serious as, or a substitute for, marriage.[ ] lgbt people in particular may face unique challenges in establishing and maintaining intimate relationships. the strain of 'internalized homo-negativity' and of presenting themselves in line with socially acceptable gender norms can reduce the satisfaction and emotional and health benefits they experience in their relationships.[ ][ ][ ] lgbt youth also lack the social support and peer connections enjoyed by hetero-normative young people.[ ] nonetheless, comparative studies of homosexual and heterosexual couples have found few differences in relationship intensity, quality, satisfaction, or commitment.[ ] marital relationship[edit] although nontraditional relationships continue to rise, marriage still makes up the majority of relationships except among emerging adults.[ ] it is also still considered by many to occupy a place of greater importance among family and social structures. familial relationships[edit] parent-child[edit] in ancient times, parent-child relationships were often marked by fear, either of rebellion or abandonment, resulting in the strict filial roles in, for example, ancient rome and china.[ ][ ] freud conceived of the oedipal complex, the supposed obsession that young boys have towards their mother and the accompanying fear and rivalry with their father, and the electra complex, in which the young girl feels that her mother has castrated her and therefore becomes obsessed with her father. freud's ideas influenced thought on parent-child relationships for decades.[ ] another early conception of parent-child relationships was that love only existed as a biological drive for survival and comfort on the child's part.[citation needed] in , however, harry harlow’s study comparing rhesus’ reactions to wire "mothers" and cloth "mothers" demonstrated the depth of emotion felt by infants.[according to whom?] the study laid the groundwork for mary ainsworth’s attachment theory, showing how the infants used their cloth "mothers" as a secure base from which to explore.[ ][ ] in a series of studies using the strange situation, a scenario in which an infant is separated from then reunited with the parent, ainsworth defined three styles of parent-child relationship. 	securely attached infants miss the parent, greet them happily upon return, and show normal exploration and lack of fear when the parent is present 	insecure avoidant infants show little distress upon separation and ignore the caregiver when they return; they explore little when the parent is present 	insecure ambivalent infants are highly distressed by separation, but continue to be distressed upon the parent's return; these infants also explore little and display fear even when the parent is present 	some psychologists have suggested a fourth attachment style, disorganized, so called because the infants’ behavior appeared disorganized or disoriented.[ ] secure attachments are linked to better social and academic outcomes, greater moral internalization,[further explanation needed] and less delinquency for children, and have been found to predict later relationship success.[ ][ ][ ] for most of the late nineteenth through the twentieth century, the perception of adolescent-parent relationships was that of a time of upheaval. g. stanley hall popularized the “sturm und drang”, or storm and stress, model of adolescence.[citation needed] psychological research has painted a much tamer picture. although adolescents are more risk-seeking, and emerging adults have higher suicide rates, they are largely less volatile and have much better relationships with their parents than this[which?] model would suggest[ ] early adolescence often marks a decline in parent-child relationship quality, which then re-stabilizes through adolescence, and relationships are sometimes better in late adolescence than prior to its onset.[ ] with the increasing average age at marriage and more youths attending college and living with parents past their teens, the concept of a new period called emerging adulthood gained popularity. this is considered a period of uncertainty and experimentation between adolescence and adulthood. during this stage, interpersonal relationships are considered to be more self-focused, and relationships with parents may still be influential.[ ] siblings[edit] sibling relationships have a profound effect on social, psychological, emotional, and academic outcomes. although proximity and contact usually decreases over time, sibling bonds continue to affect people throughout their lives. sibling relationships are affected by parent-child relationships, such that sibling relationships in childhood often reflect the positive or negative aspects of children's relationships with their parents.[ ] other examples of interpersonal relationship[edit] 	egalitarian and platonic friendship[ ] 	enemy 	frenemy — a person with whom an individual maintains a friendly interaction despite underlying conflict, possibly encompassing rivalry, mistrust, jealousy or competition.[ ] 	neighbor 	business relationships 	partnership 	employer and employee 	contractor 	customer 	landlord and tenant 	coworker 	official stages[edit] interpersonal relationships are dynamic systems that change continuously during their existence. like living organisms, relationships have a beginning, a lifespan, and an end. they tend to grow and improve gradually, as people get to know each other and become closer emotionally, or they gradually deteriorate as people drift apart, move on with their lives and form new relationships with others. one of the most influential models of relationship development was proposed by a psychologist george levinger.[ ] this model was formulated to describe heterosexual, adult romantic relationships, but it has been applied to other kinds of interpersonal relations as well. according to the model, the natural development of a relationship follows five stages: 	 acquaintance and acquaintanceship – becoming acquainted depends on previous relationships, physical proximity, first impressions, and a variety of other factors. if two people begin to like each other, continued interactions may lead to the next stage, but acquaintance can continue indefinitely. another example is the association. 	 buildup – during this stage, people begin to trust and care about each other. the need for intimacy, compatibility and such filtering agents as common background and goals will influence whether or not interaction continues. 	 continuation – this stage follows a mutual commitment to quite a strong and close long-term friendship, romantic relationship, or even marriage. it is generally a long, relatively stable period. nevertheless, continued growth and development will occur during this time. mutual trust is important for sustaining the relationship. 	 deterioration – not all relationships deteriorate, but those that do tend to show signs of trouble. boredom, resentment, and dissatisfaction may occur, and individuals may communicate less and avoid self-disclosure. loss of trust and betrayals may take place as the downward spiral continues, eventually ending the relationship. (alternately, the participants may find some way to resolve the problems and reestablish trust and belief in others.) 	 ending – the final stage marks the end of the relationship, either by breakups, death or by spatial separation for quite some time and severing all existing ties of either friendship or romantic love. terminating a relationship[edit] according to the latest systematic review of the economic literature on the factors associated with life satisfaction (dating from ), stable and secure relationships are beneficial, and correspondingly, relationship dissolution is harmful.[ ] the american psychological association has summarised the evidence on breakups. breaking up can actually be a positive experience when the relationship did not expand the self and when the breakup leads to personal growth. they also recommend some ways to cope with the experience: 	purposefully focussing on the positive aspects of the breakup ("factors leading up to the break-up, the actual break-up, and the time right after the break-up") 	minimising the negative emotions 	journaling the positive aspects of the breakup (e.g. "comfort, confidence, empowerment, energy, happiness, optimism, relief, satisfaction, thankfulness, and wisdom"). this exercise works best, although not exclusively, when the breakup is mutual.[ ] less time between a breakup and a subsequent relationship predicts higher self-esteem, attachment security, emotional stability, respect for your new partner, and greater well-being. furthermore, rebound relationships don't last any shorter than regular relationships.[ ][ ] % of people are friends with one or more ex.[ ] % of people have had an off-and-on relationship. % of cohabiting couples, and % of the married, have broken up and gotten back together with their existing partner.[ ] terminating a marital relationship implies a divorce. one reason cited for divorce is infidelity. the determinants of unfaithfulness are debated by dating service providers, feminists, academics and science communicators.[ ][ ][ ][ ] according to psychology today, women's, rather than men's, level of commitment more strongly determines if a relationship will continue.[ ] pathological relationships[edit] abusive[edit] abusive relationships involve either maltreatment or violence from one individual to another and include physical abuse, physical neglect, sexual abuse, and emotional maltreatment.[ ] abusive relationships within the family are very prevalent in the united states and usually involve women or children as victims.[ ] common individual factors for abusers include low self-esteem, poor impulse control, external locus of control, drug use, alcohol abuse, and negative affectivity.[ ] there are also external factors such as stress, poverty, and loss which contribute to likelihood of abuse.[ ] codependent[edit] codependency initially focused on a codependent partner enabling substance abuse, but has become more broadly defined to describe a dysfunctional relationship with extreme dependence on or preoccupation with another person.[ ] there are some who even refer to codependency as an addiction to the relationship.[ ] the focus of a codependent individual tends to be on the emotional state, behavioral choices, thoughts, and beliefs of another person.[ ] often those who are codependent neglect themselves in favor of taking care of others and have difficulty fully developing their identity on their own.[ ] narcissists[edit] narcissists focus on themselves and often distance themselves from intimate relationships; the focus of narcissistic interpersonal relationships is to promote one's self-concept.[ ] generally, narcissists show less empathy in relationships and view love pragmatically or as a game involving others' emotions.[ ][ ] narcissist are usually a part of the personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder (npd). in relationships, they tend to affect the other person as they attempt to use them to enhance their self-esteem.[ ] specific types of npd make a person incapable of having an interpersonal relationship due to them being cunning, envious, and contemptuous.[ ] importance[edit] human beings are innately social and are shaped by their experiences with others. there are multiple perspectives to understand this inherent motivation to interact with others. need to belong[edit] according to maslow's hierarchy of needs, humans need to feel love (sexual/nonsexual) and acceptance from social groups (family, peer groups). in fact, the need to belong is so innately ingrained that it may be strong enough to overcome physiological and safety needs, such as children's attachment to abusive parents or staying in abusive romantic relationships. such examples illustrate the extent to which the psychobiological drive to belong is entrenched. social exchange[edit] another way to appreciate the importance of relationships is in terms of a reward framework. this perspective suggests that individuals engage in relations that are rewarding in both tangible and intangible ways. the concept fits into a larger theory of social exchange. this theory is based on the idea that relationships develop as a result of cost-benefit analysis. individuals seek out rewards in interactions with others and are willing to pay a cost for said rewards. in the best-case scenario, rewards will exceed costs, producing a net gain. this can lead to "shopping around" or constantly comparing alternatives to maximize the benefits or rewards while minimizing costs. relational self[edit] relationships are also important for their ability to help individuals develop a sense of self. the relational self is the part of an individual's self-concept that consists of the feelings and beliefs that one has regarding oneself that develops based on interactions with others.[ ] in other words, one's emotions and behaviors are shaped by prior relationships. relational self theory posits that prior and existing relationships influence one's emotions and behaviors in interactions with new individuals, particularly those individuals that remind him or her of others in his or her life. studies have shown that exposure to someone who resembles a significant other activates specific self-beliefs, changing how one thinks about oneself in the moment more so than exposure to someone who does not resemble one's significant other.[ ] power and dominance[edit] 	 	this section does not cite any sources. please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (may ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) power is the ability to influence the behavior of other people. when two parties have or assert unequal levels of power, one is termed "dominant" and the other "submissive". expressions of dominance can communicate intention to assert or maintain dominance in a relationship. being submissive can be beneficial because it saves time, emotional stress, and may avoid hostile actions such as withholding of resources, cessation of cooperation, termination of the relationship, maintaining a grudge, or even physical violence. submission occurs in different degrees; for example, some employees may follow orders without question, whereas others might express disagreement but concede when pressed. groups of people can form a dominance hierarchy. for example, a hierarchical organization uses a command hierarchy for top-down management. this can reduce time wasted in conflict over unimportant decisions, prevents inconsistent decisions from harming the operations of the organization, maintain alignment of a large population of workers with the goals of the owners (which the workers might not personally share) and if promotion is based on merit, help ensure that the people with the best expertise make important decisions. this contrasts with group decision-making and systems which encourage decision-making and self-organization by front-line employees, who in some cases may have better information about customer needs or how to work efficiently. dominance is only one aspect of organizational structure. a power structure describes power and dominance relationships in a larger society. for example, a feudal society under a monarchy exhibits a strong dominance hierarchy in both economics and physical power, whereas dominance relationships in a society with democracy and capitalism are more complicated. in business relationships, dominance is often associated with economic power. for example, a business may adopt a submissive attitude to customer preferences (stocking what customers want to buy) and complaints ("the customer is always right") in order to earn more money. a firm with monopoly power may be less responsive to customer complaints because it can afford to adopt a dominant position. in a business partnership a "silent partner" is one who adopts a submissive position in all aspects, but retains financial ownership and a share of the profits. two parties can be dominant in different areas. for example, in a friendship or romantic relationship, one person may have strong opinions about where to eat dinner, whereas the other has strong opinions about how to decorate a shared space. it could be beneficial for the party with weak preferences to be submissive in that area, because it will not make them unhappy and avoids conflict with the party that would be unhappy. the breadwinner model is associated with gender role assignments where the male in a heterosexual marriage would be dominant in all areas. relationship satisfaction[edit] social exchange theory and rusbult's investment model shows that relationship satisfaction is based on three factors: rewards, costs, and comparison levels (miller, ).[ ] rewards refer to any aspects of the partner or relationship that are positive. conversely, costs are the negative or unpleasant aspects of the partner or their relationship. comparison level includes what each partner expects of the relationship. the comparison level is influenced by past relationships, and general relationship expectations they are taught by family and friends. individuals in long-distance relationships, ldrs, rated their relationships as more satisfying than individuals in proximal relationship, prs.[ ][ ] alternatively, holt and stone ( ) found that long-distance couples who were able to meet with their partner at least once a month had similar satisfaction levels to unmarried couples who cohabitated.[ ] also, the relationship satisfaction was lower for members of ldrs who saw their partner less frequently than once a month. ldr couples reported the same level of relationship satisfaction as couples in prs, despite only seeing each other on average once every days.[ ] social exchange theory and the investment model both theorize that relationships that are high in costs would be less satisfying than relationships that are low in costs. ldrs have a higher level of costs than prs, therefore, one would assume that ldrs are less satisfying than prs. individuals in ldrs are more satisfied with their relationships compared to individuals in prs.[ ] this can be explained by unique aspects of the ldrs, how the individuals use relationship maintenance behaviors, and the attachment styles of the individuals in the relationships. therefore, the costs and benefits of the relationship are subjective to the individual, and people in ldrs tend to report lower costs and higher rewards in their relationship compared to prs.[ ] theories and empirical research[edit] confucianism[edit] confucianism is a study and theory of relationships especially within hierarchies.[ ] social harmony—the central goal of confucianism—results in part from every individual knowing his or her place in the social order, and playing his or her part well. particular duties arise from each person's particular situation in relation to others. the individual stands simultaneously in several different relationships with different people: as a junior in relation to parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to younger siblings, students, and others. juniors are considered in confucianism to owe their seniors reverence and seniors have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors. a focus on mutuality is prevalent in east asian cultures to this day. minding relationships[edit] the mindfulness theory of relationships shows how closeness in relationships may be enhanced. minding is the "reciprocal knowing process involving the nonstop, interrelated thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of persons in a relationship."[ ] five components of "minding" include:[ ] 	knowing and being known: seeking to understand the partner 	making relationship-enhancing attributions for behaviors: giving the benefit of the doubt 	accepting and respecting: empathy and social skills 	maintaining reciprocity: active participation in relationship enhancement 	continuity in minding: persisting in mindfulness in popular culture[edit] popular perceptions[edit] popular perceptions of intimate relationships are strongly influenced by movies and television. common messages are that love is predestined, love at first sight is possible, and that love with the right person always succeeds. those who consume the most romance-related media tend to believe in predestined romance and that those who are destined to be together implicitly understand each other. these beliefs, however, can lead to less communication and problem-solving as well as giving up on relationships more easily when conflict is encountered.[ ] social media[edit] social media has changed the face of interpersonal relationships. romantic interpersonal relationships are no less impacted. for example, in the united states, facebook has become an integral part of the dating process for emerging adults.[ ] social media can have both positive and negative impacts on romantic relationships. for example, supportive social networks have been linked to more stable relationships.[ ] however, social media usage can also facilitate conflict, jealousy, and passive aggressive behaviors such as spying on a partner.[ ] aside from direct effects on the development, maintenance, and perception of romantic relationships, excessive social network usage is linked to jealousy and dissatisfaction in relationships.[ ] a growing segment of the population is engaging in purely online dating, sometimes but not always moving towards traditional face-to-face interactions. these online relationships differ from face-to-face relationships; for example, self-disclosure may be of primary importance in developing an online relationship. conflict management differs, since avoidance is easier and conflict resolution skills may not develop in the same way. additionally, the definition of infidelity is both broadened and narrowed, since physical infidelity becomes easier to conceal but emotional infidelity (e.g. chatting with more than one online partner) becomes a more serious offense.[ ] see also[edit] 	interactionism 	interpersonal attraction 	interpersonal tie 	outline of relationships 	relational models theory 	relationship status 	relationship forming 	social connection 	socionics 	relationship science references[edit] 	^ berscheid e (april ). 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"do we really know what makes us happy? a review of the economic literature on the factors associated with subjective well-being" (pdf). journal of economic psychology. : – . doi: . /j.joep. . . . archived from the original (pdf) on june . retrieved april . 	^ "breakups isn't all bad: coping strategies to promote positive outcomes". apa.org. 	^ "can a rebound relationship be the real deal?". psychology today. 	^ "the main reasons why people stay friends with their exes". psychology today. 	^ "how healthy are on-again/off-again relationships?". psychology today. 	^ "the truth about on-again, off-again couples". psychology today. 	^ "predictors of infidelity: why do partners cheat?". december . 	^ "everything you always wanted to know about infidelity but were afraid to ask * hooking up smart". july . 	^ mark, kristen p.; janssen, erick; milhausen, robin r. ( october ). "infidelity in heterosexual couples: demographic, interpersonal, and personality-related predictors of extradyadic sex". archives of sexual behavior. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - -z. pmid  . s cid  . 	^ "paper: predictors of infidelity". september . 	^ "the secret epidemic facing modern couples". psychology today. 	^ national research council, division of behavioral and social sciences and education, committee on law and justice, committee on national statistics, panel to review risk and prevalence of elder abuse and neglect ( ). elder mistreatment: abuse, neglect, and exploitation in an aging america. national academies press. isbn  .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ emery re, laumann-billings l (february ). "an overview of the nature, causes, and consequences of abusive family relationships. toward differentiating maltreatment and violence". the american psychologist. ( ): – . doi: . / - x. . . . pmid  . 	^ cicchetti d ( ). child maltreatment: theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect. cambridge university press. p.  . isbn  . pianta, r. b., egeland, b., & erickson, m. f. ( ). the antecedents of maltreatment: results of the mother–child interaction research project. in d. cicchetti & v. carlson (eds.), child maltreatment: theory and research on the causes and consequences o. 	^ emery re (february ). "family violence". the american psychologist. ( ): – . doi: . / - x. . . . pmid  . 	^ cowan g, bommersbach m, curtis sr ( ). "codependency, loss of self, and power". psychology of women quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. s cid  . 	^ mendenhall w ( ). "co-dependency definitions and dynamics". alcoholism treatment quarterly. : – . doi: . /j v n _ . 	^ chmielewska m ( ). "marital quality in the context of interpersonal dependency". economics & sociology. ( ): – . doi: . / - x. / - / . 	^ knudson tm, terrell hk ( ). "codependency, perceived interparental conflict, and substance abuse in the family of origin". the american journal of family therapy. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . s cid  . 	^ a b campbell wk (december ). "narcissism and romantic attraction". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . s cid  . 	^ rhodewalt f, morf cc (march ). "self and interpersonal correlates of the narcissistic personality inventory: a review and new findings". journal of research in personality. ( ): – . doi: . /jrpe. . . 	^ a b maj, mario., akiskal, hagop s., hagop s., mezzich, juan e., wiley john & sons. personality disorders. medical march , . 	^ andersen sm, chen e ( ). "the relational self: an interpersonal social-cognitive theory". psychological review. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / - x. . . . pmid  . 	^ hinkley k, andersen sm ( ). "the working self-concept in transference: significant-other activation and self change". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ miller r ( ). attraction in intimate relationships ( th ed.). new york: mc-graw hill. p.  . 	^ stafford l, reske j ( ). "idealization and communication in long-distance premarital relationships". family relations. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ a b c stafford l ( ). maintaining long-distance and cross residential relationships. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. 	^ holt p, stone g ( ). "needs, coping strategies, and coping outcomes associated with long-distance relationships". journal of college student development. : – . 	^ guldner gt, swensen ch ( ). "time spent together and relationship quality: long distance relationships as a test case". journal of social and personal relationships. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ richey, jeff ( ). "confucius". iep.utm.edu. internet encyclopedia of philosophy. retrieved august , . 	^ harvey jh, pauwels bg ( ). "relationship connection: a redux on the role of minding and the quality of feeling special". in snyder cd, lopez sj (eds.). enhancement of closeness. oxford handbook of positive psychology (second ed.). oxford: oxford university press. pp.  – . 	^ snyder cr, lopez sj ( ). positive psychology: the scientific and practical explorations of human strengths. thousand oaks, california: sage publications. pp.  – . 	^ holmes b (october ). "in search of my "one and only"; romance-related media and beliefs in romantic relationship destiny". electronic journal of communication. ( / ). 	^ fox j, warber km (january ). "romantic relationship development in the age of facebook: an exploratory study of emerging adults' perceptions, motives, and behaviors". cyberpsychology, behavior and social networking. ( ): – . doi: . /cyber. . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ a b merkle er, richardson ra ( ). "digital dating and virtual relating: conceptualizing computer mediated romantic relationships". family relations. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. 	^ wilkerson kt ( ). "social networking sites and romantic relationships: effects on development, maintenance, and dissolution of relationships". inquiries journal. ( ). 	^ elphinston ra, noller p (november ). "time to face it! facebook intrusion and the implications for romantic jealousy and relationship satisfaction". cyberpsychology, behavior and social networking. ( ): – . doi: . /cyber. . . pmid  . further reading[edit] 	miller r ( september ). intimate relationships. mcgraw-hill education. isbn  - - - - . 	williams kd, nida sa ( december ). ostracism, exclusion, and rejection. taylor & francis. isbn  - - - - . 	baumeister rf, leary mr (may ). "the need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation". psychological bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	hartgerink ch, van beest i, wicherts jm, williams kd ( ). "the ordinal effects of ostracism: a meta-analysis of cyberball studies". plos one. ( ): e . bibcode: ploso.. h. doi: . /journal.pone. . pmc  . pmid  . external links[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to interpersonal relationships. 	 the dictionary definition of interpersonal at wiktionary 	 quotations related to interpersonal relationship at wikiquote 	 learning materials related to interpersonal relationships at wikiversity 	 	v 	t 	e interpersonal relationships 	types of relationships	 	significant	 	domestic partnership 	boyfriend 	girlfriend 	cohabitation 	monogamy 	open marriage 	family 	marriage 	husband 	wife 	soulmate 	siblings 	cousin 	widowhood 	casual	 	open relationship 	gold digging 	enjo kōsai 	sexual partner 	one-night stand 	friendship	 	kinship 	non-monogamy 	polyamory 	polyfidelity 	polygamy 	romantic friendship 	same-sex relationship 	courtesan	 	cicisbeo 	concubinage 	seraglio 	plaçage 	marriage à la façon du pays 	gigolo 	mistress 	royal 	favourite 	maîtresse-en-titre 	sugar baby/sugar daddy/sugar momma 	distant	 	divorce 	stranger 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		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 revisiting the interplay between contractual and relational governance: a qualitative and meta-analytic investigation | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /j.jom. . . corpus id: revisiting the interplay between contractual and relational governance: a qualitative and meta-analytic investigation @article{cao revisitingti, title={revisiting the interplay between contractual and relational governance: a qualitative and meta-analytic investigation}, author={z. cao and fabrice lumineau}, journal={o&m: the firm as a nexus of contracts (boundaries of the firm) ejournal}, year={ } } 	z. cao, fabrice lumineau 	published 	sociology 	o&m: the firm as a nexus of contracts (boundaries of the firm) ejournal although extant literature has shown that formal contracts and relational governance play a key role in interorganizational relationships, the nature of their interplay still remains equivocal. to better understand the relationships between contractual and relational governance, we conducted a qualitative review and meta-analysis of the existing literature. meta-analytic results from , interorganizational relationships across empirical studies have indicated that contractual governance… continue reading view on ssrn webapps.krannert.purdue.edu save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationshighly influencial citations background citations methods citations results citations view all citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency interplay of relational and contractual governance in public-private partnerships: the mediating role of relational norms, trust and partners' contribution 	camilo benítez-Ávila, andreas hartmann, g. dewulf, j. henseler 	business 	 	 	highly influenced 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed relational governance as mediator of contractual governance in public private partnership 	camilo andres benitez avila, a. hartmann, g. dewulf 	business 	 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed relationship governance mechanisms and collaborative performance: a relational life-cycle perspective 	m. huang, y. chiu 	business 	 	 save alert research feed governance mechanisms and total relationship value: the interaction effect of information sharing 	ngoc luu, jacques martin cadeaux, l. ngo 	business 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed the role of dependence and information sharing on governance decisions regarding conflict 	stephanie eckerd, k. sweeney 	business 	 	 save alert research feed severe or lenient contracting with friends: the shadow of the past on contractual governance 	l. wang, x. li, min zhang 	economics 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed power, governance, and value in collaboration: differences between buyer and supplier perspectives 	r. brito, p. miguel 	business 	 	 	highly influenced 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed revisiting the relationship between contract governance and contractors’ opportunistic behavior in construction projects 	yu wang, yong-qiang chen, wenqian wang, y. chen, mengxia jin 	business 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed relational contracting and the myth of trust: control in a co-opetitive setting 	jennifer grafton, j. mundy 	economics 	 	 	highly influenced 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background, methods and results save alert research feed a qualitative examination of relational and contractual governance mechanisms in aliaga port cluster 	bayram bilge sağlam, Çimen karataş Çetin 	engineering 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	 	 	› references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency the dynamics of contractual and relational governance: evidence from long-term public-private procurement arrangements 	j. zheng, j. roehrich, michael a. lewis 	business 	 	 	highly influential 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background and methods save alert research feed the influence of relational experience and contractual governance on the negotiation strategy in buyer-supplier disputes 	fabrice lumineau, j. henderson 	business 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed the dynamics of relational and contractual governance mechanisms in knowledge sharing of collaborative r&d projects 	heidi olander, p. hurmelinna-laukkanen, k. blomqvist, p. ritala 	business 	 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed the interplay of relational governance and formal control in horizontal alliances: : a social contract perspective 	carl marcus wallenburg, thorsten schäffler 	business 	 	 save alert research feed the role of service level agreements in relational management of information technology outsourcing: an empirical study 	j. goo, r. kishore, h. r. rao, kichan nam 	business, computer science 	mis q. 	 	 	highly influential 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed effect of formal contracts, relational norms and trust on performance of joint research and development projects 	n. arranz, juan carlos fernandez de arroyabe 	business 	 	 	highly influential 	view excerpts, references background and methods save alert research feed governance mechanisms in domestic and international buyer-supplier relationships:an empirical study 	m. burkert, b. ivens, jialu shan 	business 	 	 	highly influential 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed trust, contract and relationship development 	r. k. woolthuis, b. hillebrand, b. nooteboom 	business 	 	 	highly influential 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed the determinants of relational governance and performance: how to manage business relationships? 	d. claro, g. hagelaar, onno s. w. f. omta 	business 	 	 save alert research feed contractual governance, relational governance, and the performance of interfirm service exchanges: the influence of boundary-spanner closeness 	r. j. ferguson, m. paulin, j. bergeron 	business 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	 	 	› related papers 	abstract 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue jstor - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	jstor 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from jstor (identifier)) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		subscription digital library jstor	 	screenshot the jstor front page 	type of site 	digital library 	available in	english (includes content in other languages) 	owner	ithaka harbors[ ] 	created by	andrew w. mellon foundation 	url	jstor.org 	registration	yes 	launched	 ;  years ago ( ) 	current status	active 	oclc number	 	 	links 	website	www.jstor.org 	title list(s)	support.jstor.org/hc/en-us/articles/ -jstor-title-lists 	 jstor (/ˈdʒeɪstɔːr/;[ ] short for journal storage)[ ] is a digital library founded in in new york city, united states. originally containing digitized back issues of academic journals, it now encompasses books and other primary sources as well as current issues of journals.[ ] it provides full-text searches of almost , journals. as of [update], more than , institutions in more than countries had access to jstor.[ ] most access is by subscription but some of the site's public domain and open access content is available free of charge.[ ] jstor's revenue was $ million in .[ ] contents 	 history 	 content 	 access 	 . aaron swartz incident 	 . limitations 	 . increasing public access 	 use 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links history[edit] william g. bowen, president of princeton university from to ,[ ] founded jstor in . jstor originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a comprehensive collection of journals. by digitizing many journal titles, jstor allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term. online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. bowen initially considered using cd-roms for distribution.[ ] however, ira fuchs, princeton university's vice-president for computing and information technology, convinced bowen that cd-rom was becoming an increasingly outdated technology and that network distribution could eliminate redundancy and increase accessibility. (for example, all princeton's administrative and academic buildings were networked by ; the student dormitory network was completed in ; and campus networks like the one at princeton were, in turn, linked to larger networks such as bitnet and the internet.) jstor was initiated in at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. jstor access improved based on feedback from its initial sites, and it became a fully searchable index accessible from any ordinary web browser. special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear and readable.[ ] with the success of this limited project, bowen and kevin guthrie, then-president of jstor, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. they met with representatives of the royal society of london and an agreement was made to digitize the philosophical transactions of the royal society dating from its beginning in . the work of adding these volumes to jstor was completed by december .[ ] the andrew w. mellon foundation funded jstor initially. until january jstor operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in new york city and in ann arbor, michigan. then jstor merged with the nonprofit ithaka harbors, inc.[ ]—a nonprofit organization founded in and "dedicated to helping the academic community take full advantage of rapidly advancing information and networking technologies".[ ] content[edit] jstor content is provided by more than publishers.[ ] the database contains more than , journal titles,[ ] in more than disciplines. each object is uniquely identified by an integer value, starting at . in addition to the main site, the jstor labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its data for research service.[ ] this site offers a search facility with graphical indication of the article coverage and loose integration into the main jstor site. users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and basic metadata. they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either xml or csv formats. the service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from jstor, subject to a non-disclosure agreement. jstor plant science[ ] is available in addition to the main site. jstor plant science provides access to content such as plant type specimens, taxonomic structures, scientific literature, and related materials and aimed at those researching, teaching, or studying botany, biology, ecology, environmental, and conservation studies. the materials on jstor plant science are contributed through the global plants initiative (gpi)[ ] and are accessible only to jstor and gpi members. two partner networks are contributing to this: the african plants initiative, which focuses on plants from africa, and the latin american plants initiative, which contributes plants from latin america. jstor launched its books at jstor program in november , adding , current and backlist books to its site. the books are linked with reviews and from citations in journal articles.[ ] in september , jstor launched jstor daily, an online magazine meant to bring academic research to a broader audience. posted articles are generally based on jstor entries, and some entries provide the backstory to current events.[ ] access[edit] jstor is licensed mainly to academic institutions, public libraries, research institutions, museums, and schools. more than , institutions in more than countries have access.[ ] jstor has been running a pilot program of allowing subscribing institutions to provide access to their alumni, in addition to current students and staff. the alumni access program officially launched in january .[ ] individual subscriptions also are available to certain journal titles through the journal publisher.[ ] every year, jstor blocks million attempts by non-subscribers to read articles.[ ] inquiries have been made about the possibility of making jstor open access. according to harvard law professor lawrence lessig, jstor had been asked "how much would it cost to make this available to the whole world, how much would we need to pay you? the answer was $ million".[ ] aaron swartz incident[edit] main article: united states v. aaron swartz see also: aaron swartz § jstor in late and early , swartz used mit's data network to bulk-download a substantial portion of jstor's collection of academic journal articles.[ ][ ] when the bulk-download was discovered, a video camera was placed in the room to film the mysterious visitor and the relevant computer was left untouched. once video was captured of the visitor, the download was stopped and swartz was identified. rather than pursue a civil lawsuit against him, in june they reached a settlement wherein he surrendered the downloaded data.[ ][ ] the following month, federal authorities charged swartz with several "data theft"-related crimes, including wire fraud, computer fraud, unlawfully obtaining information from a protected computer, and recklessly damaging a protected computer.[ ][ ] prosecutors in the case claimed that swartz acted with the intention of making the papers available on p p file-sharing sites.[ ][ ] swartz surrendered to authorities, pleaded not guilty to all counts, and was released on $ , bail. in september , u.s. attorneys increased the number of charges against swartz from four to thirteen, with a possible penalty of years in prison and $ million in fines.[ ][ ] the case still was pending when swartz committed suicide in january .[ ] prosecutors dropped the charges after his suicide.[ ] limitations[edit] the availability of most journals on jstor is controlled by a "moving wall", which is an agreed-upon delay between the current volume of the journal and the latest volume available on jstor. this time period is specified by agreement between jstor and the publisher of the journal, which usually is three to five years. publishers may request that the period of a "moving wall" be changed or request discontinuation of coverage. formerly, publishers also could request that the "moving wall" be changed to a "fixed wall"—a specified date after which jstor would not add new volumes to its database. as of november  [update], "fixed wall" agreements were still in effect with three publishers of journals made available online through sites controlled by the publishers.[ ] in , jstor started adding current issues of certain journals through its current scholarship program.[ ] increasing public access[edit] beginning september , , jstor made public domain content available at no charge to the public.[ ][ ] this "early journal content" program constitutes about % of jstor's total content, and includes over , documents from more than journals that were published before in the united states, and before in other countries.[ ][ ][ ] jstor stated that it had been working on making this material free for some time. the swartz controversy and greg maxwell's protest torrent of the same content led jstor to "press ahead" with the initiative.[ ][ ] as of [update], jstor does not have plans to extend it to other public domain content, stating that "we do not believe that just because something is in the public domain, it can always be provided for free".[ ] in january , jstor started a pilot program, "register & read", offering limited no-cost access (not open access) to archived articles for individuals who register for the service. at the conclusion of the pilot, in january , jstor expanded register & read from an initial publishers to include about , journals from over publishers.[ ] registered readers may read up to six articles online every calendar month, but may not print or download pdfs.[ ] jstor is conducting a pilot program with wikipedia, whereby established editors are given reading privileges through the wikipedia library, as with a university library.[ ][ ] use[edit] in , jstor users performed nearly million searches, with more than million article views and . million article downloads.[ ] jstor has been used as a resource for linguistics research to investigate trends in language use over time and also to analyze gender differences and inequities in scholarly publishing, revealing that in certain fields, men predominate in the prestigious first and last author positions and that women are significantly underrepresented as authors of single-authored papers.[ ][ ][ ] jstor metadata is available through crossref and the unpaywall dump,[ ] which as of identifies nearly million works hosted by jstor as toll access, as opposed to over , available in open access (mainly through third party open access repositories). see also[edit] 	aluka 	artstor 	arxiv 	digital preservation 	hal (open archive) 	japanese historical text initiative 	jhove 	list of academic databases and search engines 	project muse references[edit] 	^ a b "about". ithaka. retrieved - - . 	^ "jstor videos". youtube. retrieved december . 	^ douglas f. morgan; marcus d. ingle; craig w. shinn ( september ). new public leadership: making a difference from where we sit. routledge. p.  . isbn  . jstor means journal storage, which is an online service created in to provide electronic access to an extensive array of academic journals. 	^ a b genicot, léopold (february , ). "at a glance". Études rurales (pdf) ( ): – . jstor  . 	^ a b c d "annual summary" (pdf). jstor. march . retrieved april . 	^ "register and read beta". 	^ "ithaka harbors, inc". nonprofit explorer. propublica. retrieved - - . 	^ leitch, alexander. "bowen, william gordon". princeton university press. 	^ "jstor, a history" by roger c. schonfeld, princeton university press, 	^ a b taylor, john ( ). "jstor: an electronic archive from ". notes and records of the royal society of london. ( ): – . doi: . /rsnr. . . jstor  . 	^ "about". jstor. retrieved november . 	^ data for research. jstor. 	^ jstor plant science. jstor. 	^ global plants initiative. jstor. 	^ "a new chapter begins: books at jstor launches". jstor. november , . retrieved december , . 	^ lichterman, joseph. "opening up the archives: jstor wants to tie a library to the news". nieman lab. retrieved september , . 	^ "access for alumni". jstor. retrieved december , . (subscription required) 	^ "individual subscriptions". jstor. retrieved december , . (subscription required) 	^ every year, jstor turns away million attempts to read journal articles. the atlantic. retrieved january . 	^ lessig on "aaron's laws—law and justice in a digital age". youtube ( - - ). retrieved on - - . 	^ a b "jstor statement: misuse incident and criminal case". jstor. - - . 	^ a b c carter, zach; grim, ryan; reilly, ryan j. ( - - ). "aaron swartz, internet pioneer, found dead amid prosecutor 'bullying' in unconventional case". huffington post. the huffington post. 	^ bilton, nick (july , ). "internet activist charged in m.i.t. data theft". bits blog, the new york times website. retrieved december , . 	^ schwartz, john (july , ). "open-access advocate is arrested for huge download". new york times. retrieved july , . 	^ lindsay, jay (july , ). "feds: harvard fellow hacked millions of papers". associated press. retrieved july , . 	^ ortiz, carmen ( - - ). "alleged hacker charged with stealing over four million documents from mit network". the united states attorney's office". archived from the original on - - . 	^ kravets, david ( - - ). "feds charge activist with felonies for rogue downloading of academic articles". wired. 	^ "aaron swartz, internet freedom activist, dies aged ", bbc news 	^ "aaron swartz's father: he'd be alive today if he was never arrested", money.cnn.com 	^ "moving wall". jstor. 	^ "about current journals". jstor. retrieved december , . 	^ a b c brown, laura (september , ). "jstor–free access to early journal content and serving 'unaffiliated' users", jstor. retrieved december , . 	^ a b c rapp, david ( - - ). "jstor announces free access to k public domain journal articles". library journal. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "early journal content". jstor. retrieved december , . 	^ "about jstor: frequently asked questions". jstor. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ tilsley, alexandra (january , ). "journal archive opens up (some)". inside higher ed. retrieved january . 	^ "my jstor read online free". jstor. retrieved - - . 	^ orlowitz, jake; earley, patrick (january , ). "librarypedia: the future of libraries and wikipedia". the digital shift. library journal. retrieved december . 	^ price, gary (june , ). "wikipedia library program expands with more accounts from jstor, credo, and other database providers". infodocket. library journal. retrieved december . 	^ shapiro, fred r. ( ). "a study in computer-assisted lexicology: evidence on the emergence of hopefully as a sentence adverb from the jstor journal archive and other electronic resources". american speech. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ wilson, robin (october , ). "scholarly publishing's gender gap". the chronicle of higher education. retrieved january . 	^ west, jevin d.; jacquet, jennifer; king, molly m.; correll, shelley j.; bergstrom, carl t. ( - - ). "the role of gender in scholarly authorship". plos one. ( ): e . arxiv: . . bibcode: ploso... w. doi: . /journal.pone. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ heather ( - - ). "it's time to insist on #openinfrastructure for #openscience". our research blog. retrieved - - . further reading[edit] 	gauger, barbara j.; kacena, carolyn ( ). "jstor usage data and what it can tell us about ourselves: is there predictability based on historical use by libraries of similar size?". oclc systems & services. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	schonfeld, roger c. ( ). jstor: a history. princeton, nj: princeton university press. isbn  - - - - . 	seeds, robert s. (november ). "impact of a digital archive (jstor) on print collection use". collection building. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	spinella, michael p. ( ). "jstor: past, present, and future". journal of library administration. ( ): – . doi: . /j v n _ . 	spinella, michael ( ). "jstor and the changing digital landscape". interlending & document supply. ( ): – . doi: . / . external links[edit] 	official website 	"libraries and institutions offering access". jstor. retrieved - - . searchable database, includes many public libraries offering free access to library card holders. 	"register & read". jstor. retrieved - - . free individual registration, offering free read-only access (no printing or saving) to three articles every two weeks (seventy-eight per year). 	jstor early journal content : free texts : download & streaming : internet archive 	authority control 	 	bibsys: 	bnf: cb v (data) 	gnd: 	lccn: no 	nli: 	viaf: 	 worldcat identities: lccn-no retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=jstor&oldid= " 		categories: 	 establishments in the united states 	academic publishing 	andrew w. mellon foundation 	commercial digital libraries 	databases in the united states 	american digital libraries 	educational institutions established in 	educational publishing companies 	full text scholarly online databases 	non-profit organizations based in new york city 	online archives 	organizations based in ann arbor, michigan 	organizations established in hidden categories: 	pages containing links to subscription-only content 	articles with short 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additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 interest (emotion) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	interest (emotion) 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		feeling that causes attention to focus on an object, event or process "interesting" redirects here. for the young ones episode, see interesting (the young ones). for other uses, see interest (disambiguation). facial expression of intense interest (emotion), which includes jaws being dropped, tongue being stuck upward and outward, and pupils being dilated. 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e interest is a feeling or emotion that causes attention to focus on an object, event, or process. in contemporary psychology of interest,[ ] the term is used as a general concept that may encompass other more specific psychological terms, such as curiosity and to a much lesser degree surprise.[citation needed] the emotion of interest does have its own facial expression, of which the most prominent component is having dilated pupils.[ ][ ] contents 	 applications in computer assisted communication and b-c interface 	 measurement of sexual interest 	 see also 	 references 	 external links applications in computer assisted communication and b-c interface[edit] in , an entirely new communication device and brain-computer interface was revealed, which required no visual fixation or eye movement at all, as with previous such devices. instead, the device assesses more covert interest, that is by assessing other indicators than eye fixation, on a chosen letter on a virtual keyboard. each letter has its own (background) circle that is micro-oscillating in brightness in different time transitions[clarification needed], where the determination of letter selection is based on the best fit between first, unintentional pupil-size oscillation pattern and second, the circle-in-background's brightness oscillation pattern[clarification needed]. accuracy is additionally improved by the user's mental rehearsing of the words 'bright' and 'dark' in synchrony with the brightness transitions of the circle/letter.[ ] measurement of sexual interest[edit] in social science measurement methodology, when the intensity of (sexual) interest needs to be measured, the changes in pupil size – despite its weaker, but still consistent, correlations with other measures such as self-reported measures of sexual interest's orientation – have been proposed as its appropriate measure.[ ] see also[edit] 	curiosity 	ecstasy (emotion) 	carroll izard 	surprise 	attraction (emotion) references[edit] 	^ silvia, paul ( ) exploring the psychology of interest. university of oxford 	^ "we cannot help but reveal our interest in (and attraction to) others through the size of our pupils."--satoshi kanazawa, phd, an evolutionary psychologist, reader in management at the london school of economics and political science, and honorary research fellow in the department of psychology at university college london, and in the department of psychology at birkbeck college, university of london, in his blog scientific fundamentalist 	^ why meeting anothers gaze is so powerful, bbc, christian jarrett, january 	^ mathôt s, melmi j-b, van der linden l, van der stigchel s ( ) the mind-writing pupil: a human-computer interface based on decoding of covert attention through pupillometry. public library of science one ( ): e . doi: . /journal.pone. 	^ rieger, gerulf; savin-williams rc ( ) the eyes have it: sex and sexual orientation differences in pupil dilation patterns. public library of science one ( ): e . doi: . /journal.pone. san francisco external links[edit] 	a theory of different stages of interest (from noticing something, wondering about it, being curious, to being fascinated, astonished, and, in ecstasy) 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 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privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 love - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	love 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for other uses, see love (disambiguation). emotion 	part of a series on 	love 	 	 types of love 	affection 	bonding 	broken heart 	compassionate love 	conjugal love 	courtly love 	courtship 	troubadours 	falling in love 	friendship 	cross-sex 	romantic 	zone 	interpersonal relationship 	intimacy 	limerence 	love addiction 	love at first sight 	love triangle 	lovesickness 	lovestruck 	obsessive love 	passion 	platonic love 	puppy love 	relationship 	romance 	self-love 	amour de soi 	unconditional love 	unrequited love 	 social views 	anarchist 	free love 	chinese 	ren 	yuanfen 	french 	amour-propre 	greek 	words for love 	agape 	eros 	ludus 	mania 	philautia 	philia 	philos 	pragma 	storge 	xenia 	indian 	kama 	bhakti 	maitrī 	islamic 	ishq 	jewish 	chesed 	latin 	amore 	charity 	portuguese 	saudade 	yaghan 	mamihlapinatapai 	 concepts 	color wheel theory of love 	biological basis 	love letter 	love magic 	valentine's day 	philosophy 	religious views 	love deities 	mere-exposure effect 	similarity 	physical attractiveness 	triangular theory of love 		v 	t 	e 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	v 	t 	e 		this article contains special characters. without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. love encompasses a range of strong and positive emotional and mental states, from the most sublime virtue or good habit, the deepest interpersonal affection, to the simplest pleasure.[ ][ ] an example of this range of meanings is that the love of a mother differs from the love of a spouse, which differs from the love of food. most commonly, love refers to a feeling of strong attraction and emotional attachment.[ ] love is considered to be both positive and negative, with its virtue representing human kindness, compassion, and affection, as "the unselfish loyal and benevolent concern for the good of another" and its vice representing human moral flaw, akin to vanity, selfishness, amour-propre, and egotism, as potentially leading people into a type of mania, obsessiveness or codependency.[ ][ ] it may also describe compassionate and affectionate actions towards other humans, one's self or animals.[ ] in its various forms, love acts as a major facilitator of interpersonal relationships and, owing to its central psychological importance, is one of the most common themes in the creative arts.[ ] love has been postulated to be a function that keeps human beings together against menaces and to facilitate the continuation of the species.[ ] ancient greek philosophers identified five forms of love: essentially, familial love (in greek, storge), friendly love or platonic love (philia), romantic love (eros), guest love (xenia) and divine love (agape). modern authors have distinguished further varieties of love: unrequited love, empty love, companionate love, consummate love, infatuated love, self-love, and courtly love. numerous cultures have also distinguished ren, yuanfen, mamihlapinatapai, cafuné, kama, bhakti, mettā, ishq, chesed, amore, charity, saudade (and other variants or symbioses of these states), as culturally unique words, definitions, or expressions of love in regards to a specified "moments" currently lacking in the english language.[ ][ ][ ] scientific research on emotion has increased significantly over the past two decades. the color wheel theory of love defines three primary, three secondary and nine tertiary love styles, describing them in terms of the traditional color wheel. the triangular theory of love suggests "intimacy, passion and commitment" are core components of love. love has additional religious or spiritual meaning. this diversity of uses and meanings combined with the complexity of the feelings involved makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, compared to other emotional states. contents 	 definitions 	 impersonal 	 interpersonal 	 . biological basis 	 . psychological basis 	 . evolutionary basis 	 . comparison of scientific models 	 cultural views 	 . ancient greek 	 . ancient roman (latin) 	 . chinese and other sinic 	 . japanese 	 . indian 	 . persian 	 religious views 	 . abrahamic 	 . . judaism 	 . . christianity 	 . . islam 	 . . bahá'í faith 	 . indian 	 . . buddhism 	 . . hinduism 	 political views 	 . free love 	 philosophical views 	 . bell hooks 	 . martin buber 	 see also 	 references 	 sources 	 further reading 	 external links definitions romeo and juliet, depicted as they part on the balcony in act iii, by ford madox brown the word "love" can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in different contexts. many other languages use multiple words to express some of the different concepts that in english are denoted as "love"; one example is the plurality of greek words for "love" which includes agape and eros.[ ] cultural differences in conceptualizing love thus doubly impede the establishment of a universal definition.[ ] although the nature or essence of love is a subject of frequent debate, different aspects of the word can be clarified by determining what isn't love (antonyms of "love"). love as a general expression of positive sentiment (a stronger form of like) is commonly contrasted with hate (or neutral apathy). as a less-sexual and more-emotionally intimate form of romantic attachment, love is commonly contrasted with lust. as an interpersonal relationship with romantic overtones, love is sometimes contrasted with friendship, although the word love is often applied to close friendships or platonic love. (further possible ambiguities come with usages "girlfriend", "boyfriend", "just good friends"). fraternal love (prehispanic sculpture from – ad, of huastec origin). museum of anthropology in xalapa, veracruz, mexico abstractly discussed, love usually refers to an experience one person feels for another. love often involves caring for, or identifying with, a person or thing (cf. vulnerability and care theory of love), including oneself (cf. narcissism). in addition to cross-cultural differences in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed greatly over time. some historians date modern conceptions of romantic love to courtly europe during or after the middle ages, although the prior existence of romantic attachments is attested by ancient love poetry.[ ] the complex and abstract nature of love often reduces discourse of love to a thought-terminating cliché. several common proverbs regard love, from virgil's "love conquers all" to the beatles' "all you need is love". st. thomas aquinas, following aristotle, defines love as "to will the good of another."[ ] bertrand russell describes love as a condition of "absolute value," as opposed to relative value.[citation needed] philosopher gottfried leibniz said that love is "to be delighted by the happiness of another."[ ] meher baba stated that in love there is a "feeling of unity" and an "active appreciation of the intrinsic worth of the object of love."[ ] biologist jeremy griffith defines love as "unconditional selflessness".[ ] impersonal people can be said to love an object, principle, or goal to which they are deeply committed and greatly value. for example, compassionate outreach and volunteer workers' "love" of their cause may sometimes be born not of interpersonal love but impersonal love, altruism, and strong spiritual or political convictions.[ ] people can also "love" material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding or otherwise identifying with those things. if sexual passion is also involved, then this feeling is called paraphilia.[ ] a common principle that people say they love is life itself. interpersonal 	 relationships (outline) 	 types 	 genetic or adoptive 	 	kinship 	family 	parent 	father 	mother 	grandparent 	sibling 	cousin 	 by marriage 	 	spouse 	husband 	wife 	open marriage 	polygamy 	polyandry 	polygyny 		group marriage 	mixed-orientation 	 partner(s) 	 	 	significant other 	boyfriend 	girlfriend 	cohabitation 	same-sex 	life partner 	friendship (romantic / cross-sex / zone) 	 sexual 	 	casual 	monogamy 	non-monogamy 	mutual monogamy 	polyamory 	polyfidelity 	cicisbeo 	concubinage 	courtesan 	mistress 	 activities 	bonding 	courtship 	dating 	engagement 	bachelor's day 	mating 	meet market 	romance 	singles event 	wedding 	 endings 	breakup 	separation 	annulment 	divorce 	widowhood 	 emotions and feelings 	affinity 	attachment 	intimacy 	jealousy 	limerence 	love 	platonic 	unconditional 	passion 	sexuality 	 practices 	bride price 	dower 	dowry 	service 	hypergamy 	infidelity 	sexual activity 	transgression 	repression 	 abuse 	child 	dating 	domestic 	elderly 	narcissistic parent 	power and control 	 	v 	t 	e interpersonal love refers to love between human beings. it is a much more potent sentiment than a simple liking for a person. unrequited love refers to those feelings of love that are not reciprocated. interpersonal love is most closely associated with interpersonal relationships.[ ] such love might exist between family members, friends, and couples. there are also a number of psychological disorders related to love, such as erotomania. throughout history, philosophy and religion have done the most speculation on the phenomenon of love. in the th century, the science of psychology has written a great deal on the subject. in recent years, the sciences of psychology, anthropology, neuroscience, and biology have added to the understanding the concept of love. biological basis main article: biological basis of love biological models of sex tend to view love as a mammalian drive, much like hunger or thirst.[ ] helen fisher, an anthropologist and human behavior researcher, divides the experience of love into three partly overlapping stages: lust, attraction, and attachment. lust is the feeling of sexual desire; romantic attraction determines what partners mates find attractive and pursue, conserving time and energy by choosing; and attachment involves sharing a home, parental duties, mutual defense, and in humans involves feelings of safety and security.[ ] three distinct neural circuitries, including neurotransmitters, and three behavioral patterns, are associated with these three romantic styles.[ ] pair of lovers. – lust is the initial passionate sexual desire that promotes mating, and involves the increased release of chemicals such as testosterone and estrogen. these effects rarely last more than a few weeks or months. attraction is the more individualized and romantic desire for a specific candidate for mating, which develops out of lust as commitment to an individual mate forms. recent studies in neuroscience have indicated that as people fall in love, the brain consistently releases a certain set of chemicals, including the neurotransmitter hormones, dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, the same compounds released by amphetamine, stimulating the brain's pleasure center and leading to side effects such as increased heart rate, loss of appetite and sleep, and an intense feeling of excitement. research has indicated that this stage generally lasts from one and a half to three years.[ ] since the lust and attraction stages are both considered temporary, a third stage is needed to account for long-term relationships. attachment is the bonding that promotes relationships lasting for many years and even decades. attachment is generally based on commitments such as marriage and children, or mutual friendship based on things like shared interests. it has been linked to higher levels of the chemicals oxytocin and vasopressin to a greater degree than short-term relationships have.[ ] enzo emanuele and coworkers reported the protein molecule known as the nerve growth factor (ngf) has high levels when people first fall in love, but these return to previous levels after one year.[ ] psychological basis further information: human bonding grandmother and grandchild in sri lanka psychology depicts love as a cognitive and social phenomenon. psychologist robert sternberg formulated a triangular theory of love and argued that love has three different components: intimacy, commitment, and passion. intimacy is a form in which two people share confidences and various details of their personal lives, and is usually shown in friendships and romantic love affairs. commitment, on the other hand, is the expectation that the relationship is permanent. the last form of love is sexual attraction and passion. passionate love is shown in infatuation as well as romantic love. all forms of love are viewed as varying combinations of these three components. non-love does not include any of these components. liking only includes intimacy. infatuated love only includes passion. empty love only includes commitment. romantic love includes both intimacy and passion. companionate love includes intimacy and commitment. fatuous love includes passion and commitment. lastly, consummate love includes all three components.[ ] american psychologist zick rubin sought to define love by psychometrics in the s. his work states that three factors constitute love: attachment, caring, and intimacy.[ ][ ] following developments in electrical theories such as coulomb's law, which showed that positive and negative charges attract, analogs in human life were developed, such as "opposites attract". over the last century, research on the nature of human mating has generally found this not to be true when it comes to character and personality—people tend to like people similar to themselves. however, in a few unusual and specific domains, such as immune systems, it seems that humans prefer others who are unlike themselves (e.g., with an orthogonal immune system), since this will lead to a baby that has the best of both worlds.[ ] in recent years, various human bonding theories have been developed, described in terms of attachments, ties, bonds, and affinities. some western authorities disaggregate into two main components, the altruistic and the narcissistic. this view is represented in the works of scott peck, whose work in the field of applied psychology explored the definitions of love and evil. peck maintains that love is a combination of the "concern for the spiritual growth of another," and simple narcissism.[ ] in combination, love is an activity, not simply a feeling. psychologist erich fromm maintained in his book the art of loving that love is not merely a feeling but is also actions, and that in fact, the "feeling" of love is superficial in comparison to one's commitment to love via a series of loving actions over time.[ ] in this sense, fromm held that love is ultimately not a feeling at all, but rather is a commitment to, and adherence to, loving actions towards another, oneself, or many others, over a sustained duration.[ ] fromm also described love as a conscious choice that in its early stages might originate as an involuntary feeling, but which then later no longer depends on those feelings, but rather depends only on conscious commitment.[ ] evolutionary basis wall of love on montmartre in paris: "i love you" in languages, by calligraphist fédéric baron and artist claire kito ( ) evolutionary psychology has attempted to provide various reasons for love as a survival tool. humans are dependent on parental help for a large portion of their lifespans compared to other mammals. love has therefore been seen as a mechanism to promote parental support of children for this extended time period. furthermore, researchers as early as charles darwin himself identified unique features of human love compared to other mammals and credit love as a major factor for creating social support systems that enabled the development and expansion of the human species.[ ] another factor may be that sexually transmitted diseases can cause, among other effects, permanently reduced fertility, injury to the fetus, and increase complications during childbirth. this would favor monogamous relationships over polygamy.[ ] comparison of scientific models biological models of love tend to see it as a mammalian drive, similar to hunger or thirst.[ ] psychology sees love as more of a social and cultural phenomenon. certainly, love is influenced by hormones (such as oxytocin), neurotrophins (such as ngf), and pheromones, and how people think and behave in love is influenced by their conceptions of love. the conventional view in biology is that there are two major drives in love: sexual attraction and attachment. attachment between adults is presumed to work on the same principles that lead an infant to become attached to its mother. the traditional psychological view sees love as being a combination of companionate love and passionate love. passionate love is intense longing, and is often accompanied by physiological arousal (shortness of breath, rapid heart rate); companionate love is affection and a feeling of intimacy not accompanied by physiological arousal. cultural views ancient greek see also: greek words for love roman copy of a greek sculpture by lysippus depicting eros, the greek personification of romantic love greek distinguishes several different senses in which the word "love" is used. ancient greeks identified four forms of love: kinship or familiarity (in greek, storge), friendship and/or platonic desire (philia), sexual and/or romantic desire (eros), and self-emptying or divine love (agape).[ ][ ] modern authors have distinguished further varieties of romantic love.[ ] however, with greek (as with many other languages), it has been historically difficult to separate the meanings of these words totally. at the same time, the ancient greek text of the bible has examples of the verb agapo having the same meaning as phileo. agape (ἀγάπη agápē) means love in modern-day greek. the term s'agapo means i love you in greek. the word agapo is the verb i love. it generally refers to a "pure," ideal type of love, rather than the physical attraction suggested by eros. however, there are some examples of agape used to mean the same as eros. it has also been translated as "love of the soul."[ ] eros (ἔρως érōs) (from the greek deity eros) is passionate love, with sensual desire and longing. the greek word erota means in love. plato refined his own definition. although eros is initially felt for a person, with contemplation it becomes an appreciation of the beauty within that person, or even becomes appreciation of beauty itself. eros helps the soul recall knowledge of beauty and contributes to an understanding of spiritual truth. lovers and philosophers are all inspired to seek truth by eros. some translations list it as "love of the body".[ ] philia (φιλία philía), a dispassionate virtuous love, was a concept addressed and developed by aristotle in his nicomachean ethics book viii.[ ] it includes loyalty to friends, family, and community, and requires virtue, equality, and familiarity. philia is motivated by practical reasons; one or both of the parties benefit from the relationship. it can also mean "love of the mind." storge (στοργή storgē) is natural affection, like that felt by parents for offspring. xenia (ξενία xenía), hospitality, was an extremely important practice in ancient greece. it was an almost ritualized friendship formed between a host and his guest, who could previously have been strangers. the host fed and provided quarters for the guest, who was expected to repay only with gratitude. the importance of this can be seen throughout greek mythology—in particular, homer's iliad and odyssey. ancient roman (latin) the latin language has several different verbs corresponding to the english word "love." amō is the basic verb meaning i love, with the infinitive amare ("to love") as it still is in italian today. the romans used it both in an affectionate sense as well as in a romantic or sexual sense. from this verb come amans—a lover, amator, "professional lover," often with the accessory notion of lechery—and amica, "girlfriend" in the english sense, often being applied euphemistically to a prostitute. the corresponding noun is amor (the significance of this term for the romans is well illustrated in the fact, that the name of the city, rome—in latin: roma—can be viewed as an anagram for amor, which was used as the secret name of the city in wide circles in ancient times),[ ] which is also used in the plural form to indicate love affairs or sexual adventures. this same root also produces amicus—"friend"—and amicitia, "friendship" (often based to mutual advantage, and corresponding sometimes more closely to "indebtedness" or "influence"). cicero wrote a treatise called on friendship (de amicitia), which discusses the notion at some length. ovid wrote a guide to dating called ars amatoria (the art of love), which addresses, in depth, everything from extramarital affairs to overprotective parents. latin sometimes uses amāre where english would simply say to like. this notion, however, is much more generally expressed in latin by the terms placere or delectāre, which are used more colloquially, the latter used frequently in the love poetry of catullus. diligere often has the notion "to be affectionate for," "to esteem," and rarely if ever is used for romantic love. this word would be appropriate to describe the friendship of two men. the corresponding noun diligentia, however, has the meaning of "diligence" or "carefulness," and has little semantic overlap with the verb. observare is a synonym for diligere; despite the cognate with english, this verb and its corresponding noun, observantia, often denote "esteem" or "affection." caritas is used in latin translations of the christian bible to mean "charitable love"; this meaning, however, is not found in classical pagan roman literature. as it arises from a conflation with a greek word, there is no corresponding verb. chinese and other sinic 愛 (mandarin: ài), the traditional chinese character for love contains a heart (心) in the middle. two philosophical underpinnings of love exist in the chinese tradition, one from confucianism which emphasized actions and duty while the other came from mohism which championed a universal love. a core concept to confucianism is 仁 (ren, "benevolent love"), which focuses on duty, action and attitude in a relationship rather than love itself. in confucianism, one displays benevolent love by performing actions such as filial piety from children, kindness from parents, loyalty to the king and so forth. the concept of 愛 (mandarin: ài) was developed by the chinese philosopher mozi in the th century bc in reaction to confucianism's benevolent love. mozi tried to replace what he considered to be the long-entrenched chinese over-attachment to family and clan structures with the concept of "universal love" (兼愛, jiān'ài). in this, he argued directly against confucians who believed that it was natural and correct for people to care about different people in different degrees. mozi, by contrast, believed people in principle should care for all people equally. mohism stressed that rather than adopting different attitudes towards different people, love should be unconditional and offered to everyone without regard to reciprocation; not just to friends, family and other confucian relations. later in chinese buddhism, the term ai (愛) was adopted to refer to a passionate, caring love and was considered a fundamental desire. in buddhism, ai was seen as capable of being either selfish or selfless, the latter being a key element towards enlightenment. in mandarin chinese, 愛 (ài) is often used as the equivalent of the western concept of love. 愛 (ài) is used as both a verb (e.g. 我愛你, wǒ ài nǐ, or "i love you") and a noun (such as 愛情 àiqíng, or "romantic love"). however, due to the influence of confucian 仁 (rén), the phrase 我愛你 (wǒ ài nǐ, i love you) carries with it a very specific sense of responsibility, commitment and loyalty. instead of frequently saying "i love you" as in some western societies, the chinese are more likely to express feelings of affection in a more casual way. consequently, "i like you" (我喜欢你, wǒ xǐhuan nǐ) is a more common way of expressing affection in mandarin; it is more playful and less serious.[ ] this is also true in japanese (suki da, 好きだ). japanese the japanese language uses three words to convey the english equivalent of "love". because "love" covers a wide range of emotions and behavioral phenomena, there are nuances distinguishing the three terms.[ ][ ] the term ai (愛), which is often associated with maternal love[ ] or selfless love,[ ] originally referred to beauty and was often used in religious context. following the meiji restoration , the term became associated with "love" in order to translate western literature. prior to western influence, the term koi (恋 or 孤悲) generally represented romantic love, and was often the subject of the popular man'yōshū japanese poetry collection.[ ] koi describes a longing for a member of the opposite sex and is typically interpreted as selfish and wanting.[ ] the term's origins come from the concept of lonely solitude as a result of separation from a loved one. though modern usage of koi focuses on sexual love and infatuation, the manyō used the term to cover a wider range of situations, including tenderness, benevolence, and material desire.[ ] the third term, ren'ai (恋愛), is a more modern construction that combines the kanji characters for both ai and koi, though its usage more closely resembles that of koi in the form of romantic love.[ ][ ] indian hindu god krishna and his consort radha making love in contemporary literature, the sanskrit words for love is sneha. other terms such as priya refers to innocent love, prema refers to spiritual love, and kama refers usually to sexual desire.[ ][ ] however, the term also refers to any sensory enjoyment, emotional attraction and aesthetic pleasure such as from arts, dance, music, painting, sculpture and nature.[ ][ ] the concept of kama is found in some of the earliest known verses in vedas. for example, book of rig veda describes the creation of the universe from nothing by the great heat. there in hymn , it states: कामस्तदग्रे समवर्तताधि मनसो रेतः परथमं यदासीत | सतो बन्धुमसति निरविन्दन हर्दि परतीष्याकवयो मनीषा ||[ ] thereafter rose desire in the beginning, desire the primal seed and germ of spirit, sages who searched with their heart's thought discovered the existent's kinship in the non-existent. — rig veda, ~ th century bc[ ] persian the children of adam are limbs of one body having been created of one essence. when the calamity of time afflicts one limb the other limbs cannot remain at rest. if you have no sympathy for the troubles of others you are not worthy to be called by the name of "man". sa'di, gulistan    rumi, hafiz and sa'di are icons of the passion and love that the persian culture and language present.[citation needed] the persian word for love is ishq, which is derived from arabic language; however, it is considered by most to be too stalwart a term for interpersonal love and is more commonly substituted for "doost dashtan" ("liking").[citation needed] in the persian culture, everything is encompassed by love and all is for love, starting from loving friends and family, husbands and wives, and eventually reaching the divine love that is the ultimate goal in life.[citation needed] aziz nasafi, a famous muslim mystic from central asia and iran, wrote the “epistle on love” (risala fi’l ‘ishq) in his work the book of the perfect man (kitab insan al-kamil). in the epistle, he describes love as an emotion that is fostered in an individual for the beloved through four stages. these four stages are inclination (mayl), desire (iradat), affection (mahabbat) and love (‘ishq). he explains that these four stages lead the lover on a journey through which his love for his beloved progressively strengthens, until he becomes completely immersed in the beloved and the beloved becomes a part of him.[ ] religious views main article: religious views on love abrahamic robert indiana's love sculpture spelling ahava judaism see also: jewish views on love in hebrew, אהבה (ahava) is the most commonly used term for both interpersonal love and love between god and god's creations. chesed, often translated as loving-kindness, is used to describe many forms of love between human beings. the commandment to love other people is given in the torah, which states, "love your neighbor like yourself" (leviticus : ). the torah's commandment to love god "with all your heart, with all your soul and with all your might" (deuteronomy : ) is taken by the mishnah (a central text of the jewish oral law) to refer to good deeds, willingness to sacrifice one's life rather than commit certain serious transgressions, willingness to sacrifice all of one's possessions, and being grateful to the lord despite adversity (tractate berachoth : ). rabbinic literature differs as to how this love can be developed, e.g., by contemplating divine deeds or witnessing the marvels of nature. as for love between marital partners, this is deemed an essential ingredient to life: "see life with the wife you love" (ecclesiastes : ). rabbi david wolpe writes that "...love is not only about the feelings of the lover...it is when one person believes in another person and shows it." he further states that "...love...is a feeling that expresses itself in action. what we really feel is reflected in what we do."[ ] the biblical book song of solomon is considered a romantically phrased metaphor of love between god and his people, but in its plain reading, reads like a love song. the th-century rabbi eliyahu eliezer dessler is frequently quoted as defining love from the jewish point of view as "giving without expecting to take" (from his michtav me-eliyahu, vol.  ). christianity the christian understanding is that love comes from god. the love of man and woman—eros in greek—and the unselfish love of others (agape), are often contrasted as "descending" and "ascending" love, respectively, but are ultimately the same thing.[ ] there are several greek words for "love" that are regularly referred to in christian circles. 	agape: in the new testament, agapē is charitable, selfless, altruistic, and unconditional. it is parental love, seen as creating goodness in the world; it is the way god is seen to love humanity, and it is seen as the kind of love that christians aspire to have for one another.[ ] 	phileo: also used in the new testament, phileo is a human response to something that is found to be delightful. also known as "brotherly love." 	two other words for love in the greek language, eros (sexual love) and storge (child-to-parent love), were never used in the new testament.[ ] christians believe that to love god with all your heart, mind, and strength and love your neighbor as yourself are the two most important things in life (the greatest commandment of the jewish torah, according to jesus; cf. gospel of mark chapter , verses – ). saint augustine summarized this when he wrote "love god, and do as thou wilt." the apostle paul glorified love as the most important virtue of all. describing love in the famous poetic interpretation in corinthians, he wrote, "love is patient, love is kind. it does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. it is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. it always protects, always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres." ( cor. : – , niv) the apostle john wrote, "for god so loved the world that he gave his one and only son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. for god did not send his son into the world to condemn the world, but to save the world through him." (john : – , niv) john also wrote, "dear friends, let us love one another for love comes from god. everyone who loves has been born of god and knows god. whoever does not love does not know god, because god is love." ( john : – , niv) sacred and profane love ( – ) by giovanni baglione. intended as an attack on his hated enemy the artist caravaggio, it shows a boy (hinting at caravaggio's homosexuality) on one side, a devil with caravaggio's face on the other, and between an angel representing pure, meaning non-erotic, love.[ ] saint augustine says that one must be able to decipher the difference between love and lust. lust, according to saint augustine, is an overindulgence, but to love and be loved is what he has sought for his entire life. he even says, "i was in love with love." finally, he does fall in love and is loved back, by god. saint augustine says the only one who can love you truly and fully is god, because love with a human only allows for flaws such as "jealousy, suspicion, fear, anger, and contention." according to saint augustine, to love god is "to attain the peace which is yours." (saint augustine's confessions) augustine regards the duplex commandment of love in matthew as the heart of christian faith and the interpretation of the bible. after the review of christian doctrine, augustine treats the problem of love in terms of use and enjoyment until the end of book i of de doctrina christiana ( . . – . . ;).[ ] christian theologians see god as the source of love, which is mirrored in humans and their own loving relationships. influential christian theologian c. s. lewis wrote a book called the four loves. benedict xvi named his first encyclical god is love. he said that a human being, created in the image of god, who is love, is able to practice love; to give himself to god and others (agape) and by receiving and experiencing god's love in contemplation (eros). this life of love, according to him, is the life of the saints such as teresa of calcutta and the blessed virgin mary and is the direction christians take when they believe that god loves them.[ ] pope francis taught that "true love is both loving and letting oneself be loved...what is important in love is not our loving, but allowing ourselves to be loved by god."[ ] and so, in the analysis of a catholic theologian, for pope francis, "the key to love...is not our activity. it is the activity of the greatest, and the source, of all the powers in the universe: god's."[ ] in christianity the practical definition of love is summarised by st. thomas aquinas, who defined love as "to will the good of another," or to desire for another to succeed.[ ] this is an explanation of the christian need to love others, including their enemies. as thomas aquinas explains, christian love is motivated by the need to see others succeed in life, to be good people. regarding love for enemies, jesus is quoted in the gospel of matthew chapter five: "you have heard that it was said, 'love your neighbor and hate your enemy.' but i tell you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, that you may be children of your father in heaven. he causes his sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous. if you love those who love you, what reward will you get? are not even the tax collectors doing that? and if you greet only your own people, what are you doing more than others? do not even pagans do that? be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly father is perfect." – matthew : – . do not forget to love with forgiveness, christ saved an adulterous woman from those who would stone her. a world of wronged hypocrites needs forgiving love. mosaic law would hold deuteronomy : - "if a man is found lying with a woman married to a husband, then both of them shall die—the man that lay with the woman, and the woman; so you shall put away the evil from israel. if a young woman who is a virgin is betrothed to a husband, and a man finds her in the city and lies with her, then you shall bring them both out to the gate of that city, and you shall stone them to death with stones, the young woman because she did not cry out in the city, and the man because he humbled his neighbor's wife; so you shall put away the evil from among you."[ ][circular reference] tertullian wrote regarding love for enemies: "our individual, extraordinary, and perfect goodness consists in loving our enemies. to love one's friends is common practice, to love one's enemies only among christians."[ ] islam in islam, one of the names of god is al-wadūd, which means "the loving" love encompasses the islamic view of life as universal brotherhood that applies to all who hold faith. amongst the names of god (allah), there is the name al-wadud, or "the loving one," which is found in surah [quran  : ] as well as surah [quran  : ]. god is also referenced at the beginning of every chapter in the qur'an as ar-rahman and ar-rahim, or the "most compassionate" and the "most merciful", indicating that nobody is more loving, compassionate and benevolent than god. the qur'an refers to god as being "full of loving kindness." the qur'an exhorts muslim believers to treat all people, those who have not persecuted them, with birr or "deep kindness" as stated in surah [quran  : - ]. birr is also used by the qur'an in describing the love and kindness that children must show to their parents. ishq, or divine love, is the emphasis of sufism in the islamic tradition. practitioners of sufism believe that love is a projection of the essence of god to the universe. god desires to recognize beauty, and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, god "looks" at himself within the dynamics of nature. since everything is a reflection of god, the school of sufism practices to see the beauty inside the apparently ugly. sufism is often referred to as the religion of love.[ ] god in sufism is referred to in three main terms, which are the lover, loved, and beloved, with the last of these terms being often seen in sufi poetry. a common viewpoint of sufism is that through love, humankind can get back to its inherent purity and grace. the saints of sufism are infamous for being "drunk" due to their love of god; hence, the constant reference to wine in sufi poetry and music. aziz nasafi, a famous muslim mystic from central asia and iran, wrote the “epistle on love” (risala fi’l ishq) in his work, the book of the perfect man (kitab insan al-kamil). in the epistle, he draws parallels between love and the remembrance of god. he explains that both love and remembrance have four stages. these four stages are inclination (mayl), desire (iradat), affection (mahabbat) and love (‘ishq). he explains that these four stages lead the lover on a journey through which his love for his beloved progressively strengthens, until he becomes completely immersed in the beloved and the beloved becomes a part of him. similarly, a ‘rememberer’ (of god) progresses through the stages until god becomes predominant in his heart.[ ] bahá'í faith in his paris talks, `abdu'l-bahá described four types of love: the love that flows from god to human beings; the love that flows from human beings to god; the love of god towards the self or identity of god; and the love of human beings for human beings.[ ] indian buddhism in buddhism, kāma is sensuous, sexual love. it is an obstacle on the path to enlightenment, since it is selfish. karuṇā is compassion and mercy, which reduces the suffering of others. it is complementary to wisdom and is necessary for enlightenment. adveṣa and mettā are benevolent love. this love is unconditional and requires considerable self-acceptance. this is quite different from ordinary love, which is usually about attachment and sex and which rarely occurs without self-interest. instead, in buddhism it refers to detachment and unselfish interest in others' welfare. the bodhisattva ideal in mahayana buddhism involves the complete renunciation of oneself in order to take on the burden of a suffering world. the strongest motivation one has in order to take the path of the bodhisattva is the idea of salvation within unselfish, altruistic love for all sentient beings. hinduism main articles: kama and kama sutra kama (left) with rati on a temple wall of chennakesava temple, belur in hinduism, kāma is pleasurable, sexual love, personified by the god kamadeva. for many hindu schools, it is the third end (kama) in life. kamadeva is often pictured holding a bow of sugar cane and an arrow of flowers; he may ride upon a great parrot. he is usually accompanied by his consort rati and his companion vasanta, lord of the spring season. stone images of kamadeva and rati can be seen on the door of the chennakeshava temple at belur, in karnataka, india. maara is another name for kāma. in contrast to kāma, prema – or prem – refers to elevated love. karuna is compassion and mercy, which impels one to help reduce the suffering of others. bhakti is a sanskrit term, meaning "loving devotion to the supreme god." a person who practices bhakti is called a bhakta. hindu writers, theologians, and philosophers have distinguished nine forms of bhakti, which can be found in the bhagavata purana and works by tulsidas. the philosophical work narada bhakti sutras, written by an unknown author (presumed to be narada), distinguishes eleven forms of love. in certain vaishnava sects within hinduism, attaining unadulterated, unconditional and incessant love for godhead is considered the foremost goal of life. gaudiya vaishnavas who worship krishna as the supreme personality of godhead and the cause of all causes consider love for godhead (prema) to act in two ways: sambhoga and vipralambha (union and separation)—two opposites.[ ] in the condition of separation, there is an acute yearning for being with the beloved and in the condition of union, there is supreme happiness and nectarean. gaudiya vaishnavas consider that krishna-prema (love for godhead) is not fire but that it still burns away one's material desires. they consider that kṛṣṇa-prema is not a weapon, but it still pierces the heart. it is not water, but it washes away everything—one's pride, religious rules, and one's shyness. krishna-prema is considered to make one drown in the ocean of transcendental ecstasy and pleasure. the love of radha, a cowherd girl, for krishna is often cited as the supreme example of love for godhead by gaudiya vaishnavas. radha is considered to be the internal potency of krishna, and is the supreme lover of godhead. her example of love is considered to be beyond the understanding of material realm as it surpasses any form of selfish love or lust that is visible in the material world. the reciprocal love between radha (the supreme lover) and krishna (god as the supremely loved) is the subject of many poetic compositions in india such as the gita govinda and hari bhakti shuddhodhaya. in the bhakti tradition within hinduism, it is believed that execution of devotional service to god leads to the development of love for god (taiche bhakti-phale krsne prema upajaya), and as love for god increases in the heart, the more one becomes free from material contamination (krishna-prema asvada haile, bhava nasa paya). being perfectly in love with god or krishna makes one perfectly free from material contamination. and this is the ultimate way of salvation or liberation. in this tradition, salvation or liberation is considered inferior to love, and just an incidental by-product. being absorbed in love for god is considered to be the perfection of life.[ ] political views free love main article: free love the term "free love" has been used[ ] to describe a social movement that rejects marriage, which is seen as a form of social bondage. the free love movement's initial goal was to separate the state from sexual matters such as marriage, birth control, and adultery. it claimed that such issues were the concern of the people involved, and no one else.[ ] many people in the early th century believed that marriage was an important aspect of life to "fulfill earthly human happiness." middle-class americans wanted the home to be a place of stability in an uncertain world. this mentality created a vision of strongly defined gender roles, which provoked the advancement of the free love movement as a contrast.[ ] the term "sex radical" has been used interchangeably with the term "free lover".[citation needed] by whatever name, advocates had two strong beliefs: opposition to the idea of forceful sexual activity in a relationship and advocacy for a woman to use her body in any way that she pleases.[ ] these are also beliefs of feminism.[ ] philosophical views main article: philosophy of love graffiti in east timor the philosophy of love is a field of social philosophy and ethics that attempts to explain the nature of love.[ ] the philosophical investigation of love includes the tasks of distinguishing between the various kinds of personal love, asking if and how love is or can be justified, asking what the value of love is, and what impact love has on the autonomy of both the lover and the beloved.[ ] bell hooks all about love: new visions is a critically acclaimed text by feminist scholar bell hooks. this text offers a rendering of love that is multifaceted; it is painted not as a static thing we derive pleasure from but is verb, an action.“an individual does not need to be a believer in a religion to embrace the idea that there is an animating principal in the self-- a life force (some of us call it soul) that when nurtured enhances our capacity to be more fully self actualized and able to engage in communion with the world around us. to begin by always thinking of love as an action rather than a feeling is one way in which anyone using the word in this manner automatically assumes accountability and responsibility.” in that action she names components such as care, responsibility, respect, commitment, and trust as essential components to the act of loving.[ ] martin buber the text i and thou by jewish philosopher martin buber, is a radicalization of the hegelian understanding of self and focuses on the interpersonal space between selves. he makes the argument that beings generally approach the world from the mode of an ‘i-it’ relation. a conscience being must objectify the world of things and other beings to be able to understand them. he feels this kind of objectification and categorization is necessary to make sense of the world and conduct oneself in it. “every you in the world is doomed by its nature to become a thing or at least to enter thinghood again and again”. but there is another mode for the self to exist in, the ‘i-thou’ or ‘i-you’ relation. this relation is a mode that you can only step into with another conscience being and is outside of the understanding. it can not be made knowable, it is a personal space between these two being and leaves both beings with their particularities, meaning it does not objectify or categorize them. it is the mode of relation where love resides. “feelings accompany the metaphysical and metapsychical fact of love, but they do not constitute it; and the feelings that accompany it can be very different. jesus’ feeling for the possessed man is different from his feeling for the beloved disciple; but the love is one. feelings one ‘has’; love occurs. feelings dwell in man, but man dwells in his love. this is not metaphor but actuality: love does not cling to an i, as if the you were merely its ‘content’ or object; it is between i and you. whoever does not know this, know this with his being, does not know love, even if he should ascribe to it the feelings that he lives through, experiences, enjoys, and expresses. love is a cosmic force.”[ ] see also 	color wheel theory of love 	human bonding 	love at first sight 	polyamory 	romance (love) 	self-love 	social connection 	traditional forms, agape, philia, philautia, storge, eros: greek terms for love 	relationship science references 	^ "definition of love in english". oxford english dictionary. archived from the original on may . retrieved may . 	^ "definition of "love" - english dictionary". cambridge english dictionary. archived from the original on may . retrieved may . 	^ oxford illustrated american dictionary ( ) merriam-webster collegiate dictionary ( ) 	^ roget's thesaurus ( ) p. and p. 	^ "love – definition of love by merriam-webster". merriam-webster.com. archived from the original on january . retrieved december . 	^ fromm, erich; 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"a theory of love and sexual desire". journal for the theory of social behaviour. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. 	kierkegaard, søren ( ). works of love. new york city: harper perennial modern classics. isbn  - - - - . 	oord, thomas jay ( ). defining love: a philosophical, scientific, and theological engagement. grand rapids, mi: brazos. isbn  - - - - . 	singer, irving ( ). the nature of love. (in three volumes) (v. reprinted and later volumes from the university of chicago press, ed.). random house. isbn  - - - - . 	sternberg, r.j. ( ). "a triangular theory of love". psychological review. ( ): – . doi: . / - x. . . . 	sternberg, r.j. ( ). "liking versus loving: a comparative evaluation of theories". psychological bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . 	tennov, dorothy ( ). love and limerence: the experience of being in love. new york: stein and day. isbn  - - - - . 	wood samuel e., ellen wood and denise boyd ( ). the world of psychology ( th ed.). pearson education. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . further reading 	bayer, a, ed. 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using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 knowledge sharing - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	knowledge sharing 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		not to be confused with information sharing, shared intelligence, or collective intelligence. knowledge sharing is an activity through which knowledge (namely, information, skills, or expertise) is exchanged among people, friends, peers, families, communities (for example, wikipedia), or within or between organizations.[ ][ ][ ] knowledge sharing is part of the knowledge management process.[ ] people share knowledge through many channels such as conversations, meetings, learning sessions, workshops, videos and other communication media. organizations have recognized that knowledge constitutes a valuable intangible asset for creating and sustaining competitive advantages.[ ] knowledge sharing activities are generally supported by knowledge management systems.[ ] however, technology constitutes only one of the many factors that affect the sharing of knowledge in organizations, such as organizational culture, trust, and incentives.[ ] the sharing of knowledge constitutes a major challenge in the field of knowledge management because some employees tend to resist sharing their knowledge with the rest of the organization.[ ] in the digital world, websites and applications enable knowledge or talent sharing between individuals and/or within teams. the individuals can easily reach the people who want to learn and share their talent to get rewarded. contents 	 knowledge sharing as flow or transfer 	 knowledge sharing levels 	 . explicit knowledge 	 . tacit knowledge 	 . embedded knowledge 	 methods 	 connection to adjacent disciplines 	 . information technology systems 	 . economic theory 	 importance to organizations 	 challenges 	 see also 	 references knowledge sharing as flow or transfer[edit] although knowledge is commonly treated as an object, dave snowden has argued it is more appropriate to teach it as both a flow and a thing.[ ] knowledge as a flow can be related to the concept of tacit knowledge.[ ][ ][ ] while the difficulty of sharing knowledge is in transferring knowledge from one entity to another,[ ][ ] it may prove profitable for organizations to acknowledge the difficulties of knowledge transfer and adopting new knowledge management strategies accordingly.[ ] knowledge sharing levels[edit] knowledge can be shared in different ways and levels. the following segmentation sheds light on the essence of sharing. explicit knowledge[edit] explicit knowledge sharing occurs when explicit knowledge is made available to be shared between entities. explicit knowledge sharing can happen successfully when the following criteria are met: 	articulation: the knowledge provider can describe the information.[ ] 	awareness: the recipient must be aware that knowledge is available.[ ] 	access: the knowledge recipient can access the knowledge provider.[ ] 	guidance: the body of knowledge must be defined and differentiated into different topics or domains so as to avoid information overload, and to provide easy access to appropriate material. knowledge managers are often considered key figures in the creation of an effective knowledge sharing system.[ ][ ] 	completeness: the holistic approach to knowledge sharing in the form of both centrally managed and self-published knowledge.[citation needed] tacit knowledge[edit] tacit knowledge sharing occurs through different types of socialization. although tacit knowledge is difficult to identify and codify, relevant factors that influence tacit knowledge sharing include: 	informal networks such as daily interactions between people within a defined environment (work, school, home, etc.). these networks span hierarchies and functions.[ ] 	the provision of space where people can engage in unstructured or unmonitored discussions, thereby fostering informal networks.[ ] 	unstructured, less-structured or experimental work practices that encourage creative problem solving, and the development of social networks.[ ] 	an organizational culture which is based on trust. this encourages employees to share their knowledge.[ ] 	employees’ strong organizational commitment and loyalty to their employers supports tacit knowledge sharing.[ ] embedded knowledge[edit] embedded knowledge sharing occurs when knowledge is shared through clearly delineated products, processes, routines, etc. this knowledge can be shared in different ways, such as: 	scenario planning and debriefing: providing a structured space to create possible scenarios, followed by a discussion of what happened, and how it could have been different.[ ] 	management training. 	knowledge transfer: deliberately integrating systems, processes, routines, etc., to combine and share relevant knowledge. methods[edit] there are several methods both formal and informal that have claims to enable knowledge sharing in organisations. these include, but are not limited to: 	communities of practice: a group of people who share a craft or a profession; usually takes the form of cross organizational or inter-organizational workgroups, in physical, virtual or blended forms [ ] 	communities of interest: informal and voluntary gathering of individuals discussing on a regular basis, in many cases through defined digital channel[ ] 	workgroups: task-oriented groups that may include project teams or employees from various departments, working and sharing knowledge together towards a specific goal such as product development or production[ ] 	knowledge cafe: a methodology to conduct knowledge sharing sessions using a combination of a large assembly and of small discussion groups of - persons, usually around small tables[ ] 	lessons learned techniques: techniques to learn from what has happened before and what could be done better the next time.[ ] 	mentoring: a way to share a wide range of knowledge from technical values to technical and operational skills. via mentoring programs, it is possible to share tacit norms of behaviour and cultural values.[ ] 	chats: informal sharing, using instant messaging platforms. the knowledge is accessible mainly in the present or by search.[ ] 	wikis: digital spaces to gather and share knowledge on specific topics. while discussion groups and chats are time-based. wikis are topic-based. wiki pages and topics link to form an intuitive network of accumulated knowledge. categories are also used as a means to organize and present topics in wiki pages.[ ] 	storytelling: an informal way to share knowledge, where knowledge owner shares real life stories to other.[ ] 	shared knowledge bases: shared organized content, containing information and knowledge. can be formed as websites, intranets databases, file drives or any other form that enables the access to content by the various individuals.[ ] 	expert maps: organized lists or network of experts and corresponding expertise. enables indirect access to the knowledge (via the expert).[ ] connection to adjacent disciplines[edit] information technology systems[edit] information technology (it) systems are common tools that help facilitate knowledge sharing and knowledge management.[ ] the main role of it systems is to help people share knowledge through common platforms and electronic storage to help make access simpler, encouraging economic reuse of knowledge. it systems can provide codification, personalization, electronic repositories for information and can help people locate each other to communicate directly. with appropriate training and education, it systems can make it easier for organizations to acquire, store or disseminate knowledge.[ ] economic theory[edit] in economic theory, knowledge sharing has been studied in the field of industrial organization and in the field of contract theory. in industrial organization, bhattacharya, glazer, and sappington ( ) have emphasized the importance of knowledge sharing in research joint ventures in a context of imperfect competition.[ ] in the theory of incomplete contracts, rosenkranz and schmitz ( , ) have used the grossman-hart-moore property rights approach to study how knowledge sharing is affected by the underlying ownership structure.[ ][ ] importance to organizations[edit] knowledge is transferred in organizations whether it is a managed process or not since everyday knowledge transfer is a key part of organizational life. however, finding the best expert to share their knowledge in a specific matter could be hard, especially in larger organizations. therefore, a structured strategy for knowledge transfer is required for the organization to thrive.[ ] larger companies have a higher tendency to invest more on knowledge management processes, although competitive benefits are gained regardless of organization size.[ ] in an organizational context, tacit knowledge refers to a kind of knowledge that human beings develop by the experience they gain over years.[ ] at present the employees’ experience and knowledge can be seen as the most important and most valuable source that organizations have to protect.[ ] knowledge constitutes a valuable, intangible asset for creating and sustaining competitive advantages within organizations.[ ] several factors affect knowledge sharing in organizations, such as organizational culture, trust, incentives, and technology.[ ] in an organization, five distinct conditions of the organizational culture have a positive effect on knowledge-sharing: communication and coordination between groups, trust, top management support, the reward system, and openness.[ ] concerning the communication and coordination between groups condition, the organizations that are centralized with a bureaucratic management style can hinder the creation of new knowledge whereas a flexible decentralized organizational structure encourages knowledge-sharing.[ ] also, internationalization is crucial for compliance or conformity. dalkir ( ) says that internationalization is believing that the “behavior dictated by the norm truly the right and proper way to behave”.[ ] if the norm is to communicate and collaborate between teams, it will be much easier for members of the group to internalize these values and act accordingly. knowledge sharing activities are commonly supported by knowledge management systems, a form of information technology (it) that facilitates and organizes information within a company or organization.[ ] challenges[edit] knowledge sharing can sometimes constitute a major challenge in the field of knowledge management.[ ] the difficulty of knowledge sharing resides in the transference of knowledge from one entity to another.[ ][ ] some employees and team leaders tend to resist sharing their knowledge[ ][ ] because of the notion that knowledge is property; ownership, therefore, it becomes very important.[ ] leaders and supervisors tend to hoard information in order to demonstrate power and supremacy over their employees.[ ] in order to counteract this, individuals must be reassured that they will receive some type of incentive for what they create.[ ] supervisors and managers have a key role in this – they need to create a work culture which encourages employees to share their knowledge.[ ] however, dalkir ( ) demonstrated that individuals are most commonly rewarded for what they know, not what they share.[ ] negative consequences, such as isolation and resistance to ideas, occur when knowledge sharing is impeded.[ ] sometimes the problem is that a part of an employee's knowledge can be subconscious and therefore it may be difficult to share information.[ ] to promote knowledge sharing and remove knowledge sharing obstacles, the organizational culture of an entity should encourage discovery and innovation.[ ] members who trust each other are willing to exchange knowledge and at the same time want to embrace knowledge from other members as well.[ ] national culture is also one of the common barriers of knowledge sharing because culture has a huge effect on how people are tend to share knowledge between each other.[ ] in some cultures, people share everything, in other cultures people share when asked, and in some cultures, people don't share even if it would help to achieve common goals.[ ] the political scientist hélène hatzfeld has pointed out that people who have knowledge can be reluctant to share that knowledge when they are not confident in their own expertise, so to facilitate knowledge sharing, structures can be designed to elevate everyone to the status of a potential expert and make them more comfortable contributing; one example of such a system, to which hatzfeld attributes mixed success in this regard, is wikipedia.[ ] pinho et al. ( ) have made comprehensive literature review of knowledge management barriers and facilitators.[ ] barriers are considered to be obstacles that hinder knowledge acquisition, creation, sharing and transfer in and between organizations based on individual, socio-organizational or technological reasons. respectively facilitators are seen as enabling factors that improve, stimulate or promote the flow of knowledge. according to maier et al. ( ) understanding of the process supporting knowledge management enables further consideration of the obstacles and facilitating factors.[ ] see also[edit] 	collective intelligence 	community of practice 	transfer of learning 	knowledge market 	knowledge translation 	knowledge management references[edit] 	^ a b c d e bukowitz, wendi r.; williams, ruth l. ( ). the knowledge management fieldbook. ft press. isbn  - . 	^ serban, andreea m.; luan, jing ( ). "an overview of knowledge management" (pdf). university of kentucky. retrieved april . 	^ ipe, m. ( ), “knowledge sharing on organizations: a conceptual framework”, human resource development review, vol. no. , p. 	^ a b c dalkir, kimiz ( ). knowledge management in theory and practice. cambridge, massachusetts: mit press. isbn  . 	^ a b miller, d.; shamsie, j. ( ). "the resource-based view of the firm in two environments: the hollywood film studios from to ". academy of management journal. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ "bloomfire". crunchbase. retrieved april . 	^ a b cabrera, a.; cabrera, e. f. ( ). "knowledge-sharing dilemmas". organization studies. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ ciborra, c.u.; patriota, g. ( ). "groupware and teamwork in r&d: limits to learning and innovation". r&d management. ( ): – . 	^ a b snowden, d. ( ). "complex acts of knowing: paradox and descriptive self-awareness". journal of knowledge management. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . 	^ polanyi, m. ( ) [ ]. personal knowledge: towards a post-critical philosophy. crc press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b c nonaka, i. ( ). "a dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation". organization science. ( ): – . doi: . /orsc. . . . jstor  . s cid  . 	^ nonaka, i. ( ). "tacit knowledge and knowledge conversion: controversy and advancement in organizational knowledge creation theory" (pdf). organization science. ( ): – . doi: . /orsc. . . archived from the original (pdf) on - - . 	^ a b argote, l.; ingram, p. ( ). "knowledge transfer: a basis for competitive advantage in firms". organizational behavior and human decision processes. ( ): – . doi: . /obhd. . . s cid  . 	^ a b fan, y. ( ). "the transfer of western management to china: context, content and constraints". management learning. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ a b c d e prusak, lawrence; davenport, thomas h. ( ). working knowledge: how organizations manage what they know, nd edition. cambridge, ma: harvard business school press. isbn  - - - - . 	^ curado, carla; vieira, sílvia ( - - ). "trust, knowledge sharing and organizational commitment in smes". personnel review. ( ): – . doi: . /pr- - - . issn  - . 	^ hislop, donald (april ). "linking human resource management and knowledge management via commitment: a review and research agenda". employee relations. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . 	^ serban, andreea m.; luan, jing ( ). "corporate strategy model: scenario planning" (pdf). university of kentucky. retrieved april . 	^ wenger, e. c., & snyder, w. m. ( ). communities of practice: the organizational frontier. harvard business review, ( ), - . 	^ fischer, g. ( , august). communities of interest: learning through the interaction of multiple knowledge systems. in proceedings of the th iris conference (vol. , pp. - ). department of information science, bergen. 	^ kozlowski, s. w., & bell, b. s. ( ). work groups and teams in organizations. handbook of psychology, second edition, . 	^ gurteen, d. ( ). knowledge cafe. inside knowledge, ( ), - . 	^ a b delong, david w. ( - - ). lost knowledge. oxford university press. doi: . /acprof:oso/ . . . isbn  - - - - . 	^ stein, d. s., wanstreet, c. e., glazer, h. r., engle, c. l., harris, r. a., johnston, s. m., ... & trinko, l. a. ( ). creating shared understanding through chats in a community of inquiry. the internet and higher education, ( ), - . 	^ wagner, c. ( ). wiki: a technology for conversational knowledge management and group collaboration. communications of the association for information systems, ( ), . 	^ kitimbo, irene; dalkir, kimiz ( ). "learning from project experience: creating, capturing and sharing knowledge". knowledge management. ( ): – . doi: . / - /cgp/v i / . issn  - . 	^ levesque, h. j., & lakemeyer, g. ( ). the logic of knowledge bases. mit press. 	^ huang, z., chen, h., guo, f., xu, j. j., wu, s., & chen, w. h. ( , january). visualizing the expertise space. in th annual hawaii international conference on system sciences, . proceedings of the (pp. -pp). ieee. 	^ a b c d gurteen, david (february ). "creating a knowledge sharing culture". knowledge management magazine. ( ). 	^ bhattacharya, sudipto; glazer, jacob; sappington, david e.m ( ). "licensing and the sharing of knowledge in research joint ventures" (pdf). journal of economic theory. ( ): – . doi: . / - ( ) -s. issn  - . 	^ rosenkranz, stephanie; schmitz, patrick w. ( ). "know-how disclosure and incomplete contracts". economics letters. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /s - ( ) - . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ rosenkranz, stephanie; schmitz, patrick w. ( ). "optimal allocation of ownership rights in dynamic r&d alliances". games and economic behavior. ( ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ soniewicki, marcin; paliszkiewicz, joanna ( ). "the importance of knowledge management processes for the creation of competitive advantage by companies of varying size, entrepreneurial business and economics review". entrepreneurial business and economics review. . doi: . /eber. . . 	^ ribeiro, rodrigo ( january ). "tacit knowledge management". phenomenology and the cognitive sciences. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - -x. s cid  . 	^ urbancová, hana; urbanec, jiří (january ). "the survey of tacit knowledge sharing in organization" (pdf). pp.  – . retrieved november . 	^ titi amayah, angela ( ). "determinants of knowledge sharing in a public sector organization". journal of knowledge management. ( ): – . doi: . /jkm- - - . 	^ a b c d rosen, benson; furst, stacie; blackburn, richard (january ). "overcoming barriers to knowledge sharing in virtual teams". organizational dynamics. ( ): – . doi: . /j.orgdyn. . . . issn  - . 	^ a b c d dalkir, k. ( ). knowledge management in theory and practice. oxford: elsevier inc: jordan hill. pp.  – . 	^ holste, j. scott; fields, dail ( - - ). "trust and tacit knowledge sharing and use". journal of knowledge management. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . 	^ reboul, cyril ( ). "managing knowledge workers: the kwp matrix". proceedings of the th international conference moman : – . 	^ levin, d.z. & cross, r. ( ). the strength of weak ties you can trust: the mediating role of trust in effective knowledge transfer. management science, vol. , no. . 	^ hatzfeld, hélène ( ). "partager les savoirs: quelle légitimité ?". le sujet dans la cité (in french). ( ): – . doi: . /lsdlc. . . 	^ pinho, isabel (november ). "improving knowledge management processes: a hybrid positive approach". journal of knowledge management. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ maier, ronald ( ). "defining process-oriented knowledge management strategies". journal of process and knowledge management. ( ): – . doi: . /kpm. . retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=knowledge_sharing&oldid= " 		categories: 	knowledge sharing hidden categories: 	cs french-language sources (fr) 	wikipedia semi-protected pages 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from november 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	dansk 	español 	bahasa indonesia 	italiano 	português 	tiếng việt 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 sadness - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	sadness 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		"sad" redirects here. for other uses, see sad (disambiguation) and sad (disambiguation). negative emotion a detail of the sculpture entombment of christ, showing mary magdalene crying 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e sadness is an emotional pain associated with, or characterized by, feelings of disadvantage, loss, despair, grief, helplessness, disappointment and sorrow. an individual experiencing sadness may become quiet or lethargic, and withdraw themselves from others. an example of severe sadness is depression, a mood which can be brought on by major depressive disorder or persistent depressive disorder. crying can be an indication of sadness.[ ] sadness is one of the "six basic emotions" described by paul ekman, along with happiness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust.[ ]: – contents 	 childhood 	 neuroanatomy 	 coping mechanisms 	 pupil empathy 	 vocal expression 	 cultural explorations 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading childhood sad girls. photo by paolo monti, sadness is a common experience in childhood. sometimes, sadness can lead to depression. some families may have a (conscious or unconscious) rule that sadness is "not allowed",[ ] but robin skynner has suggested that this may cause problems, arguing that with sadness "screened off", people can become shallow and manic.[ ]: ; pediatrician t. berry brazelton suggests that acknowledging sadness can make it easier for families to address more serious emotional problems.[ ]: ; sadness is part of the normal process of the child separating from an early symbiosis with the mother and becoming more independent. every time a child separates a little more, he or she will have to cope with a small loss. if the mother cannot allow the minor distress involved, the child may never learn how to deal with sadness by themselves.[ ]: – brazelton argues that too much cheering a child up devalues the emotion of sadness for them;[ ]: and selma fraiberg suggests that it is important to respect a child's right to experience a loss fully and deeply.[ ] margaret mahler also saw the ability to feel sadness as an emotional achievement, as opposed for example to warding it off through restless hyperactivity.[ ] d. w. winnicott similarly saw in sad crying the psychological root of valuable musical experiences in later life.[ ] neuroanatomy a large amount of research has been conducted on the neuroscience of sadness.[ ] according to the american journal of psychiatry, sadness has been found to be associated with "increases in bilateral activity within the vicinity of the middle and posterior temporal cortex, lateral cerebellum, cerebellar vermis, midbrain, putamen, and caudate."[ ] jose v. pardo has his m.d and ph.d and leads a research program in cognitive neuroscience. using positron emission tomography (pet) pardo and his colleagues were able to provoke sadness among seven normal men and women by asking them to think about sad things. they observed increased brain activity in the bilateral inferior and orbitofrontal cortex.[ ] in a study that induced sadness in subjects by showing emotional film clips, the feeling was correlated with significant increases in regional brain activity, especially in the prefrontal cortex, in the region called brodmann's area , and the thalamus. a significant increase in activity was also observed in the bilateral anterior temporal structures.[ ] coping mechanisms main article: coping (psychology) a man expressing sadness with his head in his hands people deal with sadness in different ways, and it is an important emotion because it helps to motivate people to deal with their situation. some coping mechanisms include: getting social support and/or spending time with a pet,[ ] creating a list, or engaging in some activity to express sadness.[ ] some individuals, when feeling sad, may exclude themselves from a social setting, so as to take the time to recover from the feeling.[citation needed] while being one of the moods people most want to shake, sadness can sometimes be perpetuated by the very coping strategies chosen, such as ruminating, "drowning one's sorrows", or permanently isolating oneself.[ ]: – as alternative ways of coping with sadness to the above, cognitive behavioral therapy suggests instead either challenging one's negative thoughts, or scheduling some positive event as a distraction.[ ]: being attentive to, and patient with, one's sadness may also be a way for people to learn through solitude;[ ] while emotional support to help people stay with their sadness can be further helpful.[ ]: such an approach is fueled by the underlying belief that loss (when felt wholeheartedly) can lead to a new sense of aliveness, and to a re-engagement with the outside world.[ ] pupil empathy pupil size may be an indicator of sadness. a sad facial expression with small pupils is judged to be more intensely sad as the pupil size decreases.[ ] a person's own pupil size also mirrors this and becomes smaller when viewing sad faces with small pupils. no parallel effect exists when people look at neutral, happy or angry expressions.[ ] the greater degree to which a person's pupils mirror another predicts a person's greater score on empathy.[ ] however, in disorders such as autism and psychopathy facial expressions that represent sadness may be subtle, which may show a need for a more non-linguistic situation to affect their level of empathy.[ ] vocal expression according to dipr scientist swati johar,[ ]:vii sadness is an emotion "identified by current speech dialogue and processing systems".[ ]: measurements to distinguish sadness from other emotions in the human voice include root mean square (rms) energy, inter-word silence and speaking rate.[ ] it is communicated mostly by lowering the mean and variability of the fundamental frequency (f ), besides being associated with lower vocal intensity, and with decreases in f over time.[ ][ ] johar argues that, "when someone is sad, slow, low pitched speech with weak high audio frequency energy is produced". likewise, "low energy state of sadness attributes to slow tempo, lower speech rate and mean pitch".[ ]: ; sadness is, as stated by klaus scherer, one of the "best-recognized emotions in the human voice", although it's "generally somewhat lower than that of facial expression". in a study by scherer, it was found that in western countries sadness had % of accuracy for facial recognition and % for vocal, while in non-western countries the results were of % and %, respectively.[ ] cultural explorations lost in thoughts, by wilhelm amberg. an individual experiencing sadness may become quiet or lethargic, and withdraw themselves from others. during the renaissance, edmund spenser in the faerie queene endorsed sadness as a marker of spiritual commitment.[ ] in the lord of the rings, sadness is distinguished from unhappiness,[ ] to exemplify j. r. r. tolkien's preference for a sad, but settled determination, as opposed to what he saw as the shallower temptations of either despair or hope.[ ] julia kristeva considered that "a diversification of moods, variety in sadness, refinement in sorrow or mourning are the imprint of a humanity that is surely not triumphant but subtle, ready to fight and creative".[ ] see also 	joie de vivre 	melancholia 	mood (psychology) references 	^ jellesma, f.c.; vingerhoets, ad j.j.m. ( january ). "crying in middle childhood: a report on gender differences". sex roles. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b c goleman, daniel ( ). emotional intelligence. london, united kingdom. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ masman, karen ( july ). the uses of sadness: why feeling sad is no reason not to be happy. allen & unwin. p.  . isbn  . 	^ a b c skynner, robin; cleese, john ( ). families and how to survive them. 	^ a b brazelton, t. berry ( ). to listen to a child. 	^ fraiberg, selma h. ( ). the magic years. new york, united states. p.  . 	^ mahler, margaret s.; pine, fred; bergman, annl ( ). the psychological birth of the human infant: symbiosis and individuation. london, united kingdom. p.  . 	^ winnicott, d.w. ( ). the child, the family, and the outside world. united kingdom: penguin books. p.  . 	^ "robert plutchik's psychoevolutionary theory of basic emotions" (pdf). adliterate.com. archived (pdf) from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ jonathan turner ( june ). on the origins of human emotions: a sociological inquiry into the evolution of human affect. stanford university press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . retrieved january . 	^ atifa athar; m. saleem khan; khalil ahmed; aiesha ahmed; nida anwar (june ). "a fuzzy inference system for synergy estimation of simultaneous emotion dynamics in agents". international journal of scientific & engineering research. ( ). archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ arias, juan a.; williams, claire; raghvani, rashmi; aghajani, moji; baez, sandra; belzung, catherine; booij, linda; busatto, geraldo; chiarella, julian; fu, cynthia hy; ibanez, agustin; liddell, belinda j.; lowe, leroy; penninx, brenda w.j.h.; rosa, pedro; kemp, andrew h. (april ). "the neuroscience of sadness: a multidisciplinary synthesis and collaborative review". neuroscience & biobehavioral reviews. : – . doi: . /j.neubiorev. . . . pmid  . 	^ lane, r.d.; reiman, e.m.; ahern, g.l.; schwartz, g.e.; davidson, r.j. (july ). "neuroanatomical correlates of happiness, sadness, and disgust". american journal of psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . /ajp. . . . pmid  . 	^ pardo, j.v.; pardo, p.j.; raichle, m.e. (may ). "neural correlates of self-induced dysphoria". american journal of psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . /ajp. . . . pmid  . 	^ george, m.s.; ketter, t.a.; parekh, j.i.; horwitz, b.; herscovitch, p.; post, r.m. (march ). "brain activity during transient sadness and happiness in healthy women". american journal of psychiatry. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /ajp. . . . pmid  . 	^ bos, e.h.; snippe, e.; de jonge, p.; jeronimus, b.f. ( ). "preserving subjective wellbeing in the face of psychopathology: buffering effects of personal strengths and resources". plos one. ( ): e . doi: . /journal.pone. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ "why it's import to express your sadness". free online therapy. october . archived from the original on - - . 	^ barnstone, aliki ( ). "new england review ( –)". spring. ( ): . issn  - . jstor i . 	^ parsons, michael ( august ). the dove that returns, the dove that vanishes: paradox and creativity in psychoanalysis. london, united kingdom: routledge. p.  . isbn  - . 	^ a b harrison, neil a.; singer, tania; rotshtein, pia; dolan, ray j.; critchley, hugo d. ( june ). "pupillary contagion: central mechanisms engaged in sadness processing". social cognitive and affective neuroscience. ( ): – . doi: . /scan/nsl . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b harrison, neil a.; wilson, c.e.; critchley, h.d. (november ). "processing of observed pupil size modulates perception of sadness and predicts empathy". emotion. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ a b c johar, swati ( december ). emotion, affect and personality in speech: the bias of language and paralanguage. springerbriefs in speech technology. springer. isbn  - - - - . archived from the original on june . retrieved june . 	^ yildirim, serdar; bulut, murtaza; m. lee, chul; kazemzadeh, abe; busso, carlos; deng, zhigang; lee, sungbok; narayanan, shrikanth ( ). "an acoustic study of emotions expressed in speech" (pdf). isca: . retrieved june . 	^ stolarski, Łukasz ( ). "pitch patterns in vocal expression of "happiness" and "sadness" in the reading aloud of prose on the basis of selected audiobooks" (pdf). research in language. ( ): – . doi: . /rela- - . s cid  . retrieved june . [permanent dead link] 	^ bachorowski, jo-anne ( april ). "vocal expression and perception of emotion" (pdf). current directions in psychological science. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . s cid  . archived (pdf) from the original on august . retrieved june . 	^ scherer, klaus r. ( ). "vocal communication of emotion: a review of research paradigms". speech communication. ( – ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . 	^ trevor, douglas ( september ). the poetics of melancholy in early modern england. cambridge studies in renaissance literature and culture. united kingdom: cambridge university press. p.  . isbn  . 	^ tolkien, j.r.r. ( ). the lord of the rings. london, united kingdom: harpercollins. p.  . isbn  . 	^ sippey, tom a. ( ). the road to middle-earth: how j.r.r. tolkien created a new mythology. london, united kingdom: harpercollins. p.  . isbn  . 	^ phillips, adam ( ). on flirtation. london, united kingdom: harvard university press. p.  . isbn  . archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . further reading sadnessat wikipedia's sister projects 	definitions from wiktionary 	media from wikimedia commons 	quotations from wikiquote 	data from wikidata 	karp da ( ). speaking of sadness. isbn  - . 	keltner d; ellsworth pc; edwards k (may ). "beyond simple pessimism: effects of sadness and anger on social perception". j pers soc psychol. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	tiedens lz (january ). "anger and advancement versus sadness and subjugation: the effect of negative emotion expressions on social status conferral". j pers soc psychol. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	ambady & gray, 	forgas jp (march ). "on feeling good and getting your way: mood effects on negotiator cognition and bargaining strategies". j pers soc psychol. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	forgas jp (august ). "on being happy and mistaken: mood effects on the fundamental attribution error". j pers soc psychol. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	forgas jp ( ). "the role of emotion in social judgments: an introductory review and an affect infusion model (aim)". eur j soc psychol. ( ): – . doi: . /ejsp. . 	forgas jp; bower gh (july ). "mood effects on person-perception judgments". j pers soc psychol. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	isen am; daubman ka; nowicki gp (june ). "positive affect facilitates creative problem solving". j pers soc psychol. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	keltner d; kring am ( ). "emotion, social function, and psychopathology" (pdf). review of general psychology. 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additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 kindness - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	kindness 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		behavior marked by ethical characteristics, a pleasant disposition, and concern for others "niceness" redirects here. for the concept in general, see pleasure. for other uses, see kindness (disambiguation). two children sharing a soft drink at the white house. placard for kindness, at the people's climate march ( ). 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e kindness is a type of behaviour marked by acts of generosity, consideration, or concern for others, without having an expectation of praise or reward. kindness was one of the main topics in the bible. in book ii of "rhetoric", aristotle defines kindness as "helpfulness towards someone in need, not in return for anything, nor for the advantage of the helper himself, but for that of the person helped".[ ] nietzsche considered kindness and love to be the "most curative herbs and agents in human intercourse".[ ] kindness is considered to be one of the knightly virtues.[ ] in meher baba's teachings, god is synonymous with kindness: "god is so kind that it is impossible to imagine his unbounded kindness!"[ ] contents 	 in society 	 . nice guy 	 in psychology 	 in literature 	 in media 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links in society[edit] in human mating choice, studies suggest that both men and women value kindness and intelligence in their prospective mates, along with physical appearance, attractiveness, social status, and age.[ ][ ] nice guy[edit] main article: nice guy a "nice guy" is an informal and usually stereotypical term for an (often young) adult male who portrays himself as gentle, compassionate, sensitive, and/or vulnerable.[ ] the term is used both positively and negatively.[ ] when used positively, and particularly when used as a preference or description by someone else, it is intended to imply a male who puts the needs of others before his own, avoids confrontations, does favors, gives emotional support, tries to stay out of trouble, and generally acts nicely towards others.[ ] in the context of a relationship, it may also refer to traits of honesty, loyalty, romanticism, courtesy and respect. when used negatively, a nice guy implies a male who is unassertive, does not express his true feelings and, in the context of dating (in which the term is often used[ ]), uses acts of ostensible friendship with the unstated aim of progressing to a romantic or sexual relationship.[ ][ ] in psychology[edit] based on experiments at yale university using games with babies, some studies concluded that kindness is inherent to human beings.[ ] there are similar studies about the root of empathy in infancy[ ] – motor mirroring developing in the early months of life,[ ] to lead (optimally) to the easy concern shown by children for their peers in distress.[ ] barbara taylor and adam phillips have stressed the element of necessary realism in adult kindness, as well as the way "real kindness changes people in the doing of it, often in unpredictable ways".[ ] women's march in missoula, montana in literature[edit] 	the tirukkural, an ancient indian work on ethics and morality, dedicates a separate chapter on kindness (chapter , verses – ), furthering the value in other chapters, such as hospitality (verses – ), uttering pleasant words (verses – ), compassion (verses – ), moral vegetarianism (verses – ), non-violence (verses – ), non-killing (verses – ), and benignity (verses – ), among others.[ ][ ] 	mark twain from a compassion point of view considered "kindness [as a] language which the deaf can hear and the blind can see."[ ] 	it has been suggested that 'most of shakespeare's opus could be considered a study of human kindness'.[ ] 	robert louis stevenson considered that 'the essence of love is kindness; and indeed it may best be defined as passionate kindness: kindness, so to speak, run mad and become importunate and violent'.[ ] 	the christian apostle paul lists kindness as one of the nine traits considered to be the "fruit of the spirit" [ ] in galatians : . in corinthians : he states, "love is patient, love is kind."[ ] in media[edit] based on the novel of the same name written in by author catherine ryan hyde, the motion picture pay it forward, which starred kevin spacey, helen hunt, haley joel osment and jon bon jovi, illustrates the power one person can have to make an impact on a chain reaction of kind deeds. the philosophy of pay it forward is that through acts of kindness among strangers, we all foster a more caring society. in the book and film, reuben st. clair, a social studies teacher in atascadero, california, challenges his students to "change the world". one of his students, trevor, takes the challenge to heart. he starts by showing kindness to a stranger which ripples further than he could have ever imagined. in october , life vest inside posted a video called "kindness boomerang".[ ]it shows how one act of kindness passes seamlessly from one person to the next and boomerangs back to the person who set it into motion. orly wahba, life vest inside founder and director of kindness boomerang explains that each scene was based on real life experiences she personally went through; moments of kindness that left a lasting impression on her life. within several months after its release, kindness boomerang went viral; reaching over million people globally and eventually landing wahba spot on the ted [ ] stage to speak about the power of kindness. singer-songwriter harry styles has been promoting kindness since at least with his slogan 'treat people with kindness', also abbreviated to 'tpwk'.[ ] see also[edit] 	altruism 	compassion 	empathy 	generosity 	good 	good faith 	kindness day uk 	pay it forward 	random act of kindness 	random acts of kindness day 	moral character 	reciprocity 	r/k selection theory 	the kindness offensive 	uk kindness movement 	world kindness day references[edit] 	^ aristotle (translated by lee honeycutt). "kindness". rhetoric, book , chapter . archived from the original on december , . retrieved - - . 	^ nietzsche, friedrich wilhelm. "on the history of moral feelings," human, all too human: a book for free spirits. aphorism . [original: menschliches, allzumenschiles, .] trans. marion faber with stephen lehman. university of nebraska press: first printing, bison books, . 	^ "the manual of life - character". parvesh singla – via google books. 	^ kalchuri, bhau ( ). meher prabhu: lord meher, , myrtle beach: manifestation, inc., p. . 	^ buss, david m., et al. "sex differences in jealousy: evolution, physiology, and psychology." psychological science . ( ): - 	^ gleitman, henry; gross, james; reisberg, daniel. psychology ( th ed.). 	^ a b mcdaniel, a. k. ( ). "young women's dating behavior: why/why not date a nice guy?". sex roles. ( – ): – . doi: . /s - - -z. s cid  . 	^ divalion ( july ). "no more mr. nice guy". archived from the original on january . 	^ glover, dr. robert, http://nomoremrniceguy.com 	^ blomquist, daniel ( april ). "when nice guys are sexist with a smile". berkeley beacon. archived from the original on march . retrieved december . 	^ dasgupta, rivu. "the friend zone is sexist". the maneater. retrieved november . 	^ can babies tell right from wrong?, babies at yale university's infant cognition center respond to "naughty" and "nice" puppets., may , 	^ researchers trace empathy's roots to infancy, daniel goleman, 	^ d goleman, emotional intelligence (london ) p. - 	^ a phillips/b taylor, on kindness (london ) p. 	^ a phillips/b taylor, on kindness (london ) p. and p. 	^ tirukkuṛaḷarchived - - at the wayback machine verses - 	^ pope, george uglow ( ). the sacred kurral of tiruvalluva nayanar (pdf) (first ed.). new delhi: asian educational services. isbn  . 	^ lorette m. enochs ( november ). seeds of recovery: a journal of mental health reflections. authorhouse. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ lagrette tallent lenker, fathers and daughters in shakespeare and shaw ( ) p. 	^ robert louis stevenson, virginibus puerisque (london ) p. 	^ galatians : , new international version 	^ corinthians : , new international version 	^ "kindness boomerang". youtube/life vest inside. retrieved january . 	^ "ted talk - kindness - orly wahba", youtube/ted conferences. retrieved january , . 	^ https://www.musicweek.com/talent/read/small-changes-make-a-big-difference-harry-styles-tells-the-story-of-treat-people-with-kindness/ further reading[edit] 	rabbi-ul-awwal (july ). "what is kindness to parents?". islamic voice. - ( ). 	el-sayed m. amin. "kindness to a non-muslim neighbor: tips for interaction". society. islam online. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	forget survival of the fittest: it is kindness that counts (january ), scientific american. "a psychologist probes how altruism, darwinism and neurobiology mean that we can succeed by not being cutthroat." external links[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to kindness. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: kindness 	 the dictionary definition of kindness at wiktionary 	australian kindness movement 	a uk independent, not-for-profit organisation 	random acts of kindness foundation 	video with quotes about kindness, from wikiquote 	 	v 	t 	e seven virtues in christian ethics 	four cardinal virtues	 	prudence (prudentia) 	justice (iustitia) 	fortitude (fortitudo) 	temperance (temperantia) 	sources: plato 	republic, book iv 	cicero 	ambrose 	augustine of hippo 	thomas aquinas 	 	three theological virtues	 	faith (fides) 	hope (spes) 	love (caritas) 	sources: paul the apostle 	 corinthians 	seven deadly sins	 	lust (luxuria) 	gluttony (gula) 	greed (avaritia) 	sloth (acedia) 	wrath (ira) 	envy (invidia) 	pride (superbia) 	source: prudentius, psychomachia 	people: evagrius 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"sexual relationship" redirects here. for sexual relationships between non-human animals, see mating system. 	 relationships (outline) 	 types 	 genetic or adoptive 	 	kinship 	family 	parent 	father 	mother 	grandparent 	sibling 	cousin 	 by marriage 	 	spouse 	husband 	wife 	open marriage 	polygamy 	polyandry 	polygyny 		group marriage 	mixed-orientation 	 partner(s) 	 	 	significant other 	boyfriend 	girlfriend 	cohabitation 	same-sex 	life partner 	friendship (romantic / cross-sex / zone) 	 sexual 	 	casual 	monogamy 	non-monogamy 	mutual monogamy 	polyamory 	polyfidelity 	cicisbeo 	concubinage 	courtesan 	mistress 	 activities 	bonding 	courtship 	dating 	engagement 	bachelor's day 	mating 	meet market 	romance 	singles event 	wedding 	 endings 	breakup 	separation 	annulment 	divorce 	widowhood 	 emotions and feelings 	affinity 	attachment 	intimacy 	jealousy 	limerence 	love 	platonic 	unconditional 	passion 	sexuality 	 practices 	bride price 	dower 	dowry 	service 	hypergamy 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letter 	love magic 	valentine's day 	philosophy 	religious views 	love deities 	mere-exposure effect 	similarity 	physical attractiveness 	triangular theory of love 	 	v 	t 	e an intimate relationship is an interpersonal relationship that involves physical or emotional intimacy.[ ] although an intimate relationship is commonly a sexual relationship,[ ] it may also be a non-sexual relationship involving family, friends, or acquaintances.[ ][ ] emotional intimacy involves feelings of liking or loving one or more people, and may result in physical intimacy.[ ] physical intimacy is characterized by romantic love, sexual activity, or other passionate attachment.[ ] these relationships play a central role in the overall human experience.[ ] humans have a general desire to belong and to love, which is usually satisfied within an intimate relationship.[ ] such relationships allow a social network for people to form strong emotional attachments.[ ][ ] contents 	 intimacy 	 . types 	 research 	 . empirical research 	 . other studies 	 history 	 . ancient philosophers: aristotle 	 . s to early s 	 . s and s 	 . s to s 	 see also 	 references 	 external links intimacy[edit] intimacy involves the feeling of being in a close, personal association and belonging together.[ ] it is a familiar and very close affective connection with another as a result of a bond that is formed through knowledge and experience of the other.[ ] genuine intimacy in human relationships requires dialogue, transparency, vulnerability, and reciprocity.[ ] dalton ( ) discussed how anthropologists and ethnographic researchers access "inside information" from within a particular cultural setting by establishing networks of intimates capable (and willing) to provide information unobtainable through formal channels.[ ] in human relationships, the meaning and level of intimacy varies within and between relationships.[ ] in anthropological research, intimacy is considered the product of a successful seduction, a process of rapport building that enables parties to confidently disclose previously hidden thoughts and feelings. intimate conversations become the basis for "confidences" (secret knowledge) that bind people together.[ ] sustaining intimacy for a length of time involves well-developed emotional and interpersonal awareness. intimacy involves the ability to be both separate and together participants in an intimate relationship. murray bowen called this "self-differentiation," which results in a connection in which there is an emotional range involving both robust conflict and intense loyalty.[ ] lacking the ability to differentiate oneself from the other is a form of symbiosis, a state that is different from intimacy, even if feelings of closeness are similar. intimate behavior joins family members and close friends, as well as those in love.[ ] it evolves through reciprocal self-disclosure and candor.[ ] poor skills in developing intimacy can lead to getting too close too quickly; struggling to find the boundary and to sustain connection; being poorly skilled as a friend, rejecting self-disclosure or even rejecting friendships and those who have them.[ ] psychological consequences of intimacy problems are found in adults who have difficulty in forming and maintaining intimate relationships. individuals often experience the human limitations of their partners, and develop a fear of adverse consequences of disrupted intimate relationships. studies show that fear of intimacy is negatively related to comfort with emotional closeness and with relationship satisfaction, and positively related to loneliness and trait anxiety.[ ] the interdependence model of levinger and snoek divides the development of intimate relationship into four stages: the first one is zero contact stage, which is no contact between the two parties in the relationship; the second stage is awareness, which means people don't have any superficial or deep contact with each other, but just know each other; the third stage is surface contact, in which both parties know each other and have had superficial contact; the fourth stage of coexistence phase (mutuality), refers to the mutual dependence has greatly increased, there are also deep contact existing,[ ] types[edit] bonding between a mother and child scholars distinguish between different forms of intimacy, including physical, emotional, cognitive, or spiritual intimacy.[ ][ ] 	physical intimacy may include being inside someone's personal space, holding hands, hugging, kissing, heavy petting or other sexual activity. 	emotional intimacy, particularly in sexual relationships, typically develops after a certain level of trust has been reached and personal bonds have been established.[ ] the emotional connection of "falling in love", however, has both a biochemical dimension driven through reactions in the body stimulated by sexual attraction (pea, phenylethylamine),[ ] and a social dimension driven by "talk" that follows from regular physical closeness or sexual union.[ ] love is an important factor in emotional intimacy. it is qualitatively and quantitatively different from liking, and the difference is not merely in the presence or absence of sexual attraction. there are three types of love in a relationship: passionate love, companionate love, and sacrificial love. sacrificial love reflects the subsumption of the individual self will within a union. companionate love involves diminished potent feelings of attachment, an authentic and enduring bond, a sense of mutual commitment, the profound feeling of mutual caring, feeling proud of a mate's accomplishments, and the satisfaction that comes from sharing goals and perspective. in contrast, passionate love is marked by infatuation, intense preoccupation with the partner, throes of ecstasy, and feelings of exhilaration that come from being reunited with the partner.[ ] 	cognitive or intellectual intimacy takes place when two people exchange thoughts, share ideas and enjoy similarities and differences between their opinions.[ ][ ] 	spiritual intimacy involves bonding over spirituality.[ ] research[edit] empirical research[edit] the use of empirical investigations in was a major revolution in social analysis.[ ] a study conducted by monroe examined the traits and habits of children in selecting a friend. some of the attributes included in the study were kindness, cheerfulness and honesty.[ ] monroe asked children aged to to identify "what kind of chum do you like best?" the results of the study indicate that children preferred a friend that was their own age, of the same sex, of the same physical size, a friend with light features (hair and eyes), friends that did not engage in conflict, someone that was kind to animals and humans, and finally that they were honest. two characteristics that children reported as least important included wealth and religion.[ ] the study by monroe was the first to mark the significant shift in the study of intimate relationships from analysis that was primarily philosophical to those with empirical validity.[ ] this study is said to have finally marked the beginning of relationship science.[ ] in the years following monroe's study, very few similar studies were done. there were limited studies done on children's friendships, courtship and marriages, and families in the s but few relationship studies were conducted before or during world war ii.[ ] intimate relationships did not become a broad focus of research again until the s and s when there was a vast amount of relationship studies being published.[ ] other studies[edit] sexual relationship is often crowned with marriage. 	 	this section relies largely or entirely upon a single source. relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. find sources: "intimate relationship" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (march ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) the study of intimate relationships uses participants from diverse groups and examines a wide variety of topics that include family relations, friendships, and romantic relationships, usually over a long period.[ ] current study includes both positive and negative or unpleasant aspects of relationships.[citation needed] research being conducted by john gottman ( ) and his colleagues involves inviting married couples into a pleasant setting, in which they revisit the disagreement that caused their last argument. although the participants are aware that they are being videotaped, they soon become so absorbed in their own interaction that they forget they are being recorded.[ ] with the second-by-second analysis of observable reactions as well as emotional ones, gottman is able to predict with % accuracy the fate of the couples' relationship.[ ] terri orbuch and joseph veroff ( ) monitored newlywed couples using self-reports over a long period (a longitudinal study). participants are required to provide extensive reports about the natures and the statuses of their relationships.[ ] although many of the marriages have ended since the beginning of the study, this type of relationship study allows researchers to track marriages from start to finish by conducting follow-up interviews with the participants in order to determine which factors are associated with marriages that last and which with those that do not.[ ] though the field of relationship science is still relatively young, research conducted by researchers from many different disciplines continues to broaden the field.[ ] evidence also points to the role of a number of contextual factors that can impact intimate relationships. in a recent study on the impact of hurricane katrina on marital and partner relationships, researchers found that while many reported negative changes in their relationships, a number also experienced positive changes. more specifically, the advent of hurricane katrina led to a number of environmental stressors (for example, unemployment, prolonged separation) that negatively impacted intimate relationships for many couples, though other couples' relationships grew stronger as a result of new employment opportunities, a greater sense of perspective, and higher levels of communication and support.[ ] as a result, environmental factors are also understood to contribute heavily to the strength of intimate relationships. a northwestern university research team summarized the literature in , finding that "negative-affect reciprocity" – retaliatory negativity between partners during a conflict – is arguably the most robust predictor of poor marital quality. however, this degradation can be softened (according to their heterosexual couple chicago sample) by undertaking a reappraisal writing task every four months.[ ] one study suggests that married straight couples and cohabiting gay and lesbian couples in long-term intimate relationships may pick up each other's unhealthy[when defined as?] habits. the study reports three distinct findings showing how unhealthy habits are promoted in long-term intimate relationships: through the direct bad influence of one partner, through synchronicity of health habits, and through the notion of personal responsibility.[further explanation needed][ ][ ] some research indicates that pornography is a possible source of education about sex and relationships. in the absence of inclusive same-sex relationship education in traditional sources (i.e., schools, parents, friends, and mainstream media), [[gay pornography] may be used by men who have sex with men as a source of information about intimacy, while serving its main purpose as a [[masturbatory] aid.[ ] a study indicated that gay pornography depicts both physical (kissing, cuddling, affectionate touch, and genital touch before and after sex) and verbal intimacy (compliments, personal disclosure, and expressions of care). most forms of physical and verbal intimacy occurred before or during sex, with intimacy being least evident post-sex.[ ] history[edit] ancient philosophers: aristotle[edit] over , years ago, interpersonal relationships were being contemplated by aristotle. he wrote: "one person is a friend to another if he is friendly to the other and the other is friendly to him in return" (aristotle, bc, trans. , pp.  – ). aristotle believed that by nature humans are social beings.[ ] aristotle also suggested that relationships were based on three different ideas: utility, pleasure, and virtue. people are attracted to relationships that provide utility because of the assistance and sense of belonging that they provide. in relationships based on pleasure, people are attracted to the feelings of pleasantness when the parties engage. however, relationships based on utility and pleasure were said to be short-lived if the benefits provided by one of the partners was not reciprocated. relationships based on virtue are built on an attraction to the others' virtuous character.[ ] aristotle also suggested that relationships based on virtue would be the longest lasting and that virtue-based relationships were the only type of relationship in which each partner was liked for themselves. the philosophical analysis used by aristotle dominated the analysis of intimate relationships until the late s.[ ] s to early s[edit] modern psychology and sociology began to emerge in the late th century. during this time theorists often included relationships into their current areas of research and began to develop new foundations which had implications in regards to the analysis of intimate relationships.[ ] freud wrote about parent–child relationships and their effect on personality development.[ ] freud's analysis proposed that people's childhood experiences are transferred or passed on into adult relationships by means of feelings and expectations.[ ] freud also founded the idea that individuals usually seek out marital partners who are similar to that of their opposite-sex parent.[ ] in , william james wrote that a person's self-concept is defined by the relationships endured with others.[ ] in , Émile durkheim's interest in social organization led to the examination of social isolation and alienation.[ ] this was an influential discovery of intimate relationships in that durkheim argued that being socially isolated was a key antecedent of suicide.[ ] this focus on the darker side of relationships and the negative consequences associated to social isolation were what durkheim labeled as anomie.[ ] georg simmel wrote about dyads, or partnerships with two people.[ ] simmel suggested that dyads require consent and engagement of both partners to maintain the relationship but noted that the relationship can be ended by the initiation of only one partner.[ ] although the theorists mentioned above sought support for their theories, their primary contributions to the study of intimate relationships were conceptual and not empirically grounded.[ ] s and s[edit] an important shift was taking place in the field of social psychology that influenced the research of intimate relationships. until the late s, the majority of studies were non-experimental.[ ] by the end of the s more than half of the articles published involved some sort of experimental study.[ ] the s was also a time when there was a shift in methodology within the psychological discipline itself. participants consisted mostly of college students, experimental methods and research were being conducted in laboratories and the experimental method was the dominant methodology in social psychology.[ ] experimental manipulation within the research of intimate relationships demonstrated that relationships could be studied scientifically.[ ] this shift brought relationship science to the attention of scholars in other disciplines and has resulted in the study of intimate relationships being an international multidiscipline.[ ] s to s[edit] in the early s the first conference of the international network of personal relationships (inpr) was held. approximately researchers from all over the world attended the conference.[ ] in march , the first journal of social and personal relationships was published.[ ] in the early s the inpr split off into two groups; in april the two organizations rejoined and became the international association for relationship research (iarr).[ ] donald nathanson, a psychiatrist who built his study of human interactions off of the work of silvan tomkins, argues that an intimate relationship between two individuals is best when the couple agrees to maximize positive affect, minimize negative affect and allow for the free expression of affect. these findings were based on tomkin's blueprint for emotional health, which also emphasizes doing as much of the maximizing, minimizing and expressing as possible.[ ] see also[edit] 	affection 	dating 	free union 	human sexuality 	limerence 	love 	loving kindness 	marriage 	monogamy 	outline of relationships 	parenting 	polygamy 	polyamory 	power and control in abusive intimate relationships 	relationship status 	romantic friendship 	social connection terms for members of intimate relationships 	boyfriend / girlfriend 	companion 	concubine 	confidant or confidante 	life partner 	lover 	mistress 	partner 	sexual partner 	significant other 	spouse 	back-up partner (hanzi:備胎對象) references[edit] 	^ a b wong dw, hall kr, justice ca, wong l ( ). counseling individuals through the lifespan. sage publications. p.  . isbn  - . intimacy: as an intimate relationship is an interpersonal relationship that involves physical or emotional intimacy. physical intimacy is characterized by romantic or passionate attachment or sexual activity. 	^ a b c ribbens jm, doolittle m, sclater sd ( ). understanding family meanings: a reflective text. policy press. pp.  – . isbn  - . 	^ a b derlega vj ( ). communication, intimacy, and close relationships. elsevier. p.  . isbn  - . 	^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t miller, rowland & perlman, daniel ( ). intimate relationships ( th ed.). mcgraw-hill. isbn  - 	^ a b c d e f perlman, d. ( ). the best of times, the worst of times: the place of close relationships in psychology and our daily lives. canadian psychology, , – . 	^ a b c d e f mashek dj, aron a ( ). handbook of closeness and intimacy. psychology press. pp.  – . isbn  - . 	^ dalton, m. ( ) men who manage, new york: wiley. 	^ moore, m. ( ) "nonverbal courtship patterns in women: contact and consequences", ethnology and sociobiology, : – . 	^ aronson, e. ( ) the social animal, ninth edition, new york: worth publishers. 	^ bershad c, haber ds ( ). prentice hall human sexuality. prentice hall. p.  . isbn  - . 	^ khaleque, a. ( ). intimate adult relationships, quality of life and psychological adjustment. social indicators research, , – . 	^ emery, lydia f.; muise, amy; dix, emily l.; le, benjamin ( september ). "can you tell that i'm in a relationship? attachment and relationship visibility on facebook". personality and social psychology bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ kakabadse, a., kakabadse, n. ( ) intimacy: international survey of the sex lives of people at work, basingstoke: palgrave 	^ a b c hutchison ed ( ). dimensions of human behavior: the changing life course. sage publications. pp.  – . isbn  - . 	^ lowndes, l. ( ) how to make anyone fall in love with you, london: element. 	^ giddens, a. ( ) the consequences of modernity, blackwell publishers ltd. 	^ hatfield, e., & rapson, r.l. ( ). historical and cross-cultural perspectives on passionate love and sexual desire. annual review of sex research, , – 	^ theiss ja ( ). communication and the emotional, cognitive, and relational consequences of first sexual encounters in heterosexual dyads. university of wisconsin. pp.  , , . 	^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m vangelisti, a.l., & perlman, d. ( ). the cambridge handbook of personal relationships. cambridge, cambridge university press. 	^ lowe, s.r., rhodes, j.e., & scoglio, a.a. ( ). "psychology of women quarterly, ", – . doi: . / 	^ finkel, eli j.; slotter, erica b. ( june ). "a brief intervention to promote conflict reappraisal preserves marital quality over time" (pdf). psychological science onlinefirst. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ fuller, dawn ( august ). "long-term, intimate partnerships can promote unhealthy habits". uc news online aug, , . retrieved august . 	^ reczek, corinne, assistant professor in the department of sociology at the university of cincinnati ( ). "the promotion of unhealthy habits in gay, lesbian, and straight intimate partnerships". aug , – : – : pm. th annual meeting of the american sociological association. ( ): – . doi: . /j.socscimed. . . . pmc  . pmid  . archived from the original on september . retrieved august . 	^ grubbs, j. b.; wright, p. j.; braden, a. l.; wilt, j. a.; kraus, s. w. ( february ). "internet pornography use and sexual motivation: a systematic review and integration". annal of the international communication association. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . 	^ newton, james d. a.; halford, w. kim; barlow, fiona k. ( september ). "intimacy in dyadic sexually explicit media featuring men who have sex with men". the journal of sex research. doi: . / . . . 	^ costello, bob ( ). the restorative practices handbook. pennsylvania: international institute for restorative practices. pp.  – . external links[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to intimate relationships. 	international association for relationship research 	process of adaption in intimate relationships 	 	v 	t 	e human sexuality and sexology 	sexual relationship phenomena 	 	asexuality 	gray asexuality 	bisexuality 	casual relationship 	casual sex 	celibacy 	celibacy syndrome 	herbivore men 	committed relationship 	conventional sex 	free love 	foreplay 	heterosexuality 	homosexuality 	hypersexuality 	marriage 	one-night stand 	polyamory 	promiscuity 	female 	romantic love 	romantic orientation 	flirting 	sex life 	sexual abstinence 	sexual orientation 	sexual partner 	single person 	swinging 	sexual dynamics	 	hypergamy 	intersex 	physical 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	svenska 	türkçe 	tiếng việt 	吴语 	ייִדיש 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 hostility - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	hostility 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		form of emotionally charged angry behavior "hostile" redirects here. for other uses, see hostile (disambiguation). 	hostility 	 	two people in a heated argument in new york city 	specialty	psychiatry 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e hostility is seen as form of emotionally charged aggressive behavior. in everyday speech it is more commonly used as a synonym for anger and aggression. it appears in several psychological theories. for instance it is a facet of neuroticism in the neo pi, and forms part of personal construct psychology, developed by george kelly. contents 	 hostility/hospitality 	 us/them 	 non-verbal indicators 	 kelly's model 	 see also 	 references 	 external links hostility/hospitality[edit] for hunter gatherers, every stranger from outside the small tribal group was a potential source of hostility.[ ] similarly, in archaic greece, every community was in a state of hostility, latent or overt, with every other community - something only gradually tempered by the rights and duties of hospitality.[ ] tensions between the two poles of hostility and hospitality remain a potent force in the st century world.[ ] us/them[edit] robert sapolsky argues that the tendency to form in-groups and out-groups of us and them, and to direct hostility at the latter, is inherent in humans.[ ] he also explores the possibility raised by samuel bowles that intra-group hostility is reduced when greater hostility is directed at thems,[ ] something exploited by insecure leaders when they mobilise external conflicts so as to reduce in-group hostility towards themselves.[ ] non-verbal indicators[edit] automatic mental functioning suggests that among universal human indicators of hostility are the grinding or gnashing of teeth, the clenching and shaking of fists, and grimacing.[ ] desmond morris would add stamping and thumping.[ ] the haka represents a ritualised set of such non-verbal signs of hostility.[ ] kelly's model[edit] in psychological terms, george kelly considered hostility as the attempt to extort validating evidence from the environment to confirm types of social prediction, constructs, that have failed.[ ] instead of reconstructing their constructs to meet disconfirmations with better predictions, the hostile person attempts to force or coerce the world to fit their view, even if this is a forlorn hope, and even if it entails emotional expenditure and/or harm to self or others.[ ] in this sense hostility is a form of psychological extortion - an attempt to force reality to produce the desired feedback,[ ] even by acting out in bullying by individuals and groups in various social contexts, in order that preconceptions become ever more widely validated. kelly's theory of cognitive hostility thus forms a parallel to leon festinger's view that there is an inherent impulse to reduce cognitive dissonance.[ ] while challenging reality can be a useful part of life, and persistence in the face of failure can be a valuable trait (for instance in invention or discovery[citation needed]), in the case of hostility it is argued that evidence is not being accurately assessed but rather forced into a procrustean mould in order to maintain one's belief systems and avoid having one's identity challenged.[ ] instead it is claimed that hostility shows evidence of suppression or denial, and is "deleted" from awareness - unfavorable evidence which might suggest that a prior belief is flawed is to various degrees ignored and willfully avoided.[ ] see also[edit] 	antisocial personality disorder 	death drive 	narcissism of small differences 	righteous indignation references[edit] 	^ j diamond, the world until yesterday (penguin ) p. and p. 	^ m i finley, the world of odysseus (pelican ) p. - and p. - 	^ k thorpe ed., hospitality and hostility in the multilingual global village ( ) p. - 	^ r sapolsky, behave (london ) ch - 	^ r sapolsky, behave (london ) p. 	^ e smith, social psychology (hove ) p. 	^ d maclean, the triune brain in evolution (london ) p. 	^ d morris, the naked ape trilogy (london ) p. 	^ r sapolsky, behave (london ) p. 	^ d lester, theories of personality ( ) p. 	^ d lester, theories of personality ( ) p. - 	^ g claxton, live and learn (bristol ) p. and p. 	^ d lester, theories of personality ( ) p. 	^ d lester, theories of personality ( ) p. - 	^ g claxton, live and learn (bristol ) p. and p. external links[edit] 	 quotations related to hostility at wikiquote 	 the dictionary definition of hostility at wiktionary 	classification	d 	icd- : r . 	mesh: d 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic 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	hypogeusia 	dysgeusia 	hypergeusia retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=hostility&oldid= " 		categories: 	emotions 	rage (emotion) hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from october 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	Čeština 	dansk 	español 	فارسی 	français 	hrvatski 	עברית 	magyar 	português 	Русский 	Српски / srpski 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	Українська 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on june , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 marital breakdown - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	marital breakdown 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 			 	this article does not cite any sources. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "marital breakdown" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (december ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) marital breakdown refers to the common process whereby the relationship between a married couple erodes, such that they cannot ordinarily restore their relationship. there are many stages to the process, and each individual goes through the stages at different rates. it is a complex process involving psychology, personal finance, and often religion. it is the breach of domestic anticipation, often leading to a divorce or dissolution of the marital relationship. often there are children, in-laws, and other individuals involved in the process. at the end of the process, there may be no relationship left, or there may be a long-term relationship at a distance (see legal separation). every marital breakdown is different in this regard. there are many reasons why some marriages last and others break down. the famous movie the war of the roses depicts an extremely violent marital breakdown, where two otherwise reasonable people break down into violent fits of anger directed at one another. such violence often requires immediate legal intervention to keep individuals from harming one another. in most states, a domestic violence restraining order (also sometimes called an order of protection) is routinely granted when one domestic partner proves that the other has caused violence. not all marital breakdowns necessarily result in a divorce. not all divorces result from marital breakdowns, though the courts ordinarily require one of the parties to attest on penalty of perjury that such a breakdown has occurred before a divorce can be granted. in hausa culture, divorce refers to the wife receiving an agreement that the husband has rejected the marriage; she is expected to return to her father's house. see also[edit] 	interpersonal communication relationship dissolution retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=marital_breakdown&oldid= " 		categories: 	marriage 	divorce hidden categories: 	articles lacking sources from december 	all articles lacking sources 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	اردو 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 psychology - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	psychology 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		not to be confused with phycology, physiology, or psychiatry. for the album, see psychology (album). for the short story, see psychology (short story). "psychological" redirects here. for the pet shop boys song, see psychological (song). study of mental functions and behaviours 	part of a series on 	psychology 	 	 	outline 	history 	subfields 	 basic types 	abnormal 	behavioral genetics 	biological 	cognitive/cognitivism 	comparative 	cross-cultural 	cultural 	differential 	developmental 	evolutionary 	experimental 	mathematical 	neuropsychology 	personality 	positive 	quantitative 	social 	 applied psychology 	applied behavior analysis 	clinical 	community 	consumer 	counseling 	critical 	educational 	environmental 	ergonomics 	forensic 	health 	humanistic 	industrial and organizational 	legal 	medical 	military 	music 	occupational health 	political 	religion 	school 	sport 	traffic 	 lists 	disciplines 	organizations 	psychologists 	psychotherapies 	publications 	research methods 	theories 	timeline 	topics 	 	 psychology portal 		v 	t 	e psychology is the science of mind and behavior. psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, as well as feeling and thought. it is an academic discipline of immense scope. psychologists seek an understanding of the emergent properties of brains, and all the variety of phenomena linked to those emergent properties, joining this way the broader neuro-scientific group of researchers. as a social science, it aims to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles and researching specific cases.[ ][ ] in this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, or cognitive scientist. psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and biological processes that underlie cognitive functions and behaviors. psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, subjective experiences, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. this extends to interaction between people, such as interpersonal relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind.[ ] psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. in addition, or in opposition, to employing empirical and deductive methods, some—especially clinical and counseling psychologists—at times rely upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques. psychology has been described as a "hub science" in that medicine tends to draw psychological research via neurology and psychiatry, whereas social sciences most commonly draws directly from sub-disciplines within psychology.[ ] while psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in several spheres of human activity. by many accounts, psychology ultimately aims to benefit society.[ ][ ] the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. many do scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior, and typically work in university psychology departments or teach in other academic settings (e.g., medical schools, hospitals). some are employed in industrial and organizational settings, or in other areas[ ] such as human development and aging, sports, health, and the media, as well as in forensic investigation and other aspects of law. contents 	 etymology and definitions 	 history 	 . beginning of experimental psychology 	 . consolidation and funding 	 disciplinary organization 	 . institutions 	 . boundaries 	 major schools of thought 	 . biological 	 . behavioral 	 . cognitive 	 . social 	 . psychoanalysis 	 . existential-humanistic theories 	 themes 	 . personality 	 . unconscious mind 	 . motivation 	 . development 	 . genes and environment 	 applications 	 . mental testing 	 . mental health care 	 . education 	 . work 	 . military and intelligence 	 . health, well-being, and social change 	 research methods 	 . controlled experiments 	 . other forms of statistical inference 	 . technological assays 	 . computer simulation 	 . animal studies 	 . qualitative and descriptive research 	 . program evaluation 	 contemporary issues in methodology and practice 	 . metascience 	 . . confirmation bias 	 . . replication 	 . . misuse of statistics 	 . weird bias 	 . unscientific mental health training 	 ethics 	 . humans 	 . other animals 	 references 	 . sources 	 further reading 	 external links etymology and definitions the word psychology derives from greek roots meaning study of the psyche, or soul (ψυχή psychē, "breath, spirit, soul" and -λογία -logia, "study of" or "research").[ ] the latin word psychologia was first used by the croatian humanist and latinist marko marulić in his book, psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late th century or early th century.[ ] the earliest known reference to the word psychology in english was by steven blankaart in in the physical dictionary which refers to "anatomy, which treats the body, and psychology, which treats of the soul."[ ] in , william james defined psychology as "the science of mental life, both of its phenomena and their conditions". this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. however, this meaning was contested, notably by radical behaviorists such as john b. watson, who in his manifesto defined the discipline of psychology as the acquisition of information useful to the control of behavior. also since james defined it, the term more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation.[ ][ ] folk psychology refers to the understanding of ordinary people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals.[ ] history main article: history of psychology the ancient civilizations of egypt, greece, china, india, and persia all engaged in the philosophical study of psychology. in ancient egypt the ebers papyrus mentioned depression and thought disorders.[ ] historians note that greek philosophers, including thales, plato, and aristotle (especially in his de anima treatise),[ ] addressed the workings of the mind.[ ] as early as the th century bc, greek physician hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes.[ ] in china, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of laozi and confucius, and later from the doctrines of buddhism. this body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation, as well as techniques for focused thinking and acting. it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. an ancient text known as the yellow emperor's classic of internal medicine identifies the brain as the nexus of wisdom and sensation, includes theories of personality based on yin–yang balance, and analyzes mental disorder in terms of physiological and social disequilibria. chinese scholarship focused on the brain advanced in the qing dynasty with the work of western-educated fang yizhi ( – ), liu zhi ( – ), and wang qingren ( – ). wang qingren emphasized the importance of the brain as the center of the nervous system, linked mental disorder with brain diseases, investigated the causes of dreams and insomnia, and advanced a theory of hemispheric lateralization in brain function.[ ] distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of india, influenced by hinduism. a central idea of the upanishads is the distinction between a person's transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. divergent hindu doctrines, and buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, but have all emphasized the importance of reaching higher awareness. yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal. much of the sanskrit corpus was suppressed under the british east india company followed by the british raj in the s. however, indian doctrines influenced western thinking via the theosophical society, a new age group which became popular among euro-american intellectuals.[ ] psychology was a popular topic in enlightenment europe. in germany, gottfried wilhelm leibniz ( – ) applied his principles of calculus to the mind, arguing that mental activity took place on an indivisible continuum—most notably, that among an infinity of human perceptions and desires, the difference between conscious and unconscious awareness is only a matter of degree. christian wolff identified psychology as its own science, writing psychologia empirica in and psychologia rationalis in . this notion advanced further under immanuel kant, who established the idea of anthropology, with psychology as an important subdivision. however, kant explicitly and notoriously rejected the idea of experimental psychology, writing that "the empirical doctrine of the soul can also never approach chemistry even as a systematic art of analysis or experimental doctrine, for in it the manifold of inner observation can be separated only by mere division in thought, and cannot then be held separate and recombined at will (but still less does another thinking subject suffer himself to be experimented upon to suit our purpose), and even observation by itself already changes and displaces the state of the observed object." in , ferdinand ueberwasser ( - ) designated himself professor of empirical psychology and logic and gave lectures on scientific psychology, though these developments were soon overshadowed by the napoleonic wars, after which the old university of münster was discontinued by prussian authorities.[ ] having consulted philosophers hegel and herbart, however, in the prussian state established psychology as a mandatory discipline in its rapidly expanding and highly influential educational system. however, this discipline did not yet embrace experimentation.[ ] in england, early psychology involved phrenology and the response to social problems including alcoholism, violence, and the country's well-populated mental asylums.[ ] beginning of experimental psychology wilhelm wundt (seated) with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind. gustav fechner began conducting psychophysics research in leipzig in the s, articulating the principle (weber–fechner law) that human perception of a stimulus varies logarithmically according to its intensity.[ ] fechner's elements of psychophysics challenged kant's stricture against quantitative study of the mind.[ ][ ] in heidelberg, hermann von helmholtz conducted parallel research on sensory perception, and trained physiologist wilhelm wundt. wundt, in turn, came to leipzig university, establishing the psychological laboratory which brought experimental psychology to the world. wundt focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components, motivated in part by an analogy to recent advances in chemistry, and its successful investigation of the elements and structure of material.[ ] paul flechsig and emil kraepelin soon created another influential psychology laboratory at leipzig, this one focused on more on experimental psychiatry.[ ] psychologists in germany, denmark, austria, england, and the united states soon followed wundt in setting up laboratories.[ ] g. stanley hall who studied with wundt, formed a psychology lab at johns hopkins university in maryland, which became internationally influential. hall, in turn, trained yujiro motora, who brought experimental psychology, emphasizing psychophysics, to the imperial university of tokyo.[ ] wundt's assistant, hugo münsterberg, taught psychology at harvard to students such as narendra nath sen gupta—who, in , founded a psychology department and laboratory at the university of calcutta.[ ] wundt students walter dill scott, lightner witmer, and james mckeen cattell worked on developing tests for mental ability. catell, who also studied with eugenicist francis galton, went on to found the psychological corporation. wittmer focused on mental testing of children; scott, on selection of employees.[ ] another student of wundt, edward titchener, created the psychology program at cornell university and advanced a doctrine of "structuralist" psychology. structuralism sought to analyze and classify different aspects of the mind, primarily through the method of introspection.[ ] william james, john dewey and harvey carr advanced a more expansive doctrine called functionalism, attuned more to human–environment actions. in , james wrote an influential book, the principles of psychology, which expanded on the realm of structuralism, memorably described the human "stream of consciousness", and interested many american students in the emerging discipline.[ ][ ][ ] dewey integrated psychology with social issues, most notably by promoting the cause progressive education to assimilate immigrants and inculcate moral values in children.[ ] one of the dogs used in pavlov's experiment with a surgically implanted cannula to measure salivation, preserved in the pavlov museum in ryazan, russia a different strain of experimentalism, with more connection to physiology, emerged in south america, under the leadership of horacio g. piñero at the university of buenos aires.[ ] russia, too, placed greater emphasis on the biological basis for psychology, beginning with ivan sechenov's essay, "who is to develop psychology and how?" sechenov advanced the idea of brain reflexes and aggressively promoted a deterministic viewpoint on human behavior.[ ] wolfgang kohler, max wertheimer and kurt koffka co-founded the school of gestalt psychology (not to be confused with the gestalt therapy of fritz perls). this approach is based upon the idea that individuals experience things as unified wholes. rather than breaking down thoughts and behavior into smaller elements, as in structuralism, the gestaltists maintained that whole of experience is important, and differs from the sum of its parts. other th-century contributors to the field include the german psychologist hermann ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the experimental study of memory, who developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting at the university of berlin,[ ] and the russian-soviet physiologist ivan pavlov, who discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed "classical conditioning" and applied to human beings.[ ] consolidation and funding one of the earliest psychology societies was la société de psychologie physiologique in france, which lasted – . the first meeting of the international congress of psychology sponsored by the international union of psychological science took place in paris, in august , amidst the world's fair celebrating the centennial of the french revolution. william james was one of three americans among the four hundred attendees. the american psychological association (apa) was founded soon after, in . the international congress continued to be held, at different locations in europe, with wider international participation. the sixth congress, geneva , included presentations in russian, chinese, and japanese, as well as esperanto. after a hiatus for world war i, the seventh congress met in oxford, with substantially greater participation from the war-victorious anglo-americans. in , the congress took place at yale university in new haven, connecticut, attended by hundreds of members of the apa.[ ] tokyo imperial university led the way in bringing new psychology to the east, and from japan these ideas diffused into china.[ ][ ] american psychology gained status during world war i, during which a standing committee headed by robert yerkes administered mental tests ("army alpha" and "army beta") to almost . million soldiers.[ ] subsequent funding for behavioral research came in large part from the rockefeller family, via the social science research council.[ ][ ] rockefeller charities funded the national committee on mental hygiene, which promoted the concept of mental illness and lobbied for psychological supervision of child development.[ ][ ] through the bureau of social hygiene and later funding of alfred kinsey, rockefeller foundations established sex research as a viable discipline in the u.s.[ ] under the influence of the carnegie-funded eugenics record office, the draper-funded pioneer fund, and other institutions, the eugenics movement also had a significant impact on american psychology; in the s and s, eugenics became a standard topic in psychology classes.[ ] during world war ii and the cold war, the u.s. military and intelligence agencies established themselves as leading funders of psychology—through the armed forces and in the new office of strategic services intelligence agency. university of michigan psychologist dorwin cartwright reported that university researchers began large-scale propaganda research in – , and "the last few months of the war saw a social psychologist become chiefly responsible for determining the week-by-week-propaganda policy for the united states government." cartwright also wrote that psychologists had significant roles in managing the domestic economy.[ ] the army rolled out its new general classification test and engaged in massive studies of troop morale. in the s, the rockefeller foundation and ford foundation collaborated with the central intelligence agency (cia) to fund research on psychological warfare.[ ] in , public controversy called attention to the army's project camelot—the "manhattan project" of social science—an effort which enlisted psychologists and anthropologists to analyze foreign countries for strategic purposes.[ ][ ] in germany after world war i, psychology held institutional power through the military, and subsequently expanded along with the rest of the military under the third reich.[ ] under the direction of hermann göring's cousin matthias göring, the berlin psychoanalytic institute was renamed the göring institute. freudian psychoanalysts were expelled and persecuted under the anti-jewish policies of the nazi party, and all psychologists had to distance themselves from freud and adler.[ ] the göring institute was well-financed throughout the war with a mandate to create a "new german psychotherapy". this psychotherapy aimed to align suitable germans with the overall goals of the reich; as described by one physician: "despite the importance of analysis, spiritual guidance and the active cooperation of the patient represent the best way to overcome individual mental problems and to subordinate them to the requirements of the volk and the gemeinschaft." psychologists were to provide seelenführung, leadership of the mind, to integrate people into the new vision of a german community.[ ] harald schultz-hencke melded psychology with the nazi theory of biology and racial origins, criticizing psychoanalysis as a study of the weak and deformed.[ ] johannes heinrich schultz, a german psychologist recognized for developing the technique of autogenic training, prominently advocated sterilization and euthanasia of men considered genetically undesirable, and devised techniques for facilitating this process.[ ] after the war, some new institutions were created and some psychologists were discredited due to nazi affiliation. alexander mitscherlich founded a prominent applied psychoanalysis journal called psyche and with funding from the rockefeller foundation established the first clinical psychosomatic medicine division at heidelberg university. in , psychology was integrated into the required studies of medical students.[ ] after the russian revolution, psychology was heavily promoted by the bolsheviks as a way to engineer the "new man" of socialism. thus, university psychology departments trained large numbers of students, for whom positions were made available at schools, workplaces, cultural institutions, and in the military. an especial focus was pedology, the study of child development, regarding which lev vygotsky became a prominent writer.[ ] the bolsheviks also promoted free love and embraced the doctrine of psychoanalysis as an antidote to sexual repression.[ ] although pedology and intelligence testing fell out of favor in , psychology maintained its privileged position as an instrument of the soviet union.[ ] stalinist purges took a heavy toll and instilled a climate of fear in the profession, as elsewhere in soviet society.[ ] following world war ii, jewish psychologists past and present (including lev vygotsky, a.r. luria, and aron zalkind) were denounced; ivan pavlov (posthumously) and stalin himself were aggrandized as heroes of soviet psychology.[ ] soviet academics was speedily liberalized during the khrushchev thaw, and cybernetics, linguistics, genetics, and other topics became acceptable again. there emerged a new field called "engineering psychology" which studied mental aspects of complex jobs (such as pilot and cosmonaut). interdisciplinary studies became popular and scholars such as georgy shchedrovitsky developed systems theory approaches to human behavior.[ ] twentieth-century chinese psychology originally modeled the u.s., with translations from american authors like william james, the establishment of university psychology departments and journals, and the establishment of groups including the chinese association of psychological testing ( ) and the chinese psychological society ( ). chinese psychologists were encouraged to focus on education and language learning, with the aspiration that education would enable modernization and nationalization. john dewey, who lectured to chinese audiences in – , had a significant influence on this doctrine. chancellor t'sai yuan-p'ei introduced him at peking university as a greater thinker than confucius. kuo zing-yang who received a phd at the university of california, berkeley, became president of zhejiang university and popularized behaviorism.[ ] after the chinese communist party gained control of the country, the stalinist soviet union became the leading influence, with marxism–leninism the leading social doctrine and pavlovian conditioning the approved concept of behavior change. chinese psychologists elaborated on lenin's model of a "reflective" consciousness, envisioning an "active consciousness" (pinyin: tzu-chueh neng-tung-li) able to transcend material conditions through hard work and ideological struggle. they developed a concept of "recognition" (pinyin: jen-shih) which referred the interface between individual perceptions and the socially accepted worldview (failure to correspond with party doctrine was "incorrect recognition").[ ] psychology education was centralized under the chinese academy of sciences, supervised by the state council. in , the academy created a psychology research office, which in became the institute of psychology. most leading psychologists were educated in the united states, and the first concern of the academy was re-education of these psychologists in the soviet doctrines. child psychology and pedagogy for nationally cohesive education remained a central goal of the discipline.[ ] disciplinary organization institutions see also: list of psychology organizations in , Édouard claparède and pierre bovet created a new applied psychology organization called the international congress of psychotechnics applied to vocational guidance, later called the international congress of psychotechnics and then the international association of applied psychology.[ ] the iaap is considered the oldest international psychology association.[ ] today, at least international groups deal with specialized aspects of psychology.[ ] in response to male predominance in the field, female psychologists in the u.s. formed national council of women psychologists in . this organization became the international council of women psychologists after world war ii, and the international council of psychologists in . several associations including the association of black psychologists and the asian american psychological association have arisen to promote non-european racial groups in the profession.[ ] the world federation of national psychological societies is the international union of psychological science (iupsys), founded in under the auspices of unesco, the united nations cultural and scientific authority.[ ][ ] psychology departments have since proliferated around the world, based primarily on the euro-american model.[ ][ ] since , the union has published the international journal of psychology.[ ] iaap and iupsys agreed in each to hold a congress every four years, on a staggered basis.[ ] the international union recognizes national psychology associations and at least others exist.[ ] the american psychological association is the oldest and largest.[ ] its membership has increased from , in to , in the present day.[ ] the apa includes divisions, which since have steadily proliferated to include more specialties. some of these divisions, such as the society for the psychological study of social issues and the american psychology–law society, began as autonomous groups.[ ] the interamerican society of psychology, founded in , aspires to promote psychology and coordinate psychologists across the western hemisphere. it holds the interamerican congress of psychology and had , members in year . the european federation of professional psychology associations, founded in , represents national associations with a total of , individual members. at least other international groups organize psychologists in different regions.[ ] in some places, governments legally regulate who can provide psychological services or represent themselves as a "psychologist".[ ] the apa defines a psychologist as someone with a doctoral degree in psychology.[ ] boundaries early practitioners of experimental psychology distinguished themselves from parapsychology, which in the late nineteenth century enjoyed great popularity (including the interest of scholars such as william james), and indeed constituted the bulk of what people called "psychology". parapsychology, hypnotism, and psychism were major topics of the early international congresses. but students of these fields were eventually ostractized, and more or less banished from the congress in – .[ ] parapsychology persisted for a time at imperial university, with publications such as clairvoyance and thoughtography by tomokichi fukurai, but here too it was mostly shunned by .[ ] as a discipline, psychology has long sought to fend off accusations that it is a "soft" science. philosopher of science thomas kuhn's critique implied psychology overall was in a pre-paradigm state, lacking the agreement on overarching theory found in mature sciences such as chemistry and physics.[ ] because some areas of psychology rely on research methods such as surveys and questionnaires, critics asserted that psychology is not an objective science. skeptics have suggested that personality, thinking, and emotion, cannot be directly measured and are often inferred from subjective self-reports, which may be problematic. experimental psychologists have devised a variety of ways to indirectly measure these elusive phenomenological entities.[ ][ ][ ] divisions still exist within the field, with some psychologists more oriented towards the unique experiences of individual humans, which cannot be understood only as data points within a larger population. critics inside and outside the field have argued that mainstream psychology has become increasingly dominated by a "cult of empiricism" which limits the scope of its study by using only methods derived from the physical sciences.[ ] feminist critiques along these lines have argued that claims to scientific objectivity obscure the values and agenda of (historically mostly male)[ ] researchers. jean grimshaw, for example, argues that mainstream psychological research has advanced a patriarchal agenda through its efforts to control behavior.[ ] major schools of thought biological false-color representations of cerebral fiber pathways affected, per van horn et al.[v]: psychologists generally consider the organism the basis of the mind, and therefore a vitally related area of study. psychiatrists and neuropsychologists work at the interface of mind and body.[ ] biological psychology, also known as physiological psychology,[ ] or neuropsychology is the study of the biological substrates of behavior and mental processes. key research topics in this field include comparative psychology, which studies humans in relation to other animals, and perception which involves the physical mechanics of sensation as well as neural and mental processing.[ ] for centuries, a leading question in biological psychology has been whether and how mental functions might be localized in the brain. from phineas gage to h.m. and clive wearing, individual people with mental issues traceable to physical damage have inspired new discoveries in this area.[ ] modern neuropsychology could be said to originate in the s, when in france paul broca traced production of speech to the left frontal gyrus, thereby also demonstrating hemispheric lateralization of brain function. soon after, carl wernicke identified a related area necessary for the understanding of speech.[ ] the contemporary field of behavioral neuroscience focuses on physical causes underpinning behavior. for example, physiological psychologists use animal models, typically rats, to study the neural, genetic, and cellular mechanisms that underlie specific behaviors such as learning and memory and fear responses.[ ] cognitive neuroscientists investigate the neural correlates of psychological processes in humans using neural imaging tools, and neuropsychologists conduct psychological assessments to determine, for instance, specific aspects and extent of cognitive deficit caused by brain damage or disease. the biopsychosocial model is an integrated perspective toward understanding consciousness, behavior, and social interaction. it assumes that any given behavior or mental process affects and is affected by dynamically interrelated biological, psychological, and social factors.[ ] evolutionary psychology examines cognition and personality traits from an evolutionary perspective. this perspective suggests that psychological adaptations evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments. evolutionary psychology offers complementary explanations for the mostly proximate or developmental explanations developed by other areas of psychology: that is, it focuses mostly on ultimate or "why?" questions, rather than proximate or "how?" questions. "how?" questions are more directly tackled by behavioral genetics research, which aims to understand how genes and environment impact behavior.[ ] the search for biological origins of psychological phenomena has long involved debates about the importance of race, and especially the relationship between race and intelligence. the idea of white supremacy and indeed the modern concept of race itself arose during the process of world conquest by europeans.[ ] carl von linnaeus's four-fold classification of humans classifies europeans as intelligent and severe, americans as contented and free, asians as ritualistic, and africans as lazy and capricious. race was also used to justify the construction of socially specific mental disorders such as drapetomania and dysaesthesia aethiopica—the behavior of uncooperative african slaves.[ ] after the creation of experimental psychology, "ethnical psychology" emerged as a subdiscipline, based on the assumption that studying primitive races would provide an important link between animal behavior and the psychology of more evolved humans.[ ] behavioral main articles: behaviorism, psychological behaviorism, and radical behaviorism skinner's teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of programmed instruction psychologists take human behavior as a main area of study. much of the research in this area began with tests on mammals, based on the idea that humans exhibit similar fundamental tendencies. behavioral research ever aspires to improve the effectiveness of techniques for behavior modification. play media the film of the little albert experiment early behavioral researchers studied stimulus–response pairings, now known as classical conditioning. they demonstrated that behaviors could be linked through repeated association with stimuli eliciting pain or pleasure. ivan pavlov—known best for inducing dogs to salivate in the presence of a stimulus previously linked with food—became a leading figure in the soviet union and inspired followers to use his methods on humans.[ ] in the united states, edward lee thorndike initiated "connectionism" studies by trapping animals in "puzzle boxes" and rewarding them for escaping. thorndike wrote in : "there can be no moral warrant for studying man's nature unless the study will enable us to control his acts."[ ] from – the american psychological association went through a sea change of opinion, away from mentalism and towards "behavioralism", and in john b. watson coined the term behaviorism for this school of thought.[ ] watson's famous little albert experiment in demonstrated that repeated use of upsetting loud noises could instill phobias (aversions to other stimuli) in an infant human.[ ][ ] karl lashley, a close collaborator with watson, examined biological manifestations of learning in the brain.[ ] embraced and extended by clark l. hull, edwin guthrie, and others, behaviorism became a widely used research paradigm.[ ] a new method of "instrumental" or "operant" conditioning added the concepts of reinforcement and punishment to the model of behavior change. radical behaviorists avoided discussing the inner workings of the mind, especially the unconscious mind, which they considered impossible to assess scientifically.[ ] operant conditioning was first described by miller and kanorski and popularized in the u.s. by b.f. skinner, who emerged as a leading intellectual of the behaviorist movement.[ ][ ] noam chomsky delivered an influential critique of radical behaviorism on the grounds that it could not adequately explain the complex mental process of language acquisition.[ ][ ][ ] martin seligman and colleagues discovered that the conditioning of dogs led to outcomes ("learned helplessness") that opposed the predictions of behaviorism.[ ][ ] skinner's behaviorism did not die, perhaps in part because it generated successful practical applications.[ ] edward c. tolman advanced a hybrid "cognitive behavioral" model, most notably with his publication discussing the cognitive maps used by rats to guess at the location of food at the end of a modified maze.[ ] the association for behavior analysis international was founded in and by had members from countries. the field has been especially influential in latin america, where it has a regional organization known as alamoc: la asociación latinoamericana de análisis y modificación del comportamiento. behaviorism also gained a strong foothold in japan, where it gave rise to the japanese society of animal psychology ( ), the japanese association of special education ( ), the japanese society of biofeedback research ( ), the japanese association for behavior therapy ( ), the japanese association for behavior analysis ( ), and the japanese association for behavioral science research ( ).[ ] today the field of behaviorism is also commonly referred to as behavior modification or behavior analysis.[ ] cognitive main article: cognitive psychology green red blue purple blue purple blue purple red green purple green the stroop effect refers to the fact that naming the color of the first set of words is easier and quicker than the second. cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying mental activity. perception, attention, reasoning, thinking, problem solving, memory, learning, language, and emotion are areas of research. classical cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by functionalism and experimental psychology. baddeley's model of working memory starting in the s, the experimental techniques developed by wundt, james, ebbinghaus, and others re-emerged as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitivist—concerned with information and its processing—and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider cognitive science.[ ] some called this development the cognitive revolution because it rejected the anti-mentalist dogma of behaviorism as well as the strictures of psychoanalysis.[ ] social learning theorists, such as albert bandura, argued that the child's environment could make contributions of its own to the behaviors of an observant subject.[ ] the müller–lyer illusion. psychologists make inferences about mental processes from shared phenomena such as optical illusions. technological advances also renewed interest in mental states and representations. english neuroscientist charles sherrington and canadian psychologist donald o. hebb used experimental methods to link psychological phenomena with the structure and function of the brain. the rise of computer science, cybernetics and artificial intelligence suggested the value of comparatively studying information processing in humans and machines. research in cognition had proven practical since world war ii, when it aided in the understanding of weapons operation.[ ] a popular and representative topic in this area is cognitive bias, or irrational thought. psychologists (and economists) have classified and described a sizeable catalogue of biases which recur frequently in human thought. the availability heuristic, for example, is the tendency to overestimate the importance of something which happens to come readily to mind.[ ] elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form cognitive behavioral therapy, a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by american psychologist albert ellis and american psychiatrist aaron t. beck. on a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise of cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, researchers in artificial intelligence, linguists, human–computer interaction, computational neuroscience, logicians and social scientists. the discipline of cognitive science covers cognitive psychology as well as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience.[citation needed] computer simulations are sometimes used to model phenomena of interest. social main article: social psychology see also: social psychology (sociology) social psychology studies the nature and causes of social behavior. social psychology is the study of how humans think about each other and how they relate to each other. social psychologists study such topics as the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g. conformity, persuasion), and the formation of beliefs, attitudes, and stereotypes about other people. social cognition fuses elements of social and cognitive psychology in order to understand how people process, remember, or distort social information. the study of group dynamics reveals information about the nature and potential optimization of leadership, communication, and other phenomena that emerge at least at the microsocial level. in recent years, many social psychologists have become increasingly interested in implicit measures, mediational models, and the interaction of both person and social variables in accounting for behavior. the study of human society is therefore a potentially valuable source of information about the causes of psychiatric disorder. some sociological concepts applied to psychiatric disorders are the social role, sick role, social class, life event, culture, migration, social, and total institution.[ ] psychoanalysis main articles: psychodynamics and psychoanalysis group photo in front of clark university. front row: sigmund freud, g. stanley hall, carl jung; back row: abraham a. brill, ernest jones, sándor ferenczi. psychoanalysis comprises a method of investigating the mind and interpreting experience; a systematized set of theories about human behavior; and a form of psychotherapy to treat psychological or emotional distress, especially conflict originating in the unconscious mind.[ ] this school of thought originated in the s with austrian medical doctors including josef breuer (physician), alfred adler (physician), otto rank (psychoanalyst), and most prominently sigmund freud (neurologist). freud's psychoanalytic theory was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations. it became very well known, largely because it tackled subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious. these subjects were largely taboo at the time, and freud provided a catalyst for their open discussion in polite society.[ ] clinically, freud helped to pioneer the method of free association and a therapeutic interest in dream interpretation.[ ][ ] swiss psychiatrist carl jung, influenced by freud, elaborated a theory of the collective unconscious—a primordial force present in all humans, featuring archetypes which exerted a profound influence on the mind. jung's competing vision formed the basis for analytical psychology, which later led to the archetypal and process-oriented schools. other well-known psychoanalytic scholars of the mid- th century include erik erikson, melanie klein, d.w. winnicott, karen horney, erich fromm, john bowlby, and sigmund freud's daughter, anna freud. throughout the th century, psychoanalysis evolved into diverse schools of thought which could be called neo-freudian. among these schools are ego psychology, object relations, and interpersonal, lacanian, and relational psychoanalysis.[citation needed] psychologists such as hans eysenck and philosophers including karl popper criticized psychoanalysis. popper argued that psychoanalysis had been misrepresented as a scientific discipline,[ ] whereas eysenck said that psychoanalytic tenets had been contradicted by experimental data. by the end of th century, psychology departments in american universities mostly marginalized freudian theory, dismissing it as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact.[ ] however, researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis today defend some of freud's ideas on scientific grounds,[ ] while scholars of the humanities maintain that freud was not a "scientist at all, but ... an interpreter".[ ] existential-humanistic theories main articles: existential psychology and humanistic psychology psychologist abraham maslow in posited that humans have a hierarchy of needs, and it makes sense to fulfill the basic needs first (food, water etc.) before higher-order needs can be met.[ ] humanistic psychology developed in the s as a movement within academic psychology, in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis.[ ] the humanistic approach sought to glimpse the whole person, not just fragmented parts of the personality or isolated cognitions.[ ] humanism focused on uniquely human issues, such as free will, personal growth, self-actualization, self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. it emphasized subjective meaning, rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than pathology.[citation needed] some founders of the humanistic school of thought were american psychologists abraham maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, and carl rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy. later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to scientific modes of exploration. the american association for humanistic psychology, formed in , declared: humanistic psychology is primarily an orientation toward the whole of psychology rather than a distinct area or school. it stands for respect for the worth of persons, respect for differences of approach, open-mindedness as to acceptable methods, and interest in exploration of new aspects of human behavior. as a "third force" in contemporary psychology, it is concerned with topics having little place in existing theories and systems: e.g., love, creativity, self, growth, organism, basic need-gratification, self-actualization, higher values, being, becoming, spontaneity, play, humor, affection, naturalness, warmth, ego-transcendence, objectivity, autonomy, responsibility, meaning, fair-play, transcendental experience, peak experience, courage, and related concepts.[ ] in the s and s, influenced by philosophers søren kierkegaard and martin heidegger and, psychoanalytically trained american psychologist rollo may pioneered an existential branch of psychology, which included existential psychotherapy: a method based on the belief that inner conflict within a person is due to that individual's confrontation with the givens of existence. swiss psychoanalyst ludwig binswanger and american psychologist george kelly may also be said to belong to the existential school.[ ] existential psychologists differed from more "humanistic" psychologists in their relatively neutral view of human nature and their relatively positive assessment of anxiety.[ ] existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths, or narrative patterns,[ ] and that it can be encouraged by an acceptance of the free will requisite to an authentic, albeit often anxious, regard for death and other future prospects. austrian existential psychiatrist and holocaust survivor viktor frankl drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic power from reflections garnered from his own internment.[ ] he created a variation of existential psychotherapy called logotherapy, a type of existentialist analysis that focuses on a will to meaning (in one's life), as opposed to adler's nietzschean doctrine of will to power or freud's will to pleasure.[ ] themes personality main article: personality psychology personality psychology is concerned with enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion—commonly referred to as personality—in individuals. theories of personality vary across different psychological schools and orientations. they carry different assumptions about such issues as the role of the unconscious and the importance of childhood experience. according to freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of the id, ego, and super-ego.[ ] in order to develop a taxonomy of personality constructs, trait theorists, in contrast, attempt to describe the personality sphere in terms of a discrete number of key traits using the statistical data-reduction method of factor analysis. although the number of proposed traits has varied widely, an early biologically-based model proposed by hans eysenck, the rd mostly highly cited psychologist of the th century (after freud, and piaget respectively), suggested that at least three major trait constructs are necessary to describe human personality structure: extraversion–introversion, neuroticism-stability, and psychoticism-normality. raymond cattell, the th most highly cited psychologist of the th century (based on the scientific peer-reviewed journal literature)[ ] empirically derived a theory of personality factors at the primary-factor level, and up to broader second-stratum factors (at the eysenckian level of analysis), rather than the "big five" dimensions.[ ][ ][ ][ ] dimensional models of personality are receiving increasing support, and a version of dimensional assessment has been included in the dsm-v. however, despite a plethora of research into the various versions of the "big five" personality dimensions, it appears necessary to move on from static conceptualizations of personality structure to a more dynamic orientation, whereby it is acknowledged that personality constructs are subject to learning and change across the lifespan.[ ][ ] an early example of personality assessment was the woodworth personal data sheet, constructed during world war i. the popular, although psychometrically inadequate myers–briggs type indicator[ ] sought to assess individuals' "personality types" according to the personality theories of carl jung. behaviorist resistance to introspection led to the development of the strong vocational interest blank and minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (mmpi), in an attempt to ask empirical questions that focused less on the psychodynamics of the respondent.[ ] however, the mmpi has been subjected to critical scrutiny, given that it adhered to archaic psychiatric nosology, and since it required individuals to provide subjective, introspective responses to the hundreds of items pertaining to psychopathology.[ ] unconscious mind see also: unconscious mind § psychology study of the unconscious mind, a part of the psyche outside the awareness of the individual which nevertheless influenced thoughts and behavior was a hallmark of early psychology. in one of the first psychology experiments conducted in the united states, c.s. peirce and joseph jastrow found in that subjects could choose the minutely heavier of two weights even if consciously uncertain of the difference.[ ] freud popularized this concept, with terms like freudian slip entering popular culture, to mean an uncensored intrusion of unconscious thought into one's speech and action. his text the psychopathology of everyday life catalogues hundreds of everyday events which freud explains in terms of unconscious influence. pierre janet advanced the idea of a subconscious mind, which could contain autonomous mental elements unavailable to the scrutiny of the subject.[ ] behaviorism notwithstanding, the unconscious mind has maintained its importance in psychology. cognitive psychologists have used a "filter" model of attention, according to which much information processing takes place below the threshold of consciousness, and only certain processes, limited by nature and by simultaneous quantity, make their way through the filter. copious research has shown that subconscious priming of certain ideas can covertly influence thoughts and behavior.[ ] a significant hurdle in this research is proving that a subject's conscious mind has not grasped a certain stimulus, due to the unreliability of self-reporting. for this reason, some psychologists prefer to distinguish between implicit and explicit memory. in another approach, one can also describe a subliminal stimulus as meeting an objective but not a subjective threshold.[ ] the automaticity model, which became widespread following exposition by john bargh and others in the s, describes sophisticated processes for executing goals which can be selected and performed over an extended duration without conscious awareness.[ ][ ] some experimental data suggests that the brain begins to consider taking actions before the mind becomes aware of them.[ ][ ] this influence of unconscious forces on people's choices naturally bears on philosophical questions free will. john bargh, daniel wegner, and ellen langer are some prominent contemporary psychologists who describe free will as an illusion.[ ][ ][ ] motivation main article: motivation psychologists such as william james initially used the term motivation to refer to intention, in a sense similar to the concept of will in european philosophy. with the steady rise of darwinian and freudian thinking, instinct also came to be seen as a primary source of motivation.[ ] according to drive theory, the forces of instinct combine into a single source of energy which exerts a constant influence. psychoanalysis, like biology, regarded these forces as physical demands made by the organism on the nervous system. however, they believed that these forces, especially the sexual instincts, could become entangled and transmuted within the psyche. classical psychoanalysis conceives of a struggle between the pleasure principle and the reality principle, roughly corresponding to id and ego. later, in beyond the pleasure principle, freud introduced the concept of the death drive, a compulsion towards aggression, destruction, and psychic repetition of traumatic events.[ ] meanwhile, behaviorist researchers used simple dichotomous models (pleasure/pain, reward/punishment) and well-established principles such as the idea that a thirsty creature will take pleasure in drinking.[ ][ ] clark hull formalized the latter idea with his drive reduction model.[ ] hunger, thirst, fear, sexual desire, and thermoregulation all seem to constitute fundamental motivations for animals.[ ] humans also seem to exhibit a more complex set of motivations—though theoretically these could be explained as resulting from primordial instincts—including desires for belonging, self-image, self-consistency, truth, love, and control.[ ][ ] motivation can be modulated or manipulated in many different ways. researchers have found that eating, for example, depends not only on the organism's fundamental need for homeostasis—an important factor causing the experience of hunger—but also on circadian rhythms, food availability, food palatability, and cost.[ ] abstract motivations are also malleable, as evidenced by such phenomena as goal contagion: the adoption of goals, sometimes unconsciously, based on inferences about the goals of others.[ ] vohs and baumeister suggest that contrary to the need-desire-fulfilment cycle of animal instincts, human motivations sometimes obey a "getting begets wanting" rule: the more you get a reward such as self-esteem, love, drugs, or money, the more you want it. they suggest that this principle can even apply to food, drink, sex, and sleep.[ ] development main article: developmental psychology developmental psychologists would engage a child with a book and then make observations based on how the child interacts with the object. mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. this may focus on cognitive, affective, moral, social, or neural development. researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in natural settings or to engage them in experimental tasks. such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of infants. in addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study aging and processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). developmental psychologists draw on the full range of psychological theories to inform their research.[citation needed] genes and environment main article: behavioral genetics all researched psychological traits are influenced by both genes and environment, to varying degrees.[ ][ ] these two sources of influence are often confounded in observational research of individuals or families. an example is the transmission of depression from a depressed mother to her offspring. theory may hold that the offspring, by virtue of having a depressed mother in his or her (the offspring's) environment, is at risk for developing depression. however, risk for depression is also influenced to some extent by genes. the mother may both carry genes that contribute to her depression but will also have passed those genes on to her offspring thus increasing the offspring's risk for depression. genes and environment in this simple transmission model are completely confounded. experimental and quasi-experimental behavioral genetic research uses genetic methodologies to disentangle this confound and understand the nature and origins of individual differences in behavior.[ ] traditionally this research has been conducted using twin studies and adoption studies, two designs where genetic and environmental influences can be partially un-confounded. more recently, the availability of microarray molecular genetic or genome sequencing technologies allows researchers to measure participant dna variation directly, and test whether individual genetic variants within genes are associated with psychological traits and psychopathology through methods including genome-wide association studies. one goal of such research is similar to that in positional cloning and its success in huntington's: once a causal gene is discovered biological research can be conducted to understand how that gene influences the phenotype. one major result of genetic association studies is the general finding that psychological traits and psychopathology, as well as complex medical diseases, are highly polygenic,[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] where a large number (on the order of hundreds to thousands) of genetic variants, each of small effect, contribute to individual differences in the behavioral trait or propensity to the disorder. active research continues to understand the genetic and environmental bases of behavior and their interaction. applications further information: outline of psychology, list of psychology disciplines, applied psychology, and subfields of psychology psychology encompasses many subfields and includes different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior: mental testing see also: psychometrics and social statistics psychological testing has ancient origins, such as examinations for the chinese civil service dating back to bc. written exams began during the han dynasty ( bc – ad ). by , the chinese system required a stratified series of tests, involving essay writing and knowledge of diverse topics. the system was ended in .[ ] in europe, mental assessment took a more physiological approach, with theories of physiognomy—judgment of character based on the face—described by aristotle in th century bc greece. physiognomy remained current through the enlightenment, and added the doctrine of phrenology: a study of mind and intelligence based on simple assessment of neuroanatomy.[ ] when experimental psychology came to britain, francis galton was a leading practitioner, and, with his procedures for measuring reaction time and sensation, is considered an inventor of modern mental testing (also known as psychometrics).[ ] james mckeen cattell, a student of wundt and galton, brought the concept to the united states, and in fact coined the term "mental test".[ ] in , cattell's student clark wissler published discouraging results, suggesting that mental testing of columbia and barnard students failed to predict their academic performance.[ ] in response to orders from the minister of public instruction, french psychologists alfred binet and théodore simon elaborated a new test of intelligence in – , using a range of questions diverse in their nature and difficulty. binet and simon introduced the concept of mental age and referred to the lowest scorers on their test as idiots. henry h. goddard put the binet-simon scale to work and introduced classifications of mental level such as imbecile and feebleminded. in (after binet's death), stanford professor lewis m. terman modified the binet-simon scale (renamed the stanford–binet scale) and introduced the intelligence quotient as a score report.[ ] from this test, terman concluded that mental retardation "represents the level of intelligence which is very, very common among spanish-indians and mexican families of the southwest and also among negroes. their dullness seems to be racial."[ ] following the army alpha and army beta tests for soldiers in world war i, mental testing became popular in the us, where it was soon applied to school children. the federally created national intelligence test was administered to million children in the s, and in the college entrance examination board created the scholastic aptitude test to standardize college admissions.[ ] the results of intelligence tests were used to argue for segregated schools and economic functions—i.e. the preferential training of black americans for manual labor. these practices were criticized by black intellectuals such a horace mann bond and allison davis.[ ] eugenicists used mental testing to justify and organize compulsory sterilization of individuals classified as mentally retarded.[ ] in the united states, tens of thousands of men and women were sterilized. setting a precedent which has never been overturned, the u.s. supreme court affirmed the constitutionality of this practice in the case buck v. bell.[ ] today mental testing is a routine phenomenon for people of all ages in western societies.[ ] modern testing aspires to criteria including standardization of procedure, consistency of results, output of an interpretable score, statistical norms describing population outcomes, and, ideally, effective prediction of behavior and life outcomes outside of testing situations.[ ] mental health care the provision of psychological health services is generally called clinical psychology in the u.s. the definitions of this term are various and may include school psychology and counseling psychology. practitioners typically includes people who have graduated from doctoral programs in clinical psychology but may also include others. in canada, the above groups usually fall within the larger category of professional psychology. in canada and the us, practitioners get bachelor's degrees and doctorates, then spend one year in an internship and one year in postdoctoral education. in mexico and most other latin american and european countries, psychologists do not get bachelor's and doctorate degrees; instead, they take a three-year professional course following high school.[ ] clinical psychology is at present the largest specialization within psychology.[ ] it includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress, dysfunction or mental illness and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. central to its practice are psychological assessment and psychotherapy although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration.[ ] credit for the first psychology clinic in the united states typically goes to lightner witmer, who established his practice in philadelphia in . another modern psychotherapist was morton prince.[ ] for the most part, in the first part of the twentieth century, most mental health care in the united states was performed by specialized medical doctors called psychiatrists. psychology entered the field with its refinements of mental testing, which promised to improve diagnosis of mental problems. for their part, some psychiatrists became interested in using psychoanalysis and other forms of psychodynamic psychotherapy to understand and treat the mentally ill.[ ] in this type of treatment, a specially trained therapist develops a close relationship with the patient, who discusses wishes, dreams, social relationships, and other aspects of mental life. the therapist seeks to uncover repressed material and to understand why the patient creates defenses against certain thoughts and feelings. an important aspect of the therapeutic relationship is transference, in which deep unconscious feelings in a patient reorient themselves and become manifest in relation to the therapist.[ ] psychiatric psychotherapy blurred the distinction between psychiatry and psychology, and this trend continued with the rise of community mental health facilities and behavioral therapy, a thoroughly non-psychodynamic model which used behaviorist learning theory to change the actions of patients. a key aspect of behavior therapy is empirical evaluation of the treatment's effectiveness. in the s, cognitive-behavior therapy arose, using similar methods and now including the cognitive constructs which had gained popularity in theoretical psychology. a key practice in behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapy is exposing patients to things they fear, based on the premise that their responses (fear, panic, anxiety) can be deconditioned.[ ] mental health care today involves psychologists and social workers in increasing numbers. in , national institute of mental health director bertram brown described this shift as a source of "intense competition and role confusion".[ ] graduate programs issuing doctorates in psychology (phd or psyd) emerged in the s and underwent rapid increase through the s. this degree is intended to train practitioners who might conduct scientific research.[ ] some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury—this area is known as clinical neuropsychology. in many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession. the emerging field of disaster psychology (see crisis intervention) involves professionals who respond to large-scale traumatic events.[ ] the work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client (usually an individual, couple, family, or small group). typically, these approaches encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential–humanistic, and systems or family therapy. there has been a growing movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. with the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of the major therapies have equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance.[ ][ ] because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] diagnosis in clinical psychology usually follows the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (dsm), a handbook first published by the american psychiatric association in . new editions over time have increased in size and focused more on medical language.[ ] the study of mental illnesses is called abnormal psychology. education main articles: educational psychology and school psychology an example of an item from a cognitive abilities test used in educational psychology. educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. the work of child psychologists such as lev vygotsky, jean piaget, and jerome bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices. educational psychology is often included in teacher education programs in places such as north america, australia, and new zealand. school psychology combines principles from educational psychology and clinical psychology to understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of gifted students; to facilitate prosocial behaviors in adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe, supportive, and effective learning environments. school psychologists are trained in educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive training in research.[ ] work see also: industrial and organizational psychology and organizational behavior industrialists soon brought the nascent field of psychology to bear on the study of scientific management techniques for improving workplace efficiency. this field was at first called economic psychology or business psychology; later, industrial psychology, employment psychology, or psychotechnology.[ ] an important early study examined workers at western electric's hawthorne plant in cicero, illinois from – . with funding from the laura spelman rockefeller fund and guidance from australian psychologist elton mayo, western electric experimented on thousands of factory workers to assess their responses to illumination, breaks, food, and wages. the researchers came to focus on workers' responses to observation itself, and the term hawthorne effect is now used to describe the fact that people work harder when they think they're being watched.[ ] the name industrial and organizational psychology (i–o) arose in the s and became enshrined as the society for industrial and organizational psychology, division of the american psychological association, in .[ ] the goal is to optimize human potential in the workplace. personnel psychology, a subfield of i–o psychology, applies the methods and principles of psychology in selecting and evaluating workers. i–o psychology's other subfield, organizational psychology, examines the effects of work environments and management styles on worker motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity.[ ] the majority of i–o psychologists work outside of academia, for private and public organizations and as consultants.[ ] a psychology consultant working in business today might expect to provide executives with information and ideas about their industry, their target markets, and the organization of their company.[ ][ ] military and intelligence one role for psychologists in the military is to evaluate and counsel soldiers and other personnel. in the u.s., this function began during world war i, when robert yerkes established the school of military psychology at fort oglethorpe in georgia, to provide psychological training for military staff military.[ ][ ] today, u.s army psychology includes psychological screening, clinical psychotherapy, suicide prevention, and treatment for post-traumatic stress, as well as other aspects of health and workplace psychology such as smoking cessation.[ ] psychologists may also work on a diverse set of campaigns known broadly as psychological warfare. psychological warfare chiefly involves the use of propaganda to influence enemy soldiers and civilians. in the case of so-called black propaganda the propaganda is designed to seem like it originates from a different source.[ ] the cia's mkultra program involved more individualized efforts at mind control, involving techniques such as hypnosis, torture, and covert involuntary administration of lsd.[ ] the u.s. military used the name psychological operations (psyop) until , when these were reclassified as military information support operations (miso), part of information operations (io).[ ] psychologists are sometimes involved in assisting the interrogation and torture of suspects, though this has sometimes been denied by those involved and sometimes opposed by others.[ ] health, well-being, and social change see also: health psychology and biopsychosocial model medical facilities increasingly employ psychologists to perform various roles. a prominent aspect of health psychology is the psychoeducation of patients: instructing them in how to follow a medical regimen. health psychologists can also educate doctors and conduct research on patient compliance.[ ] psychologists in the field of public health use a wide variety of interventions to influence human behavior. these range from public relations campaigns and outreach to governmental laws and policies. psychologists study the composite influence of all these different tools in an effort to influence whole populations of people.[ ] black american psychologists kenneth and mamie clark studied the psychological impact of segregation and testified with their findings in the desegregation case brown v. board of education ( ).[ ] positive psychology is the study of factors which contribute to human happiness and well-being, focusing more on people who are currently healthy. in , clinical psychological review published a special issue devoted to positive psychological interventions, such as gratitude journaling and the physical expression of gratitude. positive psychological interventions have been limited in scope, but their effects are thought to be superior to that of placebos, especially with regard to helping people with body image problems. research methods main articles: psychological research and list of psychological research methods quantitative psychological research lends itself to the statistical testing of hypotheses. although the field makes abundant use of randomized and controlled experiments in laboratory settings, such research can only assess a limited range of short-term phenomena. thus, psychologists also rely on creative statistical methods to glean knowledge from clinical trials and population data.[ ] these include the pearson product–moment correlation coefficient, the analysis of variance, multiple linear regression, logistic regression, structural equation modeling, and hierarchical linear modeling. the measurement and operationalization of important constructs is an essential part of these research designs. controlled experiments main article: experiment flowchart of four phases (enrollment, intervention allocation, follow-up, and data analysis) of a parallel randomized trial of two groups, modified from the consort statement[ ] the experimenter (e) orders the teacher (t), the subject of the experiment, to give what the latter believes are painful electric shocks to a learner (l), who is actually an actor and confederate. the subject believes that for each wrong answer, the learner was receiving actual electric shocks, though in reality there were no such punishments. being separated from the subject, the confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with the electro-shock generator, which played pre-recorded sounds for each shock level etc.[ ] a true experiment with random allocation of subjects to conditions allows researchers to make strong inferences about causal relationships. in an experiment, the researcher alters parameters of influence, called independent variables, and measures resulting changes of interest, called dependent variables. prototypical experimental research is conducted in a laboratory with a carefully controlled environment. repeated-measures experiments are those which take place through intervention on multiple occasions. in research on the effectiveness of psychotherapy, experimenters often compare a given treatment with placebo treatments, or compare different treatments against each other. treatment type is the independent variable. the dependent variables are outcomes, ideally assessed in several ways by different professionals.[ ] using crossover design, researchers can further increase the strength of their results by testing both of two treatments on two groups of subjects. quasi-experimental design refers especially to situations precluding random assignment to different conditions. researchers can use common sense to consider how much the nonrandom assignment threatens the study's validity.[ ] for example, in research on the best way to affect reading achievement in the first three grades of school, school administrators may not permit educational psychologists to randomly assign children to phonics and whole language classrooms, in which case the psychologists must work with preexisting classroom assignments. psychologists will compare the achievement of children attending phonics and whole language classes. experimental researchers typically use a statistical hypothesis testing model which involves making predictions before conducting the experiment, then assessing how well the data supports the predictions. (these predictions may originate from a more abstract scientific hypothesis about how the phenomenon under study actually works.) analysis of variance (anova) statistical techniques are used to distinguish unique results of the experiment from the null hypothesis that variations result from random fluctuations in data. in psychology, the widely used standard ascribes statistical significance to results which have less than % probability of being explained by random variation.[ ] other forms of statistical inference statistical surveys are used in psychology for measuring attitudes and traits, monitoring changes in mood, checking the validity of experimental manipulations, and for other psychological topics. most commonly, psychologists use paper-and-pencil surveys. however, surveys are also conducted over the phone or through e-mail. web-based surveys are increasingly used to conveniently reach many subjects. neuropsychological tests, such as the wechsler scales and wisconsin card sorting test, are mostly questionnaires or simple tasks used which assess a specific type of mental function in the respondent. these can be used in experiments, as in the case of lesion experiments evaluating the results of damage to a specific part of the brain.[ ] observational studies analyze uncontrolled data in search of correlations; multivariate statistics are typically used to interpret the more complex situation. cross-sectional observational studies use data from a single point in time, whereas longitudinal studies are used to study trends across the life span. longitudinal studies track the same people, and therefore detect more individual, rather than cultural, differences. however, they suffer from lack of controls and from confounding factors such as selective attrition (the bias introduced when a certain type of subject disproportionately leaves a study). exploratory data analysis refers to a variety of practices which researchers can use to visualize and analyze existing sets of data. in peirce's three modes of inference, exploratory data analysis corresponds to abduction, or hypothesis formation.[ ] meta-analysis is the technique of integrating the results from multiple studies and interpreting the statistical properties of the pooled dataset.[ ] technological assays an eeg recording setup a classic and popular tool used to relate mental and neural activity is the electroencephalogram (eeg), a technique using amplified electrodes on a person's scalp to measure voltage changes in different parts of the brain. hans berger, the first researcher to use eeg on an unopened skull, quickly found that brains exhibit signature "brain waves": electric oscillations which correspond to different states of consciousness. researchers subsequently refined statistical methods for synthesizing the electrode data, and identified unique brain wave patterns such as the delta wave observed during non-rem sleep.[ ] newer functional neuroimaging techniques include functional magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography, both of which track the flow of blood through the brain. these technologies provide more localized information about activity in the brain and create representations of the brain with widespread appeal. they also provide insight which avoids the classic problems of subjective self-reporting. it remains challenging to draw hard conclusions about where in the brain specific thoughts originate—or even how usefully such localization corresponds with reality. however, neuroimaging has delivered unmistakable results showing the existence of correlations between mind and brain. some of these draw on a systemic neural network model rather than a localized function model.[ ][ ][ ] psychiatric interventions such as transcranial magnetic stimulation and drugs also provide information about brain–mind interactions. psychopharmacology is the study of drug-induced mental effects. artificial neural network with two layers, an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons in the human brain. computer simulation see also: computational cognition computational modeling is a tool used in mathematical psychology and cognitive psychology to simulate behavior.[ ] this method has several advantages. since modern computers process information quickly, simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for high statistical power. modeling also allows psychologists to visualize hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human. computational neuroscience uses mathematical models to simulate the brain. another method is symbolic modeling, which represents many mental objects using variables and rules. other types of modeling include dynamic systems and stochastic modeling. animal studies a rat undergoing a morris water navigation test used in behavioral neuroscience to study the role of the hippocampus in spatial learning and memory. animal experiments aid in investigating many aspects of human psychology, including perception, emotion, learning, memory, and thought, to name a few. in the s, russian physiologist ivan pavlov famously used dogs to demonstrate classical conditioning. non-human primates, cats, dogs, pigeons, rats, and other rodents are often used in psychological experiments. ideally, controlled experiments introduce only one independent variable at a time, in order to ascertain its unique effects upon dependent variables. these conditions are approximated best in laboratory settings. in contrast, human environments and genetic backgrounds vary so widely, and depend upon so many factors, that it is difficult to control important variables for human subjects. there are pitfalls in generalizing findings from animal studies to humans through animal models.[ ] comparative psychology refers to the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history, adaptive significance, and development of behavior. research in this area explores the behavior of many species, from insects to primates. it is closely related to other disciplines that study animal behavior such as ethology.[ ] research in comparative psychology sometimes appears to shed light on human behavior, but some attempts to connect the two have been quite controversial, for example the sociobiology of e.o. wilson.[ ] animal models are often used to study neural processes related to human behavior, e.g. in cognitive neuroscience. qualitative and descriptive research research designed to answer questions about the current state of affairs such as the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals is known as descriptive research. descriptive research can be qualitative or quantitative in orientation. qualitative research is descriptive research that is focused on observing and describing events as they occur, with the goal of capturing all of the richness of everyday behavior and with the hope of discovering and understanding phenomena that might have been missed if only more cursory examinations have been made. qualitative psychological research methods include interviews, first-hand observation, and participant observation. creswell ( ) identifies five main possibilities for qualitative research, including narrative, phenomenology, ethnography, case study, and grounded theory. qualitative researchers[ ] sometimes aim to enrich interpretations or critiques of symbols, subjective experiences, or social structures. sometimes hermeneutic and critical aims can give rise to quantitative research, as in erich fromm's study of nazi voting[citation needed] or stanley milgram's studies of obedience to authority. phineas p. gage survived an accident in which a large iron rod was driven completely through his head, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe, and is remembered for that injury's reported effects on his personality and behavior.[ ] just as jane goodall studied chimpanzee social and family life by careful observation of chimpanzee behavior in the field, psychologists conduct naturalistic observation of ongoing human social, professional, and family life. sometimes the participants are aware they are being observed, and other times the participants do not know they are being observed. strict ethical guidelines must be followed when covert observation is being carried out. program evaluation program evaluation is a systematic method for collecting, analyzing, and using information to answer questions about projects, policies and programs,[ ] particularly about their effectiveness and efficiency. in both the public and private sectors, stakeholders often want to know whether the programs they are funding, implementing, voting for, receiving or objecting to are producing the intended effect. while program evaluation first focuses around this definition, important considerations often include how much the program costs per participant, how the program could be improved, whether the program is worthwhile, whether there are better alternatives, if there are unintended outcomes, and whether the program goals are appropriate and useful.[ ] contemporary issues in methodology and practice metascience the field of metascience has revealed significant problems with the methodology of psychological research. psychological research suffers from high bias,[ ] low reproducibility,[ ] and widespread misuse of statistics.[ ] these finding have led to calls for reform from within and from outside the scientific community.[ ] confirmation bias in , statistician theodore sterling examined the results of psychological studies and discovered that % of them supported their initial hypotheses, implying a possible publication bias.[ ][ ][ ] similarly, fanelli ( )[ ] found that . % of psychiatry/psychology studies confirmed the effects they were looking for, and concluded that the odds of this happening (a positive result) was around five times higher than in fields such as space- or geosciences. fanelli argues that this is because researchers in "softer" sciences have fewer constraints to their conscious and unconscious biases. replication further information: replication crisis § in psychology over the subsequent few years, a replication crisis in psychology was identified, where it was publicly noted that many notable findings in the field had not been replicated and with some researchers being accused of outright fraud in their results.[ ][ ][ ] more systematic efforts to assess the extent of the problem, such as the reproducibility project of the center for open science, found that as many as two-thirds of highly publicized findings in psychology had failed to be replicated,[ ] with reproducibility being generally stronger in studies and journals representing cognitive psychology than social psychology topics,[ ] and the subfields of differential psychology (including general intelligence and big five personality traits research),[ ][ ] behavioral genetics (except for candidate gene and candidate gene-by-environment interaction research on behavior and mental illness),[ ][ ] and the related field of behavioral economics being largely unaffected by the replication crisis.[ ] other subfields of psychology that have been implicated by the replication crisis are clinical psychology,[ ][ ] developmental psychology (particularly cognitive and personality development),[ ][ ][ ] and a field closely related to psychology that has also been implicated is educational research.[ ][ ][ ][ ] focus on the replication crisis has led to other renewed efforts in the discipline to re-test important findings,[ ][ ] and in response to concerns about publication bias and p-hacking, more than psychology journals have adopted result-blind peer review where studies are accepted not on the basis of their findings and after the studies are completed, but before the studies are conducted and upon the basis of the methodological rigor of their experimental designs and the theoretical justifications for their statistical analysis techniques before data collection or analysis is done.[ ] in addition, large-scale collaborations between researchers working in multiple labs in different countries and that regularly make their data openly available for different researchers to assess have become much more common in the field.[ ] early analysis of such reforms has estimated that percent of result-blind studies have led to null results, in contrast to an estimated to percent in earlier research.[ ] misuse of statistics further information: misuse of statistics and misuse of p-values some critics view statistical hypothesis testing as misplaced. psychologist and statistician jacob cohen wrote in that psychologists routinely confuse statistical significance with practical importance, enthusiastically reporting great certainty in unimportant facts.[ ] some psychologists have responded with an increased use of effect size statistics, rather than sole reliance on p-values.[citation needed] weird bias "weird" redirects here. for other uses, see weird. in , arnett pointed out that most articles in american psychological association journals were about us populations when u.s. citizens are only % of the world's population. he complained that psychologists had no basis for assuming psychological processes to be universal and generalizing research findings to the rest of the global population.[ ] in , henrich, heine, and norenzayan reported a systemic bias in conducting psychology studies with participants from "weird" (western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic) societies.[ ][ ] although only / people worldwide live in regions that fall into the weird classification, the researchers claimed that – % of psychology studies are performed on participants from these areas. the article gave examples of results that differ significantly between people from weird and tribal cultures, including the müller-lyer illusion. arnett ( ), altmaier and hall ( ), and morgan-consoli et al. ( ) saw the western bias in research and theory as a serious problem considering psychologists are increasingly applying psychological principles developed in weird regions in their research, clinical work, and consultation with populations around the world.[ ][ ][ ] in , rad, martingano & ginges showed that nearly a decade after henrich et al.'s paper, over % of the samples used in studies published in the journal, psychological science, were from the weird population. moreover, their analysis showed that several studies did not fully disclose the origin of their samples, and the authors offer a set of recommendations to editors and reviewers to reduce the weird bias.[ ] from an anthropological perspective, scholars applied the weird model to european history, arguing that a powerful christian church forced a radical change away from incest and cousin marriages that undermined the role of clans and created individualism in europe by ce. they argue that a distinctive western psychology thus emerged that valued agency, autonomy, and kindness towards strangers.[ ] historians were not involved in that project, and have since pointed out its historical fallacies regarding an all-powerful church at too early a point in time, and a rejection of cousin marriage that did not happen.[ ] in order to counter this bias, transnational psychology was developed. as first articulated by adams, bhatia, else-quest, grabe, and kurtis, transnational psychology counters the western bias in the field of psychology [ ][ ] by applying a context-sensitive cultural psychology lens to reconsider, de-naturalize, and de-universalize psychological science.[ ] transnational psychologists consider perspectives of people in the non-western, "majority world" (areas where the majority of the world's population lives) essential in revising traditional psychological science. transnational psychology is also concerned with how globalization and capitalism affect people across nations, races, genders, classes, and sexualities. the transnational academic paradigm draws from postcolonial theory and methods, which critically examine how colonialist legacies shape the social, economic, and political oppression of people across the globe. it rejects the idea that people from different regions have the same subjectivities and recognizes that global capitalism has contributed to exploitation and inequality.[ ][ ][ ] unscientific mental health training some observers perceive a gap between scientific theory and its application—in particular, the application of unsupported or unsound clinical practices.[ ] critics say there has been an increase in the number of mental health training programs that do not instill scientific competence.[ ] practices such as "facilitated communication for infantile autism"; memory-recovery techniques including body work; and other therapies, such as rebirthing and reparenting, may be dubious or even dangerous, despite their popularity.[ ] in , allen neuringer made a similar point[vague] regarding the experimental analysis of behavior.[ ] psychologists, sometimes divided along the lines of laboratory vs. clinic, continue to debate these issues.[ ] ethics ethical standards in the discipline have changed over time. some famous past studies are today considered unethical and in violation of established codes (the canadian code of conduct for research involving humans, and the belmont report). the most important contemporary standards are informed and voluntary consent. after world war ii, the nuremberg code was established because of nazi abuses of experimental subjects. later, most countries (and scientific journals) adopted the declaration of helsinki. in the u.s., the national institutes of health established the institutional review board in , and in adopted the national research act (hr ). all of these measures encouraged researchers to obtain informed consent from human participants in experimental studies. a number of influential studies led to the establishment of this rule; such studies included the mit and fernald school radioisotope studies, the thalidomide tragedy, the willowbrook hepatitis study, and stanley milgram's studies of obedience to authority. humans university psychology departments have ethics committees dedicated to the rights and well-being of research subjects. researchers in psychology must gain approval of their research projects before conducting any experiment to protect the interests of human participants and laboratory animals.[ ] the ethics code of the american psychological association originated in as "ethical standards of psychologists". this code has guided the formation of licensing laws in most american states. it has changed multiple times over the decades since its adoption. in , the apa revised its policies on advertising and referral fees to negotiate the end of an investigation by the federal trade commission. the incarnation was the first to distinguish between "aspirational" ethical standards and "enforceable" ones. members of the public have a five-year window to file ethics complaints about apa members with the apa ethics committee; members of the apa have a three-year window.[ ] some of the ethical issues considered most important are the requirement to practice only within the area of competence, to maintain confidentiality with the patients, and to avoid sexual relations with them. another important principle is informed consent, the idea that a patient or research subject must understand and freely choose a procedure they are undergoing.[ ] some of the most common complaints against clinical psychologists include sexual misconduct, and involvement in child custody evaluations.[ ] other animals current ethical guidelines state that using non-human animals for scientific purposes is only acceptable when the harm (physical or psychological) done to animals is outweighed by the benefits of the research.[ ] keeping this in mind, psychologists can use certain research techniques on animals that could not be used on humans. 	an experiment by stanley milgram raised questions about the ethics of scientific experimentation because of the extreme emotional stress suffered by the participants. it measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience.[ ] 	comparative psychologist harry harlow drew moral condemnation for isolation experiments on rhesus macaque monkeys at the university of wisconsin–madison in the s.[ ] the aim of the research was to produce an animal model of clinical depression. harlow also devised what he called a "rape rack", to which the female isolates were tied in normal monkey mating posture.[ ] in , american literary critic wayne c. booth wrote that, "harry harlow and his colleagues go on torturing their nonhuman primates decade after decade, invariably proving what we all knew in advance—that social creatures can be destroyed by destroying their social ties." he writes that harlow made no mention of the criticism of the morality of his work.[ ] references 	^ fernald ld ( ). psychology: six perspectives (pp. – ). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. 	^ hockenbury & hockenbury. psychology. worth publishers, . 	^ although psychoanalysis and other forms of depth psychology are most typically associated with the unconscious mind, behaviorists consider such phenomena as classical conditioning and operant conditioning, while cognitivists explore implicit memory, automaticity, and subliminal messages, all of which are understood either to bypass or to occur outside of conscious effort or attention. indeed, cognitive-behavioral therapists counsel their clients to become aware of maladaptive thought patterns, the nature of which the clients previously had not been conscious. 	^ cacioppo, john (september ). 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"psychology courses often became the vehicles for eugenics propaganda. one graduate of the record office training program wrote, 'i hope to serve the cause by infiltrating eugenics into the minds of teachers. it may interest you to know that each student who takes psychology here works up his family history and plots his family tree.' harvard, columbia, brown, cornell, wisconsin, and northwestern were among the leading academic institutions teaching eugenics in psychology courses." 	^ dorwin cartwright, "social psychology in the united states during the second world war", human relations . , june , p. ; quoted in cina, "social science for whom?" ( ), p. . 	^ catherine lutz, "epistemology of the bunker: the brainwashed and other new subjects of permanent war", in joel pfister & nancy schnog (eds.), inventing the psychological: toward a cultural history of emotional life in america; yale university press, ; isbn  - - - 	^ cina, "social science for whom?" ( ), pp. – . 	^ herman, "psychology as politics" ( ), p. . "had it come to fruition, camelot would have been the largest, and certainly the most generously funded, behavioral research project in u.s. history. with a $ – million contract over a period of years, it was considered, and often called, a veritable manhattan project for the behavioral sciences, at least by many of the intellectuals whose services were in heavy demand." 	^ cocks, psychotherapy in the third reich ( ), pp. – . 	^ cocks, psychotherapy in the third reich ( ), p. . 	^ cocks, psychotherapy in the third reich ( ), pp. – . "for schultz-hencke in this essay, life goals were determined by ideology, not by science. in the case of psychotherapy, he defined health in terms of blood, strong will, proficiency, discipline, (zucht und ordnung), community, heroic bearing, and physical fitness. schultz-hencke also took the opportunity in to criticize psychoanalysis for providing an unfortunate tendency toward the exculpation of the criminal." 	^ jürgen brunner, matthias schrempf, & florian steger, "johannes heinrich schultz and national socialism", israel journal of psychiatry & related sciences . , . "bringing these people to a right and deep understanding of every german's duty in the new germany, such as preparatory mental aid and psychotherapy in general and in particular for persons to be sterilized, and for people having been sterilized, is a great, important and rewarding medical duty." 	^ cocks, psychotherapy in the third reich ( ), chapter : "reconstruction and repression", pp. – . 	^ a b kozulin, psychology in utopia ( ), pp. – . "against such a background it is not at all surprising that psychoanalysis, as a theory that ventured to approach the forbidden but topical theme of sexual relations, was embraced by the newborn soviet psychology. psychoanalysis also attracted the interest of soviet psychology as a materialist trend that had challenged the credentials of classical introspective psychology. the reluctance of the pre-revolutionary establishment to propagate psychoanalysis also played a positive role in the post-revolutionary years; it was a field uncompromised by ties to old-regime science." though c.f. hannah proctor, "reason displaces all love", the new inquiry, february . 	^ kozulin, psychology in utopia ( ), p. . "stalin's purges of the s did not spare soviet psychologists. leading marxist philosophers earlier associated with psychology—including yuri frankfurt, nikolai karev, and ivan luppol—were executed in prison camps. the same fate awaited alexei gastev and isaak shipilrein. those who survived lived in an atmosphere of total suspicion. [...] people who dominated their fields yesterday might be denounced today as traitors and enemies of the people, and by tomorrow their names might disappear from all public records. books and newspapers were constantly being recalled from libraries to rid them of 'obsolete' names and references." 	^ kozulin, psychology in utopia ( ), pp. – , – . 	^ kozulin, psychology in utopia ( ), pp. – . "georgy schedrovitsky, who is currently at the moscow institute of psychology, can be singled out as the most prominent theorist working in the context of systems research. [...] this is schedrovitsky's second major thesis: activity should not be regarded as an attribute of the individual but rather as an all-embracing system that 'captures' individuals and 'forces' them to behave a certain way. this approach may be traced back to the assertion of wilhelm humboldt that it is not man who has language as an attribute, but rather language that 'possesses' man. [...] schedrovitsky's activity approach has been applied successfully to the design of man-machine systems and to the evaluation of human factors in urban planning." 	^ chin & chin, psychological research in communist china ( ), pp. – . 	^ chin & chin, psychological research in communist china ( ), pp. – . "the soviet psychology that peking modeled itself upon was a marxist-leninist psychology with a philosophical base in dialectical materialism and a newly added label, pavlovianism. this new soviet psychology leaned heavily on lenin's theory of reflection, which was unearthed in his two volumes posthumously published in . toward the late twenties, a group of soviet research psychologists headed by vygotskii, along with luria and leont'ev, laid the groundwork for a marxist-leninist approach to psychic development." 	^ chin & chin, psychological research in communist china ( ), pp. – . 	^ a b c d e f g h wade pickren & raymond d. fowler, "professional organizations", in weiner (ed.), handbook of psychology ( ), volume : history of psychology. 	^ a b irmingard staeuble, "psychology in the eurocentric order of the social sciences: colonial constitution, cultural imperialist expansion, postcolonial critique" in brock (ed.), internationalizing the history of psychology ( ). 	^ for example, see oregon state law, chapter ( edition) at statutes & rules relating to the practice of psychology. 	^ a b c judy e. hall and george hurley, "north american perspectives on education, training, licensing, and credentialing", in weiner (ed.), handbook of psychology ( ), volume : clinical psychology. 	^ t.s. kuhn, the structure of scientific revolutions, st. ed., chicago: univ. of chicago pr., . 	^ beveridge, allan ( ). "time to abandon the subjective–objective divide?". psychiatric bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . /pb. . . . 	^ peterson, c. ( , may). "subjective and objective research in positive psychology: a biological characteristic is linked to well-being". psychology today. retrieved april . 	^ panksepp, j. ( ). affective neuroscience: the foundations of human and animal emotions. new york: oxford university press, p. . 	^ teo, the critique of psychology ( ), pp. – . "methodologism means that the method dominates the problem, problems are chosen in subordination to the respected method, and psychology has to adopt without question, the methods of the natural sciences. [...] from an epistemological and ontological-critical as well as from a human-scientific perspective the experiment in psychology has limited value (for example, only for basic psychological processes), given the nature of the psychological subject matter, and the reality of persons and their capabilities." 	^ teo, the critique of psychology ( ), p. . "pervasive in feminist critiques of science, with the exception of feminist empiricism, is the rejection of positivist assumptions, including the assumption of value-neutrality or that research can only be objective if subjectivity and emotional dimensions are excluded, when in fact culture, personality, and institutions play significant roles (see longino, ; longino & doell, ). for psychology, grimshaw ( ) discussed behaviorism's goals of modification, and suggested that behaviorist principles reinforced a hierarchical position between controller and controlled and that behaviorism was in principle an antidemocratic program." 	^ edwin r. wallace, iv, "two 'mind'–'body' models for a holistic psychiatry" and "freud on 'mind–body' i: the psychoneurobiological and 'instinctualist' stance; with implications for chapter , and two postscripts", in wallace & gach (eds.), history of psychiatry and medical psychology ( ). 	^ a b c richard f. thompson & stuart m. zola, "biological psychology", in weiner (ed.), handbook of psychology ( ), volume : history of psychology. 	^ michela gallagher & randy j. nelson, "volume preface", in weiner (ed.), handbook of psychology ( ), volume : biological psychology. 	^ luria, "the working brain" ( ), pp. – . 	^ pinel, john ( ). biopsychology. new york: prentice hall. isbn  - - - - . 	^ richard frankel; timothy quill; susan mcdaniel ( ). the biopsychosocial approach: past, present, future. boydell & brewer. isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b mcgue m, gottesman ii ( ). 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"sur une forme particulière des reflexes conditionels" [on a particular form of conditional reflexes]. comptes rendus des séances de la société de biologie et de ses filiales (in french). : – . 	^ skinner, b.f. ( ) the behavior of organisms[page needed] 	^ a b schlinger, h.d. ( ). "the long good-bye: why b.f. skinner's verbal behavior is alive and well on the th anniversary of its publication". the psychological record. ( ): – . doi: . /bf . s cid  . 	^ leahey, history of modern psychology ( ), pp. – . 	^ chomsky, n.a. ( ) a review of skinner's verbal behavior 	^ seligman m.e.p.; maier s.f. ( ). "failure to escape traumatic shock". journal of experimental psychology. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /h . pmid  . 	^ overmier j.b.; seligman m.e.p. ( ). "effects of inescapable shock upon subsequent escape and avoidance responding". journal of comparative and physiological psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /h . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ tolman, edward c. ( ). 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( ), a glossary of psychoanalytic terms and concepts, amer psychoanalytic assn, p. , isbn  - - - - 	^ freud, s ( ). "the interpretation of dreams". iv and v ( nd ed.). hogarth press, . cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ freud, s ( ). "the unconscious". xiv ( nd ed.). hogarth press, . cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ karl popper, conjectures and refutations, london: routledge and keagan paul, , pp. – ; from theodore schick, ed., readings in the philosophy of science, mountain view, ca: mayfield publishing company, , pp. – . faculty.washington.edu 	^ a b june study by the american psychoanalytic association, as reported in the new york times, "freud is widely taught at universities, except in the psychology department" by patricia cohen, november . 	^ for example, scientists have related brain structures to freudian concepts such as libido, drives, the unconscious, and repression. the contributors to neuro-psychoanalysis include antónio damásio (damásio, a. 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( ). the brain and the inner world: an introduction to the neuroscience of subjective experience. new york: other press); and douglas watt. 	^ "maslow's hierarchy of needs". honolulu.hawaii.edu. archived from the original on february . retrieved december . 	^ gazzaniga, michael ( ). psychological science. new york: w.w. norton & company. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ rowan, john. ( ). ordinary ecstasy: the dialectics of humanistic psychology. london, uk: brunner-routledge. isbn  - - - 	^ a.j. sutich, american association for humanistic psychology, articles of association. palo alto, ca (mimeographed): august , ; in severin (ed.), humanistic viewpoints in psychology ( ), pp. xv–xvi. 	^ hergenhahn, b.r. ( ). an introduction to the history of psychology. belmont, california: thomson wadsworth. pp.  – . 	^ hergenhahn, b.r. ( ). an introduction to the history of psychology. belmont, california: thomson wadsworth. pp.  – . 	^ hergenhahn, b.r. ( ). an introduction to the history of psychology. belmont, california: thomson wadsworth. pp.  – . 	^ frankl, v.e. ( ). man's search for meaning (rev. ed.). new york: washington square press. p.  . 	^ seidner, stanley s. ( june ) "a trojan horse: logotherapeutic transcendence and its secular implications for theology". mater dei institute. p . 	^ carver, c., & scheier, m. ( ). perspectives on personality ( th ed.). boston: pearson. 	^ haggbloom, steven j.; warnick, renee; warnick, jason e.; jones, vinessa k.; yarbrough, gary l.; russell, tenea m.; borecky, chris m.; mcgahhey, reagan; powell, john l., iii; beavers, jamie; monte, emmanuelle ( ). "the most eminent psychologists of the th century" (pdf). review of general psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . s cid  . 	^ cattell, r.b. ( ). "the fallacy of five factors in the personality sphere". the psychologist, may, – . 	^ cattell, raymond b.; nichols, k. ernest ( ). "an improved definition, from researchers, of second order personality factors in q data (with cross-cultural checks)". the journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . 	^ block, jack ( ). "a contrarian view of the five-factor approach to personality description". psychological bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ boyle, g.j. ( ). critique of five-factor model (ffm). in g.j. boyle, g. matthews, & d.h. saklofske. (eds.), the sage handbook of personality theory and assessment: vol. – personality theories and models. los angeles, ca: sage. isbn  - - - - 	^ boyle, g.j. ( ). changes in personality traits in adulthood. in d. westen, l. burton, & r. kowalski (eds.), psychology: australian and new zealand rd edition (pp. – ). milton, queensland: wiley. isbn  - - - - 	^ cattell, raymond b.; boyle, gregory j.; chant, david ( ). "enriched behavioral prediction equation and its impact on structured learning and the dynamic calculus". psychological review. 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"in short, then, the studies presented above indicate that humans are keen to act on the goals of other social beings that are implied in behavioral scenarios or scripts." also see: aarts; hassin; gollwitzer ( ). "goal contagion: perceiving is for pursuing". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ kathleen d. vohs & roy f. baumeister, "can satisfaction reinforce wanting? a new theory about long-term changes in strength of motivation", in shah & gardner, handbook of motivation science ( ). 	^ polderman, tinca j c.; benyamin, beben; de leeuw, christiaan a.; sullivan, patrick f.; van bochoven, arjen; visscher, peter m.; posthuma, danielle ( ). "meta-analysis of the heritability of human traits based on fifty years of twin studies" (pdf). nature genetics. ( ): – . doi: . /ng. . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ turkheimer, eric ( ). "three laws of behavior genetics and what they mean". current directions in psychological science. 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[…] tests are used in almost every nation on earth for counseling, selection, and placement. testing occurs in settings as diverse as schools, civil service, industry, medical clinics, and counseling centers. most persons have taken dozens of tests and thought nothing of it. yet, by the time the typical individual reaches retirement age, it is likely that psychological test results will have helped to shape his or her destiny." 	^ gregory, psychological testing ( ), pp. – . 	^ a b george stricker & thomas a. widiger, "volume preface", in weiner (ed.), handbook of psychology ( ), volume : clinical psychology. 	^ brain, christine. ( ). advanced psychology: applications, issues and perspectives. cheltenham: nelson thornes. isbn  - - - 	^ nancy mcwilliams and joel weinberger, "psychodynamic psychotherapy", in weiner (ed.), handbook of psychology ( ), volume : clinical psychology. 	^ w. edward craighead & linda wilcoxon craighead, "behavioral and cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy" in weiner (ed.), handbook of psychology ( ), volume : clinical psychology. 	^ teri l. elliott, "disaster psychology: keep clients out of your office—get into the field!" in morgan et al. (ed.), life after graduate school in psychology ( ). "...it is the disaster psychologist's role to utilize crisis intervention processes with the goal of preventing natural distress due to the critical event from developing into a more harmful, long-term psychological condition." 	^ leichsenring, falk; leibing, eric ( ). 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"prevention strategies of late have largely concentrated on community-based interventions, which have been shown to be effective in changing the health of large populations. behavioral and social scientists, such as psychologists, are helpful in this arena as we are trained to view individuals as belonging to complex and dynamic social systems, including immediate and extended family systems, acquaintance and friendship networks, neighborhood and community systems, and cultural groups (schneiderman & spee , )." 	^ guthrie, even the rat was white ( ), chapter : "production of black psychologists in america" (pp. – ). 	^ john a. schinka & wayne f. velicer, "volume preface" in weiner (ed.), handbook of psychology ( ), volume : research methods in psychology. 	^ schulz, k.f.; altman, d.g.; moher, d.; for the consort group ( ). "consort statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials". bmj. : c . doi: . /bmj.c . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ milgram, stanley ( ). 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( ). "nature-nurture controversy, history of". international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . isbn  - - - - . 	cascio, wayne f. ( ). "industrial–organizational psychology: science and practice". international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . isbn  - - - - . 	chryssochoou, xenia ( ). "social psychology". international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . isbn  - - - - . 	deakin, nicholas ( ). "philosophy, psychiatry, and psychology". international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . isbn  - - - - . 	demetriou, andreas ( ). "intelligence in cultural, social and educational context". international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . isbn  - - - - . 	gelso, charles j. ( ). "counseling psychology". international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . isbn  - - - - . 	henley, tracy b. ( ). "psychology, history of (early period)". international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . isbn  - - - - . 	knowland, victoria c.p.; purser, harry; thomas, michael s.c. ( ). "cross-sectional methodologies in developmental psychology". international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . isbn  - - - - . 	louw, dap ( ). "forensic psychology". international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . -x. isbn  - - - - . 	mcwilliams, spencer a. ( ). "psychology, history of (twentieth century)". international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . isbn  - - - - . 	pe-pua, rogelia ( ). "indigenous psychology". international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . isbn  - - - - . 	peterson, roger l.; peterson, donald r.; abrams, jules c.; stricker, george; ducheny, kelly ( ). "training in clinical psychology in the united states: practitioner model". international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . isbn  - - - - . 	poortinga, ype h. ( ). "cross-cultural psychology". international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . isbn  - - - - . 	spinath, frank m.; spinath, birgit; borkenau, peter ( ). "developmental behavioral genetics and education". international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . isbn  - - - - . 	smith, edward e. ( ). "cognitive psychology: history". international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . isbn  - - - - . 	staerklé, christian ( ). "political psychology". international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp.  – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . isbn  - - - - . 	gelder, mayou & geddes ( ). psychiatry. new york: oxford university press inc. external links 		wikiquote has quotations related to: psychology 		wikisource has the text of the encyclopædia britannica article psychology. 	psychology at curlie 	american psychological association 	association for psychological science 	 	v 	t 	e psychology 	 	history 	philosophy 	portal 	psychologist 	basic psychology	 	abnormal 	affective science 	affective neuroscience 	behavioral genetics 	behavioral neuroscience 	behaviorism 	cognitive/cognitivism 	cognitive neuroscience 	social 	comparative 	cross-cultural 	cultural 	developmental 	differential 	ecological 	evolutionary 	experimental 	gestalt 	intelligence 	mathematical 	moral 	neuropsychology 	perception 	personality 	positive 	psycholinguistics 	psychophysiology 	quantitative 	social 	theoretical 	applied 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december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 library of congress control number - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	library of congress control number 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from lccn (identifier)) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for information on using this system on wikipedia, see wikipedia:authority control § lccn. numbering system for catalog records at the library of congress the library of congress control number (lccn) is a serially based system of numbering cataloging records in the library of congress in the united states. it has nothing to do with the contents of any book, and should not be confused with library of congress classification. contents 	 history 	 format 	 see also 	 references 	 external links history[edit] the lccn numbering system has been in use since , at which time the acronym lccn originally stood for library of congress card number.[ ] it has also been called the library of congress catalog card number, among other names. the library of congress prepared cards of bibliographic information for their library catalog and would sell duplicate sets of the cards to other libraries for use in their catalogs. this is known as centralized cataloging. each set of cards was given a serial number to help identify it. although most of the bibliographic information is now electronically created, stored, and shared with other libraries, there is still a need to identify each unique record, and the lccn continues to perform that function. librarians all over the world use this unique identifier in the process of cataloging most books which have been published in the united states. it helps them reach the correct cataloging data (known as a cataloging record), which the library of congress and third parties make available on the web and through other media. in february , the library of congress created the lccn permalink service, providing a stable url for all library of congress control numbers.[ ] format[edit] in its most elementary form, the number includes a year and a serial number. the year has two digits for to , and four digits beginning in . the three ambiguous years ( , , and ) are distinguished by the size of the serial number. there are also some peculiarities in numbers beginning with a " " because of an experiment applied between and which added a check digit.[ ] serial numbers are six digits long and should include leading zeros. the leading zeros padding the number are a more recent addition to the format, so many older works will show less-full codes. the hyphen that is often seen separating the year and serial number is optional. more recently, the library of congress has instructed publishers not to include a hyphen. see also[edit] 	accession number (library science) 	library of congress subject headings (lcsh) 	authority control 	virtual international authority file (viaf) 	coden 	integrated authority file (gnd; gemeinsame normdatei) 	international standard book number (isbn) 	books in the united states references[edit] 	^ "search/browse help - number searches: lc catalog (library of congress)". catalog.loc.gov. retrieved - - . 	^ "library of congress update for ala annual conference: january-may, ". archived from the original on - - . 	^ "structure of the lc control number". external links[edit] 		wikidata has the properties: 	 library of congress control number (lccn) (bibliographic) (p ) (see uses) 	 library of congress authority id (p ) (see uses) 	library of congress name authority file (naf) 	traditional and normalized forms of the lccn 	lccn permalink frequently asked questions 	bibliographic processing cataloging rules: library of congress control number (lccn) at the wayback machine (archived - - ) 		v 	t 	e authority control files 	aag • acm dl • adb • agsa • autores.uy • awr • balat • bibsys • bildindex • bnc • bne • bnf • botanist • bpn • cantic • cinii • cwgc • daao • dblp • dsi • fnza • gnd • hds • iaaf • iccu • icia • isni • joconde • kulturnav • lccn • lir • lnb • léonore • mba • mgp • nara • nbl • ndl • ngv • nkc • nla • nlg • nli • nlk • nlp • nlr • nsk • nta • orcid • pic • researcherid • rero • rkd • rkdimages id • rsl • selibr • sikart • snac • sudoc • s authorid • ta • tdvİa • te • tepapa • th • tls • trove • ukparl • ulan • us congress • vcba • viaf • worldcat identities retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=library_of_congress_control_number&oldid= " 		categories: 	library cataloging and classification 	library of congress 	identifiers hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	webarchive template wayback links 	ac with elements 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			afrikaans 	العربية 	asturianu 	azərbaycanca 	bân-lâm-gú 	Беларуская 	Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ 	भोजपुरी 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 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wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		american psychologist marilynn b. brewer (ph.d., northwestern university, ) is a prominent american social psychologist. she is now professor emeritus of psychology at ohio state university and currently resides at the university of new south wales. she was formerly professor of psychology and director of the institute for social science research at ucla. contents 	 biography 	 research 	 honors and awards 	 references 	 external links biography[edit] in , brewer was born in chicago, illinois as marilynn bolt.[ ] in , she married robert brewer. her parents both did not attend college but encouraged her to pursue her education. brewer received her bachelors of arts in social sciences in from north park college with honors. she was greatly influenced and encouraged by her mentor, jean driscoll. brewer received the national institute of mental health fellowship to fund her graduate education at northwestern university. brewer served as president of the american psychological society from - ,[ ] midwestern psychological association in ,[ ] society for the psychological study of social issues in - ,[ ] and the society for personality and social psychology from - . she has also served as editor of personality and social psychological review and associate editor of the psychological review. research[edit] brewer is well known for her contributions to the field of social identity and has also conducted research in the areas of social cognition and intergroup relations.[ ] while she is particularly recognized for her theory of optimal distinctiveness, she has been honored by a variety of organizations for wide-ranging and diverse contributions to the field of social psychology. honors and awards[edit] 	apa distinguished scientific contribution award ( ) 	kurt lewin memorial award ( ) 	donald t. campbell award for distinguished research in social psychology ( ) 	society of experimental social psychology distinguished scientist award ( ) 	american academy of arts and sciences member ( )[ ] references[edit] 	^ syfers, lily; rast, david e. ( ), "brewer, marilynn", in zeigler-hill, virgil; shackelford, todd k. (eds.), encyclopedia of personality and individual differences, springer international publishing, pp.  – , doi: . / - - - - _ - , isbn  - - - - 	^ "interview with president-elect marilynn brewer". aps observer. ( ). - - . 	^ "mpa | mpa history". retrieved - - . 	^ "marilynn b. brewer". brewer.socialpsychology.org. retrieved - - . 	^ boca raton news. "you don't have to hate other groups to love your own, researcher says". november , , p. . retrieved on july , . 	^ upper arlington news. "on the move". june , , p. a. retrieved on july , . external links[edit] 	brewer's osu faculty profile 	brewer's social psychology network page 	authority control 	 	bibsys: 	bnf: cb j (data) 	cinii: da 	gnd: 	isni: 	lccn: n 	lnb: 	nla: 	nsk: 	nta: 	rero: -a 	sudoc: 	trove: 	viaf: 	 worldcat identities: lccn-n 		this biography of an american psychologist is a stub. you can help wikipedia by expanding it.	v 	t 	e retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=marilynn_brewer&oldid= " 		categories: 	american women psychologists 	social psychologists 	ohio state university faculty 	fellows of the american academy of arts and sciences 	 births 	living people 	american psychologist stubs hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	wikipedia articles with bibsys identifiers 	wikipedia articles with bnf identifiers 	wikipedia articles with cinii identifiers 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	wikipedia articles with isni identifiers 	wikipedia articles with lccn identifiers 	wikipedia articles with lnb identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nla identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nsk identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nta identifiers 	wikipedia articles with rero identifiers 	wikipedia articles with sudoc identifiers 	wikipedia articles with trove identifiers 	wikipedia articles with viaf identifiers 	wikipedia articles with worldcatid identifiers 	all stub articles 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		add links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 motivation - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	motivation 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		"motivate" redirects here. for the bike-sharing company, see motivate (company). for other uses, see motivation (disambiguation). psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward a desired goal. 	 	this article has multiple issues. please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (learn how and when to remove these template messages) 	 	this article's lead section may be too short and does not adequately summarize key points of its contents. please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (september ) 	 	this article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on wikipedia. see wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (february ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) 	 	this article needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "motivation" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (february ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) (learn how and when to remove this template message) motivation is a reason for actions, willingness, and goals. motivation is derived from the word motive, or a need that requires satisfaction. these needs, wants or desires may be acquired through influence of culture, society, lifestyle, or may be generally innate. an individual's motivation may be inspired by outside forces (extrinsic motivation)[ ] or by themselves (intrinsic motivation).[ ] motivation has been considered one of the most important reasons to move forward.[ ] motivation results from the interaction of both conscious and unconscious factors. mastering motivation to allow sustained and deliberate practice is central to high levels of achievement, e.g. in elite sport, medicine, or music.[ ] motivation governs choices among alternative forms of voluntary activity.[ ] contents 	 neuroscience 	 psychological theories 	 content theories 	 . maslow's hierarchy of needs 	 . herzberg's two-factor theory 	 . alderfer's erg theory 	 . self-determination theory 	 . incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation 	 . . intrinsic motivation 	 . . extrinsic motivation 	 . behaviorist theories 	 . . classical and operant conditioning 	 . . . incentive motivation 	 . . motivating operations 	 . . motivation and psychotherapy 	 . drives 	 . cognitive dissonance theory 	 . unconscious motivation 	 . . priming 	 . . conscious motivation 	 practical applications 	 . applications in business 	 . . job characteristics model 	 . . employee recognition programs 	 . applications in education 	 . . indigenous education and learning 	 . . self-determination in education 	 . applications in game design 	 . applications in the military 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading neuroscience[edit] main article: motivational salience motivation as a desire to perform an action is usually defined by two parts: the directional (such as directed towards a positive stimulus or away from a negative one) and the activated "seeking phase" and consummatory "liking phase." this type of motivation has neurobiological roots in the basal ganglia and mesolimbic (dopaminergic) pathways. activated "seeking" behaviour, such as locomotor activity, is influenced by dopaminergic drugs, and microdialysis experiments reveal that dopamine is released during the anticipation of a reward.[ ] the "wanting behaviour" associated with a rewarding stimulus can be increased by microinjections of dopamine and dopaminergic drugs in the dorsorostral nucleus accumbens and posterior ventral palladum. opioid injections in this area produce pleasure; however, outside of these hedonic hotspots they create an increased desire.[ ] furthermore, depletion or inhibition of dopamine in neurons of the nucleus accumbens decrease appetitive but not consummatory behaviour. dopamine, further implicated in motivation as administration of amphetamine, increases the break point in a progressive ratio self-reinforcement schedule; subjects will be willing to go to greater lengths (e.g. press a lever more times) to obtain a reward.[ ] psychological theories[edit] motivation is a process in which thoughts influence behaviours. for example, drive performance affects thoughts, and these thoughts influence behaviours. each phase of the cycle includes aspects such as attitudes, beliefs, intentions, effort, and withdrawal. all of these aspects affect an individuals motivation. most psychological theories claim that motivation exists purely within the individual, but socio-cultural theories express motivation as an outcome of participation in actions and activities within the cultural context of social groups.[ ] content theories[edit] main article: content theory theories articulating the content of motivation: what kinds of things people find motivating are among the earliest theories in the history of motivation research. because content theories focus on which categories of goal (needs) motivate people, content theories are related to need theories. maslow's hierarchy of needs[edit] maslow's hierarchy of needs, represented as a pyramid with the more basic needs at the bottom content theory of human motivation includes both abraham maslow's hierarchy of needs and herzberg's two-factor theory. maslow's theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation. abraham maslow believed that man is inherently good and argued that individuals possess a constantly growing inner drive that has great potential. the needs hierarchy system is a commonly used scheme for classifying human motives.[ ] the american motivation psychologist abraham h. maslow ( ) developed the hierarchy of needs consisting of five hierarchic classes. according to maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs. the needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as follows:[ ] 	physiology (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.) 	safety/security/shelter/health 	social/love/friendship 	self-esteem/recognition/achievement 	self actualization/achievement of full potential the basic requirements build upon the first step in the pyramid: physiology. if there are deficits on this level, all behavior will be oriented to satisfy this deficit. essentially, if you have not slept or eaten adequately, you won't be interested in your self-esteem desires. subsequently, we have the second level, which awakens a need for security. after securing those two levels, the motives shift to the social sphere, the third level. psychological requirements comprise the fourth level, while the top of the hierarchy consists of self-realization and self-actualization. maslow's hierarchy of needs theory can be summarized as follows: 	human beings have wants and desires which, when unsatisfied, may influence behavior. 	differing levels of importance to human life are reflected in a hierarchical structure of needs. 	needs at higher levels in the hierarchy are held in abeyance until lower-level needs are at least minimally satisfied. 	needs at higher levels of the hierarchy are associated with individuality, humanness, and psychological health. herzberg's two-factor theory[edit] main article: two-factor theory two-factor theory frederick herzberg's two-factor theory concludes that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction (motivators), while others (hygiene factors), if absent, lead to dissatisfaction but are not related to satisfaction. the name hygiene factors are used because, like hygiene, the presence will not improve health, but absence can cause health deterioration. the factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime. some claimed motivating factors (satisfiers) were: achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth. some hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) were: company policy, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, salary, status, job security, and personal life.[ ] alderfer's erg theory[edit] main article: erg theory alderfer, building on maslow's hierarchy of needs, posited that needs identified by maslow exist in three groups of core needs — existence, relatedness, and growth, hence the label: erg theory. the existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. they include the items that maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. the second group of needs is those of relatedness- the desire we have for maintaining important personal relationships. these social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with maslow's social need and the external component of maslow's esteem classification. finally, alderfer isolates growth needs as an intrinsic desire for personal development. all these needs should be fulfilled to greater wholeness as a human being.[ ] self-determination theory[edit] self-determination theory is an approach to human motivation and personality that uses traditional empirical methods while employing an organismic metatheory that highlights the importance of humans evolved inner resources for personality development and behavioral self-regulation (ryan, kuhn, & deci, ). it takes a look into people’s psychological needs and growth tendencies that reveal their personality and level of self-determination. competence, relatedness, autonomy are important conditions that play a huge part in one’s motivation and engagement in activities, because it determines the well-being of a person. incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation[edit] motivation can be divided into two different theories known as intrinsic (internal or inherent) motivation and extrinsic (external) motivation. intrinsic motivation[edit] see also: ikigai for other uses, see intrinsic motivation (artificial intelligence). intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early s. intrinsic motivation is a behavior that is driven by satisfying internal rewards. for example, an athlete may enjoy playing football for the experience, rather than for an award.[ ] it is an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for consideration. it is also the value and usefulness one feels in regard to specific activities. this idea is that people tend to internalize activities when they find them valuable for themselves (deci et al, ). deci ( ) explained that some activities provide their own inherent reward, meaning certain activities are not dependent on external rewards.[ ] the phenomenon of intrinsic motivation was first acknowledged within experimental studies of animal behaviour. in these studies, it was evident that the organisms would engage in playful and curiosity-driven behaviours in the absence of reward. intrinsic motivation is a natural motivational tendency and is a critical element in cognitive, social, and physical development.[ ] the two necessary elements for intrinsic motivation are self-determination and an increase in perceived competence.[ ] in short, the cause of the behaviour must be internal, known as internal locus of causality, and the individual who engages in the behaviour must perceive that the task increases their competence.[ ] according to various research reported by deci's published findings in , and , tangible rewards could actually undermine the intrinsic motivation of college students. however, these studies didn't just affect college students, kruglanski, friedman, and zeevi ( ) repeated this study and found that symbolic and material rewards can undermine not just high school students, but preschool students as well. students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities.[ ] students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they... 	attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known as autonomy or locus of control 	believe they have the skills to be effective agents in reaching their desired goals, also known as self-efficacy beliefs 	are interested in mastering a topic, not just in achieving good grades 	don't act from pressure, but from interest an example of intrinsic motivation is when an employee becomes an it professional because he or she wants to learn about how computer users interact with computer networks. the employee has the intrinsic motivation to gain more knowledge, and will continue to want to learn even in the face of failure.[ ] art for art's sake is an example of intrinsic motivation in the domain of art. traditionally, researchers thought of motivations to use computer systems to be primarily driven by extrinsic purposes; however, many modern systems have their use driven primarily by intrinsic motivations.[ ] examples of such systems used primarily to fulfill users' intrinsic motivations, include on-line gaming, virtual worlds, online shopping,[ ] learning/education, online dating, digital music repositories, social networking, online pornography, gamified systems, and general gamification. even traditional management information systems (e.g., erp, crm) are being 'gamified' such that both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations must increasingly be considered. deci's findings didn't come without controversy. articles stretching over the span of years from the perspective of behavioral theory argue there isn't enough evidence to explain intrinsic motivation and this theory would inhibit "scientific progress." as stated above, we now can see technology such as various forms of computer systems are highly intrinsic.[ ] not only can intrinsic motivation be used in a personal setting, but it can also be implemented and utilized in a social environment. instead of attaining mature desires, such as those presented above via the internet which can be attained on one's own, intrinsic motivation can be used to assist extrinsic motivation to attain a goal. for example, eli, a -year-old with autism, wants to achieve the goal of playing with a toy train.[ ] to get the toy, he must first communicate to his therapist that he wants it. his desire to play is strong enough to be considered intrinsic motivation because it is a natural feeling, and his desire to communicate with his therapist to get the train can be considered extrinsic motivation because the outside object is a reward (see incentive theory). communicating with the therapist is the first, the slightly more challenging goal that stands in the way of achieving his larger goal of playing with the train. achieving these goals in attainable pieces is also known as the goal-setting theory. the three elements of goal-setting (std) are specific, time-bound, and difficult. specifically, goals should be set in the th percentile of difficulty.[ ] intrinsic motivation comes from one's desire to achieve or attain a goal.[ ] pursuing challenges and goals come easier and more enjoyable when one is intrinsically motivated to complete a certain objective because the individual is more interested in learning, rather than achieving the goal.[ ] edward deci and richard ryan's theory of intrinsic motivation is essentially examining the conditions that “elicit and sustain” this phenomenon.[ ] deci and ryan coin the term “cognitive evaluation theory which concentrates on the needs of competence and autonomy. the cet essentially states that social-contextual events like feedback and reinforcement can cause feelings of competence and therefore increase intrinsic motivation. however, feelings of competence will not increase intrinsic motivation if there is no sense of autonomy. in situations where choices, feelings, and opportunities are present, intrinsic motivation is increased because people feel a greater sense of autonomy.[ ] offering people choices, responding to their feelings, and opportunities for self-direction have been reported to enhance intrinsic motivation via increased autonomy (deci & ryan, ).[ ][ ] an advantage (relative to extrinsic motivation) is that intrinsic motivators can be long-lasting, self-sustaining, and satisfying.[ ] for this reason, efforts in education sometimes attempt to modify intrinsic motivation with the goal of promoting future student learning performance, creativity, and learning via long-term modifications in interests.[ ] intrinsic motivators are suggested[by whom?] to involve increased feelings of reward and thus may support subjective well-being.[citation needed] by contrast, intrinsic motivation has been found to be hard to modify, and attempts to recruit existing intrinsic motivators require a non-trivially difficult individualized approach, identifying and making relevant the different motivators of needed to motivate different students,[ ] possibly requiring additional skills and intrinsic motivation from the instructor.[ ] extrinsic motivation[edit] see also: goal orientation extrinsic motivation comes from influences outside of the individual. in extrinsic motivation, the harder question to answer is where do people get the motivation to carry out and continue to push with persistence. usually, extrinsic motivation is used to attain outcomes that a person wouldn't get from intrinsic motivation.[ ] common extrinsic motivations are rewards (for example money or grades) for showing the desired behaviour, and the threat of punishment following misbehaviour. competition is an extrinsic motivator because it encourages the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. a cheering crowd and the desire to win a trophy are also extrinsic incentives.[ ] for example, if an individual plays the sport tennis to receive an award, that would be extrinsic motivation. vs. the individual play because he or she enjoys the game, that would be intrinsic motivation.[ ] the most simple distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation is the type of reasons or goals that lead to an action. while intrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable and satisfying, extrinsic motivation, refers to doing something because it leads to a separable outcome.[ ] extrinsic motivation thus contrasts with intrinsic motivation, which is doing an activity simply for the enjoyment of the activity itself, instead of for its instrumental value.[ ] social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to overjustification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. in one study demonstrating this effect, children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent observations than children who were assigned to an unexpected reward condition.[ ] this shows how if an individual expects an award they don't care about the outcome. vs. if an individual doesn't expect a reward they will care more about the task.[ ] however, another study showed that third graders who were rewarded with a book showed more reading behaviour in the future, implying that some rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation.[ ] while the provision of extrinsic rewards might reduce the desirability of an activity, the use of extrinsic constraints, such as the threat of punishment, against performing an activity has actually been found to increase one's intrinsic interest in that activity. in one study, when children were given mild threats against playing with an attractive toy, it was found that the threat actually served to increase the child's interest in the toy, which was previously undesirable to the child in the absence of threat.[ ] advantages of extrinsic motivators are that they easily promote motivation to work and persist to goal completion. rewards are tangible and beneficial.[ ] a disadvantage for extrinsic motivators relative to internal is that work does not persist long once external rewards are removed. as the task is completed for the reward quality of work may need to be monitored,[ ] and it has been suggested that extrinsic motivators may diminish in value over time.[ ] behaviorist theories[edit] while many theories on motivation have a mentalistic perspective, behaviorists focus only on observable behaviour and theories founded on experimental evidence. in the view of behaviorism, motivation is understood as a question about what factors cause, prevent, or withhold various behaviours, while the question of, for instance, conscious motives would be ignored. where others would speculate about such things as values, drives, or needs, that may not be observed directly, behaviorists are interested in the observable variables that affect the type, intensity, frequency, and duration of observable behaviour. through the basic research of such scientists as pavlov, watson and skinner, several basic mechanisms that govern behaviour have been identified. the most important of these are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. classical and operant conditioning[edit] main article: motivational salience in classical (or respondent) conditioning, behaviour is understood as responses triggered by certain environmental or physical stimuli. they can be unconditioned, such as in-born reflexes, or learned through the pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a different stimulus, which then becomes a conditioned stimulus. in relation to motivation, classical conditioning might be seen as one explanation as to why an individual performs certain responses and behaviors in certain situations.[ ][ ] for instance, a dentist might wonder why a patient does not seem motivated to show up for an appointment, with the explanation being that the patient has associated the dentist (conditioned stimulus) with the pain (unconditioned stimulus) that elicits a fear response (conditioned response), leading to the patient being reluctant to visit the dentist. in operant conditioning, the type and frequency of behaviour are determined mainly by its consequences. if a certain behaviour, in the presence of a certain stimulus, is followed by a desirable consequence (a reinforcer), the emitted behaviour will increase in frequency in the future, in the presence of the stimulus that preceded the behaviour (or a similar one). conversely, if the behaviour is followed by something undesirable (a punisher), the behaviour is less likely to occur in the presence of the stimulus. in a similar manner, the removal of a stimulus directly following the behaviour might either increase or decrease the frequency of that behaviour in the future (negative reinforcement or punishment).[ ][ ] for instance, a student that gained praise and a good grade after turning in a paper, might seem more motivated in writing papers in the future (positive reinforcement); if the same student put in a lot of work on a task without getting any praise for it, he or she might seem less motivated to do school work in the future (negative punishment). if a student starts to cause trouble in the class gets punished with something he or she dislikes, such as detention (positive punishment), that behaviour would decrease in the future. the student might seem more motivated to behave in class, presumably in order to avoid further detention (negative reinforcement). the strength of reinforcement or punishment is dependent on schedule and timing. a reinforcer or punisher affects the future frequency of a behaviour most strongly if it occurs within seconds of the behaviour. a behaviour that is reinforced intermittently, at unpredictable intervals, will be more robust and persistent, compared to one that is reinforced every time the behaviour is performed.[ ][ ] for example, if the misbehaving student in the above example was punished a week after the troublesome behaviour, that might not affect future behaviour. in addition to these basic principles, environmental stimuli also affect behavior. behaviour is punished or reinforced in the context of whatever stimuli were present just before the behaviour was performed, which means that a particular behaviour might not be affected in every environmental context, or situation, after it is punished or reinforced in one specific context.[ ][ ] a lack of praise for school-related behaviour might, for instance, not decrease after-school sports-related behaviour that is usually reinforced by praise. the various mechanisms of operant conditioning may be used to understand the motivation for various behaviours by examining what happens just after the behaviour (the consequence), in what context the behaviour is performed or not performed (the antecedent), and under what circumstances (motivating operators).[ ][ ] incentive motivation[edit] main section: motivational salience § incentive salience incentive theory is a specific theory of motivation, derived partly from behaviorist principles of reinforcement, which concerns an incentive or motive to do something. the most common incentive would be a compensation. compensation can be tangible or intangible, it helps in motivating the employees in their corporate life, students in academics, and inspire them to do more and more to achieve profitability in every field. studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect is greater, and decreases as delay lengthens.[citation needed] repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become a habit[citation needed] "reinforcers and reinforcement principles of behaviour differ from the hypothetical construct of reward." a reinforcer is anything that follows an action, with the intention that the action will now occur more frequently. from this perspective, the concept of distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic forces is irrelevant. incentive theory in psychology treats motivation and behaviour of the individual as they are influenced by beliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to be profitable. incentive theory is promoted by behavioral psychologists, such as b.f. skinner. incentive theory is especially supported by skinner in his philosophy of radical behaviorism, meaning that a person's actions always have social ramifications: and if actions are positively received people are more likely to act in this manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act in this manner. incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivation theories, such as drive theory, in the direction of the motivation. in incentive theory, stimuli "attract" a person towards them, and push them towards the stimulus. in terms of behaviorism, incentive theory involves positive reinforcement: the reinforcing stimulus has been conditioned to make the person happier. as opposed to in drive theory, which involves negative reinforcement: a stimulus has been associated with the removal of the punishment—the lack of homeostasis in the body. for example, a person has come to know that if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling of hunger, or if they drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst.[ ] motivating operations[edit] motivating operations, mos, relate to the field of motivation in that they help improve understanding aspects of behaviour that are not covered by operant conditioning. in operant conditioning, the function of the reinforcer is to influence future behavior. the presence of a stimulus believed to function as a reinforcer does not according to this terminology explain the current behaviour of an organism – only previous instances of reinforcement of that behavior (in the same or similar situations) do. through the behavior-altering effect of mos, it is possible to affect the current behaviour of an individual, giving another piece of the puzzle of motivation. motivating operations are factors that affect learned behaviour in a certain context. mos have two effects: a value-altering effect, which increases or decreases the efficiency of a reinforcer, and a behavior-altering effect, which modifies learned behaviour that has previously been punished or reinforced by a particular stimulus.[ ] when a motivating operation causes an increase in the effectiveness of a reinforcer or amplifies a learned behaviour in some way (such as increasing frequency, intensity, duration, or speed of the behaviour), it functions as an establishing operation, eo. a common example of this would be food deprivation, which functions as an eo in relation to food: the food-deprived organism will perform behaviours previously related to the acquisition of food more intensely, frequently, longer, or faster in the presence of food, and those behaviours would be especially strongly reinforced.[ ] for instance, a fast-food worker earning minimal wage, forced to work more than one job to make ends meet, would be highly motivated by a pay raise, because of the current deprivation of money (a conditioned establishing operation). the worker would work hard to try to achieve the raise, and getting the raise would function as an especially strong reinforcer of work behaviour. conversely, a motivating operation that causes a decrease in the effectiveness of a reinforcer, or diminishes a learned behaviour related to the reinforcer, functions as an abolishing operation, ao. again using the example of food, satiation of food prior to the presentation of a food stimulus would produce a decrease on food-related behaviours, and diminish or completely abolish the reinforcing effect of acquiring and ingesting the food.[ ] consider the board of a large investment bank, concerned with a too small profit margin, deciding to give the ceo a new incentive package in order to motivate him to increase firm profits. if the ceo already has a lot of money, the incentive package might not be a very good way to motivate him, because he would be satiated on the money. getting even more money wouldn't be a strong reinforcer for profit-increasing behaviour, and wouldn't elicit increased intensity, frequency, or duration of profit-increasing behaviour. motivation and psychotherapy[edit] see also: motivational interviewing motivation lies at the core of many behaviorist approaches to psychological treatment. a person with autism-spectrum the disorder is seen as lacking motivation to perform socially relevant behaviours – social stimuli are not as reinforcing for people with autism compared to other people. depression is understood as a lack of reinforcement (especially positive reinforcement) leading to the extinction of behavior in the depressed individual. a patient with specific phobia is not motivated to seek out the phobic stimulus because it acts as a punisher, and is over-motivated to avoid it (negative reinforcement). in accordance, therapies have been designed to address these problems, such as eibi and cbt for major depression and specific phobia. drives[edit] main article: drive theory a drive or desire can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive.[ ] these drives are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behavior. basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others. another basic drive is the sexual drive which like food motivates us because it is essential to our survival.[ ] the desire for sex is wired deep into the brain of all human beings as glands secrete hormones that travel through the blood to the brain and stimulates the onset of sexual desire.[ ] the hormone involved in the initial onset of sexual desire is called dehydroepiandrosterone (dhea).[ ] the hormonal basis of both men and women's sex drives is testosterone.[ ][need quotation to verify] men naturally have more testosterone than women do and so are more likely than women to think about sex.[ ][need quotation to verify] cognitive dissonance theory[edit] main article: cognitive dissonance as suggested by leon festinger, cognitive dissonance occurs when an individual experiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an inconsistency between two cognitions: their views on the world around them, and their own personal feelings and actions.[citation needed] for example, a consumer may seek to reassure themselves regarding a purchase, feeling that another decision may have been preferable. their feeling that another purchase would have been preferable is inconsistent with their action of purchasing the item. the difference between their feelings and beliefs causes dissonance, so they seek to reassure themselves. while not a theory of motivation, per se, the theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance. the cognitive miser perspective makes people want to justify things in a simple way in order to reduce the effort they put into cognition. they do this by changing their attitudes, beliefs, or actions, rather than facing the inconsistencies, because dissonance is a mental strain. dissonance is also reduced by justifying, blaming, and denying. it is one of the most influential and extensively studied theories in social psychology. unconscious motivation[edit] in his book a general introduction to psychoanalysis, sigmund freud explained his theory on the conscious-unconscious distinction.[ ] to explain this relationship, he used a two-room metaphor. the smaller of the two rooms is filled with a person's preconscious, which is the thoughts, emotions, and memories that are available to a person's consciousness. this room also houses a person's consciousness, which is the part of the preconscious that is the focus at that given time. connected to the small room is a much larger room that houses a person's unconscious. this part of the mind is unavailable to a person's consciousness and consists of impulses and repressed thoughts. the door between these two rooms acts as the person's mental censor. its job is to keep anxiety-inducing thoughts and socially unacceptable behaviors or desires out of the preconscious. freud describes the event of a thought or impulse being denied at the door as repression, one of the many defense mechanisms. this process is supposed to protect the individual from any embarrassment that could come from acting on these impulses or thoughts that exist in the unconscious. in terms of motivation, freud argues that unconscious instinctual impulses can still have great influence on behavior even though the person is not aware of the source.[ ] when these instincts serve as a motive, the person is only aware of the goal of the motive, and not its actual source. he divides these instincts into sexual instincts, death instincts, and ego or self-preservation instincts. sexual instincts are those that motivate humans to stay alive and ensure the continuation of mankind. on the other hand, freud also maintains that humans have an inherent drive for self-destruction, or the death instinct. similar to the devil and angel that everyone has on their should, the sexual instinct and death instinct are constantly battling each other to both be satisfied. the death instinct can be closely related to freud's other concept, the id, which is our need to experience pleasure immediately, regardless of the consequences. the last type of instinct that contributes to motivation is the ego or self-preservation instinct. this instinct is geared towards assuring that a person feels validated in whatever behavior or thought they have. the mental censor, or door between the unconscious and preconscious, helps satisfy this instinct. for example, one may be sexually attracted to a person, due to their sexual instinct, but the self-preservation instinct prevents them to act on this urge until that person finds that it is socially acceptable to do so. quite similarly to his psychic theory that deals with the id, ego, and superego, freud's theory of instincts highlights the interdependence of these three instincts. all three instincts serve as checks and balances system to control what instincts are acted on and what behaviors are used to satisfy as many of them at once. priming[edit] see also: priming (psychology) priming is a phenomenon, often used as an experimental technique, whereby a specific stimulus sensitizes the subject to later presentation of a similar stimulus.[ ] “priming refers to an increased sensitivity to certain stimuli, resulting from prior exposure to related visual or audio messages. when an individual is exposed to the word “cancer,” for example, and then offered the choice to smoke a cigarette, we expect that there is a greater probability that they will choose not to smoke as a result of the earlier exposure.”[ ] priming can affect motivation, in the way that we can be motived to do things by an outside source. priming can be linked with the mere exposure theory. people tend to like things that they have been exposed to before. mere exposer theory is used by advertising companies to get people to buy their products. an example of this is seeing a picture of the product on a sign and then buying that product later. if an individual is in a room with two strangers they are more likely to gravitate towards the person that they occasionally pass on the street, than the person that they have never seen before. an example of the use of mere exposure theory can be seen in product placements in movies and tv shows. we see a product that our is in our favorite movie, and we are more inclined to buy that product when we see it again.[ ] priming can fit into these categories; semantic priming, visual priming, response priming, perceptual and conceptual priming, positive and negative priming, associative and context priming, and olfactory priming. visual and semantic priming is the most used in motivation. most priming is linked with emotion, the stronger the emotion, the stronger the connection between memory and the stimuli.[ ] priming also has an effect on drug users. in this case, it can be defined as, the reinstatement or increase in drug craving by a small dose of the drug or by stimuli associated with the drug. if a former drug user is in a place where they formerly did drugs, then they are tempted to do that same thing again even if they have been clean for years.[ ] conscious motivation[edit] freud relied heavily upon the theories of unconscious motivation as explained above, but allport (a researcher in ) looked heavily into the powers of conscious motivation and the effect it can have upon goals set for an individual. this is not to say that unconscious motivation should be ignored with this theory, but instead, it focuses on the thought that if we are aware of our surroundings and our goals, we can then actively and consciously take steps towards them.[ ] he also believed that there are three hierarchical tiers of personality traits that affect this motivation:[ ] 	cardinal traits: rare, but strongly determines a set behavior and can't be changed 	central traits: present around certain people, but can be hidden 	secondary traits: present in all people, but strongly reliant on context- can be altered as needed and would be the focus of a conscious motivation effort. practical applications[edit] the control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. there are many different approaches to motivation training, but many of these are considered pseudoscientific by critics.[which?] to understand how to control motivation it is first necessary to understand why many people lack motivation[original research?]. like any theory, motivational theory makes predictions about what will work in practice. for instance, douglas mcgregor's theory y makes the assumption that the average person not only accepts, but also seeks out responsibility, enjoys doing work and, therefore, is more satisfied when they have a wider range of work to do.[ ] the practical implication is that, as a firm gives individuals greater responsibilities, they will feel a greater sense of satisfaction and, subsequently, more commitment to the organization. likewise allocating more work is predicted to increase engagement. additionally, malone argues that the delegation of responsibility encourages motivation because employees have creative control over their work and increase productivity as many people can work collaboratively to solve a problem rather than just one manager tackling it alone.[ ] others have argued that participation in decision making boosts morale and commitment to the organization, subsequently increasing productivity.[ ][ ] likewise, if teams and membership increase motivation (as reported in the classic hawthorn western electric company studies)[ ] incorporating teams make provide incentives to work. in general, motivation theory is often applied to employee motivation.[ ] applications in business[edit] main articles: work motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational behavior § motivation within maslow's hierarchy of needs (first proposed in ), at lower levels (such as physiological needs) money functions as a motivator; however, it tends to have a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period (in accordance with herzberg's two-factor model of motivation of ). at higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators than money, as both abraham maslow's theory of motivation and douglas mcgregor's theory x and theory y (originating in the s and pertaining to the theory of leadership) suggest. according to maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs.[ ] the lower-level needs (such as physiological and safety needs) must be satisfied before addressing higher-level needs. one can relate to maslow's hierarchy of needs theory with employee motivation. for example, if managers attempt to motivate their employees by satisfying their needs; according to maslow, they should try to satisfy the lower-level needs before trying to satisfy the upper-level needs - otherwise the employees will not become motivated. managers should also remember that not everyone will be satisfied with the same needs. a good manager will try to figure out which levels of needs are relevant to a given individual or employee. maslow places money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and postulates other needs as better motivators to staff. mcgregor places money in his theory x category and regards it as a poor motivator. praise and recognition (placed in the theory y category) are considered stronger motivators than money. 	motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job. 	motivated employees are more quality-oriented. 	motivated workers are more productive.[ ] the average workplace lies about midway between the extremes of high threat and high opportunity. motivation by threat is a dead-end strategy, and naturally, staff are more attracted to the opportunity side of the motivation curve than the threat side. lawrence steinmetz ( ) sees motivation as a powerful tool in the work environment that can lead to employees working at their most efficient levels of production.[ ] nonetheless, steinmetz also discusses three common character-types of subordinates: ascendant, indifferent, and ambivalent—who all react and interact uniquely, and must be treated, managed, and motivated accordingly. an effective leader must understand how to manage all characters, and more importantly, the manager must utilize avenues that allow room for employees to work, grow, and find answers independently.[ ][need quotation to verify] a classic study at vauxhall motors' uk manufacturing plant challenged the assumptions of maslow and herzberg were by.[ ] goldthorpe et al. ( ) introduced the concept of orientation to work and distinguished three main orientations:[ ] 	instrumental (with work seen as a means to an end) 	bureaucratic (where work serves as a source of status, security, and immediate reward) 	solidaristic (which prioritizes group loyalty) other theories expanded and extended those of maslow and herzberg. these included the s force-field analysis of kurt lewin, edwin a. locke's goal-setting theory (mid- s onwards) and victor vroom's expectancy theory of . these tend to stress cultural differences and the fact that different factors tend to motivate individuals at different times.[ ][need quotation to verify] according to the system of scientific management developed by frederick winslow taylor ( - ), pay alone determines a worker's motivation, and therefore management need not consider psychological or social aspects of work. in essence, scientific management bases human motivation wholly on extrinsic rewards and discards the idea of intrinsic rewards. in contrast, david mcclelland ( - ) believed that workers could not be motivated by the mere need for money—in fact, extrinsic motivation (e.g., money) could extinguish intrinsic motivation such as achievement motivation, though money could be used as an indicator of success for various motives, e.g., keeping score. in keeping with this view, his consulting firm, mcber & company ( - ), had as its first motto "to make everyone productive, happy, and free". for mcclelland, satisfaction lay in aligning peoples' lives with their fundamental motivations. elton mayo ( - ) discovered the importance of the social contacts a worker has at the workplace and found that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced motivation. mayo believed that workers could be motivated by acknowledging their social needs and making them feel important. as a result, employees were given the freedom to make decisions on-the-job and greater attention was paid[by whom?] to informal work-groups. mayo named his model the hawthorne effect.[ ] his model has been judged[by whom?] as placing undue reliance on social contacts within work situations for motivating employees.[ ][need quotation to verify] in william ouchi introduced theory z, a hybrid management approach consisting of both japanese and american philosophies and cultures.[ ][need quotation to verify] its japanese segment is much like the clan culture where organizations focus on a standardized structure with a heavy emphasis on socialization of its members. all underlying goals are consistent across the organization. its american segment retains formality and authority amongst members and the organization. ultimately, theory z promotes common structure and commitment to the organization, as well as constant improvement of work efficacy. in essentials of organizational behavior ( ), robbins and judge examine recognition programs as motivators, and identify five principles that contribute to the success of an employee-incentive program:[ ] 	recognition of employees' individual differences, and clear identification of behavior deemed worthy of recognition 	allowing employees to participate 	linking rewards to performance 	rewarding of nominators 	visibility of the recognition process modern organizations which adopt non-monetary employee motivation methods rather than tying it with tangible rewards. when the reward is aimed at fulfilling employee contribution, participation, and individual satisfaction, it boosts their morale.[ ] 	provide a positive work environment[ ] 	encourage team contribution and rewards[ ] 	feedback[ ] 	give challenging roles[ ] job characteristics model[edit] main article: job characteristics model the job characteristics model (jcm), as designed by hackman and oldham attempts to use job design to improve employee motivation. they suggest that any job can be described in terms of five key job characteristics:[ ][ ] 	skill variety – the degree to which the job requires the use of different skills and talents 	task identity – the degree to which the job has contributed to a clearly identifiable larger project 	task significance – the degree to which the job affects the lives or work of other people 	autonomy – the degree to which the worker has independence, freedom and discretion in carrying out the job 	task feedback – the degree to which the worker is provided with clear, specific, detailed, actionable information about the effectiveness of his or her job performance the jcm links the core job dimensions listed above to critical psychological states which results in desired personal and work outcomes. this forms the basis of this 'employee growth-need strength." the core dimensions listed above can be combined into a single predictive index, called the motivating potential score (mps). the mps can be calculated, using the core dimensions discussed above, as follows: 		 mps = {\displaystyle {\text{mps}}=} autonomy × feedback × skill variety+task identity+task significance  {\displaystyle {\text{autonomy}}\,\times \,{\text{feedback}}\,\times {\frac {\text{skill variety+task identity+task significance }}{\text{ }}}} jobs high in motivating potential must be high on both autonomy and feedback, and also must be high on at least one of the three factors that lead to experienced meaningfulness.[ ] if a job has a high mps, the job characteristics model predicts motivation, performance, and job satisfaction will be positively affected and the likelihood of negative outcomes, such as absenteeism and turnover, will be reduced.[ ] employee recognition programs[edit] employee recognition is not only about gifts and points. it's about changing the corporate culture in order to meet goals and initiatives and most importantly to connect employees to the company's core values and beliefs. strategic employee recognition is seen as the most important program not only to improve employee retention and motivation but also to positively influence the financial situation.[ ] the difference between the traditional approach (gifts and points) and strategic recognition is the ability to serve as a serious business influencer that can advance a company's strategic objectives in a measurable way. "the vast majority of companies want to be innovative, coming up with new products, business models, and better ways of doing things. however, innovation is not so easy to achieve. a ceo cannot just order it, and so it will be. you have to carefully manage an organization so that, over time, innovations will emerge."[ ] applications in education[edit] motivation is of particular interest to educational psychologists because of the crucial role it plays in student learning. however, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in the specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation studied by psychologists in other fields. motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and how they behave towards the subject matter. it can:[ ] 	direct behavior toward particular goals 	lead to increased effort and energy 	increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities 	enhance cognitive processing 	determine what consequences are reinforcing 	lead to improved performance. because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need situated motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates. if teachers decided to extrinsically reward productive student behaviors, they may find it difficult to extricate themselves from that path. consequently, student dependency on extrinsic rewards represents one of the greatest detractors from their use in the classroom.[ ] the majority of new student orientation leaders at colleges and universities recognize that the distinctive needs of students should be considered in regard to orientation information provided at the beginning of the higher education experience. research done by whyte in raised the awareness of counselors and educators in this regard. in , the national orientation directors association reprinted cassandra b. whyte's research report allowing readers to ascertain improvements made in addressing specific needs of students over a quarter of a century later to help with academic success.[ ] generally, motivation is conceptualized as either intrinsic or extrinsic. classically, these categories are regarded as distinct.[ ] today, these concepts are less likely to be used as distinct categories, but instead as two ideal types that define a continuum:[ ] 	intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do something because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or they feel that what they are learning is significant. it has been shown that intrinsic motivation for education drops from grades - though the exact cause cannot be ascertained.[ ] also, in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the intrinsic motivation of these students.[ ] 	extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like money or good grades). whyte researched and reported about the importance of locus of control and academic achievement. students tending toward a more internal locus of control are more academically successful, thus encouraging curriculum and activity development with consideration of motivation theories.[ ][ ] academic motivation orientation may also be tied with one's ability to detect and process errors. fisher, nanayakkara, and marshall conducted neuroscience research on children's motivation orientation, neurological indicators of error monitoring (the process of detecting an error), and academic achievement. their research suggests that students with high intrinsic motivation attribute performance to personal control and that their error-monitoring system is more strongly engaged by performance errors. they also found that motivation orientation and academic achievement were related to the strength in which their error-monitoring system was engaged.[ ] motivation has been found to be an important element in the concept of andragogy (what motivates the adult learner), and in treating autism spectrum disorders, as in pivotal response treatment. motivation has also been found critical in adolescents compliance to health suggestions, since "commitment requires belief in potentially negative and serious consequences of not acting."[ ] doyle and moeyn have noted that traditional methods tended to use anxiety as negative motivation (e.g. use of bad grades by teachers) as a method of getting students to work. however, they have found that progressive approaches with focus on positive motivation over punishment has produced greater effectiveness with learning, since anxiety interferes with performance of complex tasks.[ ] symer et al. attempted to better define those in medical training programs who may have a ”surgical personality.” they evaluated a group of eight hundred and one first-year surgical interns to compare motivational traits amongst those who did and did not complete surgical training. there was no difference noted between the . % who completed training when comparing their responses to the . % who did not complete training using the validated behavior inhibitory system/behavior approach system. they concluded based on this that resident physician motivation is not associated with completion of a surgical training program.[ ] it may appear that the reason some students are more engaged and perform better in class activities relative to other students is because some are more motivated than others. however, current research suggests that motivation is "dynamic, context sensitive, and changeable."[ ] thus, students have the flexibility to alter their motivation for engaging in an activity or learning, even if they were not intrinsically motivated in the first place.[ ] while having this type of flexibility is important, research reveals that a teacher's teaching style and the school environment may play a factor in student motivation.[ ][ ][ ] according to sansone and morgan, when students are already motivated to engage in an activity for their own personal pleasure and then a teacher provides the student with feedback, the type of feedback given can change the way that student views the activity and can even undermine their intrinsic motivation.[ ][ ] maclellan also looked at the relationship between tutors and students and in particular, and the type of feedback the tutor would give to the student. maclellan's results showed that praise or criticism directed towards the student-generated a feeling of “fixed intelligence” while praise and criticism directed towards the effort and strategy used by the student-generated a feeling of “malleable intelligence.”[ ] in other words, feedback concerning effort and strategy leaves students knowing that there is room for growth. this is important because when students believe their intelligence is “fixed,” their mindset can prevent skill development because students will believe that they only have a “certain amount” of understanding on a particular subject matter and might not even try. therefore, it's crucial that a teacher is aware of how the feedback they give to their students can both positively and negatively impact the student's engagement and motivation.[ ][ ] in a correlational study, katz and shahar used a series of questionnaires and likert-style scales and gave them to teachers to see what makes a motivating teacher. their results indicate that teachers who are intrinsically motivated to teach and believe that students should be taught in an autonomous style are the types of teachers that promote intrinsic motivation in the classroom.[ ] deci, sheinman, and nezlek also found that when teachers adapted to an autonomous teaching style, students were positively affected and became more intrinsically motivated to achieve in the classroom. however, while the students were quick to adapt to the new teaching style the impact was short-lived.[ ] thus, teachers are limited in the way they teach because they'll feel a pressure to act, teach, and provide feedback in a certain way from the school district, administration, and guardians.[ ][ ] furthermore, even if students do have a teacher that promotes an autonomous teaching style, their overall school environment is also a factor because it can be extrinsically motivating. examples of this would be posters around school promoting pizza parties for the highest grade point average or longer recess times for the classroom that brings more canned food donations. in conclusion, it is not a matter whether a student is motivated, unmotivated, or more motivated than other students- it's a matter of understanding what motivates students before providing a certain type of feedback. furthermore, it is also important to note that despite the classroom environment and the teacher's teaching style, the overall school environment plays a role in students’ intrinsic motivation. indigenous education and learning[edit] for many indigenous students (such as native american children), motivation may be derived from social organization; an important factor educators should account for in addition to variations in sociolinguistics and cognition.[ ] while poor academic performance among native american students is often attributed to low levels of motivation, top-down classroom organization is often found to be ineffective for children of many cultures who depend on a sense of community, purpose, and competence in order to engage.[ ] horizontally structured, community-based learning strategies often provide a more structurally supportive environment for motivating indigenous children, who tend to be driven by "social/affective emphasis, harmony, holistic perspectives, expressive creativity, and nonverbal communication."[ ] this drive is also traceable to a cultural tradition of community-wide expectations of participation in the activities and goals of the greater group, rather than individualized aspirations of success or triumph.[ ] also, in some indigenous communities, young children can often portray a sense of community-based motivation through their parent-like interactions with siblings.[ ] furthermore, it is commonplace for children to assist and demonstrate for their younger counterparts without being prompted by authority figures. observation techniques and integration methods are demonstrated in such examples as weaving in chiapas, mexico, where it is commonplace for children to learn from "a more skilled other" within the community.[ ] the child's real responsibility within the mayan community can be seen in, for example, weaving apprenticeships; often, when the "more skilled other" is tasked with multiple obligations, an older child will step in and guide the learner.[ ] sibling guidance is supported from early youth, where learning through play encourages horizontally structured environments through alternative educational models such as "intent community participation."[ ] research also suggests that formal westernized schooling can actually reshape the traditionally collaborative nature of social life in indigenous communities.[ ] this research is supported cross-culturally, with variations in motivation and learning often reported higher between indigenous groups and their national westernized counterparts than between indigenous groups across international continental divides.[ ] also, in some indigenous communities in the americas, motivation is a driving force for learning. children are incorporated and welcomed to participate in daily activities and thus feel motivated to participate due to them seeking a sense of belonging in their families and communities.[ ] children's participation is encouraged and their learning is supported by their community and family, furthering their motivation. children are also trusted to be active contributors. their active participation allows them to learn and gain skills that are valuable and useful in their communities.[ ] as children transition from early childhood to middle childhood, their motivation to participate changes. in both the indigenous communities of quechua people and rioja in peru, children often experience a transition in which they become more included in their family's and community's endeavors. this changes their position and role in their families to more responsible ones and leads to an increase in their eagerness to participate and belong. as children go through this transition, they often develop a sense of identity within their family and community.[ ] the transition from childhood to adolescence can be seen in the number of work children partake in as this changes over time. for example, yucatec mayan children's play time decreases from childhood to adolescence and as the child gets older, is replaced for time spent working. in childhood, the work is initiated by others whereas in adolescence it is self-initiated. the shift in initiation and the change in time spent working versus playing shows the children's motivation to participate in order to learn.[ ] this transition between childhood and adolescence increases motivation because children gain social responsibility within their families. in some mexican communities of indigenous-heritage, the contributions that children make within their community is essential to being social beings, establishes their developing roles, and also helps with developing their relationship with their family and community.[ ] as children gain more roles and responsibilities within their families, their eagerness to participate also increases. for example, young mayan children of san pedro, guatemala learn to work in the fields and family run businesses because they are motivated to contribute to their family. many san pedro women learned to weave by watching their mothers sew when they were children, sometimes earning their own wool through doing small tasks such as watching young children of busy mothers. eager to learn and contribute, these young girls helped other members of their community in order to help their mothers with their weaving businesses or through other tasks such as helping carry water while young boys helped with tasks such as carrying firewood alongside their fathers.[ ] children's motivation to learn is not solely influenced by their desire to belong but also their eagerness to see their community succeed. children from navajo communities were shown to have higher levels of social concern than anglo american children in their schools. by having high levels of social concern the indigenous children are showing concern for not only their learning but also their peers, which serves as an example of their instilled sense of responsibility for their community. they wish to succeed as a united group rather than just themselves.[ ] in order to be knowledgeable contributors, children must be aware of their surroundings and the community's goals. children's learning in indigenous-heritage communities is mainly based upon observing and helping out others in their community. through this type of participation within their community, they gain purpose and motivation for the activity that they are doing within their community and become active participants because they know they are doing it for their community.[ ] self-determination in education[edit] self-determination is the ability to make choices and exercise a high degree of control, such as what the student does and how they do it. self-determination can be supported by providing opportunities for students to be challenged, such as leadership opportunities, providing appropriate feedback, and fostering, establishing, and maintaining good relationships between teachers and students. these strategies can increase students' interest, competence, creativity, and desire to be challenged and ensure that students are intrinsically motivated to study. on the other hand, students who lack self-determination are more likely to feel their success is out of their control. such students lose motivation to study, which causes a state of "learned helplessness." students who feel helpless readily believe they will fail and therefore cease to try. over time, a vicious circle of low achievement develops. applications in game design[edit] motivational models are central to game design, because without motivation, a player will not be interested in progressing further within a game.[ ] several models for gameplay motivations have been proposed, including richard bartle's. jon radoff has proposed a four-quadrant model of gameplay motivation that includes cooperation, competition, immersion and achievement.[ ] the motivational structure of games is central to the gamification trend, which seeks to apply game-based motivation to business applications.[ ] in the end, game designers must know the needs and desires of their customers for their companies to flourish. there have been various studies on the connection between motivation and games. one particular study was on taiwanese adolescents and their drive of addiction to games. two studies by the same people were conducted. the first study revealed that addicted players showed higher intrinsic than extrinsic motivation and more intrinsic motivation than the non-addicted players.[ ] it can then be said that addicted players, according to the studies findings, are more internally motivated to play games. they enjoy the reward of playing. there are studies that also show that motivation gives these players more to look for in the future such as long-lasting experience that they may keep later on in life.[ ] applications in the military[edit] 		this section needs expansion. you can help by adding to it. (september ) military morale, its fostering and maintenance, play an important role in the military, particularly in combat situations. see also[edit] 	adaptive performance 	addiction 	amotivational syndrome 	employee engagement 	equity theory 	frustration 	happiness at work 	health action process approach 	hedonic motivation 	humanistic psychology 	i-change model 	learned industriousness 	motivation crowding theory 	motivational intensity 	positive education 	positive psychology in the workplace 	regulatory focus theory 	rubicon model (psychology) 	sexual motivation and hormones 	work engagement 	work motivation references[edit] 	^ a b c d e f g h i ryan, richard m.; deci, edward l. ( ). "intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: classic definitions and new directions". contemporary educational psychology. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /ceps. . . pmid  . 	^ a b c d e f g h ryan, richard m.; deci, edward l. ( ). 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( ). doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ a b sansone, carol; morgan, carolyn ( ). "intrinsic motivation and education: competence in context". motivation and emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /bf . s cid  . 	^ a b c katz, idit; shahar, bat-hen ( ). "what makes a motivating teacher? teacher's motivation and beliefs as predictors of their autonomy-supportive style". school psychology international. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ a b reeve, johnmarshall ( ). "why teachers adopt a controlling motivating style toward students and how they can become more autonomy supportive". educational psychologist. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ deci, edward l.; koestner, richard; ryan, richard m. ( ). "extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation in education: reconsidered once again". review of educational research. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ a b deci, edward l.; sheinman, louise; nezlek, john b. ( ). "characteristics of the rewardee and intrinsic motivation of the rewardee". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . 	^ instructional conversations in native american classrooms ( ). center for applied linguistics: online digests ( ). 	^ mcinerney, dennis m.; gayton swisher, karen ( ). "exploring navajo motivation in school settings". journal of american indian education. : . 	^ pewewardy, cornel ( ). "learning styles of american indian/alaska native students: a review of the literature and implications for practice". journal of american indian education. : . 	^ wilfred pelletier ( ). childhood in an indian village. institute for indian studies. neewin publishing, toronto etc. 	^ maynard, a. e. ( ). "cultures of teaching in childhood: formal schooling and maya sibling teaching at home". cognitive development. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /j.cogdev. . . . 	^ a b greenfield, p. m.; maynard, a. e.; childs, c. p. ( ). 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( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . 	^ ali, j.; mcinerney, d.; craven, r.; yeung, a.; king, r. ( ). "socially oriented motivational goals and academic achievement: similarities between native and anglo americans". the journal of educational research. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . s cid  . 	^ paradise, r.; rogoff, b. ( ). "side by side: learning by observing and pitching in". ethos. : – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. 	^ radoff, jon. april . game on: energize your business with social games. isbn  - - - - 	^ radoff, jon. "game player motivations." may . radoff.com archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ popkin, helen (june , ). "farmville invades the real world". nbc news. 	^ wan, c. s.; chiou, w. b. ( ). "the motivations of adolescents who are addicted to online games: a cognitive perspective". adolescence. ( ): – . pmid  . 	^ ryan, r. m.; rigby, c. s.; przybylski, a. ( ). "the motivational pull of video games: a self-determination theory approach". motivation and emotion. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . s cid  . further reading[edit] 	baumeister, r.f.; vohs, k.d. ( ), handbook of self-regulation: research, theory, and applications, new york: guilford press, p.  , isbn  - - - - 	carver, c.s.; scheier, m.f. ( ), on the self-regulation of behavior, new york: cambridge university press, p.  , isbn  - - - - 	cervone, d.; shadel, w.g.; smith, ronald e.; fiori, marina ( ), "self-regulation: reminders and suggestions from personality science", applied psychology: an international review, ( ): – , doi: . /j. - . . .x, archived from the original on - - 	cofer, charles n; appley, mortimer h ( ), motivation: theory and research, new york, london, sydney: john wiley & sons 	fishbein, m.; ajzen, i. ( ), belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: an introduction to theory and research, reading, ma: addison-wesley 	gollwitzer, p.m. ( ), "implementation intentions: strong effects of simple plans" (pdf), american psychologist, ( ): – , doi: . / - x. . . 	jones, ishmael ( ), the human factor: inside the cia's dysfunctional intelligence culture, new york: encounter books, isbn  - - - - 	murphy, jim ( ), inner excellence, mcgraw-hill, isbn  - - - - 	richard, ryan ( ). the oxford handbook of human motivation. oxford university press. isbn  . motivationat wikipedia's sister projects 	definitions from wiktionary 	media from wikimedia commons 	quotations from wikiquote 	texts from wikisource 	textbooks from wikibooks 	resources from wikiversity 	library resources about motivation 	 	resources in your library 		v 	t 	e psychology 	 	history 	philosophy 	portal 	psychologist 	basic psychology	 	abnormal 	affective science 	affective neuroscience 	behavioral genetics 	behavioral neuroscience 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terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 hope - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	hope 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		optimistic attitude of mind 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e this article is about the emotion. for other uses, see hope (disambiguation). hope is an optimistic state of mind that is based on an expectation of positive outcomes with respect to events and circumstances in one's life or the world at large.[ ] as a verb, its definitions include: "expect with confidence" and "to cherish a desire with anticipation."[ ] among its opposites are dejection, hopelessness, and despair.[ ] contents 	 in psychology 	 . hope theory 	 in healthcare 	 . major theories 	 . major empirical findings 	 . applications 	 . impediments 	 . benefits 	 in culture 	 in literature 	 in mythology 	 in religion 	 . christianity 	 . hinduism 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading in psychology[edit] hope, which lay at the bottom of the box, remained. allegorical painting by george frederic watts, professor of psychology barbara fredrickson argues that hope comes into its own when crisis looms, opening us to new creative possibilities.[ ] frederickson argues that with great need comes an unusually wide range of ideas, as well as such positive emotions as happiness and joy, courage, and empowerment, drawn from four different areas of one's self: from a cognitive, psychological, social, or physical perspective.[ ] hopeful people are "like the little engine that could, [because] they keep telling themselves "i think i can, i think i can".[ ] such positive thinking bears fruit when based on a realistic sense of optimism, not on a naive "false hope".[ ] the psychologist charles r. snyder linked hope to the existence of a goal, combined with a determined plan for reaching that goal:[ ] alfred adler had similarly argued for the centrality of goal-seeking in human psychology,[ ] as too had philosophical anthropologists like ernst bloch.[ ] snyder also stressed the link between hope and mental willpower, as well as the need for realistic perception of goals,[ ] arguing that the difference between hope and optimism was that the former included practical pathways to an improved future.[ ] d. w. winnicott saw a child's antisocial behavior as expressing an unconscious hope[further explanation needed] for management by the wider society, when containment within the immediate family had failed.[ ] object relations theory similarly sees the analytic transference as motivated in part by an unconscious hope that past conflicts and traumas can be dealt with anew.[ ] hope theory[edit] as a specialist in positive psychology, snyder studied how hope and forgiveness can impact several aspects of life such as health, work, education, and personal meaning. he postulated that there are three main things that make up hopeful thinking:[ ] 	goals – approaching life in a goal-oriented way. 	pathways – finding different ways to achieve your goals. 	agency – believing that you can instigate change and achieve these goals. a rose expressing hope, at auschwitz concentration camp in other words, hope was defined as the perceived capability to derive pathways to desired goals and motivate oneself via agency thinking to use those pathways. snyder argues that individuals who are able to realize these three components and develop a belief in their ability are hopeful people who can establish clear goals, imagine multiple workable pathways toward those goals, and persevere, even when obstacles get in their way. snyder proposed a "hope scale" which considered that a person's determination to achieve their goal is their measured hope. snyder differentiates between adult-measured hope and child-measured hope. the adult hope scale by snyder contains questions; measuring 'pathways thinking', measuring 'agency thinking', and that are simply fillers. each subject responds to each question using an -point scale.[ ] fibel and hale measure hope by combining snyder's hope scale with their own generalized expectancy for success scale (gess) to empirically measure hope.[ ] snyder regarded that psychotherapy can help focus attention on one's goals, drawing on tacit knowledge of how to reach them.[ ] similarly, there is an outlook and a grasp of reality to hope, distinguishing no hope, lost hope, false hope and real hope, which differ in terms of viewpoint and realism.[ ] 	hopeful 	outlook 	wishful 	committed 	hopeful outlook distorted reality false hope 	hopeful outlook accurate reality real hope 	skeptical 	no hope hopeless outlook distorted reality 	lost hope hopeless outlook accurate reality 	hopeless 	helpless 	surrendered 	 	 	grasp of reality 	 	 	uninformed distorted denied 	informed accurate assimilated contemporary philosopher richard rorty understands hope as more than goal setting, rather as a metanarrative, a story that serves as a promise or reason for expecting a better future. rorty as postmodernist believes past meta–narratives, including the christian story, utilitarianism, and marxism have proved false hopes; that theory cannot offer social hope; and that liberal man must learn to live without a consensual theory of social hope.[ ] rorty says a new document of promise is needed for social hope to exist again.[ ] in healthcare[edit] major theories[edit] of the countless models that examine the importance of hope in an individual's life, there are two major theories that have gained a significant amount of recognition in the field of psychology. one of these theories, developed by charles r. snyder, argues that hope should be viewed as a cognitive skill that demonstrates an individual's ability to maintain drive in the pursuit of a particular goal.[ ] this model reasons that an individual's ability to be hopeful depends on two types of thinking: agency thinking and pathway thinking. agency thinking refers to an individual's determination to achieve their goals despite possible obstacles, while pathway thinking refers to the ways in which an individual believes they can achieve these personal goals. snyder's theory uses hope as a mechanism that is most often seen in psychotherapy. in these instances, the therapist helps their client overcome barriers that have prevented them from achieving goals. the therapist would then help the client set realistic and relevant personal goals (i.e. "i am going to find something i am passionate about and that makes me feel good about myself"), and would help them remain hopeful of their ability to achieve these goals, and suggest the correct pathways to do so. whereas snyder's theory focuses on hope as a mechanism to overcome an individual's lack of motivation to achieve goals, the other major theory developed by kaye a. herth deals more specifically with an individual's future goals as they relate to coping with illnesses.[ ] herth views hope as "a motivational and cognitive attribute that is theoretically necessary to initiate and sustain action toward goal attainment".[ ] establishing realistic and attainable goals in this situation is more difficult, as the individual most likely does not have direct control over the future of their health. instead, herth suggests that the goals should be concerned with how the individual is going to personally deal with the illness—"instead of drinking to ease the pain of my illness, i am going to surround myself with friends and family".[ ] while the nature of the goals in snyder's model differ with those in herth's model, they both view hope as a way to maintain personal motivation, which ultimately will result in a greater sense of optimism. major empirical findings[edit] hope, and more specifically, particularized hope, has been shown to be an important part of the recovery process from illness; it has strong psychological benefits for patients, helping them to cope more effectively with their disease.[ ] for example, hope motivates people to pursue healthy behaviors for recovery, such as eating fruits and vegetables, quitting smoking, and engaging in regular physical activity. this not only helps to enhance people's recovery from illnesses, but also helps prevent illness from developing in the first place.[ ] patients who maintain high levels of hope have an improved prognosis for life-threatening illness and an enhanced quality of life.[ ] belief and expectation, which are key elements of hope, block pain in patients suffering from chronic illness by releasing endorphins and mimicking the effects of morphine. consequently, through this process, belief and expectation can set off a chain reaction in the body that can make recovery from chronic illness more likely. this chain reaction is especially evident with studies demonstrating the placebo effect, a situation when hope is the only variable aiding in these patients’ recovery.[ ] overall, studies have demonstrated that maintaining a sense of hope during a period of recovery from illness is beneficial. a sense of hopelessness during the recovery period has, in many instances, resulted in adverse health conditions for the patient (i.e. depression and anxiety following the recovery process).[citation needed] additionally, having a greater amount of hope before and during cognitive therapy has led to decreased ptsd-related depression symptoms in war veterans.[ ] hope has also been found to be associated with more positive perceptions of subjective health. however, reviews of research literature have noted that the connections between hope and symptom severity in other mental health disorders are less clear, such as in cases of individuals with schizophrenia.[ ] applications[edit] the inclusion of hope in treatment programs has potential in both physical and mental health settings. hope as a mechanism for improved treatment has been studied in the contexts of ptsd, chronic physical illness, and terminal illness, among other disorders and ailments.[ ][ ] within mental health practice, clinicians have suggested using hope interventions as a supplement to more traditional cognitive behavioral therapies.[ ] in terms of support for physical illness, research suggests that hope can encourage the release of endorphins and enkephalins, which help to block pain.[ ] impediments[edit] there are two main arguments based on judgement against those who are advocates of using hope to help treat severe illnesses. the first of which is that if physicians have too much hope, they may aggressively treat the patient. the physician will hold on to a small shred of hope that the patient may get better. thus, this causes them to try methods that are costly and may have many side effects. one physician noted[ ] that she regretted having hope for her patient; it resulted in her patient suffering through three more years of pain that the patient would not have endured if the physician had realized recovery was infeasible. the second argument is the division between hope and wishing. those that are hopeful are actively trying to investigate the best path of action while taking into consideration the obstacles. research[ ] has shown though that many of those who have "hope" are wishfully thinking and passively going through the motions, as if they are in denial about their actual circumstances. being in denial and having too much hope may negatively impact both the patient and the physician. benefits[edit] the impact that hope can have on a patient's recovery process is strongly supported through both empirical research and theoretical approaches. however, reviews of literature also maintain that more longitudinal and methodologically sound research is needed to establish which hope interventions are actually the most effective, and in what setting (i.e. chronic illness vs. terminal illness).[ ] in culture[edit] a syrian refugee girl with a hopeful expression in the matter of globalization, hope is focused on economic and social empowerment. focusing on parts of asia, hope has taken on a secular or materialistic form in relation to the pursuit of economic growth. primary examples are the rise of the economies of china and india, correlating with the notion of chindia. a secondary relevant example is the increased use of contemporary architecture in rising economies, such as the building of the shanghai world financial center, burj khalifa and taipei , which has given rise to a prevailing hope within the countries of origin.[ ] in chaotic environments hope is transcended without cultural boundaries, syrian refugee children are supported by unesco's education project through creative education and psycho-social assistance.[ ] other inter-cultural support for instilling hope involve food culture, disengaging refugees from trauma through immersing them in their rich cultural past.[ ] in literature[edit] engraving of pandora trying to close the box that she had opened out of curiosity. at left, the evils of the world taunt her as they escape. the engraving is based on a painting by f. s. church. hope is the thing with feathers that perches in the soul and sings the tune without the words and never stops at all. — emily dickinson[ ] a classic reference to hope which has entered modern language is the concept that "hope springs eternal" taken from alexander pope's essay on man, the phrase reading "hope springs eternal in the human breast, man never is, but always to be blest:"[ ] another popular reference, "hope is the thing with feathers," is from a poem by emily dickinson.[ ] hope can be used as an artistic plot device and is often a motivating force for change in dynamic characters. a commonly understood reference from western popular culture is the subtitle "a new hope" from the original first installment (now considered episode iv) in the star wars science fiction space opera.[ ] the subtitle refers to one of the lead characters, luke skywalker, who is expected in the future to allow good to triumph over evil within the plot of the films. the swallow has been a symbol of hope, in aesop's fables and numerous other historic literature.[ ] it symbolizes hope, in part because it is among the first birds to appear at the end of winter and the start of spring.[ ] other symbols of hope include the anchor[ ] and the dove.[ ] in mythology[edit] elpis (hope) appears in ancient greek mythology with the story of zeus and prometheus. prometheus stole fire from the god zeus, which infuriated the supreme god. in turn, zeus created a box that contained all manners of evil, unbeknownst to the receiver of the box. pandora opened the box after being warned not to, and unleashed a multitude of harmful spirits that inflicted plagues, diseases, and illnesses on mankind. spirits of greed, envy, hatred, mistrust, sorrow, anger, revenge, lust, and despair scattered far and wide looking for humans to torment. inside the box, however, there was also an unreleased healing spirit named hope. from ancient times, people have recognized that a spirit of hope had the power to heal afflictions and helps them bear times of great suffering, illnesses, disasters, loss, and pain caused by the malevolent spirits and events.[ ] in hesiod's works and days, the personification of hope is named elpis. 		 norse mythology however considered hope (vön) to be the slobber dripping from the mouth of fenris wolf:[ ] their concept of courage rated most highly a cheerful bravery in the absence of hope.[ ] in religion[edit] hope is a key concept in most major world religions, often signifying the "hoper" believes an individual or a collective group will reach a concept of heaven. depending on the religion, hope can be seen as a prerequisite for and/or byproduct of spiritual attainment. christianity[edit] main article: hope (virtue) people collecting the miraculous water in lourdes, france hope is one of the three theological virtues of the christian religion,[ ] alongside faith and love.[ ] "hope" in the holy bible means "a strong and confident expectation" of future reward (see titus : ). in modern terms, hope is akin to trust and a confident expectation".[ ] paul the apostle argued that hope was a source of salvation for christians: "for in hope we have been saved...if we hope for what we do not see, with perseverance we wait eagerly for it"[ ] (see romans : ). according to the holman bible dictionary, hope is a "[t]rustful expectation...the anticipation of a favorable outcome under god's guidance."[ ] in the pilgrim's progress, it is hopeful who comforts christian in doubting castle; while conversely at the entrance to dante's hell were the words, "lay down all hope, you that go in by me".[ ] hinduism[edit] in historic literature of hinduism, hope is referred to with pratidhi (sanskrit: प्रतिधी),[ ] or apêksh (sanskrit: अपेक्ष).[ ][ ] it is discussed with the concepts of desire and wish. in vedic philosophy, karma was linked to ritual sacrifices (yajna), hope and success linked to correct performance of these rituals.[ ][ ] in vishnu smriti, the image of hope, morals and work is represented as the virtuous man who rides in a chariot directed by his hopeful mind to his desired wishes, drawn by his five senses, who keeps the chariot on the path of the virtuous, and thus is not distracted by the wrongs such as wrath, greed, and other vices.[ ] in the centuries that followed, the concept of karma changed from sacramental rituals to actual human action that builds and serves society and human existence[ ][ ]–a philosophy epitomized in the bhagavad gita. hope, in the structure of beliefs and motivations, is a long-term karmic concept. in hindu belief, actions have consequences, and while one's effort and work may or may not bear near term fruits, it will serve the good, that the journey of one's diligent efforts (karma) and how one pursues the journey,[ ] sooner or later leads to bliss and moksha.[ ][ ][ ] see also[edit] 	defeatism 	disappointment 	el dorado 	micawberism 	optimism 	"self-reliance" 	the principle of hope 	utopianism references[edit] 	^ "hope | define hope at dictionary.com". dictionary.reference.com. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "hope – definition and more from the free merriam-webster dictionary". merriam-webster.com. retrieved - - . 	^ b. kirkpatrick ed., roget's thesaurus ( ) pp. – 	^ fredrickson, barbara l. ( - - ). "why choose hope?". psychology today. retrieved - - . 	^ fredrickson, barbara l., et al. ( ). "open hearts build lives: positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources" (pdf). journal of personality and social psychology, , pp. – . retrieved - - .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ "mental health, depression, anxiety, wellness, family & relationship issues, sexual disorders & adhd medications". mentalhelp.net. archived from the original on october , . retrieved - - . 	^ d. goleman, emotional intelligence ( ) p. 	^ "breaking down barack obama's psychology of hope and how it may help you in trying times… – wellness, disease prevention, and stress reduction information". mentalhelp.net. - - . archived from the original on november , . retrieved - - . 	^ eric berne, what do you say after you say hello? ( ) p. - 	^ peter berger, a rumour of angels ( ) p. 	^ snyder, charles d. the psychology of hope: you can get here from there. new york: the free press, , pp. – 	^ snyder, charles d. the psychology of hope: you can get here from there. new york: the free press, , pg. 	^ d. w. winnicott, the child, the family, and the outside world ( ) pp. – 	^ p. casement, further learning from the patient ( ) p. 	^ "hope theory" (pdf). teachingpsychology.files.wordpress.com. retrieved - - . 	^ snyder, c. r., rand, k. l., & sigmon, d. r. ( ). hope theory: a member of the positive psychology family. in c. r. snyder & s. j. lopez (eds.), handbook of positive psychology (pp. – ). new york: oxford university press. 	^ "self-concept, hope and achievement: a look at the relationship between the individual self-concept, level of hope, and academic achievement". missouriwestern.edu. - - . archived from the original on november , . retrieved - - . 	^ snyder, charles d., the psychology of hope: you can get here from there. new york: the free press, , p. 	^ "emotional competency - hope". www.emotionalcompetency.com. retrieved june . 	^ d. l. hall, richard rorty ( ) p. and p. 	^ rorty, richard. philosophy and social hope. london: penguin books, 	^ snyder, c.r ( ). the psychology of hope. new york, ny: free press. 	^ weis, robert; speridakos, elena ( ). "a meta-analysis of hope enhancement strategies in clinical and community setting". psychology of well-being: theory, research and practice. : . doi: . / - - - . 	^ a b herth, k.a. ( ). "enhancing hope in people with a first recurrence of cancer". journal of advanced nursing. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . 	^ wiles, r.; cott, c.; gibson, b.e. ( ). "hope, expectations, and recovery from illness: a narrative synthesis of qualitative research". journal of advanced nursing. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . 	^ a b c d enayati, amanda. "how hope can help you heal". cnn. retrieved april . 	^ simonik, t. "reflections on hope and recovery". national eating disorder information centre. retrieved april , . 	^ a b phillips, suzanne (august ). "does hope really make a difference? scientific findings". psychcentral. retrieved april . 	^ a b c d schrank, beate; stanghellini, g; slade, m ( ). "hope in psychiatry: a review of the literature". acta psychiatrica scandinavica (submitted manuscript). ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . s cid  . 	^ jarrett, christian. "is it ethical to instill false hope?". research digest. retrieved april . 	^ moïsi, dominique. "the culture of hope." the geopolitics of emotion: how cultures of fear, humiliation, and hope are reshaping the world. new york: doubleday, . – . print. 	^ "five stories of hope from zaatari refugee camp - united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization". www.unesco.org. retrieved june . 	^ refugees, united nations high commissioner for. "berlin refugee guides show off cultural riches from home". retrieved june . 	^ "sparknotes: dickinson's poetry: " 'hope' is the thing with feathers—..."". 	^ pope, alexander ( ). an essay on man – alexander pope – google boeken. retrieved - - . 	^ dickinson, emily. "hope is the thing with feathers". retrieved - - . 	^ ""a new hope" – star wars". imdb.com. retrieved - - . 	^ christos a. zafiropoulos ( ), ethics in aesop's fables: the augustana collection, isbn  - , brill academic, page 	^ hope b. werness ( ), the continuum encyclopedia of animal symbolism in art, isbn  - , page 	^ m. ferber, a dictionary of literary symbolism ( ) 'anchor' 	^ j. matthews, the grail tradition ( ) p. 	^ magaletta, philip r., & oliver, j.m (april ). "the hope construct, will, and ways: their relations with self-efficacy, optimism, and general well-being". journal of clinical psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /(sici) - ( ) : < ::aid-jclp > . .co; -g. pmid  .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ tom shippey, j. r. r. tolkien ( ) p. 	^ tom shippey, the road to middle-earth ( ) p. - 	^ "hope" a dictionary of phrase and fable. edited by elizabeth knowles. oxford university press, . oxford university press. 	^ "meaning of : hope; bible definition". bible-library.com. archived from the original on april , . retrieved - - . 	^ a b "hope | bible.org – worlds largest bible study site". bible.org. retrieved - - . 	^ "hope – holman bible dictionary on". studylight.org. retrieved - - . 	^ dante, hell ( ) p. 	^ prati-dhi sanskrit lexicon, university of koeln, germany ( ), see page 	^ apêksh sanskrit lexicon, university of koeln, germany ( ), see page 	^ apeksa archived - - at the wayback machine spoken sanskrit-english dictionary version . , germany ( ) 	^ a b c de john romus ( ), karma and bhakti ways of salvation: a christological perspective, indian journal of theology, volume , issue , pages – 	^ a b de smet, r. ( ), a copernican reversal: the gītākāra's reformulation of karma, philosophy east and west, ( ), pages – 	^ maurice bloomfield, the mind as wish-car in the veda, journal of the american oriental society, volume , pages – 	^ david krieger ( ), salvation in the world – a hindu-christian dialogue on hope and liberation, in jerald gort (editor, dialogue and syncretism: an interdisciplinary approach), isbn  - - - , see chapter 	^ jeffrey wattles, the concept of karma in the bhagawad gita, department of philosophy, wabash center, kent state university ( ) 	^ oliver bennett ( ), the manufacture of hope: religion, eschatology and the culture of optimism, international journal of cultural policy, ( ), pages – further reading[edit] 	averill, james r. rules of hope. springer-verlag, . 	miceli, maria and cristiano castelfranchi. "hope: the power of wish and possibility" in theory psychology. april vol. no. – . 	kierkegaard, søren a. the sickness unto death. princeton university press, . 	snyder, c. r. handbook of hope: theory, measures, & applications. academic [press], . 	stout, larry. ideal leadership: time for a change. destiny image, 		wikimedia commons has media related to hope. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: hope 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion 	authority control 	 	gnd: - 	ndl: 	nkc: ph retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=hope&oldid= " 		categories: 	positive mental attitude 	emotions 	propositional attitudes hidden categories: 	cs maint: multiple names: authors list 	webarchive template wayback links 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	wikipedia articles needing clarification from august 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from march 	commons link from wikidata 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	wikipedia articles with ndl identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nkc identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			afrikaans 	akan 	العربية 	asturianu 	avañe'ẽ 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	eesti 	Ελληνικά 	español 	esperanto 	euskara 	فارسی 	français 	frysk 	galego 	한국어 	हिन्दी 	hrvatski 	ido 	bahasa indonesia 	italiano 	עברית 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	ქართული 	kernowek 	kiswahili 	kreyòl ayisyen 	latina 	lietuvių 	nederlands 	नेपाल भाषा 	日本語 	norsk bokmål 	norsk nynorsk 	ਪੰਜਾਬੀ 	polski 	português 	română 	Русский 	ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ 	scots 	shqip 	sicilianu 	Српски / srpski 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	suomi 	తెలుగు 	türkçe 	Українська 	اردو 	tiếng việt 	吴语 	粵語 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 self-interest - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	self-interest 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 			 	this article needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "self-interest" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (august ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) an appeal to self-interest during world war ii. self-interest generally refers to a focus on the needs or desires (interests) of one's self. most times, actions that display self-interest are often performed without conscious knowing. a number of philosophical, psychological, and economic theories examine the role of self-interest in motivating human action. contents 	 in philosophy 	 . legalism 	 in psychology 	 in business 	 see also 	 references in philosophy[edit] philosophical concepts concerned with self-interest include: 	enlightened self-interest, a philosophy which states that acting to further the interests of others also serves one's own self-interest. 	ethical egoism, the ethical position that moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest. 	hedonism, the school of ethics which argues that pleasure is the only intrinsic good. 	cyrenaics, the aristippean pre-socratic original. 	epicureanism, a philosophical system related to hedonism. 	individualism, a philosophy stressing the worth of individual selves. 	rational egoism, the position that all rational actions are those done in one's self-interest. legalism[edit] legalism is a chinese political philosophy that holds that self-interest underlies human nature and therefore human behavior.[ ] it is axiomatic in legalism that a government can not truly be staffed by upright and trustworthy men of service, because every member of the elite—like any member of society—will pursue their own interests and thus must be employed for their interests.[ ] it contends that even acts of virtue are intrinsically mercenary, driven by self-interest, like the pursuit for a life of morality in the hopes that the resulting reputation will be convertible into abundant benefits or riches.[ ] in legalism, a regular pattern of the natural world is that the basic nature of human beings comprises a set of interests that are primarily self-regarding and not amenable to cultivation, morally or otherwise, which must be understood to effectively govern a state.[ ] therefore, legalists argue that political systems are only viable if it allows individuals to pursue their selfish interests exclusively in a manner that benefits rather than contradicts the needs of a state.[ ] conversely, their concerns lie with political systems based on trust and respect for ministers and other officials—rather than on impersonal norms and standards, such as laws, regulations, and rules—as these systems will result in an irresolvable power struggle.[ ] their sober realization herein is that administrative systems are fundamentally unable to monitor themselves in the long term despite the impersonal mode of rule, because they must rely for their implementation on individuals who themselves are driven by self-interest.[ ] legalists argue that people can be shaped behaviorally to yield social order if it is in the individual's own self-interest to abide by the norms, meaning that different interests must be aligned to each other and the social good, which is most efficiently ensured if the norms are publicly and impartially enforced.[ ] they consider that individuals react out of self-interest, which enables the use of rewards and punishments to achieve a desired behavior from people.[ ] according to them, the application of reward and punishment in a sociopolitical system is necessary to influence people's calculations and direct them towards pursuits that benefit the state.[ ] in psychology[edit] psychological concepts concerned with self-interest include psychological egoism, the view that humans are always motivated by self-interest and narcissism, which is an unhealthy self-absorption due to a disturbance in the sense of self. in business[edit] 	 	this section does not cite any sources. please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (november ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) in business, self interest focuses on actions or activities that are advantageous to an individual or organization. for a business or individual to survive and grow, a degree of self-interest is necessary. when there is too much focus on self-interest, the benefits of the group at large diminishes. 	leadership, 	the wells fargo scandal, proved that top managers who were concerned about meeting their quotas encouraged employees to set up fake checking and savings accounts so that their managers could meet quotas, and thus, gain incentives.[ ] in this case, the top managers put their own self-interest, i.e. desire for money and personal gain, above the well-being of their employees, and the reputation of the company they work for. 	innovation 	samuel p. langley's desire to create the world's first aircraft was based primarily on his own self-interest rather than to improve humanity. langley was an astronomer and around the age of he decided that the only way to achieve his goal of becoming one of the great figures in the history of science was to be the first to create the “flying machine”. eventually, the wright brothers were able to accomplish this task of creating the first flying machine in . even they were motivated by the fortune and fame that came with the feat. in this case, the brothers’ self-interest benefited humanity for decades to come.[citation needed] 	conflict of interest 	managers are tasked with the responsibility of hiring new employees for open positions. when these managers choose to give these positions to friends or family, instead of the most qualified person for the job, it can be a result of the manager's desire to create a better situation for people in their family thus appealing to their own self-interest.[citation needed] 	bribes, i.e. when a store manager takes a bribe from an eager sales representative to close a deal. perhaps accepting bribes is against the store's policy, but a store manager may make a deal because it is to his own personal benefit to do.[citation needed] see also[edit] 		look up self-interest in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	altruism 	egoism 	interest (disambiguation) 	selfishness references[edit] 	^ barbalet, jack (november ). "self-interest in chinese discourse and practice: temporal distinctions of self". the sociological review. ( ): – . doi: . / - x. . 	^ a b c d e pines, yuri ( november ). "legalism in chinese philosophy". the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. metaphysics research lab, stanford university. archived from the original on october . 	^ goldin, paul r. (november ). "han fei's doctrine of self-interest". asian philosophy. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ harris, eirik lang (march ). "legalism: introducing a concept and analyzing aspects of han fei's political philosophy: legalism and han fei". philosophy compass. ( ): – . doi: . /phc . . 	^ flanagan, owen; hu, jing (june ). "han fei zi's philosophical psychology: human nature, scarcity, and the neo-darwinian consensus". journal of chinese philosophy. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. 	^ ma, li (march ). "a comparison of the legitimacy of power between confucianist and legalist philosophies". asian philosophy. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ "board portal software". boardeffect. retrieved - - . 		this psychology-related article is a stub. you can help wikipedia by expanding it.	v 	t 	e 		this article about ethics is a stub. you can help wikipedia by expanding it. 	v 	t 	e retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=self-interest&oldid= " 		categories: 	egoism 	ethical theories 	philosophy of life 	psychology stubs 	ethics stubs hidden categories: 	articles needing additional references from august 	all articles needing additional references 	articles needing additional references from november 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from november 	all stub articles 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			Қазақша 	nederlands 	தமிழ் 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 reinhard bachmann - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	reinhard bachmann 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 reinhard bachmann german born social scientist reinhard bachmann (* february ) is a german born social scientist who teaches and researches at soas university of london. he is professor of international management; and the founder and director of the centre for trust research at soas. he has served as head of department at surrey business school and as head of the school of finance and management at soas. his work focuses on strategic management and organizational analysis; it includes major contributions to the field of trust research. contents 	 career 	 research 	 selected works 	 references 	 external links career[edit] before moving into his current position at soas, reinhard bachmann was engaged in research and taught at the university of cambridge (research fellow), university of groningen (assistant professor), university of london, birkbeck college (as associate professor/reader) and university of surrey (professor). in , he accepted guest professorships to new york university and to the institute for advanced studies in vienna; and in , he taught as a guest professor at the university of wuhan. in , he was invited to a guest professorship at the free university of amsterdam. apart from his academic career, he is frequently giving interviews to specialised practitioners magazines and the general press. also, he offers consultancy services to public agencies and private businesses, and he is a co-founder and a member of the iuk-institute in dortmund. research[edit] bachmann is one of the pioneers of trust research in the field of management theory.[citation needed] since the s, he has contributed significantly to the development and design of trust research and is the most-cited trust scholar in europe.[citation needed] he is a member of the editorial board of the journal organization studies[ ] and the review board of the journal of trust research.[ ] selected works[edit] bachmann's works appear in numerous international journals (these include, organization studies, cambridge journal of economics, british journal of sociology, journal of managerial psychology, european societies). he has also edited publications, which include the 'handbook of trust research' (edward elgar, , with akbar zaheer), landmark papers on trust (edward elgar, , with akbar zaheer), and a collective volume on 'trust within and between organizations' (oxford university press, , with christel lane). selected articles include: 	the social constitution of trust: supplier relations in britain and germany. in: organization studies ( ), . pp. - (with christel lane). – [reprinted in: masaaki kotabe and michael mol (eds.), global supply chain management. volume . cheltenham: edward elgar . pp. - , and in: reinhard bachmann and akbar zaheer (eds.), landmark papers on trust. volume . cheltenham: edward elgar . pp. - ]. 	contract law, social norms and inter-firm cooperation. in: cambridge journal of economics ( ), . pp. - (with alessandro arrighetti and simon deakin). - [reprinted in: reinhard bachmann and akbar zaheer (eds.), landmark papers on trust. volume . cheltenham: edward elgar . pp. - ]. 	co-operation in inter-firm relations in britain and germany: the role of social institutions. in: british journal of sociology ( ), . pp. - (with christel lane). 	vertrauen und macht in zwischenbetrieblichen kooperationen – zur rolle von wirtschaftsrecht und wirtschaftsverbänden in deutschland und großbritannien. in: managementforschung (edited by georg schreyögg/jörg sydow) ( ), pp. - (with christel lane). - [reprinted in: jörg sydow (ed.), management von netzwerkorganisationen. beiträge aus der 'managementforschung' ( st- th editions). wiesbaden: gabler . pp. - ]. 	co-operation at work: a process-oriented perspective on joint activity in inter-organizational relations. in: ergonomics ( ), . pp. - (with theo wehner and christoph clases). 	trust, power and control in trans-organizational relations. in: organization studies ( ), . pp. - . - [reprinted in: roderick kramer (ed.), organizational trust. a reader. oxford: oxford university press . pp. - , and in: reinhard bachmann and akbar zaheer (eds.), landmark papers on trust. volume . cheltenham: edward elgar . pp. - , and in: stewart clegg and mark haugaard (eds.), power and organizations. london: sage ]. 	studying trust in virtual organizations. in: international studies of management and organization ( ), . pp. - (with christoph clases and theo wehner). 	understanding organizational trust – foundations, constellations, and issues of operationalisation. in: journal of managerial psychology ( ), . pp. - (with guido möllering and soo hee lee). 	transition economies and trust building. a network perspective on the enlargement of the e.u. in: cambridge journal of economics ( ), . pp. - (with hans van ees). 	analyzing inter-organizational relationships in the context of their national business systems. a conceptual framework for comparative research. in: european societies ( ), . pp. - (with arjen van witteloostuijn). 	understanding institutional-based trust building processes in inter-organizational relationships. in: organization studies ( ), . pp. - (with andrew inkpen). -- [reprinted in: ana costa and neil anderson (ed.), trust and social capital in organizations. vols. london: sage ]. 	at the crossroads: future directions in trust research. in: journal of trust research ( ), . pp. - . 	why the epistemologies of trust researchers matter. in: journal of trust research ( ), . pp. - (with neve isaeva, alexandra bristow and mark saunders). 	repairing trust in organizations and institutions. toward a conceptual framework. in: organization studies ( ), . pp. - (with nicole gillespie and richard priem). 	trust, power or money: what governs business relationships? in: international sociology ( ), . pp. - (with frens kroeger). references[edit] 	^ organization studies editorial board 	^ journal of trust research external links[edit] 	reinhard bachmann at soas 	google scholar • [ ] article in welt about electro-mobility in the context of the volkswagen diesel scandal. • [ ] article about the importance of trust. 	authority control 	 	bnf: cb m (data) 	gnd: 	isni: 	lccn: n 	nta: x 	orcid: - - - 	sudoc: 	viaf: 	 worldcat identities: lccn-n retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=reinhard_bachmann&oldid= " 		categories: 	german economists 	german social scientists 	 births 	living people 	academics of soas university of london 	academics of birkbeck, university of london 	university of groningen faculty 	academics of the university of surrey hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	articles with short description added by pearbot 	short description is different from wikidata 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from april 	wikipedia articles with bnf identifiers 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	wikipedia articles with isni identifiers 	wikipedia articles with lccn identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nta identifiers 	wikipedia articles with orcid identifiers 	wikipedia articles with sudoc identifiers 	wikipedia articles with viaf identifiers 	wikipedia articles with worldcatid identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			deutsch 	مصرى 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on july , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 apa psycnet loading... semantic scholar - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	semantic scholar 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from s cid (identifier)) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		search service for journal articles semantic scholar	 	type of site 	search engine 	created by	allen institute for artificial intelligence 	url	semanticscholar.org 	launched	november   ( - ) semantic scholar is a project developed at the allen institute for artificial intelligence. publicly released in november , it is designed to be an ai-backed search engine for academic publications.[ ] the project uses a combination of machine learning, natural language processing, and machine vision to add a layer of semantic analysis to the traditional methods of citation analysis, and to extract relevant figures, entities, and venues from papers.[ ] in comparison to google scholar and pubmed, semantic scholar is designed to highlight the most important and influential papers, and to identify the connections between them. as of january , following a project that added biomedical papers and topic summaries, the semantic scholar corpus included more than million papers from computer science and biomedicine.[ ] in march , doug raymond, who developed machine learning initiatives for the amazon alexa platform, was hired to lead the semantic scholar project.[ ] as of august , the number of included papers had grown to more than million[ ] after the addition of the microsoft academic graph records.[ ] each paper hosted by semantic scholar is assigned a unique identifier called the semantic scholar corpus id (or s cid for short), for example 		liu, ying; gayle, albert a; wilder-smith, annelies; rocklöv, joacim (march ). "the reproductive number of covid- is higher compared to sars coronavirus". journal of travel medicine. ( ). s cid  . see also[edit] 	citation analysis 	citation index 	knowledge extraction 	list of academic databases and search engines 	scientometrics references[edit] 	^ "paul allen's ai research group unveils program that aims to shake up how we search scientific knowledge. give it a try". the washington post. retrieved november , . 	^ bohannon, john ( november ). "a computer program just ranked the most influential brain scientists of the modern era". science. doi: . /science.aal . retrieved november . 	^ "ai scales up semantic scholar search engine to encompass biomedical research". geekwire. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ "tech moves: allen instititue hires amazon alexa machine learning leader; microsoft chairman takes on new investor role; and more". geekwire. - - . 	^ "main page". semantic scholar. retrieved august . 	^ "ai joins forces with microsoft research to upgrade search tools for scientific studies". geekwire. - - . retrieved - - . external links[edit] 		wikidata has the properties: 	 semantic scholar topic id (p ) (see uses) 	 semantic scholar author id (p ) (see uses) 	 semantic scholar corpus id (p ) (see uses) 	 semantic scholar paper id (p ) (see uses) 	official website 		v 	t 	e academic publishing 	journals	 	academic journal 	scientific journal 	open access journal 	public health journal 	papers	 	scholarly paper 	review article 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	electronic publishing 	ingelfinger rule 	lists	 	academic journals 	scientific journals 	open-access journals 	academic databases and search engines 	university presses 	style/formatting guides 	category:academic publishing 	category:scientific documents 	 portal 	 	v 	t 	e authority control files 	aag • acm dl • adb • agsa • autores.uy • awr • balat • bibsys • bildindex • bnc • bne • bnf • botanist • bpn • cantic • cinii • cwgc • daao • dblp • dsi • fnza • gnd • hds • iaaf • iccu • icia • isni • joconde • kulturnav • lccn • lir • lnb • léonore • mba • mgp • nara • nbl • ndl • ngv • nkc • nla • nlg • nli • nlk • nlp • nlr • nsk • nta • orcid • pic • researcherid • rero • rkd • rkdimages id • rsl • selibr • sikart • snac • sudoc • s authorid • ta • tdvİa • te • tepapa • th • tls • trove • ukparl • ulan • us congress • vcba • viaf • worldcat identities 		this website-related article is a stub. you can help wikipedia by expanding it. 	v 	t 	e retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=semantic_scholar&oldid= #s cid" 		categories: 	bibliographic databases in computer science 	internet search engines 	scholarly search services 	website stubs hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	all stub articles 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	فارسی 	français 	Русский 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 loneliness - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	loneliness 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for other uses, see loneliness (disambiguation). complex and usually unpleasant emotional response to isolation loneliness by hans thoma (national museum in warsaw) 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e loneliness is an unpleasant emotional response to perceived isolation. loneliness is also described as social pain—a psychological mechanism which motivates individuals to seek social connections. it is often associated with an unwanted lack of connection and intimacy. loneliness overlaps and yet is distinct from solitude. solitude is simply the state of being apart from others; not everyone who experiences solitude feels lonely. as a subjective emotion, loneliness can be felt even when surrounded by other people; one who feels lonely, is lonely. the causes of loneliness are varied. they include social, mental, emotional, and environmental factors. research has shown that loneliness is found throughout society, including among people in marriages along with other strong relationships, and those with successful careers. most people experience loneliness at some points in their lives, and some feel it very often. as a short term emotion, loneliness can be beneficial; it encourages the strengthening of relationships. chronic loneliness on the other hand is widely considered harmful, with numerous reviews and meta-studies concluding it is a significant risk factor for poor mental and physical health outcomes. loneliness has long been a theme in literature, going back to the epic of gilgamesh. yet academic study of loneliness was sparse until the late twentieth century. in the st century, loneliness has been increasingly recognised as a social problem, with both ngos and governmental actors seeking to tackle it. contents 	 causes 	 . existential 	 . cultural 	 . relationship loss 	 . situational 	 . self perpetuating 	 . social contagion 	 . internet 	 . genetics 	 . other 	 typology 	 . social loneliness 	 . emotional loneliness 	 . . family loneliness 	 . . romantic loneliness 	 . other 	 demarcation 	 . feeling lonely vs. being socially isolated 	 . transient vs. chronic loneliness 	 . loneliness as a human condition 	 prevalence 	 effects 	 . transient 	 . chronic 	 . . benefits 	 . . physical health 	 . . death 	 . . mental health 	 . . suicide 	 . . society level 	 physiological mechanisms link to poor health 	 relief 	 . medical treatment 	 . ngo and community led 	 . government 	 . pets 	 . technology 	 . religion 	 . others 	 . effectiveness 	 history 	 see also 	 notes and references 	 external links causes[edit] thomas wolfe who in an often quoted passage stated "the whole conviction of my life now rests upon the belief that loneliness, far from being a rare and curious phenomenon, is the central and inevitable fact of human existence."[ ] existential[edit] loneliness has long been viewed as a universal condition which, at least to a moderate extent, is felt by everyone. from this perspective, some degree of loneliness is inevitable as the limitations of human life mean it is impossible for anyone to continually satisfy their inherent need for connection. professors including michele a. carter and ben lazare mijuskovic have written books and essays tracking the existential perspective and the many writers who have talked about it throughout history.[ ][ ] thomas wolfe's s essay god's lonely man is frequently discussed in this regard; wolfe makes the case that everyone imagines they are lonely in a special way unique to themselves, whereas really every single person sometimes suffers from loneliness. while agreeing that loneliness alleviation can be a good thing, those who take the existential view tend to doubt such efforts can ever be fully successful, seeing some level of loneliness as both unavoidable and even beneficial, as it can help people appreciate the joy of living.[ ][ ] cultural[edit] culture is discussed as a cause of loneliness in two senses. migrants can suffer from loneliness due to missing their home culture. studies have found this effect can be especially strong for students from countries in asia with a collective culture, when they come to study at universities in more individualist english speaking countries.[ ] culture is also seen as a cause of loneliness in the sense that western culture may have been contributing to loneliness, ever since the enlightenment began to favour individualism over older communal values.[ ][ ][ ] relationship loss[edit] loneliness is a very common, though often temporary, consequence of a relationship breakup or bereavement. the loss of a significant person in one's life will typically initiate a grief response; in this situation, one might feel lonely, even while in the company of others. loneliness can occur due to the disruption to one's social circle, sometimes combined with homesickness, which results from people moving away for work or education.[ ][ ] situational[edit] all sorts of situations and events can cause loneliness, especially in combination with certain personality traits for susceptible individuals. for example, an extroverted person who is highly social is more likely to feel lonely if they are living some where with a low population density, with fewer people for them to interact with. loneliness can sometimes even be caused by events that might normally be expected to alleviate it: for example the birth of a child (if there is significant postpartum depression) or after getting married (especially if the marriage turns out to be unstable, overly disruptive to previous relationships, or emotionally cold.) in addition to being impacted by external events, loneliness can be aggravated by pre-existing mental health conditions like chronic depression and anxiety.[ ][ ] self perpetuating[edit] long term loneliness can cause various types of maladaptive social cognition, such as hypervigilance and social awkwardness, which can make it harder for an individual to maintain existing relationships, or establish new ones. various studies have found that therapy targeted at addressing this maladaptive cognition is the single most effective way of intervening to reduce loneliness, though it does not always work for everyone.[ ][ ][ ] social contagion[edit] loneliness can spread through social groups like a disease. the mechanism for this involves the maladaptive cognition that often results from chronic loneliness. if a man loses a friend for whatever reason, this may increase his loneliness, resulting in him developing maladaptive cognition such as excessive neediness or suspicion of other friends. hence leading to a further loss of human connection if he then goes on to split up with his remaining friends. those other friends now become more lonely too, leading to a ripple effect of loneliness. studies have however found that this contagion effect is not consistent - a small increase in loneliness does not always cause the maladaptive cognition. also, when someone loses a friend, they will sometimes form new friendships or deepen other existing relationships.[ ][ ][ ][ ] internet[edit] see also: digital media use and mental health studies have tended to find a moderate correlation between extensive internet use and loneliness, especially ones that draw on data from the s, before internet use became widespread. contradictory results have been found by studies investigating whether the association is simply a result of lonely people being more attracted to the internet, or if the internet can actually cause loneliness. the displacement hypothesis holds that some people chose to withdraw from real world social interactions so they can have more time for the internet. excessive internet use can directly cause anxiety and depression, conditions which can contribute to loneliness - yet these factors may be offset by the internet's ability to facilitate interaction, and to empower people. some studies found that internet use is a cause of loneliness, at least for some types of people.[ ][ ] while others have found internet use can have a significant positive effect on reducing loneliness.[ ][ ] the authors of meta studies and reviews from about and later have tended to argue that there is a bidirectional causal relationship between loneliness and internet use. excessive use, especially if passive, can increase loneliness. while moderate use, especially by users who engage with others rather than just passively consume content, can increase social connection and reduce loneliness.[ ][ ][ ] genetics[edit] in , the first genome-wide association study of loneliness found that the heredity of loneliness is about - %. so while genes play a role in determining how much loneliness a person may feel, they are less of a factor than individual experiences and the environment. previous smaller studies however, had estimated that loneliness may be between - % hereditable.[ ][ ] other[edit] people making long driving commutes have reported dramatically higher feelings of loneliness (as well as other negative health impacts).[ ][ ] typology[edit] two principal types of loneliness are social and emotional loneliness. this delineation was made in by robert s. weiss, in his seminal work: loneliness: the experience of emotional and social isolation[ ] based on weiss's view that "both types of loneliness have to be examined independently, because the satisfaction for the need of emotional loneliness cannot act as a counterbalance for social loneliness, and vice versa", people working to treat or better understand loneliness have tended to treat these two types of loneliness separately, though this is far from always the case.[ ][ ] social loneliness[edit] social loneliness is the loneliness people experience because of the lack of a wider social network. they may not feel they are members of a community, or that they have friends or allies whom they can rely on in times of distress.[ ][ ] emotional loneliness[edit] emotional loneliness results from the lack of deep, nurturing relationships with other people. weiss tied his concept of emotional loneliness to attachment theory. people have a need for deep attachments, which can be fulfilled by close friends, though more often by close family members such as parents, and later in life by romantic partners. in , enrico ditommaso and barry spinner separated emotional loneliness into romantic and family loneliness.[ ] [ ] a study found that emotional loneliness significantly increased the likelihood of death for older adults living alone (whereas there was no increase in mortality found with social loneliness).[ ] family loneliness[edit] family loneliness results when individuals feel they lack close ties with family members. a study of , students found that only family loneliness was associated with increased frequency of self harm, not romantic or social loneliness.[ ][ ] romantic loneliness[edit] romantic loneliness can be experienced by adolescents and adults who lack a close bond with a romantic partner. psychologists have asserted that the formation of a committed romantic relationship is a critical development task for young adults, but is also one that many are delaying into their late s or beyond. people in romantic relationships tend to report less loneliness than single people, providing their relationship provides them with emotional intimacy. people in unstable or emotionally cold romantic partnerships can still feel romantic loneliness.[ ][ ] other[edit] several other typologies and types of loneliness exist. further types of loneliness include existential loneliness, cosmic loneliness - feeling alone in a hostile universe, and cultural loneliness - typically found among immigrants who miss their home culture.[ ] these types are less well studied than the threefold separation into social, romantic and family loneliness, yet can be valuable in understanding the experience of certain sub groups suffering from loneliness.[ ][ ] lockdown loneliness lockdown loneliness refers to "loneliness resulting because of social disconnection due to enforced social distancing and lockdowns during the covid- pandemic and similar other emergency situations" such as the covid- pandemic.[ ]] demarcation[edit] feeling lonely vs. being socially isolated[edit] there is a clear distinction between feeling lonely and being socially isolated (for example, a loner). in particular, one way of thinking about loneliness is as a discrepancy between one's necessary and achieved levels of social interaction,[ ] while solitude is simply the lack of contact with people. loneliness is therefore a subjective experience; if a person thinks they are lonely, then they are lonely. people can be lonely while in solitude, or in the middle of a crowd. what makes a person lonely is the fact that they need more social interaction or a certain type of social interaction that is not currently available. a person can be in the middle of a party and feel lonely due to not talking to enough people. conversely, one can be alone and not feel lonely; even though there is no one around that person is not lonely because there is no desire for social interaction. there have also been suggestions that each person has their own optimal level of social interaction. if a person gets too little or too much social interaction, this could lead to feelings of loneliness or over-stimulation.[ ] solitude can have positive effects on individuals. one study found that, although time spent alone tended to depress a person's mood and increase feelings of loneliness, it also helped to improve their cognitive state, such as improving concentration. it can be argued some individuals seek solitude for discovering a more meaningful and vital existence.[ ] furthermore, once the alone time was over, people's moods tended to increase significantly.[ ] solitude is also associated with other positive growth experiences, religious experiences, and identity building such as solitary quests used in rites of passages for adolescents.[ ] transient vs. chronic loneliness[edit] another important typology of loneliness focuses on the time perspective.[ ] in this respect, loneliness can be viewed as either transient or chronic. transient loneliness is temporary in nature; generally it is easily relieved. chronic loneliness is more permanent and not easily relieved.[ ] for example, when a person is sick and cannot socialize with friends, this would be a case of transient loneliness. once the person got better it would be easy for them to alleviate their loneliness. a person with long term feelings of loneliness regardless of if they are at a family gathering or with friends is experiencing chronic loneliness. loneliness as a human condition[edit] the existentialist school of thought views individuality as the essence of being human. each human being comes into the world alone, travels through life as a separate person, and ultimately dies alone. coping with this, accepting it, and learning how to direct our own lives with some degree of grace and satisfaction is the human condition.[ ] some philosophers, such as sartre, believe in an epistemic loneliness in which loneliness is a fundamental part of the human condition because of the paradox between people's consciousness desiring meaning in life and the isolation and nothingness of the universe.[ ] conversely, other existentialist thinkers argue that human beings might be said to actively engage each other and the universe as they communicate and create, and loneliness is merely the feeling of being cut off from this process. in his text, evidence of being: the black gay cultural renaissance and the politics of violence, darius bost draws from heather love's theorization of loneliness[ ] to delineate the ways in which loneliness structures black gay feeling and literary, cultural productions. bost limns, "as a form of negative affect, loneliness shores up the alienation, isolation, and pathologization of black gay men during the s and early s. but loneliness is also a form of bodily desire, a yearning for an attachment to the social and for a future beyond the forces that create someone's alienation and isolation."[ ] prevalence[edit] thousands of studies and surveys have been undertaken to assess the prevalence of loneliness. yet it remains challenging for scientists to make accurate generalisations and comparisons. reasons for this include various loneliness measurement scales being used by different studies, differences in how even the same scale is implemented from study to study, and as cultural variations across time and space may impact how people report the largely subjective phenomena of loneliness.[ ][ ] one consistent finding has been that loneliness is not evenly distributed across a nation's population. it tends to be concentrated among vulnerable sub groups; for example the poor, the unemployed, and immigrants. some of the most severe loneliness tends to be found among international students from countries in asia with a collective culture, when they come to study in countries with a more individualist culture, such as australia.[ ] in new zealand, the fourteen surveyed groups with the highest prevalence of loneliness most/all of the time in descending order are: disabled, recent migrants, low income households, unemployed, single parents, rural (rest of south island), seniors aged +, not in the labour force, youth aged – , no qualifications, not housing owner-occupier, not in a family nucleus, māori, and low personal income.[ ] studies have found inconsistent results concerning the effect of age, gender and culture on loneliness.[ ] much th century and early st century writing on loneliness assumed it typically increases with age. yet as of , with some exceptions, recent studies have tended to find that it is young people who report the most loneliness (though loneliness is still found to be a severe problem for the very old).[ ] there have been contradictory results concerning how the prevalence of loneliness varies with gender. a analyses based on a worldwide dataset gathered by the bbc found greater loneliness among men, though some earlier work had found the opposite, or that gender made no difference.[ ][ ][ ][ ] while cross cultural comparisons are difficult to interpret with high confidence, the analyses based on the bbc dataset found the more individualist countries like the uk tended to have higher levels of loneliness. however, previous empirical work had often found that people living in more collectivist cultures tended to report greater loneliness, possibly due to less freedom to chose the sort of relationships that suit them best.[ ][ ] in the st century, loneliness has been widely reported as an increasing worldwide problem. in , loneliness was labelled a growing "epidemic" by vivek murthy, former surgeon general of the united states. it has since been described as an epidemic thousands of times, by reporters, academics and other public officials. a systematic review and meta analyses had stated that the "modern way of life in industrialized countries" is greatly reducing the quality of social relationships, partly due to people no longer living in close proximity with their extended families. the review notes that from to , the number of americans reporting no close confidants has tripled.[ ] worldwide though there is little historical data to conclusively demonstrate an increase in loneliness. several reviews have found no clear evidence of an increase in loneliness even in the usa. professors such as claude s. fischer and eric klinenberg opined in that while the data doesn't support describing loneliness as an "epidemic" or even as a clearly growing problem, loneliness is indeed a serious issue, having a severe health impact on millions of people.[ ][ ][ ][ ] effects[edit] transient[edit] while unpleasant, temporary feelings of loneliness are sometimes experienced by almost everyone, and are not thought to cause long term harm. early th century work sometimes treated loneliness as a wholly negative phenomena. yet transient loneliness is now generally considered beneficial. the capacity to feel it may have been evolutionarily selected for, a healthy aversive emotion that motivates individuals to strengthen social connections.[ ] transient loneliness is sometimes compared to short-term hunger, which is unpleasant but ultimately useful as it motivates us to eat.[ ][ ][ ] chronic[edit] long-term loneliness is widely considered a close to entirely harmful condition. whereas transient loneliness typically motivates us to improve relationships with others, chronic loneliness can have the opposite effect. this is as long-term social isolation can cause hypervigilance. while enhanced vigilance may have been evolutionary adaptive for individuals who went long periods without others watching their backs, it can lead to excessive cynicism and suspicion of other people, which in turn can be detrimental to interpersonal relationships. so without intervention, chronic loneliness can be self-reinforcing.[ ][ ] benefits[edit] much has been written about the benefits of being alone, yet often, even when authors use the word "loneliness", they are referring to what could be more precisely described as voluntary solitude. yet some assert that even long-term involuntary loneliness can have beneficial effects.[ ][ ] chronic loneliness is often seen as a purely negative phenomena from the lens of social and medical science. yet in spiritual and artistic traditions, it has been viewed as having mixed effects. though even within these traditions, there can be warnings not to intentionally seek out chronic loneliness or other afflictions - just advise that if one falls into them, there can be benefits. in western arts, there is a long belief that psychological hardship, including loneliness, can be a source of creativity.[ ] in spiritual traditions, perhaps the most obvious benefit of loneliness is that in can increase the desire for a union with the divine. more esoterically, the psychic wound opened up by loneliness or other afflictions has been said, e.g. by simone weil, to open up space for god to manifest within the soul. in christianity, spiritual dryness has been seen as advantageous as part of the "dark night of the soul", an ordeal that while painful, can result in spiritual transformation.[ ][ ] from a secular perspective, while the vast majority of empirical studies focus on the negative effects of long term loneliness, a few studies have found there can also be benefits, such as enhanced perceptiveness of social situations.[ ][ ] physical health[edit] chronic loneliness can be a serious, life-threatening health condition. it has been found to be strongly associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, though direct causal links have yet to be firmly identified.[ ][ ] people experiencing loneliness tend to have an increased incidence of high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and obesity.[ ] loneliness has been shown to increase the concentration of cortisol levels in the body and weaken the effects dopamine, the hormone that makes people enjoy things.[ ] prolonged, high cortisol levels can cause anxiety, depression, digestive problems, heart disease, sleep problems, and weight gain.[ ] associational studies on loneliness and the immune system have found mixed results, with lower natural killer (nk) cell activity or dampened antibody response to viruses such epstein barr, herpes, and influenza, but either slower or no change to the progression of aids.[ ] death[edit] a systematic review and meta- analyses found a significant association between loneliness and increased mortality. people with good social relationships were found to have a % greater chance of survival compared to lonely people ( odds ratio = . ). in other words, chronic loneliness seems to be a risk factor for death comparable to smoking, and greater than obesity or lack of exercise.[ ] a overview of systematic reviews found other meta-studies with similar findings. however, clear causative links between loneliness and early death have not been firmly established.[ ] mental health[edit] loneliness has been linked with depression, and is thus a risk factor for suicide.[ ] Émile durkheim has described loneliness, specifically the inability or unwillingness to live for others, i.e. for friendships or altruistic ideas, as the main reason for what he called egoistic suicide.[ ][ ] in adults, loneliness is a major precipitant of depression and alcoholism.[ ] people who are socially isolated may report poor sleep quality, and thus have diminished restorative processes.[ ] loneliness has also been linked with a schizoid character type in which one may see the world differently and experience social alienation, described as the self in exile.[ ] while the long-term effects of extended periods of loneliness are little understood, it has been noted that people who are isolated or experience loneliness for a long period of time fall into a "ontological crisis" or "ontological insecurity," where they are not sure if they or their surroundings exist, and if they do, exactly who or what they are, creating torment, suffering, and despair to the point of palpability within the thoughts of the person.[ ][ ] in children, a lack of social connections is directly linked to several forms of antisocial and self-destructive behavior, most notably hostile and delinquent behavior. in both children and adults, loneliness often has a negative impact on learning and memory. its disruption of sleep patterns can have a significant impact on the ability to function in everyday life.[ ] research from a large-scale study published in the journal psychological medicine, showed that "lonely millennials are more likely to have mental health problems, be out of work and feel pessimistic about their ability to succeed in life than their peers who feel connected to others, regardless of gender or wealth".[ ][ ] in , the united states department of justice published a study indicating that loneliness increases suicide rates profoundly among juveniles, with % of all suicides that occurred within juvenile facilities being among those who either were, at the time of the suicide, in solitary confinement or among those with a history of being housed thereof.[ ] pain, depression, and fatigue function as a symptom cluster and thus may share common risk factors. two longitudinal studies with different populations demonstrated that loneliness was a risk factor for the development of the pain, depression, and fatigue symptom cluster over time. these data also highlight the health risks of loneliness; pain, depression, and fatigue often accompany serious illness and place people at risk for poor health and mortality.[ ] the psychiatrist george vaillant and the director of longitudinal study of adult development at harvard university robert j. waldinger found that those who were happiest and healthier reported strong interpersonal relationships.[ ] suicide[edit] loneliness can cause suicidal thoughts (suicidal ideation), attempts at suicide and actual suicide. the extent to which suicides result from loneliness are difficult to determine however, as there are typically several potential causes involved.[ ][ ] in an article written for the american foundation for suicide prevention dr. jeremy noble writes, "you don't have to be a doctor to recognize the connection between loneliness and suicide".[ ] as feelings of loneliness intensify so do thoughts of suicide and attempts at suicide.[ ] the loneliness that triggers suicidal tendencies impacts all facets of society. the samaritans, a nonprofit charity in england, who work with people going through crisis says there is a definite correlation between feelings of loneliness and suicide for juveniles and those in their young adult years.[ ] the office of national statistics, in england, found one of the top ten reasons young people have suicidal idealizations and attempt suicide is because they are lonely.[ ] college students, lonely, away from home, living in new unfamiliar surroundings, away from friends feel isolated and without proper coping skills will turn to suicide as a way to fix the pain of loneliness.[ ] a common theme, among children and young adults dealing with feelings of loneliness is they didn't know help was available, or where to get help. loneliness, to them, is a source of shame.[ ] older people can also struggle with feelings of severe loneliness which lead them to consider acting on thoughts of suicide or self-harm. in some countries, senior citizens appear to commit a high proportion of suicides, though in other countries there is a significantly higher rate for middle-aged men. retirement, poor health, loss of a significant other or other family or friends, all contribute to loneliness. suicides caused by loneliness in older people can be difficult to identify. often they don't have anyone to disclose their feelings of loneliness and the despair it brings. they may stop eating, alter the doses of medications, or choose not to treat an illness as a way to help expedite death so they don't have to deal with feeling lonely.[ ][ ] cultural influences can also cause loneliness leading to suicidal thoughts or actions. for example, hispanic and japanese cultures value interdependence. when a person from one of these cultures feels removed or feels like they can't sustain relationships in their families or society, they start to have negative behaviors, including negative thoughts or acting self-destructively. other cultures, such as in europe, are more independent. while the cause of loneliness in a person may stem from different circumstances or cultural norms, the impact lead to the same results – a desire to end life. society level[edit] high levels of chronic loneliness can also have society wide effects. noreena hertz writes that hannah arendt was the first to discuss the link between loneliness and the politics of intolerance. in her book the origins of totalitarianism arendt argues that loneliness is an essential prerequisite for a totalitarian movement to gain power. hertz sates that the link between an individual's loneliness and their likelihood to vote for a populist political party or candidate has since been supported by several empirical studies. in addition to increasing support for populist policies, hertz argues that a society with high levels of loneliness risks eroding its ability to have effective mutually beneficial politics. partly as loneliness tends to make people more suspicious about each other. and also as some of the ways individuals alleviate loneliness, such as technological or transactional substitutes for human companionship, can reduce peoples political and social skills, such as their ability to compromise and to see other points of view. [ ][ ] [ ] physiological mechanisms link to poor health[edit] there are a number of potential physiological mechanisms linking loneliness to poor health outcomes. in , results from the american framingham heart study demonstrated that lonely men had raised levels of interleukin (il- ), a blood chemical linked to heart disease. a study conducted by the center for cognitive and social neuroscience at the university of chicago found loneliness can add thirty points to a blood pressure reading for adults over the age of fifty. another finding, from a survey conducted by john cacioppo from the university of chicago, is that doctors report providing better medical care to patients who have a strong network of family and friends than they do to patients who are alone. cacioppo states that loneliness impairs cognition and willpower, alters dna transcription in immune cells, and leads over time to high blood pressure.[ ] lonelier people are more likely to show evidence of viral reactivation than less lonely people.[ ] lonelier people also have stronger inflammatory responses to acute stress compared with less lonely people; inflammation is a well known risk factor for age-related diseases.[ ] when someone feels left out of a situation, they feel excluded and one possible side effect is for their body temperature to decrease. when people feel excluded blood vessels at the periphery of the body may narrow, preserving core body heat. this class protective mechanism is known as vasoconstriction.[ ] relief[edit] the reduction of loneliness in oneself and others has long been a motive for human activity and social organisation. for some commentators, such as professor ben lazare mijuskovic, ever since the dawn of civilization, it has been the single strongest motivator for human activity after essential physical needs are satisfied. loneliness is the first negative condition identified in the holy bible, with the book of genesis showing god creating a companion for man to relieve loneliness. nevertheless, there is relatively little direct record of explicit loneliness relief efforts prior to the th century. some commentators including professor rubin gotesky have argued the sense of aloneness was rarely felt until older communal ways of living began to be disrupted by the enlightenment.[ ][ ][ ] starting in the s, and especially in the st century, efforts explicitly aiming to alleviate loneliness became much more common. loneliness reduction efforts occur across multiple disciplines, often by actors for whom loneliness relief is not their primary concern. for example, by commercial firms, civic planers, designers of new housing developments, and university administration. across the world, many department, ngos and even umbrella groups entirely dedicated to loneliness relief have been established. for example, in the uk, the campaign to end loneliness. with loneliness a complex condition, there is no single method that can consistently alleviate it for different individuals; many different approaches are used.[ ][ ][ ] medical treatment[edit] therapy is a common way of treating loneliness. for individuals whose loneliness is caused by factors that respond well to medical intervention, it is often successful. short-term therapy, the most common form for lonely or depressed patients, typically occurs over a period of ten to twenty weeks. during therapy, emphasis is put on understanding the cause of the problem, reversing the negative thoughts, feelings, and attitudes resulting from the problem, and exploring ways to help the patient feel connected. some doctors also recommend group therapy as a means to connect with other sufferers and establish a support system.[ ] doctors also frequently prescribe anti-depressants to patients as a stand-alone treatment, or in conjunction with therapy. it may take several attempts before a suitable anti-depressant medication is found.[ ] doctors often see a high proportion of patients suffering from loneliness; a uk survey found that three-quarters of doctors believed that between - patients visited them each day mainly out of loneliness. there isn't always sufficient funds to pay for therapy, leading to the rise of "social prescription", where doctors can refer patients to ngo and community led solutions such as group activities. while preliminary findings suggest social prescription has good results for some people, the evidence to support its effectiveness is not strong, with commentators advising that for some people it is not a good alternative to medical therapy.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] ngo and community led[edit] along with growing awareness of the problem of loneliness, community led projects explicitly aiming for its relief became more common in the latter half of the th century, with still more starting up in the st. there have been many thousands of such projects across north and south america, europe, asia and africa. some campaigns are run nationally under the control of charities dedicated to loneliness relief, while other efforts may be local projects, sometimes run by a group for which loneliness relief is not their primary objective. for example, housing associations that aim to ensure multi generational living, with social interaction between younger and older people encouraged, in some cases even contractually required. projects range from befriending schemes that facilitate just two people meeting up, to large group activities, which will often have other objectives in addition to loneliness relief. such as having fun, improving physical health with exercise, or participating in conservation efforts.[ ][ ][ ] government[edit] in the uk, the jo cox commission on loneliness began pushing to make tackling loneliness a government priority from . in , this led to great britain becoming the first country in the world to appoint a ministerial lead for loneliness, and to publish an official loneliness reduction strategy. there have since been calls for other countries to appoint their own minister for loneliness, for example in sweden and germany. various other countries had seen government led anti loneliness efforts even before however. for example, in the government of singapore started a scheme to provide allotments to its citizens so they could socialise while working together on them, while the netherlands government set up a telephone line for lonely older people. while governments sometimes directly control loneliness relief efforts, typically they fund or work in partnership with educational institutions, companies and ngos.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] pets[edit] paro, a robot pet seal classified as a medical device by u.s. regulators pet therapy, or animal-assisted therapy, can be used to treat both loneliness and depression. the presence of animal companions, especially dogs, but also others like cats, rabbits, and guinea pigs, can ease feelings of depression and loneliness among some sufferers. beyond the companionship the animal itself provides there may also be increased opportunities for socializing with other pet owners. according to the centers for disease control and prevention there are a number of other health benefits associated with pet ownership, including lowered blood pressure and decreased levels of cholesterol and triglycerides.[ ][ ] technology[edit] technology companies have been advertising their products as helpful for reducing loneliness at least as far back as ; records exist of early telephones being presented as a way for isolated farmers to reduce loneliness. technological solutions for loneliness have been suggested much more frequently since the development of the internet, and especially since loneliness became a more prominent public health issue at around . solutions have been proposed by existing tech companies, and by start-ups dedicated to loneliness reduction.[ ][ ] solutions that has become available since tend to fall under different approaches. ) mindfulness apps that aim to change an individual's attitude towards loneliness, emphasising possible benefits, and trying to shift towards an experience more similar to voluntary solitude. ) apps that warn users when they're starting to spend too much time online, which is based on research findings that moderate use of digital technology can be beneficial, but that excessive time online can increase loneliness. ) apps that help people connect with others, including to arrange real life meetups. ) ai related technologies that provide digital companionship. such companions can be conventionally virtual (having existence only when their application is switched on), can have an independent digital life (their program may run all the time in the cloud, allowing them to interact with the user across different platforms like instagram & twitter in similar ways to how a real human friend might behave), or can have a physical presence like a pepper robot. as far back as the s, some individuals had stated they prefer communicating with the eliza computer program rather than regular human beings. ai driven applications available in the s are considerably more advanced, able to remember previous conversations, with some ability to sense emotional states, and to tailor their interaction accordingly. an example of a start-up working on such technology is edward saatchis fable studio. inspired by the joi character in blade runner , saatchi seeks to create digital friends that can help alleviate loneliness. as they'll be in some senses beyond human, untainted by negative motivators like greed or envy, and with enhanced powers of attention, they may be able to help people be kinder and gentler to others. and so assist with loneliness relief on a society wide level, as well as directly with individuals.[ ][ ][ ][ ] religion[edit] studies have found an association with religion and the reduction of loneliness, especially among the elderly. the studies sometimes include caveats, such as that religions with strong behavioural prescriptions can have isolating effects. in the st century, numerous religious organisations have begun to undertake efforts explicitly focusing on loneliness reduction. religious figures have also played a role in raising awareness of the problem of loneliness, for example, his holy father pope francis said in that loneliness of the old (along with youth unemployment) were the most serious evils of the age.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] others[edit] nostalgia has also been found to have a restorative effect, counteracting loneliness by increasing perceived social support.[ ] vivek murthy has stated that the most generally available cure for loneliness is human connection. murthy argues that regular people have a vital role to play as individuals in reducing loneliness for themselves and others, in part by greater emphases on kindness and on nurturing relationships with others.[ ] effectiveness[edit] professor stella mills has suggested that while social loneliness can be relatively easy to address with group activities and other measures that help build connections between people, effective intervention against emotional loneliness can be more challenging. mills argues that such intervention is more likely to succeed for individuals who are in the early stages of loneliness, before the effects caused by chronic loneliness are deeply engrained.[ ] a meta-study compared the effectiveness of four interventions: improving social skills, enhancing social support, increasing opportunities for social interaction, and addressing abnormal social cognition (faulty patterns of thoughts, such as the hyper-vigilance often caused by chronic loneliness ). the results of the study indicated that all interventions were effective in reducing loneliness, possibly with the exception of social skill training. results of the meta-analysis suggest that correcting maladaptive social cognition offers the best chance of reducing loneliness.[ ] a umbrella review of systematic reviews focussing on the effectiveness of loneliness relief efforts aimed just at older people, also found that those targeting social cognition were most effective.[ ] a overview of systematic reviews concerning the effectiveness of loneliness interventions, found that generally, there is little solid evidence that intervention are effective. though they also found no reason to believe the various types of intervention did any harm, except they cautioned against the excessive use of digital technology. the authors called for more rigorous, best practice compliant research in future studies, and with more attention to the cost of interventions.[ ] history[edit] loneliness has been appeared in literature throughout the ages, as far back as epic of gilgamesh.[ ][ ] yet according to fay bound alberti, it was only around the year that the word began to widely denote a negative condition. earlier dictionary definitions of loneliness equated it with solitude – a state that was often seen as positive, unless taken to excess. from about , the word loneliness began to acquire its modern definition as a painful subjective condition. this may due to economic and social changes arising out the enlightenment. such as alienation and increased interpersonal competition, along with a reduction in the number of people that would enjoy close and enduring connections with the people living in close proximity with them, as may for example have been the case for modernising pastoral villages.[ ][ ] despite growing awareness of the problem of loneliness, widespread social recognition of the problem was limited, and scientific study remained sparse, until the last quarter of the twentieth century. one of the earliest studies of loneliness was published by joseph harold sheldon in .[ ] the book the lonely crowd helped further raise the profile of loneliness among academics. for the general public, awareness was raised by the beatles song "eleanor rigby".[ ] according to eugene garfield, it was robert s. weiss who brought the attention of scientists to the topic of loneliness, with his publication of loneliness: the experience of emotional and social isolation.[ ] before weiss's publication, what few studies of loneliness existed were mostly focussed on older adults. following weis's work, and especially after the publication of the ucla loneliness scale, scientific interest in the topic has broadened and deepened considerably, with tens of thousands of academic studies having been carried to investigate loneliness just among students, with many more focussed on other subgroups, and on whole populations.[ ][ ][ ][ ] concern among the general public over loneliness increased in the decades since "eleanor rigby"'s release; by government-backed anti-loneliness campaigns had been launched in countries including the uk, denmark and australia.[ ] see also[edit] 	"adam's song", a blink- song 	autophobia 	eleanor rigby 	individualism 	interpersonal relationship 	loner 	"modern loneliness", a song by lauv 	pit of despair (animal experiments on isolation) 	schizoid personality disorder 	solitude 	shyness 	social anxiety 	social anxiety disorder 	social isolation notes and references[edit] 	^ a b c d e f g h i j k vivek murthy ( ). together: the healing power of human connection in a sometimes lonely world. harper wave. pp.  – , – , – , passim. isbn  - . 	^ a b c d ben lazare mijuskovic ( ). loneliness in philosophy, psychology, and literature. iuniverse. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ michele a. carter ( ). 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theory 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		theory in social psychology self-categorization theory is a theory in social psychology that describes the circumstances under which a person will perceive collections of people (including themselves) as a group, as well as the consequences of perceiving people in group terms.[ ] although the theory is often introduced as an explanation of psychological group formation (which was one of its early goals), it is more accurately thought of as general analysis of the functioning of categorization processes in social perception and interaction that speaks to issues of individual identity as much as group phenomena.[ ] it was developed by john turner and colleagues, and along with social identity theory it is a constituent part of the social identity approach. it was in part developed to address questions that arose in response to social identity theory about the mechanistic underpinnings of social identification.[ ][ ][ ][ ] self-categorization theory has been influential in the academic field of social psychology and beyond.[ ] it was first applied to the topics of social influence, group cohesion, group polarization, and collective action.[ ] in subsequent years the theory, often as part of the social identity approach, has been applied to further topics such as leadership,[ ][ ] personality,[ ] outgroup homogeneity, and power.[ ] one tenet of the theory is that the self should not be considered as a foundational aspect of cognition, but rather the self should be seen as a product of the cognitive system at work.[ ][ ][ ][ ] contents 	 aspects of the theory 	 . levels of abstraction 	 . . accentuation 	 . depersonalization and self-stereotyping 	 . determinants of categorization 	 . . perceiver readiness 	 . . comparative fit 	 . . normative fit 	 . online category formation 	 . prototypicality 	 implications 	 . social influence 	 . out-group homogeneity 	 controversies 	 . meta-theoretical debate 	 . category hierarchies 	 . motivation in the theory 	 references aspects of the theory[edit] the clear intergroup structure of team sports means that such contexts are often used to illustrate self-categorization theory processes.[ ][ ] levels of abstraction[edit] drawing inspiration from cognitive psychology,[ ][ ][ ] self-categorization theory assumes that the self can be categorized at various levels of abstraction. in other words, humans may categorize the self as a singular "i"(personal identity), or as a more inclusive "we"(social identity). in the latter case the self is cognitively grouped as identical and interchangeable to other stimuli within that category.[ ] it is argued that it is this variation in self categorization that underpins many intergroup phenomena,[ ] including those described in social identity theory.[ ] to demonstrate the notion of varying levels of abstraction and inclusiveness, three types of self category are often given as examples.[ ][ ][ ][ ] the lowest level of abstraction is given as a personal self, where the perceiver self categorizes as "i". a higher level of abstraction corresponds to a social self, where the perceiver self categorizes as "we" in comparison to a salient outgroup (them). a highest level of abstraction is represented by we humans, where the salient outgroup is animals or other non-humans. a common misconception is that these three example categories represent the self categories that humans use. instead, the theory posits that there are innumerable self categories that a perceiver may use (see, online category formation), and in particular that there are a myriad of different personal and social identities that a perceiver may invoke in his or her day-to-day life.[ ][ ] the misconception may also be attributable to the early writing of turner where a singular social identity was contrasted against a singular personal identity.[ ] this however predates the formal statement of self-categorization theory. accentuation[edit] in self-categorization theory, categorizing people does not simply involve the redescription of characteristics and categories present in social stimuli. rather, salient social categories form the basis of a social world that is enriched with meaning. this is achieved through a non-conscious process of accentuation, where differences between social categories are accentuated along with the similarities within social categories.[ ][ ] the resulting augmentation of social content allows the perceiver to interact with others with greater confidence and ease. the accentuation component of self-categorization theory stems from prior research that demonstrated an accentuation effect for categorized non-social stimuli.[ ] a prototypical example of non-social accentuation came from tajfel and wilkes, who found that when a categorization scheme corresponded to line length participants would view lines belonging to different categories as more different than if no categorization scheme was present.[ ] consistent with the idea that an efficient cognitive system would, where possible, use the same systems regardless of the social or non-social nature of the stimuli,[ ] self-categorization theorists have demonstrated similar effects for social stimuli. for example, haslam and turner found that a perceiver would describe another person as more or less similar to themselves as a function of the likely categorization scheme.[ ] depersonalization and self-stereotyping[edit] according to self-categorization theory, depersonalization describes a process of self-stereotyping. this is where, under conditions of social category salience and consequent accentuation, "people come to see themselves more as the interchangeable exemplars of a social category than as unique personalities defined by their differences from others".[ ] under these conditions a perceiver directly bases their behaviour and beliefs on the norms, goals and needs of a salient ingroup.[ ][ ] for example, if a person's salient self-category becomes 'army officer' then that person is more likely to act in terms of the norms associated with that category (e.g. to wear a uniform, follow orders, and distrust an enemy) and less likely to act in terms of other potential self-categories.[ ] here the person can be said to be accentuating the similarities between his or herself and other members of the 'army officers' category. turner and colleagues stress that depersonalization is not a loss of self, but rather a redefinition of the self in terms of group membership.[ ] a depersonalized self, or a social identity, is every bit as valid and meaningful as a personalized self, or personal identity.[ ] a loss of self is sometimes referred to using the alternative term deindividuation. further, although the term depersonalization has been used in clinical psychology to describe a type of disordered experience, this is completely different from depersonalization in the sense intended by self-categorization theory authors. the concept of depersonalization is critical to a range of group phenomena including social influence, social stereotyping, in-group cohesiveness, ethnocentrism, intragroup cooperation, altruism, emotional empathy, and the emergence of social norms.[ ][ ] determinants of categorization[edit] in self-categorization theory the formation and use of a social category in a certain context is predicted by an interaction between perceiver readiness and category-stimulus fit. the latter being broken down into comparative fit and normative fit.[ ][ ] this predictive interaction was heavily influenced by bruner's accessibility and fit formula.[ ][ ] a social category that is currently in use is called a salient social category, and in the case of a self category is called a salient social identity.[ ] the latter should not be confused with level of identification, which is a component of perceiver readiness.[ ] perceiver readiness[edit] perceiver readiness, which turner first described as relative accessibility,[ ] "reflects a person's past experiences, present expectations, and current motives, values, goals and needs".[ ] it is the relevant aspects of cognition that the perceiver brings to the environment. for example, a perceiver who categorizes frequently on the basis of nationality (e.g., "we americans") is, due to that past experience, more likely to formulate a similar self category under new conditions. accordingly, social identification, or the degree to which the group is valued and self-involving, may be thought of as an important factor that affects a person's readiness to use a particular social category.[ ][ ] comparative fit[edit] comparative fit is determined by the meta-contrast principle—which states that people are more likely to believe that a collection of stimuli represents an entity to the degree that the differences between those stimuli are less than the differences between that collection of stimuli and other stimuli.[ ][ ][ ] for predicting whether a group will categorize an individual as an ingroup or outgroup member, the meta-contrast principle may be defined as the ratio of the average similarity of the individual to outgroup members over the average similarity of the individual to ingroup members. the meta-contrast ratio is dependent on the context, or frame of reference, in which the categorization process is occurring.[ ] that is, the ratio is a comparison based on whichever stimuli are cognitively present. for example, if the frame of reference is reduced such that potential outgroup members are no longer cognitively present, ingroup members regard the individual as less similar to the group and are less likely to categorize that individual as belonging to that group. normative fit[edit] normative fit is the extent that the perceived behaviour or attributes of an individual or collection of individuals conforms to the perceiver's knowledge-based expectations.[ ] thus, normative fit is evaluated with reference to the perceiver readiness component of the categorisation process.[ ] as an example of the role of normative fit in categorization, although a collection of individuals may be categorized as an entity on the basis of comparative fit, they are only labelled using the specific social category of "science students" if perceived as hard working. that is, they fit the normative content of that category. online category formation[edit] self-categorization theorists posit "self-categorization is comparative, inherently variable, fluid and context dependent."[ ] they reject the notion that self concepts are stored invariant structures that exist ready for application.[ ] where stability is observed in self perception this is not attributed to stored stable categories, but rather to stability in both the perceiver and the social context in which the perceiver is situated.[ ][ ][ ] this variability is systematic and occurs in response to the changing context in which the perceiver is situated. as an example, the category of psychologists can be perceived quite differently if compared to physicists as opposed to artists (with variation perhaps on how scientific psychologists are perceived to be).[ ] in self-categorization theory contextual changes to the salient social category are sometimes referred to as shifting prototypicality. although the theory accepts that prior categorization behaviour impacts present perception (i.e., as part of perceiver readiness), self-categorization theory has key advantages over descriptions of social categorization where categories are rigid and invariant cognitive structures that are stored in comparative isolation prior to application. one advantage is that this perspective removes the implausibility of storing enough categorical information to account for all the nuanced categorization that humans use daily.[ ][ ][ ] another advantage is that it brings social cognition in line with a connectionist approach to cognition.[ ] the connectionist approach is a neurologically plausible model of cognition where semantic units are not stored, but rather semantic information forms as a consequence of network pattern activation (both current and prior).[ ][ ] prototypicality[edit] in social psychology a category prototype may be thought of as a "representative exemplar" of a category.[ ] self-categorization theory predicts that what is prototypical of a category is contingent on the context in which the category is encountered.[ ] more specifically, when the comparative context changes (i.e., the psychologically available stimuli change) this has implications for how the self category is perceived and the nature of subsequent depersonalization. self-categorization theory predicts that individuals adopt the features of a salient self category (self-stereotyping), and the content of the category they adopt depends on the present comparative context. an individual's degree of prototypicality also varies in relation to changes in the comparative context, and self-categorization theory expects this to have direct implications for interpersonal phenomenon. specifically, prototypicality plays an important role in the social identity approach to leadership,[ ] influence, and interpersonal attraction. for example, on interpersonal attraction, self-categorization theory states that "self and others are evaluated positively to the degree that they are perceived as prototypical (representative, exemplary, etc.) of the next more inclusive (positively valued) self-category of which they are being compared".[ ] levels of individual prototypicality may be gauged using the meta-contrast principle, and indeed it is this purpose the meta-contrast ratio is more often used for.[ ] furthermore, although prototypicality is most often discussed in relation to the perception of individuals within a group, groups may also be assessed in terms of how prototypical they are of a superordinate category.[ ] implications[edit] social influence[edit] main article: social influence self-categorization theory provides an account of social influence.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] this account is sometimes referred to as the theory of referent informational influence.[ ][ ][ ] according to self-categorization theory, as social identities become salient, and depersonalization and self-stereotyping occurs, people adopt the norms, beliefs, and behaviors of fellow ingroup members. they also distance themselves from the norms, beliefs, and behaviors of comparison outgroup members. when someone observes a difference between themselves and a fellow ingroup member that person will experience subjective uncertainty. that uncertainty can be resolved by either a) recategorizing people or the situation to reflect those perceived differences, or b) engaging in a social influence process whereby one person makes changes to become more similar to the other. which person adopts the views or behaviors of the other (i.e. who influences who) is predicted to be that person who is most prototypical of the ingroup. in other words, the person who exemplifies the norms, values, and behaviors of the ingroup the most. the self-categorization theory account of social influence has received a large amount of empirical support.[ ][ ][ ] self-categorization theory's account of social influence differs from other social psychological approaches to social influence. it rejects the traditional distinction between informational influence and normative influence,[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] where informational influence involves the assessment of social information based on its merit and normative influence involves public compliance to the expectations of group members. for self-categorization theory social information does not have merit independent of self-categorization. instead, information is perceived as valid to the extent that it is perceived to be a normative belief of the ingroup. normative influence, on the other hand, is not normative at all. rather, it is counter-normative influence based compliance to expectations of psychological outgroup members. in a similar vein self-categorization theory also challenges the distinction between objective reality testing and social reality testing (e.g. the elaboration likelihood model).[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] it argues that there is no such thing as objective reality testing isolated from social reality testing. sensory data is always interpreted with respect of the beliefs and ideas of the perceiver, which in turn are bound up in the psychological group memberships of that perceiver. out-group homogeneity[edit] main article: out-group homogeneity outgroup homogeneity can be defined as seeing the outgroup members as more homogeneous than ingroup members.[ ] self-categorization accounts for the outgroup homogeneity effect as a function of perceiver motivation and the resultant comparative context,[ ][ ] which is a description of the psychologically available stimuli at any one time. the theory argues that when perceiving an outgroup the psychologically available stimuli include both ingroup and outgroup members. under these conditions the perceiver is more likely to categorize in accordance with ingroup and outgroup memberships and is consequently naturally motivated to accentuate intergroup differences as well as intragroup similarities. conversely, when perceiving an ingroup the outgroup members may not be psychologically available. in such circumstances there is no ingroup-outgroup categorization and thus no accentuation. indeed, accentuation of intragroup differences may occur under these circumstances for the same sense making reasons. in line with this explanation it has been shown that in an intergroup context both the ingroup and outgroup is perceived as more homogeneous, while when judged in isolation the ingroup is perceived as comparatively heterogeneous.[ ][ ] this is also congruent with depersonalization, where under certain circumstances perceivers may see themselves as interchangeable members of the ingroup.[ ] the self-categorization theory eliminates the need to posit differing processing mechanisms for ingroups and outroups, as well as accounting for findings of outgroup homogeneity in the minimal group paradigm.[ ] controversies[edit] meta-theoretical debate[edit] the social identity approach explicitly rejects the metatheory of research that regards limited information processing as the cause of social stereotyping.[ ][ ][ ] specifically, where other researchers adopt the position that stereotyping is second best to other information processing techniques (e.g., individuation), social identity theorists argue that in many contexts a stereotypical perspective is entirely appropriate. moreover, it is argued that in many intergroup contexts to take an individualistic view would be decidedly maladaptive and demonstrate ignorance of important social realities.[ ][ ] category hierarchies[edit] self-categorization theory emphasises the role of category hierarchies in social perception.[ ][ ] that is, much like a biological taxonomy, social groups at lower levels of abstraction are subsumed within social groups at higher levels of abstraction. a useful example comes from the world of team sports, where a particular social group such as manchester united fans may be an ingroup for a perceiver who may compare with a relevant outgroup (e.g., liverpool fans). however, at a higher level of abstraction, both social groups may be subsumed into the singular category of football fans. this is known as a superordinate category, and in this context those liverpool fans once considered outgroup members are now considered fellow ingroup members. the new salient outgroup might instead be rugby fans. awareness of category hierarchies has led to the development of the common ingroup identity model. this model suggests that conflict at one level of abstraction (e.g., between manchester united fans and liverpool fans) might be ameliorated by making salient a more inclusive superordinate ingroup.[ ] it has been noted, however, that very few social groups can be described in hierarchical terms. for example, catholic people in germany cannot be always considered a subordinate category of germans, as there are catholic people throughout the globe. mcgarty proposes that the theory's use of hierarchies as an organizing principle must be relaxed. the alternative proposition is that social psychologists should look to venn-like structures for descriptions of social structure.[ ][ ][ ] the awareness of crossed cutting social categories has allowed for the development of further intergroup conflict reduction strategies.[ ] motivation in the theory[edit] brewer and brown describe self-categorization theory as a "version of social identity theory" that is heavily cognitive and is not attentive to many motivational and affective processes.[ ] turner and reynolds, in response to this style of commentary, counter that describing self-categorization theory as a replacement to social identity theory is an error, and that self-categorization theory was always intended to complement social identity theory.[ ] turner and reynolds also argue that such commentary unreasonably discounts the motivational concerns that are articulated in self-categorization theory.[ ] for example, the motivation to maintain positive self categories and the motivation to achieve ingroup consensus.[ ] references[edit] 	^ haslam, s. a. 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(eds.). blackwell handbook of social psychology. . isbn  - - - - . retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=self-categorization_theory&oldid= " 		categories: 	conceptions of self 	majority–minority relations hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	deutsch 	español 	français 	slovenščina 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 late modernity - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	late modernity 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 not to be confused with late modernism. late modernity (or liquid modernity) is the characterization of today's highly developed global societies as the continuation (or development)[disambiguation needed] of modernity rather than as an element of the succeeding era known as postmodernity, or the postmodern.[citation needed] introduced as "liquid" modernity by the polish-british sociologist zygmunt bauman, late modernity is marked by the global capitalist economies with their increasing privatization of services and by the information revolution.[ ] contents 	 versus postmodernity 	 subjects 	 characteristics 	 see also 	 references 	 . footnotes 	 . bibliography 	 further reading versus postmodernity[edit] social theorists and sociologists such as scott lash, ulrich beck, zygmunt bauman, and anthony giddens maintain (against postmodernists) that modernization continues into the contemporary era, which is thus better conceived as a radical state of late modernity.[ ] on technological and social changes since the s, the concept of "late modernity" proposes that contemporary societies are a clear continuation of modern institutional transitions and cultural developments. such authors talk about a reflexive modernization as post-traditional order which impact day-to-day social life and personal activities.[ ] modernity now tends to be self-referring, instead of being defined largely in opposition to traditionalism, as with classical modernity. giddens does not dispute that important changes have occurred since "high" modernity, but he argues that we have not truly abandoned modernity. rather, the modernity of contemporary society is a developed, radicalized, "late" modernity—but still modernity, not postmodernity. in such a perspective, postmodernism appears only as a hyper-technological version of modernity.[ ] subjects[edit] the subject is constructed in late modernity against the backdrop of a fragmented world of competing and contrasting identities[ ] and lifestyle cultures.[ ] the framing matrix of the late modern personality is the ambiguous way the fluid social relations of late modernity impinge on the individual, producing a reflexive and multiple self.[ ] characteristics[edit] zygmunt bauman, who introduced the idea of liquid modernity, wrote that its characteristics are about the individual, namely increasing feelings of uncertainty and the privatization of ambivalence. it is a kind of chaotic continuation of modernity, where a person can shift from one social position to another in a fluid manner. nomadism becomes a general trait of the "liquid modern" person as she or he flows through her or his own life like a tourist, changing places, jobs, spouses, values, and sometimes more—such as political or sexual orientation—excluding her- or himself from traditional networks of support, while also freeing her- or himself from the restrictions or requirements those networks impose. bauman stressed the new burden of responsibility that fluid modernism placed on the individual—traditional patterns would be replaced by self-chosen ones.[ ] entry into the globalized society was open to anyone with their own stance and the ability to fund it, in a similar way as was the reception of travellers at the old-fashioned caravanserai.[ ] the result is a normative mindset with emphasis on shifting rather than on staying—on provisional in lieu of permanent (or "solid") commitment—which (the new style) can lead a person astray towards a prison of their own existential creation.[ ] see also[edit] 	society portal 	information society 	neoliberalism 	network society 	post-industrial society 	second modernity references[edit] footnotes[edit] 	^ harris , p.  . 	^ van den herrewegen , p.  . 	^ giddens . 	^ appignanesi & garratt , pp.  , . 	^ craik , p.  . 	^ toffoletti , p.  . 	^ mandalios , p.  . 	^ bauman , p.  . 	^ bauman , p.  . 	^ brown , pp.  , ; phillips , p.  . bibliography[edit] 	appignanesi, richard; garratt, chris ( ). postmodernism for beginners. cambridge.cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	bauman, zygmunt ( ). liquid modernity.cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	brown, richard ( ). "highway and other american states of mind". in corcoran, neil (ed.). do you mr jones? bob dylan with the poets and professors. london.cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	craik, jennifer ( ). the face of fashion: cultural studies in fashion. london: routledge. doi: . / . isbn  - - - - . retrieved august .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	giddens, anthony ( ). modernity and self-identity: self and society in the late modern age. stanford, california: stanford university press. isbn  - - - - .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	harris, anita ( ). future girl: young women in the twenty-first century.cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	mandalios, john ( ). civilization and the human subject.cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	phillips, adam ( ). on flirtation. london.cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	toffoletti, kim ( ). baudrillard reframed. london.cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	van den herrewegen, evelien ( ). "'safety: everybody's concern, everybody's duty"? questioning the significance of 'active citizenship' and 'social cohesion' for people's perception of safety". in cools, marc; de ruyver, brice; easton, marlene; pauwels, lieven; ponsaers, paul; vande walle, gudrun; vander beken, tom; vander laenen, freya; vermeulen, gert; vynckier, gerwinde (eds.). safety, societal problems and citizens' perceptions: new empirical data, theories and analyses. antwerp, belgium: maklu. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - .cs maint: ref=harv (link) further reading[edit] 	beck, ulrich ( ). risk society: towards a new modernity. translated by ritter, mark. london: sage publications. isbn  - - - - . 	beck, ulrich; giddens, anthony; lash, scott ( ). reflexive modernization: politics, tradition and aesthetics in the modern social order. stanford, california: stanford university press. isbn  - - - - . 	giddens, anthony ( ). the consequences of modernity. cambridge, england: polity press. isbn  - - - - . 	lash, scott ( ). sociology of postmodernism. london: routledge. doi: . / . isbn  - - - - . 		v 	t 	e modernism 	milestones	 	le déjeuner sur l’herbe ( – ) 	olympia ( ) 	a sunday afternoon on the island of la grande jatte ( ) 	mont sainte-victoir ( ) 	the starry night ( ) 	ubu roi ( ) 	verklärte nacht ( ) 	le bonheur de vivre ( – ) 	les demoiselles d'avignon ( ) 	the dance ( – ) 	the firebird ( ) 	afternoon of a faun ( ) 	nude descending a staircase, no. 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trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 prisoner's dilemma - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	prisoner's dilemma 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from prisoner's dilemma) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for other uses, see prisoner's dilemma (disambiguation). not to be confused with three prisoners problem. canonical example of a game analyzed in game theory prisoner's dilemma payoff matrix 	b a 	b stays silent 	b betrays 	a stays silent 	- - 	 - 	a betrays 	- 	- - the prisoner's dilemma is a standard example of a game analyzed in game theory that shows why two completely rational individuals might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interests to do so. it was originally framed by merrill flood and melvin dresher while working at rand in . albert w. tucker formalized the game with prison sentence rewards and named it "prisoner's dilemma",[ ] presenting it as follows: two members of a criminal gang are arrested and imprisoned. each prisoner is in solitary confinement with no means of communicating with the other. the prosecutors lack sufficient evidence to convict the pair on the principal charge, but they have enough to convict both on a lesser charge. simultaneously, the prosecutors offer each prisoner a bargain. each prisoner is given the opportunity either to betray the other by testifying that the other committed the crime, or to cooperate with the other by remaining silent. the possible outcomes are: 	if a and b each betray the other, each of them serves two years in prison 	if a betrays b but b remains silent, a will be set free and b will serve three years in prison 	if a remains silent but b betrays a, a will serve three years in prison and b will be set free 	if a and b both remain silent, both of them will serve only one year in prison (on the lesser charge). it is implied that the prisoners will have no opportunity to reward or punish their partner other than the prison sentences they get and that their decision will not affect their reputation in the future. because betraying a partner offers a greater reward than cooperating with them, all purely rational self-interested prisoners will betray the other, meaning the only possible outcome for two purely rational prisoners is for them to betray each other.[ ] in reality, humans display a systemic bias towards cooperative behavior in this and similar games despite what is predicted by simple models of "rational" self-interested action.[ ][ ][ ][ ] this bias towards cooperation has been known since the test was first conducted at rand; the secretaries involved trusted each other and worked together for the best common outcome.[ ] the prisoner's dilemma became the focus of extensive experimental research.[ ][ ] an extended "iterated" version of the game also exists. in this version, the classic game is played repeatedly between the same prisoners, who continuously have the opportunity to penalize the other for previous decisions. if the number of times the game will be played is known to the players, then (by backward induction) two classically rational players will betray each other repeatedly, for the same reasons as the single-shot variant. in an infinite or unknown length game there is no fixed optimum strategy, and prisoner's dilemma tournaments have been held to compete and test algorithms for such cases.[ ] the prisoner's dilemma game can be used as a model for many real world situations involving cooperative behavior. in casual usage, the label "prisoner's dilemma" may be applied to situations not strictly matching the formal criteria of the classic or iterative games: for instance, those in which two entities could gain important benefits from cooperating or suffer from the failure to do so, but find it difficult or expensive—not necessarily impossible—to coordinate their activities. contents 	 strategy for the prisoner's dilemma 	 generalized form 	 . special case: donation game 	 the iterated prisoner's dilemma 	 . strategy for the iterated prisoner's dilemma 	 . stochastic iterated prisoner's dilemma 	 . . zero-determinant strategies 	 . continuous iterated prisoner's dilemma 	 . emergence of stable strategies 	 real-life examples 	 . environmental studies 	 . animals 	 . psychology 	 . economics 	 . sport 	 . international politics 	 . multiplayer dilemmas 	 related games 	 . closed-bag exchange 	 . friend or foe? 	 . iterated snowdrift 	 . coordination games 	 . asymmetric prisoner's dilemmas 	 software 	 in fiction 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links strategy for the prisoner's dilemma[edit] two prisoners are separated into individual rooms and cannot communicate with each other. the normal game is shown below: 	prisoner b prisoner a 	prisoner b stays silent (cooperates)	prisoner b betrays (defects) 	prisoner a stays silent (cooperates) 	each serves year	prisoner a: years prisoner b: goes free 	prisoner a betrays (defects) 	prisoner a: goes free prisoner b: years	each serves years it is assumed that both prisoners understand the nature of the game, have no loyalty to each other, and will have no opportunity for retribution or reward outside the game. regardless of what the other decides, each prisoner gets a higher reward by betraying the other ("defecting"). the reasoning involves an argument by dilemma: b will either cooperate or defect. if b cooperates, a should defect, because going free is better than serving year. if b defects, a should also defect, because serving years is better than serving . so either way, a should defect. parallel reasoning will show that b should defect. because defection always results in a better payoff than cooperation regardless of the other player's choice, it is a dominant strategy. mutual defection is the only strong nash equilibrium in the game (i.e. the only outcome from which each player could only do worse by unilaterally changing strategy). the dilemma, then, is that mutual cooperation yields a better outcome than mutual defection but is not the rational outcome because the choice to cooperate, from a self-interested perspective, is irrational. generalized form[edit] the structure of the traditional prisoner's dilemma can be generalized from its original prisoner setting. suppose that the two players are represented by the colors red and blue, and that each player chooses to either "cooperate" or "defect". if both players cooperate, they both receive the reward r for cooperating. if both players defect, they both receive the punishment payoff p. if blue defects while red cooperates, then blue receives the temptation payoff t, while red receives the "sucker's" payoff, s. similarly, if blue cooperates while red defects, then blue receives the sucker's payoff s, while red receives the temptation payoff t. this can be expressed in normal form: canonical pd payoff matrix 	red blue 	cooperate 	defect 	cooperate 	r r 	t s 	defect 	s t 	p p and to be a prisoner's dilemma game in the strong sense, the following condition must hold for the payoffs: 	 t > r > p > s {\displaystyle t>r>p>s} the payoff relationship r > p {\displaystyle r>p} implies that mutual cooperation is superior to mutual defection, while the payoff relationships t > r {\displaystyle t>r} and p > s {\displaystyle p>s} imply that defection is the dominant strategy for both agents. special case: donation game[edit] the "donation game"[ ] is a form of prisoner's dilemma in which cooperation corresponds to offering the other player a benefit b at a personal cost c with b > c. defection means offering nothing. the payoff matrix is thus 	red blue 	cooperate 	defect 	cooperate 	b−c b−c 	b −c 	defect 	−c b 	 note that r > t + s {\displaystyle r>t+s} (i.e. ( b − c ) > b − c {\displaystyle (b-c)>b-c} ) which qualifies the donation game to be an iterated game (see next section). the donation game may be applied to markets. suppose x grows oranges, y grows apples. the marginal utility of an apple to the orange-grower x is b, which is higher than the marginal utility (c) of an orange, since x has a surplus of oranges and no apples. similarly, for apple-grower y, the marginal utility of an orange is b while the marginal utility of an apple is c. if x and y contract to exchange an apple and an orange, and each fulfills their end of the deal, then each receive a payoff of b-c. if one "defects" and does not deliver as promised, the defector will receive a payoff of b, while the cooperator will lose c. if both defect, then neither one gains or loses anything. the iterated prisoner's dilemma[edit] 	 	this section needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (november ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) if two players play prisoner's dilemma more than once in succession and they remember previous actions of their opponent and change their strategy accordingly, the game is called iterated prisoner's dilemma. in addition to the general form above, the iterative version also requires that r > t + s {\displaystyle r>t+s} , to prevent alternating cooperation and defection giving a greater reward than mutual cooperation. the iterated prisoner's dilemma game is fundamental to some theories of human cooperation and trust. on the assumption that the game can model transactions between two people requiring trust, cooperative behaviour in populations may be modeled by a multi-player, iterated, version of the game. it has, consequently, fascinated many scholars over the years. in , grofman and pool estimated the count of scholarly articles devoted to it at over , . the iterated prisoner's dilemma has also been referred to as the "peace-war game".[ ] if the game is played exactly n times and both players know this, then it is optimal to defect in all rounds. the only possible nash equilibrium is to always defect. the proof is inductive: one might as well defect on the last turn, since the opponent will not have a chance to later retaliate. therefore, both will defect on the last turn. thus, the player might as well defect on the second-to-last turn, since the opponent will defect on the last no matter what is done, and so on. the same applies if the game length is unknown but has a known upper limit. unlike the standard prisoner's dilemma, in the iterated prisoner's dilemma the defection strategy is counter-intuitive and fails badly to predict the behavior of human players. within standard economic theory, though, this is the only correct answer. the superrational strategy in the iterated prisoner's dilemma with fixed n is to cooperate against a superrational opponent, and in the limit of large n, experimental results on strategies agree with the superrational version, not the game-theoretic rational one. for cooperation to emerge between game theoretic rational players, the total number of rounds n must be unknown to the players. in this case "always defect" may no longer be a strictly dominant strategy, only a nash equilibrium. amongst results shown by robert aumann in a paper, rational players repeatedly interacting for indefinitely long games can sustain the cooperative outcome. according to a experimental study in the american economic review which tested what strategies real-life subjects used in iterated prisoners' dilemma situations with perfect monitoring, the majority of chosen strategies were always defect, tit-for-tat, and grim trigger. which strategy the subjects chose depended on the parameters of the game.[ ] strategy for the iterated prisoner's dilemma[edit] interest in the iterated prisoner's dilemma (ipd) was kindled by robert axelrod in his book the evolution of cooperation ( ). in it he reports on a tournament he organized of the n step prisoner's dilemma (with n fixed) in which participants have to choose their mutual strategy again and again, and have memory of their previous encounters. axelrod invited academic colleagues all over the world to devise computer strategies to compete in an ipd tournament. the programs that were entered varied widely in algorithmic complexity, initial hostility, capacity for forgiveness, and so forth. axelrod discovered that when these encounters were repeated over a long period of time with many players, each with different strategies, greedy strategies tended to do very poorly in the long run while more altruistic strategies did better, as judged purely by self-interest. he used this to show a possible mechanism for the evolution of altruistic behaviour from mechanisms that are initially purely selfish, by natural selection. the winning deterministic strategy was tit for tat, which anatol rapoport developed and entered into the tournament. it was the simplest of any program entered, containing only four lines of basic, and won the contest. the strategy is simply to cooperate on the first iteration of the game; after that, the player does what his or her opponent did on the previous move. depending on the situation, a slightly better strategy can be "tit for tat with forgiveness". when the opponent defects, on the next move, the player sometimes cooperates anyway, with a small probability (around – %). this allows for occasional recovery from getting trapped in a cycle of defections. the exact probability depends on the line-up of opponents. by analysing the top-scoring strategies, axelrod stated several conditions necessary for a strategy to be successful. 	nice 	the most important condition is that the strategy must be "nice", that is, it will not defect before its opponent does (this is sometimes referred to as an "optimistic" algorithm). almost all of the top-scoring strategies were nice; therefore, a purely selfish strategy will not "cheat" on its opponent, for purely self-interested reasons first. 	retaliating 	however, axelrod contended, the successful strategy must not be a blind optimist. it must sometimes retaliate. an example of a non-retaliating strategy is always cooperate. this is a very bad choice, as "nasty" strategies will ruthlessly exploit such players. 	forgiving 	successful strategies must also be forgiving. though players will retaliate, they will once again fall back to cooperating if the opponent does not continue to defect. this stops long runs of revenge and counter-revenge, maximizing points. 	non-envious 	the last quality is being non-envious, that is not striving to score more than the opponent. the optimal (points-maximizing) strategy for the one-time pd game is simply defection; as explained above, this is true whatever the composition of opponents may be. however, in the iterated-pd game the optimal strategy depends upon the strategies of likely opponents, and how they will react to defections and cooperations. for example, consider a population where everyone defects every time, except for a single individual following the tit for tat strategy. that individual is at a slight disadvantage because of the loss on the first turn. in such a population, the optimal strategy for that individual is to defect every time. in a population with a certain percentage of always-defectors and the rest being tit for tat players, the optimal strategy for an individual depends on the percentage, and on the length of the game. in the strategy called pavlov, win-stay, lose-switch, faced with a failure to cooperate, the player switches strategy the next turn.[ ] in certain circumstances,[specify] pavlov beats all other strategies by giving preferential treatment to co-players using a similar strategy. deriving the optimal strategy is generally done in two ways: 	bayesian nash equilibrium: if the statistical distribution of opposing strategies can be determined (e.g. % tit for tat, % always cooperate) an optimal counter-strategy can be derived analytically.[a] 	monte carlo simulations of populations have been made, where individuals with low scores die off, and those with high scores reproduce (a genetic algorithm for finding an optimal strategy). the mix of algorithms in the final population generally depends on the mix in the initial population. the introduction of mutation (random variation during reproduction) lessens the dependency on the initial population; empirical experiments with such systems tend to produce tit for tat players (see for instance chess ),[clarification needed] but no analytic proof exists that this will always occur.[ ] although tit for tat is considered to be the most robust basic strategy, a team from southampton university in england introduced a new strategy at the th-anniversary iterated prisoner's dilemma competition, which proved to be more successful than tit for tat. this strategy relied on collusion between programs to achieve the highest number of points for a single program. the university submitted programs to the competition, which were designed to recognize each other through a series of five to ten moves at the start.[ ] once this recognition was made, one program would always cooperate and the other would always defect, assuring the maximum number of points for the defector. if the program realized that it was playing a non-southampton player, it would continuously defect in an attempt to minimize the score of the competing program. as a result, the prisoners' dilemma tournament results show university of southampton's strategies in the first three places, despite having fewer wins and many more losses than the grim strategy. (in a pd tournament, the aim of the game is not to "win" matches – that can easily be achieved by frequent defection). also, even without implicit collusion between software strategies (exploited by the southampton team) tit for tat is not always the absolute winner of any given tournament; it would be more precise to say that its long run results over a series of tournaments outperform its rivals. (in any one event a given strategy can be slightly better adjusted to the competition than tit for tat, but tit for tat is more robust). the same applies for the tit for tat with forgiveness variant, and other optimal strategies: on any given day they might not "win" against a specific mix of counter-strategies. an alternative way of putting it is using the darwinian ess simulation. in such a simulation, tit for tat will almost always come to dominate, though nasty strategies will drift in and out of the population because a tit for tat population is penetrable by non-retaliating nice strategies, which in turn are easy prey for the nasty strategies. richard dawkins showed that here, no static mix of strategies form a stable equilibrium and the system will always oscillate between bounds.}} this strategy ended up taking the top three positions in the competition, as well as a number of positions towards the bottom. this strategy takes advantage of the fact that multiple entries were allowed in this particular competition and that the performance of a team was measured by that of the highest-scoring player (meaning that the use of self-sacrificing players was a form of minmaxing). in a competition where one has control of only a single player, tit for tat is certainly a better strategy. because of this new rule, this competition also has little theoretical significance when analyzing single agent strategies as compared to axelrod's seminal tournament. however, it provided a basis for analysing how to achieve cooperative strategies in multi-agent frameworks, especially in the presence of noise. in fact, long before this new-rules tournament was played, dawkins, in his book the selfish gene, pointed out the possibility of such strategies winning if multiple entries were allowed, but he remarked that most probably axelrod would not have allowed them if they had been submitted. it also relies on circumventing rules about the prisoner's dilemma in that there is no communication allowed between the two players, which the southampton programs arguably did with their opening "ten move dance" to recognize one another; this only reinforces just how valuable communication can be in shifting the balance of the game. stochastic iterated prisoner's dilemma[edit] in a stochastic iterated prisoner's dilemma game, strategies are specified by in terms of "cooperation probabilities".[ ] in an encounter between player x and player y, x 's strategy is specified by a set of probabilities p of cooperating with y. p is a function of the outcomes of their previous encounters or some subset thereof. if p is a function of only their most recent n encounters, it is called a "memory-n" strategy. a memory- strategy is then specified by four cooperation probabilities: p = { p c c , p c d , p d c , p d d } {\displaystyle p=\{p_{cc},p_{cd},p_{dc},p_{dd}\}} , where p a b {\displaystyle p_{ab}} is the probability that x will cooperate in the present encounter given that the previous encounter was characterized by (ab). for example, if the previous encounter was one in which x cooperated and y defected, then p c d {\displaystyle p_{cd}} is the probability that x will cooperate in the present encounter. if each of the probabilities are either or , the strategy is called deterministic. an example of a deterministic strategy is the tit for tat strategy written as p={ , , , }, in which x responds as y did in the previous encounter. another is the win–stay, lose–switch strategy written as p={ , , , }, in which x responds as in the previous encounter, if it was a "win" (i.e. cc or dc) but changes strategy if it was a loss (i.e. cd or dd). it has been shown that for any memory-n strategy there is a corresponding memory- strategy which gives the same statistical results, so that only memory- strategies need be considered.[ ] if we define p as the above -element strategy vector of x and q = { q c c , q c d , q d c , q d d } {\displaystyle q=\{q_{cc},q_{cd},q_{dc},q_{dd}\}} as the -element strategy vector of y, a transition matrix m may be defined for x whose ij th entry is the probability that the outcome of a particular encounter between x and y will be j given that the previous encounter was i, where i and j are one of the four outcome indices: cc, cd, dc, or dd. for example, from x 's point of view, the probability that the outcome of the present encounter is cd given that the previous encounter was cd is equal to m c d , c d = p c d ( − q d c ) {\displaystyle m_{cd,cd}=p_{cd}( -q_{dc})} . (the indices for q are from y 's point of view: a cd outcome for x is a dc outcome for y.) under these definitions, the iterated prisoner's dilemma qualifies as a stochastic process and m is a stochastic matrix, allowing all of the theory of stochastic processes to be applied.[ ] one result of stochastic theory is that there exists a stationary vector v for the matrix m such that v ⋅ m = v {\displaystyle v\cdot m=v} . without loss of generality, it may be specified that v is normalized so that the sum of its four components is unity. the ij th entry in m n {\displaystyle m^{n}} will give the probability that the outcome of an encounter between x and y will be j given that the encounter n steps previous is i. in the limit as n approaches infinity, m will converge to a matrix with fixed values, giving the long-term probabilities of an encounter producing j which will be independent of i. in other words, the rows of m ∞ {\displaystyle m^{\infty }} will be identical, giving the long-term equilibrium result probabilities of the iterated prisoners dilemma without the need to explicitly evaluate a large number of interactions. it can be seen that v is a stationary vector for m n {\displaystyle m^{n}} and particularly m ∞ {\displaystyle m^{\infty }} , so that each row of m ∞ {\displaystyle m^{\infty }} will be equal to v. thus the stationary vector specifies the equilibrium outcome probabilities for x. defining s x = { r , s , t , p } {\displaystyle s_{x}=\{r,s,t,p\}} and s y = { r , t , s , p } {\displaystyle s_{y}=\{r,t,s,p\}} as the short-term payoff vectors for the {cc,cd,dc,dd} outcomes (from x 's point of view), the equilibrium payoffs for x and y can now be specified as s x = v ⋅ s x {\displaystyle s_{x}=v\cdot s_{x}} and s y = v ⋅ s y {\displaystyle s_{y}=v\cdot s_{y}} , allowing the two strategies p and q to be compared for their long term payoffs. zero-determinant strategies[edit] the relationship between zero-determinant (zd), cooperating and defecting strategies in the iterated prisoner's dilemma (ipd) illustrated in a venn diagram. cooperating strategies always cooperate with other cooperating strategies, and defecting strategies always defect against other defecting strategies. both contain subsets of strategies that are robust under strong selection, meaning no other memory- strategy is selected to invade such strategies when they are resident in a population. only cooperating strategies contain a subset that are always robust, meaning that no other memory- strategy is selected to invade and replace such strategies, under both strong and weak selection. the intersection between zd and good cooperating strategies is the set of generous zd strategies. extortion strategies are the intersection between zd and non-robust defecting strategies. tit-for-tat lies at the intersection of cooperating, defecting and zd strategies. in , william h. press and freeman dyson published a new class of strategies for the stochastic iterated prisoner's dilemma called "zero-determinant" (zd) strategies.[ ] the long term payoffs for encounters between x and y can be expressed as the determinant of a matrix which is a function of the two strategies and the short term payoff vectors: s x = d ( p , q , s x ) {\displaystyle s_{x}=d(p,q,s_{x})} and s y = d ( p , q , s y ) {\displaystyle s_{y}=d(p,q,s_{y})} , which do not involve the stationary vector v. since the determinant function s y = d ( p , q , f ) {\displaystyle s_{y}=d(p,q,f)} is linear in f, it follows that α s x + β s y + γ = d ( p , q , α s x + β s y + γ u ) {\displaystyle \alpha s_{x}+\beta s_{y}+\gamma =d(p,q,\alpha s_{x}+\beta s_{y}+\gamma u)} (where u={ , , , }). any strategies for which d ( p , q , α s x + β s y + γ u ) = {\displaystyle d(p,q,\alpha s_{x}+\beta s_{y}+\gamma u)= } is by definition a zd strategy, and the long term payoffs obey the relation α s x + β s y + γ = {\displaystyle \alpha s_{x}+\beta s_{y}+\gamma = } . tit-for-tat is a zd strategy which is "fair" in the sense of not gaining advantage over the other player. however, the zd space also contains strategies that, in the case of two players, can allow one player to unilaterally set the other player's score or alternatively, force an evolutionary player to achieve a payoff some percentage lower than his own. the extorted player could defect but would thereby hurt himself by getting a lower payoff. thus, extortion solutions turn the iterated prisoner's dilemma into a sort of ultimatum game. specifically, x is able to choose a strategy for which d ( p , q , β s y + γ u ) = {\displaystyle d(p,q,\beta s_{y}+\gamma u)= } , unilaterally setting s y {\displaystyle s_{y}} to a specific value within a particular range of values, independent of y 's strategy, offering an opportunity for x to "extort" player y (and vice versa). (it turns out that if x tries to set s x {\displaystyle s_{x}} to a particular value, the range of possibilities is much smaller, only consisting of complete cooperation or complete defection.[ ]) an extension of the ipd is an evolutionary stochastic ipd, in which the relative abundance of particular strategies is allowed to change, with more successful strategies relatively increasing. this process may be accomplished by having less successful players imitate the more successful strategies, or by eliminating less successful players from the game, while multiplying the more successful ones. it has been shown that unfair zd strategies are not evolutionarily stable. the key intuition is that an evolutionarily stable strategy must not only be able to invade another population (which extortionary zd strategies can do) but must also perform well against other players of the same type (which extortionary zd players do poorly, because they reduce each other's surplus).[ ] theory and simulations confirm that beyond a critical population size, zd extortion loses out in evolutionary competition against more cooperative strategies, and as a result, the average payoff in the population increases when the population is larger. in addition, there are some cases in which extortioners may even catalyze cooperation by helping to break out of a face-off between uniform defectors and win–stay, lose–switch agents.[ ] while extortionary zd strategies are not stable in large populations, another zd class called "generous" strategies is both stable and robust. in fact, when the population is not too small, these strategies can supplant any other zd strategy and even perform well against a broad array of generic strategies for iterated prisoner's dilemma, including win–stay, lose–switch. this was proven specifically for the donation game by alexander stewart and joshua plotkin in .[ ] generous strategies will cooperate with other cooperative players, and in the face of defection, the generous player loses more utility than its rival. generous strategies are the intersection of zd strategies and so-called "good" strategies, which were defined by akin ( )[ ] to be those for which the player responds to past mutual cooperation with future cooperation and splits expected payoffs equally if he receives at least the cooperative expected payoff. among good strategies, the generous (zd) subset performs well when the population is not too small. if the population is very small, defection strategies tend to dominate.[ ] continuous iterated prisoner's dilemma[edit] most work on the iterated prisoner's dilemma has focused on the discrete case, in which players either cooperate or defect, because this model is relatively simple to analyze. however, some researchers have looked at models of the continuous iterated prisoner's dilemma, in which players are able to make a variable contribution to the other player. le and boyd[ ] found that in such situations, cooperation is much harder to evolve than in the discrete iterated prisoner's dilemma. the basic intuition for this result is straightforward: in a continuous prisoner's dilemma, if a population starts off in a non-cooperative equilibrium, players who are only marginally more cooperative than non-cooperators get little benefit from assorting with one another. by contrast, in a discrete prisoner's dilemma, tit for tat cooperators get a big payoff boost from assorting with one another in a non-cooperative equilibrium, relative to non-cooperators. since nature arguably offers more opportunities for variable cooperation rather than a strict dichotomy of cooperation or defection, the continuous prisoner's dilemma may help explain why real-life examples of tit for tat-like cooperation are extremely rare in nature (ex. hammerstein[ ]) even though tit for tat seems robust in theoretical models. emergence of stable strategies[edit] players cannot seem to coordinate mutual cooperation, thus often get locked into the inferior yet stable strategy of defection. in this way, iterated rounds facilitate the evolution of stable strategies.[ ] iterated rounds often produce novel strategies, which have implications to complex social interaction. one such strategy is win-stay lose-shift. this strategy outperforms a simple tit-for-tat strategy – that is, if you can get away with cheating, repeat that behavior, however if you get caught, switch.[ ] the only problem of this tit-for-tat strategy is that they are vulnerable to signal error. the problem arises when one individual cheats in retaliation but the other interprets it as cheating. as a result of this, the second individual now cheats and then it starts a see-saw pattern of cheating in a chain reaction. real-life examples[edit] the prisoner setting may seem contrived, but there are in fact many examples in human interaction as well as interactions in nature that have the same payoff matrix. the prisoner's dilemma is therefore of interest to the social sciences such as economics, politics, and sociology, as well as to the biological sciences such as ethology and evolutionary biology. many natural processes have been abstracted into models in which living beings are engaged in endless games of prisoner's dilemma. this wide applicability of the pd gives the game its substantial importance. environmental studies[edit] in environmental studies, the pd is evident in crises such as global climate-change. it is argued all countries will benefit from a stable climate, but any single country is often hesitant to curb co emissions. the immediate benefit to any one country from maintaining current behavior is wrongly perceived to be greater than the purported eventual benefit to that country if all countries' behavior was changed, therefore explaining the impasse concerning climate-change in .[ ] an important difference between climate-change politics and the prisoner's dilemma is uncertainty; the extent and pace at which pollution can change climate is not known. the dilemma faced by government is therefore different from the prisoner's dilemma in that the payoffs of cooperation are unknown. this difference suggests that states will cooperate much less than in a real iterated prisoner's dilemma, so that the probability of avoiding a possible climate catastrophe is much smaller than that suggested by a game-theoretical analysis of the situation using a real iterated prisoner's dilemma.[ ] osang and nandy ( ) provide a theoretical explanation with proofs for a regulation-driven win-win situation along the lines of michael porter's hypothesis, in which government regulation of competing firms is substantial.[ ] animals[edit] cooperative behavior of many animals can be understood as an example of the prisoner's dilemma. often animals engage in long term partnerships, which can be more specifically modeled as iterated prisoner's dilemma. for example, guppies inspect predators cooperatively in groups, and they are thought to punish non-cooperative inspectors. vampire bats are social animals that engage in reciprocal food exchange. applying the payoffs from the prisoner's dilemma can help explain this behavior:[ ] 	c/c: "reward: i get blood on my unlucky nights, which saves me from starving. i have to give blood on my lucky nights, which doesn't cost me too much." 	d/c: "temptation: you save my life on my poor night. but then i get the added benefit of not having to pay the slight cost of feeding you on my good night." 	c/d: "sucker's payoff: i pay the cost of saving your life on my good night. but on my bad night you don't feed me and i run a real risk of starving to death." 	d/d: "punishment: i don't have to pay the slight costs of feeding you on my good nights. but i run a real risk of starving on my poor nights." psychology[edit] in addiction research / behavioral economics, george ainslie points out[ ] that addiction can be cast as an intertemporal pd problem between the present and future selves of the addict. in this case, defecting means relapsing, and it is easy to see that not defecting both today and in the future is by far the best outcome. the case where one abstains today but relapses in the future is the worst outcome – in some sense the discipline and self-sacrifice involved in abstaining today have been "wasted" because the future relapse means that the addict is right back where he started and will have to start over (which is quite demoralizing, and makes starting over more difficult). relapsing today and tomorrow is a slightly "better" outcome, because while the addict is still addicted, they haven't put the effort in to trying to stop. the final case, where one engages in the addictive behavior today while abstaining "tomorrow" will be familiar to anyone who has struggled with an addiction. the problem here is that (as in other pds) there is an obvious benefit to defecting "today", but tomorrow one will face the same pd, and the same obvious benefit will be present then, ultimately leading to an endless string of defections. john gottman in his research described in "the science of trust" defines good relationships as those where partners know not to enter the (d,d) cell or at least not to get dynamically stuck there in a loop. economics[edit] the prisoner's dilemma has been called the e. coli of social psychology, and it has been used widely to research various topics such as oligopolistic competition and collective action to produce a collective good.[ ] advertising is sometimes cited as a real-example of the prisoner's dilemma. when cigarette advertising was legal in the united states, competing cigarette manufacturers had to decide how much money to spend on advertising. the effectiveness of firm a's advertising was partially determined by the advertising conducted by firm b. likewise, the profit derived from advertising for firm b is affected by the advertising conducted by firm a. if both firm a and firm b chose to advertise during a given period, then the advertisement from each firm negates the other's, receipts remain constant, and expenses increase due to the cost of advertising. both firms would benefit from a reduction in advertising. however, should firm b choose not to advertise, firm a could benefit greatly by advertising. nevertheless, the optimal amount of advertising by one firm depends on how much advertising the other undertakes. as the best strategy is dependent on what the other firm chooses there is no dominant strategy, which makes it slightly different from a prisoner's dilemma. the outcome is similar, though, in that both firms would be better off were they to advertise less than in the equilibrium. sometimes cooperative behaviors do emerge in business situations. for instance, cigarette manufacturers endorsed the making of laws banning cigarette advertising, understanding that this would reduce costs and increase profits across the industry.[citation needed][b] this analysis is likely to be pertinent in many other business situations involving advertising.[citation needed] without enforceable agreements, members of a cartel are also involved in a (multi-player) prisoner's dilemma.[ ] 'cooperating' typically means keeping prices at a pre-agreed minimum level. 'defecting' means selling under this minimum level, instantly taking business (and profits) from other cartel members. anti-trust authorities want potential cartel members to mutually defect, ensuring the lowest possible prices for consumers. sport[edit] doping in sport has been cited as an example of a prisoner's dilemma.[ ] two competing athletes have the option to use an illegal and/or dangerous drug to boost their performance. if neither athlete takes the drug, then neither gains an advantage. if only one does, then that athlete gains a significant advantage over their competitor, reduced by the legal and/or medical dangers of having taken the drug. if both athletes take the drug, however, the benefits cancel out and only the dangers remain, putting them both in a worse position than if neither had used doping.[ ] international politics[edit] in international political theory, the prisoner's dilemma is often used to demonstrate the coherence of strategic realism, which holds that in international relations, all states (regardless of their internal policies or professed ideology), will act in their rational self-interest given international anarchy. a classic example is an arms race like the cold war and similar conflicts.[ ] during the cold war the opposing alliances of nato and the warsaw pact both had the choice to arm or disarm. from each side's point of view, disarming whilst their opponent continued to arm would have led to military inferiority and possible annihilation. conversely, arming whilst their opponent disarmed would have led to superiority. if both sides chose to arm, neither could afford to attack the other, but both incurred the high cost of developing and maintaining a nuclear arsenal. if both sides chose to disarm, war would be avoided and there would be no costs. although the 'best' overall outcome is for both sides to disarm, the rational course for both sides is to arm, and this is indeed what happened. both sides poured enormous resources into military research and armament in a war of attrition for the next thirty years until the soviet union could not withstand the economic cost.[ ] the same logic could be applied in any similar scenario, be it economic or technological competition between sovereign states. multiplayer dilemmas[edit] many real-life dilemmas involve multiple players.[ ] although metaphorical, hardin's tragedy of the commons may be viewed as an example of a multi-player generalization of the pd: each villager makes a choice for personal gain or restraint. the collective reward for unanimous (or even frequent) defection is very low payoffs (representing the destruction of the "commons"). a commons dilemma most people can relate to is washing the dishes in a shared house. by not washing dishes an individual can gain by saving his time, but if that behavior is adopted by every resident the collective cost is no clean plates for anyone. the commons are not always exploited: william poundstone, in a book about the prisoner's dilemma, describes a situation in new zealand where newspaper boxes are left unlocked. it is possible for people to take a paper without paying (defecting) but very few do, feeling that if they do not pay then neither will others, destroying the system.[ ] subsequent research by elinor ostrom, winner of the nobel memorial prize in economic sciences, hypothesized that the tragedy of the commons is oversimplified, with the negative outcome influenced by outside influences. without complicating pressures, groups communicate and manage the commons among themselves for their mutual benefit, enforcing social norms to preserve the resource and achieve the maximum good for the group, an example of effecting the best case outcome for pd.[ ][ ] related games[edit] closed-bag exchange[edit] the prisoner's dilemma as a briefcase exchange douglas hofstadter[ ] once suggested that people often find problems such as the pd problem easier to understand when it is illustrated in the form of a simple game, or trade-off. one of several examples he used was "closed bag exchange": two people meet and exchange closed bags, with the understanding that one of them contains money, and the other contains a purchase. either player can choose to honor the deal by putting into his or her bag what he or she agreed, or he or she can defect by handing over an empty bag. defection always gives a game-theoretically preferable outcome.[ ] friend or foe?[edit] friend or foe? is a game show that aired from to on the game show network in the us. it is an example of the prisoner's dilemma game tested on real people, but in an artificial setting. on the game show, three pairs of people compete. when a pair is eliminated, they play a game similar to the prisoner's dilemma to determine how the winnings are split. if they both cooperate (friend), they share the winnings – . if one cooperates and the other defects (foe), the defector gets all the winnings and the cooperator gets nothing. if both defect, both leave with nothing. notice that the reward matrix is slightly different from the standard one given above, as the rewards for the "both defect" and the "cooperate while the opponent defects" cases are identical. this makes the "both defect" case a weak equilibrium, compared with being a strict equilibrium in the standard prisoner's dilemma. if a contestant knows that their opponent is going to vote "foe", then their own choice does not affect their own winnings. in a specific sense, friend or foe has a rewards model between prisoner's dilemma and the game of chicken. the rewards matrix is 	pair pair 	"friend" (cooperate) 	"foe" (defect) 	"friend" (cooperate) 	 	 	"foe" (defect) 	 	 this payoff matrix has also been used on the british television programmes trust me, shafted, the bank job and golden balls, and on the american game shows take it all, as well as for the winning couple on the reality show shows bachelor pad. game data from the golden balls series has been analyzed by a team of economists, who found that cooperation was "surprisingly high" for amounts of money that would seem consequential in the real world, but were comparatively low in the context of the game.[ ] iterated snowdrift[edit] main article: snowdrift game researchers from the university of lausanne and the university of edinburgh have suggested that the "iterated snowdrift game" may more closely reflect real-world social situations. although this model is actually a chicken game, it will be described here. in this model, the risk of being exploited through defection is lower, and individuals always gain from taking the cooperative choice. the snowdrift game imagines two drivers who are stuck on opposite sides of a snowdrift, each of whom is given the option of shoveling snow to clear a path, or remaining in their car. a player's highest payoff comes from leaving the opponent to clear all the snow by themselves, but the opponent is still nominally rewarded for their work. this may better reflect real world scenarios, the researchers giving the example of two scientists collaborating on a report, both of whom would benefit if the other worked harder. "but when your collaborator doesn’t do any work, it’s probably better for you to do all the work yourself. you’ll still end up with a completed project."[ ] 	 example snowdrift payouts (a, b) 	b   a 	cooperates	defects 	cooperates 	 , 	 , 	defects 	 , 	 , 	 example pd payouts (a, b) 	b   a 	cooperates	defects 	cooperates 	 , 	- , 	defects 	 , - 	 , coordination games[edit] main article: coordination games in coordination games, players must coordinate their strategies for a good outcome. an example is two cars that abruptly meet in a blizzard; each must choose whether to swerve left or right. if both swerve left, or both right, the cars do not collide. the local left- and right-hand traffic convention helps to co-ordinate their actions. symmetrical co-ordination games include stag hunt and bach or stravinsky. asymmetric prisoner's dilemmas[edit] a more general set of games are asymmetric. as in the prisoner's dilemma, the best outcome is co-operation, and there are motives for defection. unlike the symmetric prisoner's dilemma, though, one player has more to lose and/or more to gain than the other. some such games have been described as a prisoner's dilemma in which one prisoner has an alibi, whence the term "alibi game".[ ] in experiments, players getting unequal payoffs in repeated games may seek to maximize profits, but only under the condition that both players receive equal payoffs; this may lead to a stable equilibrium strategy in which the disadvantaged player defects every x games, while the other always co-operates. such behaviour may depend on the experiment's social norms around fairness.[ ] software[edit] several software packages have been created to run prisoner's dilemma simulations and tournaments, some of which have available source code. 	the source code for the second tournament run by robert axelrod (written by axelrod and many contributors in fortran) is available online 	prison, a library written in java, last updated in 	axelrod-python, written in python 	play the iterative prisoner's dilemma in the browser, play against strategies or let strategies play against other strategies in fiction[edit] hannu rajaniemi set the opening scene of his the quantum thief trilogy in a "dilemma prison". the main theme of the series has been described as the "inadequacy of a binary universe" and the ultimate antagonist is a character called the all-defector. rajaniemi is particularly interesting as an artist treating this subject in that he is a cambridge-trained mathematician and holds a phd in mathematical physics – the interchangeability of matter and information is a major feature of the books, which take place in a "post-singularity" future. the first book in the series was published in , with the two sequels, the fractal prince and the causal angel, published in and , respectively. a game modeled after the (iterated) prisoner's dilemma is a central focus of the video game zero escape: virtue's last reward and a minor part in its sequel zero escape: zero time dilemma. in the mysterious benedict society and the prisoner's dilemma by trenton lee stewart, the main characters start by playing a version of the game and escaping from the "prison" altogether. later they become actual prisoners and escape once again. in the adventure zone: balance during the suffering game subarc, the player characters are twice presented with the prisoner's dilemma during their time in two liches' domain, once cooperating and once defecting. in the th novel from the author james s. a. corey tiamat's wrath, winston duarte explains the prisoners dilemma to his -year-old daughter, teresa, to train her in strategic thinking.[citation needed] this is examined literally in the film the platform, where inmates in a vertical prison may only eat whatever is left over by those above them. if everyone were to eat their fair share, there would be enough food, but those in the lower levels are shown to starve because of the higher inmates' overconsumption. see also[edit] 	abilene paradox 	centipede game 	christmas truce 	externality 	folk theorem (game theory) 	free-rider problem 	hobbesian trap 	innocent prisoner's dilemma 	liar game 	optional prisoner's dilemma 	prisoner's dilemma and cooperation 	public goods game 	gift-exchange game 	reciprocal altruism 	rent-seeking 	social preferences 	swift trust theory 	unscrupulous diner's dilemma references[edit] 	^ for example see the study[ ] for discussion of the concept and whether it can apply in real economic or strategic situations. 	^ this argument for the development of cooperation through trust is given in the wisdom of crowds, where it is argued that long-distance capitalism was able to form around a nucleus of quakers, who always dealt honourably with their business partners. (rather than defecting and reneging on promises – a phenomenon that had discouraged earlier long-term unenforceable overseas contracts). it is argued that dealings with reliable merchants allowed the meme for cooperation to spread to other traders, who spread it further until a high degree of cooperation became a profitable strategy in general commerce 	^ poundstone , pp.  , . 	^ milovsky, nicholas. "the basics of game theory and associated games". retrieved february . 	^ fehr, ernst; fischbacher, urs (oct , ). "the nature of human altruism" (pdf). nature. ( ): – . bibcode: natur. .. f. doi: . /nature . pmid  . s cid  . retrieved february , . 	^ tversky, amos; shafir, eldar ( ). preference, belief, and similarity: selected writings (pdf). massachusetts institute of technology press. isbn  . retrieved february , . 	^ toh-kyeong, ahn; ostrom, elinor; walker, james (sep , ). "incorporating motivational heterogeneity into game-theoretic models of collective action" (pdf). public choice. ( – ): – . doi: . /b:puch. . .fd. hdl: / . s cid  . retrieved june , . 	^ oosterbeek, hessel; sloof, randolph; van de kuilen, gus (dec , ). "cultural differences in ultimatum game experiments: evidence from a meta-analysis" (pdf). experimental economics. ( ): – . doi: . /b:exec. . . . s cid  . archived from the original (pdf) on may , . retrieved february , . 	^ ormerod, paul ( - - ). why most things fail. isbn  . 	^ deutsch, m. ( ). trust and suspicion. journal of conflict resolution, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / 	^ rapoport, a., & chammah, a. m. ( ). prisoner’s dilemma: a study of conflict and cooperation. ann arbor, mi: university of michigan press. 	^ kaznatcheev, artem (march , ). "short history of iterated prisoner's dilemma tournaments". theory, evolution, and games group. retrieved february , . 	^ a b hilbe, christian; martin a. nowak; karl sigmund (april ). "evolution of extortion in iterated prisoner's dilemma games". pnas. ( ): – . arxiv: . . bibcode: pnas.. . h. doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ shy, oz ( ). industrial organization: theory and applications. massachusetts institute of technology press. isbn  - . retrieved february , . 	^ dal bó, pedro; fréchette, guillaume r. ( ). "strategy choice in the infinitely repeated prisoner's dilemma". american economic review. ( ): – . doi: . /aer. . issn  - . 	^ wedekind, c.; milinski, m. ( april ). "human cooperation in the simultaneous and the alternating prisoner's dilemma: pavlov versus generous tit-for-tat". proceedings of the national academy of sciences. ( ): – . doi: . /pnas. . . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ "bayesian nash equilibrium; a statistical test of the hypothesis" (pdf). tel aviv university. archived from the original (pdf) on - - . 	^ wu, jiadong; zhao, chengye ( ), sun, xiaoming; he, kun; chen, xiaoyun (eds.), "cooperation on the monte carlo rule: prisoner's dilemma game on the grid", theoretical computer science, springer singapore, , pp.  – , doi: . / - - - - _ , isbn  - - - - , s cid  	^ "university of southampton team wins prisoner's dilemma competition" (press release). university of southampton. october . archived from the original on - - . 	^ a b c d e press, wh; dyson, fj ( june ). "iterated prisoner's dilemma contains strategies that dominate any evolutionary opponent". proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america. ( ): – . bibcode: pnas.. p. doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ adami, christoph; arend hintze ( ). "evolutionary instability of zero determinant strategies demonstrates that winning isn't everything". nature communications. : . arxiv: . . bibcode: natco... . a. doi: . /ncomms . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b stewart, alexander j.; joshua b. plotkin ( ). "from extortion to generosity, evolution in the iterated prisoner's dilemma". proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america. ( ): – . bibcode: pnas.. s. doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ akin, ethan ( ). "stable cooperative solutions for the iterated prisoner's dilemma". p.  . arxiv: . [math.ds]. bibcode: arxiv . a 	^ le s, boyd r ( ). "evolutionary dynamics of the continuous iterated prisoner's dilemma". journal of theoretical biology. ( ): – . doi: . /j.jtbi. . . . pmid  . 	^ hammerstein, p. ( ). why is reciprocity so rare in social animals? a protestant appeal. in: p. hammerstein, editor, genetic and cultural evolution of cooperation, mit press. pp. – . 	^ spaniel, william ( ). game theory : the complete textbook. 	^ nowak, martin; karl sigmund ( ). "a strategy of win-stay, lose-shift that outperforms tit-for-tat in the prisoner's dilemma game". nature. ( ): – . bibcode: natur. ... n. doi: . / a . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ "markets & data". the economist. - - . 	^ rehmeyer, julie ( - - ). "game theory suggests current climate negotiations won't avert catastrophe". science news. society for science & the public. 	^ osang, thomas; nandyyz, arundhati (august ). environmental regulation of polluting firms: porter's hypothesis revisited (pdf) (paper). 	^ dawkins, richard ( ). the selfish gene. oxford university press. 	^ ainslie, george ( ). breakdown of will. isbn  - - - - . 	^ axelrod, robert ( ). "effective choice in the prisoner's dilemma". the journal of conflict resolution. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . jstor  . s cid  . 	^ nicholson, walter ( ). intermediate microeconomics and its application ( th ed.). fort worth, tx: dryden press : harcourt college publishers. isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b schneier, bruce ( - - ). "lance armstrong and the prisoners' dilemma of doping in professional sports | wired opinion". wired. wired.com. retrieved - - . 	^ stephen j. majeski ( ). "arms races as iterated prisoner's dilemma games". mathematical and social sciences. ( ): – . doi: . / - ( ) - . 	^ kuhn, steven ( ), "prisoner's dilemma", in zalta, edward n. (ed.), the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (winter ed.), metaphysics research lab, stanford university, retrieved - - 	^ gokhale cs, traulsen a. evolutionary games in the multiverse. proceedings of the national academy of sciences. mar . ( ): – . 	^ poundstone , pp.  – . 	^ "the volokh conspiracy " elinor ostrom and the tragedy of the commons". volokh.com. - - . retrieved - - . 	^ ostrom, elinor ( ) [ ]. governing the commons: the evolution of institutions for collective action. cambridge university press. doi: . /cbo . isbn  - - - - . 	^ hofstadter, douglas r. ( ). "ch. the prisoner's dilemma computer tournaments and the evolution of cooperation.". metamagical themas: questing for the essence of mind and pattern. bantam dell pub group. isbn  - - - - . 	^ "prisoner's dilemma - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia". users.auth.gr. retrieved - - . 	^ van den assem, martijn j. (january ). "split or steal? cooperative behavior when the stakes are large". management science. ( ): – . doi: . /mnsc. . . s cid  . ssrn  . 	^ kümmerli, rolf. "'snowdrift' game tops 'prisoner's dilemma' in explaining cooperation". retrieved april . 	^ robinson, d.r.; goforth, d.j. (may , ). alibi games: the asymmetric prisoner' s dilemmas (pdf). meetings of the canadian economics association, toronto, june - , . 	^ beckenkamp, martin; hennig-schmidt, heike; maier-rigaud, frank p. (march , ). "cooperation in symmetric and asymmetric prisoner's dilemma games" (pdf). max planck institute for research on collective goods. further reading[edit] 	amadae, s. ( ). "prisoner's dilemma", prisoners of reason. cambridge university press, ny, pp.  – . 	aumann, robert ( ). "acceptable points in general cooperative n-person games". in luce, r. d.; tucker, a. w. (eds.). contributions to the theory of games iv. annals of mathematics study. . princeton nj: princeton university press. pp.  – . mr  . 	axelrod, r. ( ). the evolution of cooperation. isbn  - - - 	bicchieri, cristina ( ). rationality and coordination. cambridge university press. 	chess, david m. (december ). "simulating the evolution of behavior: the iterated prisoners' dilemma problem" (pdf). complex systems. ( ): – . 	dresher, m. ( ). the mathematics of games of strategy: theory and applications prentice-hall, englewood cliffs, nj. 	greif, a. ( ). institutions and the path to the modern economy: lessons from medieval trade. cambridge university press, cambridge, uk. 	kopelman, shirli (february ). "tit for tat and beyond: the legendary work of anatol rapoport". negotiation and conflict management research. ( ): – . doi: . /ncmr. . 	poundstone, william ( ). prisoner's dilemma ( st anchor books ed.). new york: anchor. isbn  - - -x.cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	rapoport, anatol and albert m. chammah ( ). prisoner's dilemma. university of michigan press. external links[edit] 	 media related to prisoner's dilemma at wikimedia commons 	prisoner's dilemma (stanford encyclopedia of philosophy) 	the bowerbird's dilemma the prisoner's dilemma in ornithology – mathematical cartoon by larry gonick. 	the prisoner's dilemma the prisoner's dilemma with lego minifigures. 	dixit, avinash; nalebuff, barry ( ). 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organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 sexual abuse - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	sexual abuse 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for the academic journal titled sexual abuse, see sexual abuse (journal). abusive sexual behavior by person upon another 	sex and the law 	 	 social issues 	 	age of consent 	antisexualism 	bodily integrity 	censorship 	circumcision 	deviant sexual intercourse 	ethics 	freedom of speech 	homophobia 	intersex rights 	lgbt rights 	miscegenation (interracial relations) 	marriageable age 	norms 	objectification 	pornography 	public morality 	red-light district 	reproductive rights 	right to sexuality 	same-sex marriage 	sex industry 	sex workers' rights 	sexual and reproductive health and rights 	survival sex 	 specific offences (varies by jurisdiction) 	 	adultery 	bestiality 	buggery 	child grooming 	child pornography 	child prostitution 	criminal transmission of hiv 	cybersex trafficking 	female genital mutilation 	fornication 	incest 	pimping 	prostitution 	forced 	procuring 	public indecency 	rape 	statutory 	marital 	seduction 	sex trafficking 	sexting 	sexual abuse 	child 	sexual assault 	sexual harassment 	slavery 	sodomy 	uk section ( ) 	violence 	trafficking 	voyeurism 	 sex offender registration 	 	sex offender registry 	sex offender registries in the united states 	 portals 	 	 human sexuality portal 	 law portal 		v 	t 	e sexual abuse, also referred to as molestation, is abusive sexual behavior by one person upon another. it is often perpetrated using force or by taking advantage of another.[ ] when force is immediate, of short duration, or infrequent, it is called sexual assault[citation needed]. the offender is referred to as a sexual abuser or (often pejoratively) molester.[ ] the term also covers any behavior by an adult or older adolescent towards a child to stimulate any of the involved sexually. the use of a child, or other individuals younger than the age of consent, for sexual stimulation is referred to as child sexual abuse or statutory rape. live streaming sexual abuse involves trafficking and coerced sexual acts and or rape in real time on webcam.[ ][ ][ ][ ] contents 	 victims 	 . spouses 	 . children 	 . people with developmental disabilities 	 . people with dementia 	 . people in poverty 	 . elders 	 treatment 	 prevention 	 survivor 	 positions of power 	 minorities 	 other animals 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links victims spouses see also: domestic violence and marital rape spousal sexual abuse is a form of domestic violence. when the abuse involves threats of unwanted sexual contact or forced sex by a woman's husband or ex-husband, it may constitute rape, depending on the jurisdiction, and may also constitute an assault.[ ] children main article: child sexual abuse child sexual abuse is a form of child abuse in which a child is abused for the sexual gratification of an adult or older adolescent.[ ][ ] it includes direct sexual contact, the adult or otherwise older person engaging indecent exposure (of the genitals, female nipples, etc.) to a child with intent to gratify their own sexual desires or to intimidate or groom the child, asking or pressuring a child to engage in sexual activities, displaying pornography to a child, or using a child to produce child pornography.[ ][ ][ ] effects of child sexual abuse include shame, self-blame,[ ] depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, self-esteem issues, sexual dysfunction, chronic pelvic pain, addiction, self-injury, suicidal ideation, borderline personality disorder, and propensity to re-victimization in adulthood.[ ] child sexual abuse is a risk factor for attempting suicide.[ ] additionally, some studies have shown childhood sexual abuse to be a risk factor of the perpetration of intimate partner violence in men.[ ] much of the harm caused to victims becomes apparent years after the abuse happens. with specific regard to addiction, a study by reiger et al. supports previous findings that adverse life events increase sensitivity to drug rewards and bolster drug reward signaling by exposing an association between heightened limbic response to cocaine cues.[ ] sexual abuse by a family member is a form of incest, which can result in severe long-term psychological trauma, especially in the case of parental incest.[ ] globally, approximately – % of women and % of men disclose being sexually abused during their childhood.[ ][ ] the gender gap may be caused by higher victimization of girls, lower willingness of men to disclose abuse, or both.[ ] most sexual abuse offenders are acquainted with their victims; approximately % are relatives of the child, most often fathers, uncles or cousins; around % are other acquaintances such as friends of the family, babysitters, or neighbors; strangers are the offenders in approximately % of child sexual abuse cases. most child sexual abuse is committed by men; women commit approximately % of offenses reported against boys and % of offenses reported against girls.[ ] child sexual abuse offenders are not pedophiles unless they have a primary or exclusive sexual interest in prepubescent children.[ ] people with developmental disabilities main article: sexual abuse of people with developmental disabilities people with developmental disabilities are often victims of sexual abuse. according to research, people with disabilities are at a greater risk for victimization of sexual assault or sexual abuse because of lack of understanding (sobsey & varnhagen, ). people with dementia elderly people, especially those with dementia, can be at risk of abuse. there were over , "safeguarding concerns and alerts" at uk care homes from to . these included alleged inappropriate touching and worse allegations. offenders were most often other residents but staff also offended. it is suspected some care homes may deliberately overlook these offenses.[ ] sometimes abuse victims are not believed because they are not seen as credible witnesses due to their dementia. perpetrators frequently target victims who they know are unlikely to be believed. spouses and partners sometimes continue to pursue sexual relations, without realising they no longer have this right, because the person with dementia can no longer consent.[ ] people in poverty people in poverty, including those from developing countries, are vulnerable to forced prostitution,[ ][ ][ ] live streaming sexual abuse,[ ][ ][ ] and other forms of molestation. victims who come from families in poverty often have less connections, power, protection, and education about sex crimes.[ ] elders sex abuse is one of the most common forms of abuse in nursing homes[citation needed]. if a nursing home fails to do proper background checks on an employee who subsequently abuses residents, the home can be liable for negligence. if nursing homes fail to supervise staff or train staff to recognise signs of abuse, the home can also be liable for negligence.[ ] sexual activity by care givers may be a crime. victims may not report abuse or cooperate with investigations due to associated stigma and/or reluctance to mention body parts.[ ] treatment in the emergency department, contraceptive medications are offered to women raped by men because about % of such rapes result in pregnancy.[ ] preventative medication against sexually transmitted infections are given to victims of all types of sexual abuse (especially for the most common diseases like chlamydia, gonorhea, trichomoniasis and bacterial vaginosis) and a blood serum is collected to test for stis (such as hiv, hepatitis b and syphilis).[ ] any survivor with abrasions are immunized for tetanus if years have elapsed since the last immunization.[ ] short-term treatment with a benzodiazepine may help with acute anxiety and antidepressants may be helpful for symptoms of ptsd, depression and panic attacks.[ ] sexual abuse has been linked to the development of psychotic symptoms in abused children. treatment for psychotic symptoms may also be involved in sexual abuse treatment.[ ] in regards to long term psychological treatment, prolonged exposure therapy has been tested as a method of long-term ptsd treatment for victims of sexual abuse.[ ] prevention child sexual abuse prevention programmes were developed in the united states of america during the s and originally delivered to children. programmes delivered to parents were developed in the s and took the form of one-off meetings, two to three hours long.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] in the last years, web-based programmes have been developed. survivor the term survivor is sometimes used for a living victim, including victims of usually non-fatal harm, to honor and empower the strength of an individual to heal, in particular a living victim of sexual abuse or assault.[ ] for example, there are the survivors network of those abused by priests and the survivors trust. positions of power see also: abusive power and control, power harassment, and rankism sexual misconduct can occur where one person uses a position of authority to compel another person to engage in an otherwise unwanted sexual activity. for example, sexual harassment in the workplace might involve an employee being coerced into a sexual situation out of fear of being dismissed. sexual harassment in education might involve a student submitting to the sexual advances of a person in authority in fear of being punished, for example by being given a failing grade. several sexual abuse scandals have involved abuse of religious authority and often cover-up among non-abusers, including cases in the southern baptist convention,[ ] catholic church, episcopalian religion,[ ] islam,[ ] jehovah's witnesses, lutheran church,[ ] methodist church,[ ] the church of jesus christ of latter-day saints,[ ] the fundamentalist church of jesus christ of latter day saints, orthodox judaism,[ ] other branches of judaism,[ ] and various cults. in october , a powerful member of the united arab emirates’ royal family, nahyan bin mubarak al nahyan was accused of exploiting his authority by a british citizen, caitlin mcnamara, who was working on abu dhabi hay festival. on february that year, the uae's minister of tolerance called mcnamara for a dinner at his villa on private island and sexually abused the woman, who was organizing the literary festival for the country.[ ] minorities 	 	the examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the united states and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. you may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (october ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) sexual abuse is a problem in some minority communities. in , a number of hispanic victims were included in the settlement of a massive sexual abuse case involving the los angeles archdiocese of the catholic church.[ ] a qualitative study by kim et al. discusses the experiences of sexual abuse in the us population of mexican immigrant women, citing immigration, acculturation, and several other social elements as risk factors for abuse.[ ] to address the issue of sexual abuse in the african-american community, the prestigious leeway foundation[ ] sponsored a grant to develop www.blacksurvivors.org,[ ] a national online support group and resource center for african-american sexual abuse survivors. the non-profit group was founded in by sylvia coleman, an african-american sexual abuse survivor and national sexual abuse prevention expert. other animals main article: sexual coercion sexual abuse has been identified among animals as well; for example, among the adélie penguins.[ ] see also 	abuse 	auguste ambroise tardieu 	birth control sabotage 	child grooming 	cinderella effect 	circles of support and accountability 	domestic abuse 	hebephilia 	institutional abuse 	journal of sexual aggression 	#metoo 	minor (law) 	operation protect our children 	prevention project dunkelfeld 	psychological manipulation 	rape, abuse & incest national network 	sexual bullying 	sexual violence 	sex and the law 	stalking 	survivors trust 	virtuous pedophiles (online support group for preventing sexual abuse) references 	^ "sexual abuse". american psychological association. american psychological association. retrieved january . 	^ "peer commentaries on green ( ) and schmidt ( )". archives of sexual behavior. ( ): – . . doi: . /a: . s cid  . child molester is a pejorative term applied to both the pedophile and incest offender. 	^ brown, rick; napier, sarah; smith, russell g ( ), australians who view live streaming of child sexual abuse: an analysis of financial transactions, australian institute of criminology, isbn  pp. – . 	^ "child sex abuse livestreams increase during coronavirus lockdowns". npr. april , . 	^ "philippines child slavery survivors fight to heal scars of abuse". reuters. april , . 	^ "what is online child sexual abuse and exploitation?". nca. . 	^ patricia, mahoney. "the wife rape fact sheet". national violence against women prevention research center. national violence against women prevention research center. retrieved january . 	^ a b "child sexual abuse". medline plus. u.s. national library of medicine. - - . 	^ committee on professional practice and standards (copps); board of professional affairs (bpa); american psychological association (apa); catherine acuff; steven bisbing; michael gottlieb; lisa grossman; jody porter; richard reichbart; steven sparta; c. eugene walker (august ). "guidelines for psychological evaluations in child protection matters". american psychologist. ( ): – . doi: . / - x. . . . pmid  . retrieved - - . lay summary – apa psycnet ( - - ). abuse, sexual (child): generally defined as contacts between a child and an adult or other person significantly older or in a position of power or control over the child, where the child is being used for sexual stimulation of the adult or other person. 	^ martin, j.; anderson, j.; romans, s.; mullen, p; o'shea, m ( ). "asking about child sexual abuse: methodological implications of a two-stage survey". child abuse and neglect. ( ): – . doi: . / - ( ) - . pmid  . 	^ child sexual abuse definition from the nspcc 	^ whiffen, v. e.; macintosh, h. b. ( ). "mediators of the link between childhood sexual abuse and emotional distress: a critical review". trauma, violence, & abuse. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ maniglio, r. ( ). "the impact of child sexual abuse on health: a systematic review of reviews". clinical psychology review. ( ): – . doi: . /j.cpr. . . . pmid  . 	^ maniglio, r. ( ). "the role of child sexual abuse in the etiology of suicide and non-suicidal self-injury". acta psychiatrica scandinavica. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. pmid  . s cid  . 	^ teitelman, am; bellamy, sl; jemmott, jb iii; icard, l; o'leary, a; ali, s; ngwane, z; makiwane, m ( ). "childhood sexual abuse and sociodemographic factors prospectively associated with intimate partner violence perpetration among south african heterosexual men". annals of behavioral medicine. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ regier, ps; monge, za; franklin, tr; wetherill, rr; teitelman, am; jagannathan, k; et al. ( ). "emotional, physical and sexual abuse are associated with a heightened limbic response to cocaine cues". addiction biology. ( ): – . doi: . /adb. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ courtois, christine a. ( ). healing the incest wound: adult survivors in therapy. w. w. norton & company. p.  . isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b stoltenborgh, m.; van ijzendoorn, m. h.; euser, e. m.; bakermans-kranenburg, m. j. ( ). "a global perspective on child sexual abuse: meta-analysis of prevalence around the world". child maltreatment. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ pereda, n.; guilera, g.; forns, m.; gómez-benito, j. ( ). "the prevalence of child sexual abuse in community and student samples: a meta-analysis". clinical psychology review. ( ): – . doi: . /j.cpr. . . . hdl: / . pmid  . 	^ whealin, julia whealin ( - - ). "child sexual abuse". national center for post traumatic stress disorder, us department of veterans affairs. archived from the original on - - . 	^ seto, michael ( ). pedophilia and sexual offending against children. washington, dc: american psychological association. p. vii. 	^ sex crimes against the elderly - are they being ignored? bbc 	^ a b challenges when investigating elder sexual abuse archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ "myanmar officials blame human trafficking on poverty, unemployment". myanmar times. september , . 	^ "poverty causes trafficking to china, says report". khmer times. september , . 	^ "poverty and conflict in myanmar fuel human trafficking". caritas. 	^ "child sex abuse livestreams increase during coronavirus lockdowns". npr. april , . 	^ "philippines child slavery survivors fight to heal scars of abuse". reuters. april , . 	^ "what is online child sexual abuse and exploitation?". nca. . 	^ "china's bride trafficking problem". the diplomat. october , . 	^ sexual abuse in nursing homes 	^ a b c d varcarolis, elizabeth ( ). essentials of psychiatric mental health nursing. st. louis: elsevier. pp.  – . 	^ crush, e; arseneault, l; jaffee, sr; danese, a; fisher, hl ( ). "protective factors for psychotic symptoms among poly-victimized children". schizophrenia bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . /schbul/sbx . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ schiff, m; nacasch, n; levit, s; katz, n; foa, eb ( ). "prolonged exposure for treating ptsd among female methadone patients who were survivors of sexual abuse in israel". social work & health care. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ babatsikos, georgia ( ). "parents' knowledge, attitudes and practices about preventing child sexual abuse: a literature review". child abuse review. ( ): – . doi: . /car. . issn  - . 	^ hébert, martine; lavoie, francine; parent, nathalie ( - - ). "an assessment of outcomes following parents' participation in a child abuse prevention program". violence and victims. ( ): – . doi: . /vivi. . . . . issn  - . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ wurtele, sandy k.; moreno, tasha; kenny, maureen c. ( ). "evaluation of a sexual abuse prevention workshop for parents of young children". journal of child & adolescent trauma. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ wurtele, sandy k.; kenny, maureen c. ( ). "partnering with parents to prevent childhood sexual abuse". child abuse review. ( ): – . doi: . /car. . issn  - . 	^ williams, mike ( ). "four steps to the prevention of child sexual abuse in the home" (pdf). nspcc. 	^ williams, mike ( ). "working with a community to prevent child sexual abuse in the home" (pdf). nspcc. retrieved august . 	^ "dean of students office | clark university". clarku.edu. archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ stop baptist predators 	^ episcopalian ministers archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ joe murphy ( - - ). "baroness warsi: some pakistani men think young white girls are "fair game" for sex abuse - politics - news - evening standard". thisislondon.co.uk. retrieved - - . 	^ the lutheran archived - - at the wayback machinelutheran abuse archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ methodist abuse archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ anderson, lavina ( ). case reports of the mormon alliance volume . isbn  - - - - . 	^ abuse scandal plagues hasidic jews in brooklyn by barbara bradley hagerty. all things considered, national public radio. february . 	^ amy, neustein, ed. ( ). tempest in the temple: jewish communities and child sex scandals. brandeis series in american jewish history, culture, and life. waltham, massachusetts: brandeis university press. isbn  - - - - . 	^ "gulf minister of tolerance in 'sex assault' on hay books festival worker". the times. retrieved october . 	^ npr.org 	^ kim, t; draucker, cb; bradway, c; grisso, ja; sommers, ms ( ). "somos hermanas del mismo dolor (we are sisters of the same pain): intimate partner sexual violence narratives among mexican immigrant women in the united states". violence against women. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ leeway.org 	^ blacksurvivors.org 	^ mckie, robin ( june ). "'sexual depravity' of penguins that antarctic scientist dared not reveal". guardian.co.uk. further reading 	sorenson, susan b. ( ). violence and sexual abuse at home: current issues in spousal battering and child maltreatment, new york: haworth press. isbn  - - - . 	leigh ann reynolds. "people with mental retardation & sexual abuse. the arc q & a", arc national headquarters, 	baladerian, n. ( ). "sexual abuse of people with developmental disabilities". sexuality and disability. ( ): – . doi: . /bf . s cid  . 	sobsey, d. ( ). violence and abuse in the lives of people with disabilities: the end of silent acceptance? baltimore: paul h. brookes publishing co. isbn  - - - - 	sobsey d. and varnhagen, c. ( ). "sexual abuse and exploitation of people with disabilities: toward prevention and treatment". in m. csapo and l. gougen (eds) special education across canada (pp.  – ). vancouver centre for human developmental research 	valenti-hien, d. and schwartz, l. ( ). "the sexual abuse interview for those with developmental disabilities". james stanfield company, santa barbara: california. 	baur, susan ( ), the intimate hour: love and sex in psychotherapy. boston: houghton-mifflin co. viii, p. isbn  - - -x 	walker, evelyn, and perry deane young ( ). a killing cure. new york: h. holt and co. xiv, p. n.b.: explanatory subtitle on book's dust cover: one woman's true account of sexual and drug abuse and near death at the hands of her psychiatrist. without isbn 	white-davis, donna ( ). lovers in the time of plague. external links 	sexual abuse at curlie 	child sexual abuse at the national institutes of health 	 	v 	t 	e outline of human sexuality 	physiology and biology	 	erection 	insemination 	intersex 	libido 	nocturnal emission 	orgasm 	female and male ejaculation 	pelvic thrust 	pre-ejaculate 	pregnancy 	sexual arousal 	sexual stimulation 	health and education	 	birth control 	condom 	masters and johnson 	reproductive medicine 	andrology 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for other uses, see 'hood (disambiguation), hood (disambiguation), and neighbourhood (disambiguation). for technical reasons, "neighborhood # (tunnels)", "neighborhood # (laïka)", "neighborhood # (power out)", and "neighborhood # ( kettles)" redirect here. for the songs by arcade fire, see neighborhood (tunnels), neighborhood (laïka), neighborhood (power out) and funeral (arcade fire album). 	population tables and ekistics of world cities 	 	 	world's largest cities 	world's densest population 	world's largest conurbations 	world megacities 	world megalopolises 		v 	t 	e the chelsea neighbourhood of manhattan in new york city a neighbourhood (british english, australian english and canadian english) or neighborhood (american english; see spelling differences—u is omitted in american english) is a geographically localised community within a larger city, town, suburb or rural area. neighbourhoods are often social communities with considerable face-to-face interaction among members. researchers have not agreed on an exact definition, but the following may serve as a starting point: "neighbourhood is generally defined spatially as a specific geographic area and functionally as a set of social networks. neighbourhoods, then, are the spatial units in which face-to-face social interactions occur—the personal settings and situations where residents seek to realise common values, socialise youth, and maintain effective social control."[clarification needed][ ] contents 	 preindustrial cities 	 sociology 	 improvement 	 as a unit in urban design 	 neighbourhoods around the world 	 . asia 	 . . china 	 . europe 	 . . united kingdom 	 . north america 	 see also 	 references 	 external links preindustrial cities[edit] in the words of the urban scholar lewis mumford, “neighbourhoods, in some annoying, inchoate fashion exist wherever human beings congregate, in permanent family dwellings; and many of the functions of the city tend to be distributed naturally—that is, without any theoretical preoccupation or political direction—into neighbourhoods.”[ ] most of the earliest cities around the world as excavated by archaeologists have evidence for the presence of social neighbourhoods.[ ] historical documents shed light on neighbourhood life in numerous historical preindustrial or nonwestern cities.[ ] neighbourhoods are typically generated by social interaction among people living near one another. in this sense they are local social units larger than households not directly under the control of city or state officials. in some preindustrial urban traditions, basic municipal functions such as protection, social regulation of births and marriages, cleaning and upkeep are handled informally by neighbourhoods and not by urban governments; this pattern is well documented for historical islamic cities.[ ] in addition to social neighbourhoods, most ancient and historical cities also had administrative districts used by officials for taxation, record-keeping, and social control.[ ] administrative districts are typically larger than neighbourhoods and their boundaries may cut across neighbourhood divisions. in some cases, however, administrative districts coincided with neighbourhoods, leading to a high level of regulation of social life by officials. for example, in the t’ang period chinese capital city chang’an, neighbourhoods were districts and there were state officials who carefully controlled life and activity at the neighbourhood level.[ ] neighbourhoods in preindustrial cities often had some degree of social specialisation or differentiation. ethnic neighbourhoods were important in many past cities and remain common in cities today. economic specialists, including craft producers, merchants, and others, could be concentrated in neighbourhoods, and in societies with religious pluralism neighbourhoods were often specialised by religion. one factor contributing to neighbourhood distinctiveness and social cohesion in past cities was the role of rural to urban migration. this was a continual process in preindustrial cities, and migrants tended to move in with relatives and acquaintances from their rural past.[ ] sociology[edit] neighbourhood sociology is a subfield of urban sociology which studies local communities[ ][ ] neighbourhoods are also used in research studies from postal codes and health disparities, to correlations with school drop out rates or use of drugs.[ ] improvement[edit] a neighbourhood watch sign in jefferson county, colorado neighbourhoods have been the site of service delivery or "service interventions" in part as efforts to provide local, quality services, and to increase the degree of local control and ownership.[ ] alfred kahn, as early as the mid- s, described the "experience, theory and fads" of neighbourhood service delivery over the prior decade, including discussion of income transfers and poverty.[ ] neighbourhoods, as a core aspect of community, also are the site of services for youth, including children with disabilities[ ] and coordinated approaches to low-income populations.[ ] while the term neighbourhood organisation[ ] is not as common in , these organisations often are non-profit, sometimes grassroots or even core funded community development centres or branches. community and economic development activists have pressured for reinvestment in local communities and neighbourhoods. in the early s, community development corporations, rehabilitation networks, neighbourhood development corporations, and economic development organisations would work together to address the housing stock and the infrastructures of communities and neighbourhoods (e.g., community centres).[ ] community and economic development may be understood in different ways, and may involve "faith-based" groups and congregations in cities.[ ] as a unit in urban design[edit] in the s, clarence perry described the idea of a neighbourhood unit as a self-contained residential area within a city. the concept is still influential in new urbanism. practitioners seek to revive traditional sociability in planned suburban housing based on a set of principles. at the same time, the neighbourhood is a site of interventions to create age-friendly cities and communities (afcc) as many older adults tend to have narrower life space. urban design studies thus use neighbourhood as a unit of analysis.[ ] neighbourhoods around the world[edit] asia[edit] a suburban street in amman, jordan. china[edit] in mainland china, the term is generally used for the urban administrative division found immediately below the district level, although an intermediate, subdistrict level exists in some cities. they are also called streets (administrative terminology may vary from city to city). neighbourhoods encompass , to , families. within neighbourhoods, families are grouped into smaller residential units or quarters of to families and supervised by a residents' committee; these are subdivided into residents' small groups of fifteen to forty families. in most urban areas of china, neighbourhood', community, residential community, residential unit, residential quarter' have the same meaning: 社区 or 小区 or 居民区 or 居住区, and is the direct sublevel of a subdistrict (街道办事处), which is the direct sublevel of a district (区), which is the direct sublevel of a city (市). (see administrative divisions of the people's republic of china) europe[edit] typical cypriot neighbourhood in aglandjia, nicosia, cyprus vuores, a neighbourhood in the city of tampere, finland united kingdom[edit] the term has no general official or statistical purpose in the united kingdom, but is often used by local boroughs for self-chosen sub-divisions of their area for the delivery of various services and functions, as for example in kingston-upon-thames[ ] or is used as an informal term to refer to a small area within a town or city. the label is commonly used to refer to organisations which relate to such a very local structure, such as neighbourhood policing[ ] or neighbourhood watch schemes. in addition, government statistics for local areas are often referred to as neighbourhood statistics, although the data themselves are broken down usually into districts and wards for local purposes. in many parts of the uk wards are roughly equivalent to neighbourhoods or a combination of them. north america[edit] in canada and the united states, neighbourhoods are often given official or semi-official status through neighbourhood associations, neighbourhood watches or block watches. these may regulate such matters as lawn care and fence height, and they may provide such services as block parties, neighbourhood parks and community security. in some other places the equivalent organisation is the parish, though a parish may have several neighbourhoods within it depending on the area. in localities where neighbourhoods do not have an official status, questions can arise as to where one neighbourhood begins and another ends. many cities use districts and wards as official divisions of the city, rather than traditional neighbourhood boundaries. zip code boundaries and post office names also sometimes reflect neighbourhood identities. see also[edit] 	barangay (philippines) 	barrio (spanish) 	bairro (portuguese) 	block parent program (canada) 	borough 	census-designated place 	committees for the defense of the revolution (cuba) 	community 	comparison of home owners' and civic associations 	frazione (italian) 	homeowners' association 	kiez 	komshi (balkan states during the ottoman empire) 	mahalle 	mister rogers' neighborhood 	neighbourhood watch 	new urbanism 	electoral precinct 	quarter 	quartiere 	residential community 	suburbs 	unincorporated community references[edit] 	citations 	^ schuck, amie and dennis rosenbuam "promoting safe and healthy neighborhoods: what research tells us about intervention." the aspen institute. 	^ mumford, lewis ( ). the neighborhood and the neighborhood unit. town planning review : – , p. . 	^ for example, spence, michael w. ( ) tlailotlacan, a zapotec enclave in teotihuacan. in art, ideology, and the city of teotihuacan, edited by janet c. berlo, pp. – . dumbarton oaks, washington, d.c. stone, elizabeth c. ( ) nippur neighbourhoods. studies in ancient oriental civilization vol. . oriental institute, university of chicago, chicago 	^ some examples: heng, chye kiang ( ) cities of aristocrats and bureaucrats: the development of medieval chinese cityscapes. university of hawai'i press, honolulu. marcus, abraham ( ) the middle east on the eve of modernity: aleppo in the eighteenth century. columbia university press, new york. smail, daniel lord ( ). imaginary cartographies: possession and identity in late medieval marseille. cornell university press, ithaca. 	^ abu-lughod, janet l. ( ) the islamic city: historic myth, islamic essence, and contemporary relevance. international journal of middle east studies : – . 	^ dickinson, robert e. ( ) the west european city: a geographical interpretation. routledge & paul, london, p. . see also: jacobs, jane ( ) the death and life of great american cities. random house, new york, p. . 	^ xiong, victor cunrui ( ) sui-tang chang'an: a study in the urban history of medieval china. center for chinese studies, university of michigan, ann arbor. 	^ kemper, robert v. ( ) migration and adaptation: tzintzuntzan peasants in mexico city. sage publications, beverly hills. greenshields, t. h. ( ) "quarters" and ethnicity. in the changing middle eastern city, edited by g. h. blake and r. i. lawless, pp. – . croom helm, london. 	^ wellman, b. & leighton, b. ( , march). networks, neighbourhoods and communities: approaches to the study of the community question. urban affairs quarterly, ( ): - . 	^ warren, d. ( ). the functional diversity of urban neighbourhoods. urban affairs quarterly, ( ): - . 	^ overman, h.g. ( ). neighborhood effects in large and small neighborhoods. urban studies, ( ): - . 	^ king, b. & meyers, j. ( ). the annie e. casey foundation's mental health initiative for urban children. (pp. - ). in: b. stroul & r.m. friedman, children's mental health. baltimore, md: paul h. brookes. 	^ kahn, a.j. ( ). service delivery at the neighborhood level: experience, theory and fads. social service review, ( ): - . 	^ kutash, k., duchnowski, a.j., meyers, j. & king, b. ( ). ch. : community and neighborhood-based services for youth. in: s. henggeler & a. b. santor, innovative approaches to difficult to treat populations. washington, dc: american psychiatric press. 	^ riessman, f. ( ). a neighborhood-based mental health approach. (pp. ). in: e. cowen, e. gardier, & m. zak, emergent approaches to mental health problems. ny, ny: appleton-century-crofts. 	^ cunningham, j v. & kotler, m. ( ). building neighborhood organizations. notre dame & london: notre dame press. 	^ rubin, h.j. ( ). renewing hope within neighborhoods of despair: the community-based development model. albany, ny: state university of new york. 	^ mc roberts, o.m. ( , january/february). black churches, community and development. shelterforce online. washington, dc: author. at nhi.org 	^ gan, daniel r. y.; fung, john chye; cho, im sik ( ). "neighborhood experiences of people over age : factor structure and validity of a scale". the gerontologist: gnz . doi: . /geront/gnz . 	^ [ ] archived may , , at the wayback machine 	^ "nhp". www.neighbourhoodpolicing.co.uk. external links[edit] 	 media related to neighborhoods at wikimedia commons 	 	v 	t 	e designations for types of administrative territorial entities 	 	english terms 	 	common english terms 	area	 	insular area 	local government area 	protected area 	special area 	statistical area 	combined statistical area 	metropolitan statistical area 	micropolitan statistical area 	trade area 	free-trade area 	urban area 	borough	 	county borough 	metropolitan borough 	canton	half-canton 	capital	 	federal capital 	imperial capital 	city	 	autonomous city 	charter city 	independent city 	incorporated city 	imperial city 	free imperial city 	royal free city 	community	 	autonomous community 	residential community 	county	 	administrative county 	autonomous county 	consolidated 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	regional unit 	territorial unit 	autonomous territorial unit 	zone	 	economic zone 	exclusive economic zone 	free economic zone 	special economic zone 	exclusion zone 	military exclusion zone 	free speech zone 	neutral zone 	self-administered zone 	trade zone 	free-trade zone 	 	other english terms 	current	 	alpine resort 	bailiwick 	banner 	autonomous 	block 	cadastre 	circle 	circuit 	colony 	commune 	condominium 	constituency 	duchy 	eldership 	emirate 	federal dependency 	governorate 	hamlet 	ilkhanate 	indian reservation 	manor 	royal 	muftiate 	neighbourhood 	parish 	periphery 	precinct 	principality 	protectorate 	quarter 	regency 	autonomous republic 	riding 	sector 	autonomous 	shire 	sultanate 	suzerainty 	townland 	village 	summer 	ward 	historical	 	agency 	barony 	burgh 	exarchate 	hide 	hundred 	imperial circle 	march 	monthon 	presidency 	residency 	roman diocese 	seat 	tenth 	tithing 	 used by ten or more countries or having derived terms. historical derivations in italics. 	 	non-english or loanwords 	 	current	 	amt 	bakhsh 	barangay 	bezirk 	regierungsbezirk 	comune 	frazione 	fu 	gemeinde 	austria 	germany 	south tyrol 	switzerland 	gemeente 	gmina 	județ 	kampong 	kommun / kunta 	finland 	sweden 	län (sweden) 	landskap (finland) 	località 	maakunta 	megye 	muban 	mukim 	oblast 	autonomous 	okrug 	ostān 	poblacion 	purok 	shahrestān 	sum 	sýsla 	tehsil 	vingtaine 	historical	 	commote 	gau 	heerlijkheid 	köping 	län / lääni 	landskap (sweden) 	landskommun 	maalaiskunta 	nome 	egypt 	greece 	pagus 	pargana 	plasă 	satrapy 	socken 	subah 	syssel 	zhou 	 	 	v 	t 	e arabic terms for country subdivisions 	first-level	 	muhafazah (محافظة governorate) 	wilayah (ولاية province) 	mintaqah (منطقة region) 	mudiriyah (مديرية directorate) 	imarah (إمارة emirate) 	baladiyah (بلدية municipality) 	shabiyah (شعبية "popularate") 	second / third-level	 	mintaqah (منطقة region) 	qadaa (قضاء district) 	nahiyah (ناحية subdistrict) 	markaz (مركز district) 	mutamadiyah (معتمدية "delegation") 	daerah/daïra (دائرة circle) 	liwa (لواء banner / sanjak) 	city / township-level	 	amanah (أمانة municipality) 	baladiyah (بلدية municipality) 	Ḥai (حي neighborhood / quarter) 	mahallah (محلة) 	qarya (قرية) 	sheyakhah (شياخة "neighborhood subdivision") 	majlis mahalliyy (مجلس محلي local council) 	majlis ʾiqlimiyy (مجلس اقليمي regional council) 	english translations given are those most commonly used. 	 	 	v 	t 	e french terms for country subdivisions 	 	arrondissement 	département 	préfecture 	subprefectures 	 	 	v 	t 	e greek terms for country subdivisions 	modern	 	apokentromenes dioikiseis / geniki dioikisis§ / diamerisma§ / periphereia 	nomos§ / periphereiaki enotita 	demos / eparchia§ / koinotita§ 	historical	 	archontia/archontaton 	bandon 	demos 	despotaton 	dioikesis 	doukaton 	droungos 	eparchia 	exarchaton 	katepanikion 	kephalatikion 	kleisoura 	meris 	naukrareia 	satrapeia 	strategis 	thema 	toparchia 	tourma 	§ signifies a defunct institution 	 	 	v 	t 	e portuguese terms for country subdivisions 	regional subdivisions	 	estado 	distrito federal 	província 	região 	distrito 	comarca 	capitania 	local subdivisions	 	município 	concelho 	freguesia 	comuna 	circunscrição 	settlements	 	cidade 	vila 	aldeia 	bairro 	lugar 	 	historical subdivisions in italics. 	 	 	v 	t 	e slavic terms for country subdivisions 	current	 	dzielnica 	gmina 	krai 	kraj 	krajina / pokrajina 	městys 	obec 	oblast / oblast' / oblasti / oblys / obwód / voblast' 	okręg 	okres 	okrug 	okruha 	opština / općina / občina / obshtina 	osiedle 	powiat / povit 	raion 	selsoviet / silrada 	sołectwo 	voivodeship / vojvodina 	županija 	historical	 	darugha 	gromada 	guberniya / gubernia 	jurydyka 	khutor 	obshchina 	okolia 	opole 	pogost 	prowincja 	sorok 	srez 	starostwo / starostva 	uyezd 	volost 	ziemia 	župa 	 	 	v 	t 	e spanish terms for country subdivisions 	national, federal	 	comunidad autónoma 	departamento 	distrito federal 	estado 	provincia 	región 	regional, metropolitan	 	cantón 	comarca 	comuna 	corregimiento 	delegación 	distrito 	mancomunidad 	merindad 	municipalidad 	municipio 	parroquia 	ecuador 	spain 	urban, rural	 	aldea 	alquería 	anteiglesia 	asentamiento 	asentamiento informal 	pueblos jóvenes 	barrio 	campamento 	caserío 	ciudad 	ciudad autónoma 	colonia 	lugar 	masía 	pedanía 	población 	ranchería 	sitio 	vereda 	villa 	village (pueblito/pueblo) 	 	historical subdivisions in italics. 	 	 	v 	t 	e turkish terms for country subdivisions 	modern	 	il (province) 	ilçe (district) 	şehir (city) 	kasaba (town) 	belediye (municipality) 	belde (community) 	köy (village) 	mahalle (neighbourhood/quarter) 	historical	 	ağalık (feudal district) 	bucak (subdistrict) 	beylerbeylik (province) 	kadılık (subprovince) 	kaza (sub-province) 	hidivlik (viceroyalty) 	mutasarrıflık (subprovince) 	nahiye (nahiyah) 	paşalık (province) 	reya (romanian principalities) 	sancak (prefecture) 	vilayet (province) 	voyvodalık (romanian provinces) 	see also: census division, electoral district, political division, and list of administrative divisions by country retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=neighbourhood&oldid= " 		categories: 	neighbourhoods 	types of populated places hidden categories: 	webarchive template wayback links 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	use oxford spelling from august 	wikipedia articles needing clarification from april 	articles containing chinese-language text 	commons category link is on wikidata 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 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site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 meta-analysis - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	meta-analysis 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for the process in historical linguistics known as metanalysis, see rebracketing. graphical summary of a meta-analysis of over , cases of diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma and other pediatric gliomas, in which information about the mutations involved as well as generic outcomes were distilled from the underlying primary literature. 	part of a series on 	research 	 	 list of academic fields 	applied sciences 	formal sciences 	humanities 	natural sciences 	professions 	social sciences 	 research design 	research proposal 	research question 	writing 	argument 	referencing 	 philosophy 	 constructivism 	empiricism 	positivism / antipositivism / postpositivism 	realism 	critical realism 	subtle realism 	 research strategy 	interdisciplinary 	multimethodology 	qualitative 	quantitative 	 methodology 	action research 	art methodology 	critical theory 	feminism 	grounded theory 	hermeneutics 	historiography 	narrative inquiry 	phenomenology 	pragmatism 	scientific method 	 methods 	case study 	content analysis 	descriptive statistics 	discourse analysis 	ethnography 	experiment 	field experiment 	quasi-experiment 	field research 	historical method 	inferential statistics 	interviews 	mapping 	cultural mapping 	phenomenography 	secondary research 	bibliometrics 	literature review 	meta-analysis 	scoping review 	systematic review 	scientific modelling 	simulation 	survey 	 philosophy portal 		v 	t 	e a meta-analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies. meta-analysis can be performed when there are multiple scientific studies addressing the same question, with each individual study reporting measurements that are expected to have some degree of error. the aim then is to use approaches from statistics to derive a pooled estimate closest to the unknown common truth based on how this error is perceived. existing methods for meta-analysis yield a weighted average from the results of the individual studies, and what differs is the manner in which these weights are allocated and also the manner in which the uncertainty is computed around the point estimate thus generated. in addition to providing an estimate of the unknown common truth, meta-analysis has the capacity to contrast results from different studies and identify patterns among study results, sources of disagreement among those results, or other interesting relationships that may come to light in the context of multiple studies.[ ] a key benefit of this approach is the aggregation of information leading to a higher statistical power and more robust point estimate than is possible from the measure derived from any individual study. however, in performing a meta-analysis, an investigator must make choices which can affect the results, including deciding how to search for studies, selecting studies based on a set of objective criteria, dealing with incomplete data, analyzing the data, and accounting for or choosing not to account for publication bias.[ ] judgment calls made in completing a meta-analysis may affect the results. for example, wanous and colleagues examined four pairs of meta-analyses on the four topics of (a) job performance and satisfaction relationship, (b) realistic job previews, (c) correlates of role conflict and ambiguity, and (d) the job satisfaction and absenteeism relationship, and illustrated how various judgement calls made by the researchers produced different results.[ ] meta-analyses are often, but not always, important components of a systematic review procedure. for instance, a meta-analysis may be conducted on several clinical trials of a medical treatment, in an effort to obtain a better understanding of how well the treatment works. here it is convenient to follow the terminology used by the cochrane collaboration,[ ] and use "meta-analysis" to refer to statistical methods of combining evidence, leaving other aspects of 'research synthesis' or 'evidence synthesis', such as combining information from qualitative studies, for the more general context of systematic reviews. a meta-analysis is a secondary source.[ ][ ] contents 	 history 	 steps in a meta-analysis 	 methods and assumptions 	 . approaches 	 . statistical models for aggregate data 	 . . direct evidence: models incorporating study effects only 	 . . . fixed effects model 	 . . . random effects model 	 . . . ivhet model 	 . . direct evidence: models incorporating additional information 	 . . . quality effects model 	 . . indirect evidence: network meta-analysis methods 	 . . . bayesian framework 	 . . . frequentist multivariate framework 	 . . . generalized pairwise modelling framework 	 . . . tailored meta-analysis 	 . . aggregating ipd and ad 	 . validation of meta-analysis results 	 challenges 	 . publication bias: the file drawer problem 	 . problems related to studies not reporting non-statistically significant effects 	 . problems related to the statistical approach 	 . problems arising from agenda-driven bias 	 . weak inclusion standards lead to misleading conclusions 	 applications in modern science 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links history[edit] the historical roots of meta-analysis can be traced back to th century studies of astronomy,[ ] while a paper published in by the statistician karl pearson in the british medical journal[ ] which collated data from several studies of typhoid inoculation is seen as the first time a meta-analytic approach was used to aggregate the outcomes of multiple clinical studies.[ ][ ] the first meta-analysis of all conceptually identical experiments concerning a particular research issue, and conducted by independent researchers, has been identified as the book-length publication extrasensory perception after sixty years, authored by duke university psychologists j. g. pratt, j. b. rhine, and associates.[ ] this encompassed a review of reports on esp experiments published from to , and included an estimate of the influence of unpublished papers on the overall effect (the file-drawer problem). although meta-analysis is widely used in epidemiology and evidence-based medicine today, a meta-analysis of a medical treatment was not published until . in the s, more sophisticated analytical techniques were introduced in educational research, starting with the work of gene v. glass, frank l. schmidt and john e. hunter. the term "meta-analysis" was coined in by the statistician gene v. glass,[ ] who stated "my major interest currently is in what we have come to call ...the meta-analysis of research. the term is a bit grand, but it is precise and apt ... meta-analysis refers to the analysis of analyses". although this led to him being widely recognized as the modern founder of the method, the methodology behind what he termed "meta-analysis" predates his work by several decades.[ ][ ] the statistical theory surrounding meta-analysis was greatly advanced by the work of nambury s. raju, larry v. hedges, harris cooper, ingram olkin, john e. hunter, jacob cohen, thomas c. chalmers, robert rosenthal, frank l. schmidt, and douglas g. bonett. steps in a meta-analysis[edit] a meta-analysis is usually preceded by a systematic review, as this allows identification and critical appraisal of all the relevant evidence (thereby limiting the risk of bias in summary estimates). the general steps are then as follows: 	formulation of the research question, e.g. using the pico model (population, intervention, comparison, outcome). 	search of literature 	selection of studies ('incorporation criteria') 	based on quality criteria, e.g. the requirement of randomization and blinding in a clinical trial 	selection of specific studies on a well-specified subject, e.g. the treatment of breast cancer. 	decide whether unpublished studies are included to avoid publication bias (file drawer problem) 	decide which dependent variables or summary measures are allowed. for instance, when considering a meta-analysis of published (aggregate) data: 	differences (discrete data) 	means (continuous data) 	hedges' g is a popular summary measure for continuous data that is standardized in order to eliminate scale differences, but it incorporates an index of variation between groups: 	 δ = μ t − μ c σ , {\displaystyle \delta ={\frac {\mu _{t}-\mu _{c}}{\sigma }},} in which μ t {\displaystyle \mu _{t}} is the treatment mean, μ c {\displaystyle \mu _{c}} is the control mean, σ {\displaystyle \sigma ^{ }} the pooled variance. 	selection of a meta-analysis model, e.g. fixed effect or random effects meta-analysis. 	examine sources of between-study heterogeneity, e.g. using subgroup analysis or meta-regression. formal guidance for the conduct and reporting of meta-analyses is provided by the cochrane handbook. for reporting guidelines, see the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (prisma) statement.[ ] methods and assumptions[edit] approaches[edit] in general, two types of evidence can be distinguished when performing a meta-analysis: individual participant data (ipd), and aggregate data (ad). the aggregate data can be direct or indirect. ad is more commonly available (e.g. from the literature) and typically represents summary estimates such as odds ratios or relative risks. this can be directly synthesized across conceptually similar studies using several approaches (see below). on the other hand, indirect aggregate data measures the effect of two treatments that were each compared against a similar control group in a meta-analysis. for example, if treatment a and treatment b were directly compared vs placebo in separate meta-analyses, we can use these two pooled results to get an estimate of the effects of a vs b in an indirect comparison as effect a vs placebo minus effect b vs placebo. ipd evidence represents raw data as collected by the study centers. this distinction has raised the need for different meta-analytic methods when evidence synthesis is desired, and has led to the development of one-stage and two-stage methods.[ ] in one-stage methods the ipd from all studies are modeled simultaneously whilst accounting for the clustering of participants within studies. two-stage methods first compute summary statistics for ad from each study and then calculate overall statistics as a weighted average of the study statistics. by reducing ipd to ad, two-stage methods can also be applied when ipd is available; this makes them an appealing choice when performing a meta-analysis. although it is conventionally believed that one-stage and two-stage methods yield similar results, recent studies have shown that they may occasionally lead to different conclusions.[ ][ ] statistical models for aggregate data[edit] direct evidence: models incorporating study effects only[edit] fixed effects model[edit] the fixed effect model provides a weighted average of a series of study estimates. the inverse of the estimates' variance is commonly used as study weight, so that larger studies tend to contribute more than smaller studies to the weighted average. consequently, when studies within a meta-analysis are dominated by a very large study, the findings from smaller studies are practically ignored.[ ] most importantly, the fixed effects model assumes that all included studies investigate the same population, use the same variable and outcome definitions, etc. this assumption is typically unrealistic as research is often prone to several sources of heterogeneity; e.g. treatment effects may differ according to locale, dosage levels, study conditions, ... random effects model[edit] a common model used to synthesize heterogeneous research is the random effects model of meta-analysis. this is simply the weighted average of the effect sizes of a group of studies. the weight that is applied in this process of weighted averaging with a random effects meta-analysis is achieved in two steps:[ ] 	step : inverse variance weighting 	step : un-weighting of this inverse variance weighting by applying a random effects variance component (revc) that is simply derived from the extent of variability of the effect sizes of the underlying studies. this means that the greater this variability in effect sizes (otherwise known as heterogeneity), the greater the un-weighting and this can reach a point when the random effects meta-analysis result becomes simply the un-weighted average effect size across the studies. at the other extreme, when all effect sizes are similar (or variability does not exceed sampling error), no revc is applied and the random effects meta-analysis defaults to simply a fixed effect meta-analysis (only inverse variance weighting). the extent of this reversal is solely dependent on two factors:[ ] 	heterogeneity of precision 	heterogeneity of effect size since neither of these factors automatically indicates a faulty larger study or more reliable smaller studies, the re-distribution of weights under this model will not bear a relationship to what these studies actually might offer. indeed, it has been demonstrated that redistribution of weights is simply in one direction from larger to smaller studies as heterogeneity increases until eventually all studies have equal weight and no more redistribution is possible.[ ] another issue with the random effects model is that the most commonly used confidence intervals generally do not retain their coverage probability above the specified nominal level and thus substantially underestimate the statistical error and are potentially overconfident in their conclusions.[ ][ ] several fixes have been suggested[ ][ ] but the debate continues on.[ ][ ] a further concern is that the average treatment effect can sometimes be even less conservative compared to the fixed effect model[ ] and therefore misleading in practice. one interpretational fix that has been suggested is to create a prediction interval around the random effects estimate to portray the range of possible effects in practice.[ ] however, an assumption behind the calculation of such a prediction interval is that trials are considered more or less homogeneous entities and that included patient populations and comparator treatments should be considered exchangeable[ ] and this is usually unattainable in practice. the most widely used method to estimate between studies variance (revc) is the dersimonian-laird (dl) approach.[ ] several advanced iterative (and computationally expensive) techniques for computing the between studies variance exist (such as maximum likelihood, profile likelihood and restricted maximum likelihood methods) and random effects models using these methods can be run in stata with the metaan command.[ ] the metaan command must be distinguished from the classic metan (single "a") command in stata that uses the dl estimator. these advanced methods have also been implemented in a free and easy to use microsoft excel add-on, metaeasy.[ ][ ] however, a comparison between these advanced methods and the dl method of computing the between studies variance demonstrated that there is little to gain and dl is quite adequate in most scenarios.[ ][ ] however, most meta-analyses include between and studies and such a sample is more often than not inadequate to accurately estimate heterogeneity. thus it appears that in small meta-analyses, an incorrect zero between study variance estimate is obtained, leading to a false homogeneity assumption. overall, it appears that heterogeneity is being consistently underestimated in meta-analyses and sensitivity analyses in which high heterogeneity levels are assumed could be informative.[ ] these random effects models and software packages mentioned above relate to study-aggregate meta-analyses and researchers wishing to conduct individual patient data (ipd) meta-analyses need to consider mixed-effects modelling approaches.[ ] ivhet model[edit] doi & barendregt working in collaboration with khan, thalib and williams (from the university of queensland, university of southern queensland and kuwait university), have created an inverse variance quasi likelihood based alternative (ivhet) to the random effects (re) model for which details are available online.[ ] this was incorporated into metaxl version . ,[ ] a free microsoft excel add-in for meta-analysis produced by epigear international pty ltd, and made available on april . the authors state that a clear advantage of this model is that it resolves the two main problems of the random effects model. the first advantage of the ivhet model is that coverage remains at the nominal (usually %) level for the confidence interval unlike the random effects model which drops in coverage with increasing heterogeneity.[ ][ ] the second advantage is that the ivhet model maintains the inverse variance weights of individual studies, unlike the re model which gives small studies more weight (and therefore larger studies less) with increasing heterogeneity. when heterogeneity becomes large, the individual study weights under the re model become equal and thus the re model returns an arithmetic mean rather than a weighted average. this side-effect of the re model does not occur with the ivhet model which thus differs from the re model estimate in two perspectives:[ ] pooled estimates will favor larger trials (as opposed to penalizing larger trials in the re model) and will have a confidence interval that remains within the nominal coverage under uncertainty (heterogeneity). doi & barendregt suggest that while the re model provides an alternative method of pooling the study data, their simulation results[ ] demonstrate that using a more specified probability model with untenable assumptions, as with the re model, does not necessarily provide better results. the latter study also reports that the ivhet model resolves the problems related to underestimation of the statistical error, poor coverage of the confidence interval and increased mse seen with the random effects model and the authors conclude that researchers should henceforth abandon use of the random effects model in meta-analysis. while their data is compelling, the ramifications (in terms of the magnitude of spuriously positive results within the cochrane database) are huge and thus accepting this conclusion requires careful independent confirmation. the availability of a free software (metaxl)[ ] that runs the ivhet model (and all other models for comparison) facilitates this for the research community. direct evidence: models incorporating additional information[edit] quality effects model[edit] doi and thalib originally introduced the quality effects model.[ ] they[ ] introduced a new approach to adjustment for inter-study variability by incorporating the contribution of variance due to a relevant component (quality) in addition to the contribution of variance due to random error that is used in any fixed effects meta-analysis model to generate weights for each study. the strength of the quality effects meta-analysis is that it allows available methodological evidence to be used over subjective random effects, and thereby helps to close the damaging gap which has opened up between methodology and statistics in clinical research. to do this a synthetic bias variance is computed based on quality information to adjust inverse variance weights and the quality adjusted weight of the ith study is introduced.[ ] these adjusted weights are then used in meta-analysis. in other words, if study i is of good quality and other studies are of poor quality, a proportion of their quality adjusted weights is mathematically redistributed to study i giving it more weight towards the overall effect size. as studies become increasingly similar in terms of quality, re-distribution becomes progressively less and ceases when all studies are of equal quality (in the case of equal quality, the quality effects model defaults to the ivhet model – see previous section). a recent evaluation of the quality effects model (with some updates) demonstrates that despite the subjectivity of quality assessment, the performance (mse and true variance under simulation) is superior to that achievable with the random effects model.[ ][ ] this model thus replaces the untenable interpretations that abound in the literature and a software is available to explore this method further.[ ] indirect evidence: network meta-analysis methods[edit] a network meta-analysis looks at indirect comparisons. in the image, a has been analyzed in relation to c and c has been analyzed in relation to b. however the relation between a and b is only known indirectly, and a network meta-analysis looks at such indirect evidence of differences between methods and interventions using statistical method. indirect comparison meta-analysis methods (also called network meta-analyses, in particular when multiple treatments are assessed simultaneously) generally use two main methodologies. first, is the bucher method[ ] which is a single or repeated comparison of a closed loop of three-treatments such that one of them is common to the two studies and forms the node where the loop begins and ends. therefore, multiple two-by-two comparisons ( -treatment loops) are needed to compare multiple treatments. this methodology requires that trials with more than two arms have two arms only selected as independent pair-wise comparisons are required. the alternative methodology uses complex statistical modelling to include the multiple arm trials and comparisons simultaneously between all competing treatments. these have been executed using bayesian methods, mixed linear models and meta-regression approaches.[citation needed] bayesian framework[edit] specifying a bayesian network meta-analysis model involves writing a directed acyclic graph (dag) model for general-purpose markov chain monte carlo (mcmc) software such as winbugs.[ ] in addition, prior distributions have to be specified for a number of the parameters, and the data have to be supplied in a specific format.[ ] together, the dag, priors, and data form a bayesian hierarchical model. to complicate matters further, because of the nature of mcmc estimation, overdispersed starting values have to be chosen for a number of independent chains so that convergence can be assessed.[ ] currently, there is no software that automatically generates such models, although there are some tools to aid in the process. the complexity of the bayesian approach has limited usage of this methodology. methodology for automation of this method has been suggested[ ] but requires that arm-level outcome data are available, and this is usually unavailable. great claims are sometimes made for the inherent ability of the bayesian framework to handle network meta-analysis and its greater flexibility. however, this choice of implementation of framework for inference, bayesian or frequentist, may be less important than other choices regarding the modeling of effects[ ] (see discussion on models above). frequentist multivariate framework[edit] on the other hand, the frequentist multivariate methods involve approximations and assumptions that are not stated explicitly or verified when the methods are applied (see discussion on meta-analysis models above). for example, the mvmeta package for stata enables network meta-analysis in a frequentist framework.[ ] however, if there is no common comparator in the network, then this has to be handled by augmenting the dataset with fictional arms with high variance, which is not very objective and requires a decision as to what constitutes a sufficiently high variance.[ ] the other issue is use of the random effects model in both this frequentist framework and the bayesian framework. senn advises analysts to be cautious about interpreting the 'random effects' analysis since only one random effect is allowed for but one could envisage many.[ ] senn goes on to say that it is rather naıve, even in the case where only two treatments are being compared to assume that random-effects analysis accounts for all uncertainty about the way effects can vary from trial to trial. newer models of meta-analysis such as those discussed above would certainly help alleviate this situation and have been implemented in the next framework. generalized pairwise modelling framework[edit] an approach that has been tried since the late s is the implementation of the multiple three-treatment closed-loop analysis. this has not been popular because the process rapidly becomes overwhelming as network complexity increases. development in this area was then abandoned in favor of the bayesian and multivariate frequentist methods which emerged as alternatives. very recently, automation of the three-treatment closed loop method has been developed for complex networks by some researchers[ ] as a way to make this methodology available to the mainstream research community. this proposal does restrict each trial to two interventions, but also introduces a workaround for multiple arm trials: a different fixed control node can be selected in different runs. it also utilizes robust meta-analysis methods so that many of the problems highlighted above are avoided. further research around this framework is required to determine if this is indeed superior to the bayesian or multivariate frequentist frameworks. researchers willing to try this out have access to this framework through a free software.[ ] tailored meta-analysis[edit] another form of additional information comes from the intended setting. if the target setting for applying the meta-analysis results is known then it may be possible to use data from the setting to tailor the results thus producing a 'tailored meta-analysis'.,[ ][ ] this has been used in test accuracy meta-analyses, where empirical knowledge of the test positive rate and the prevalence have been used to derive a region in receiver operating characteristic (roc) space known as an 'applicable region'. studies are then selected for the target setting based on comparison with this region and aggregated to produce a summary estimate which is tailored to the target setting. aggregating ipd and ad[edit] meta-analysis can also be applied to combine ipd and ad. this is convenient when the researchers who conduct the analysis have their own raw data while collecting aggregate or summary data from the literature. the generalized integration model (gim)[ ] is a generalization of the meta-analysis. it allows that the model fitted on the individual participant data (ipd) is different from the ones used to compute the aggregate data (ad). gim can be viewed as a model calibration method for integrating information with more flexibility. validation of meta-analysis results[edit] the meta-analysis estimate represents a weighted average across studies and when there is heterogeneity this may result in the summary estimate not being representative of individual studies. qualitative appraisal of the primary studies using established tools can uncover potential biases,[ ][ ] but does not quantify the aggregate effect of these biases on the summary estimate. although the meta-analysis result could be compared with an independent prospective primary study, such external validation is often impractical. this has led to the development of methods that exploit a form of leave-one-out cross validation, sometimes referred to as internal-external cross validation (iocv).[ ] here each of the k included studies in turn is omitted and compared with the summary estimate derived from aggregating the remaining k- studies. a general validation statistic, vn based on iocv has been developed to measure the statistical validity of meta-analysis results.[ ] for test accuracy and prediction, particularly when there are multivariate effects, other approaches which seek to estimate the prediction error have also been proposed.[ ] challenges[edit] a meta-analysis of several small studies does not always predict the results of a single large study.[ ] some have argued that a weakness of the method is that sources of bias are not controlled by the method: a good meta-analysis cannot correct for poor design or bias in the original studies.[ ] this would mean that only methodologically sound studies should be included in a meta-analysis, a practice called 'best evidence synthesis'.[ ] other meta-analysts would include weaker studies, and add a study-level predictor variable that reflects the methodological quality of the studies to examine the effect of study quality on the effect size.[ ] however, others have argued that a better approach is to preserve information about the variance in the study sample, casting as wide a net as possible, and that methodological selection criteria introduce unwanted subjectivity, defeating the purpose of the approach.[ ] publication bias: the file drawer problem[edit] a funnel plot expected without the file drawer problem. the largest studies converge at the tip while smaller studies show more or less symmetrical scatter at the base a funnel plot expected with the file drawer problem. the largest studies still cluster around the tip, but the bias against publishing negative studies has caused the smaller studies as a whole to have an unjustifiably favorable result to the hypothesis another potential pitfall is the reliance on the available body of published studies, which may create exaggerated outcomes due to publication bias, as studies which show negative results or insignificant results are less likely to be published. for example, pharmaceutical companies have been known to hide negative studies and researchers may have overlooked unpublished studies such as dissertation studies or conference abstracts that did not reach publication. this is not easily solved, as one cannot know how many studies have gone unreported.[ ] this file drawer problem (characterized by negative or non-significant results being tucked away in a cabinet), can result in a biased distribution of effect sizes thus creating a serious base rate fallacy, in which the significance of the published studies is overestimated, as other studies were either not submitted for publication or were rejected. this should be seriously considered when interpreting the outcomes of a meta-analysis.[ ][ ] the distribution of effect sizes can be visualized with a funnel plot which (in its most common version) is a scatter plot of standard error versus the effect size. it makes use of the fact that the smaller studies (thus larger standard errors) have more scatter of the magnitude of effect (being less precise) while the larger studies have less scatter and form the tip of the funnel. if many negative studies were not published, the remaining positive studies give rise to a funnel plot in which the base is skewed to one side (asymmetry of the funnel plot). in contrast, when there is no publication bias, the effect of the smaller studies has no reason to be skewed to one side and so a symmetric funnel plot results. this also means that if no publication bias is present, there would be no relationship between standard error and effect size.[ ] a negative or positive relation between standard error and effect size would imply that smaller studies that found effects in one direction only were more likely to be published and/or to be submitted for publication. apart from the visual funnel plot, statistical methods for detecting publication bias have also been proposed. these are controversial because they typically have low power for detection of bias, but also may make false positives under some circumstances.[ ] for instance small study effects (biased smaller studies), wherein methodological differences between smaller and larger studies exist, may cause asymmetry in effect sizes that resembles publication bias. however, small study effects may be just as problematic for the interpretation of meta-analyses, and the imperative is on meta-analytic authors to investigate potential sources of bias. a tandem method for analyzing publication bias has been suggested for cutting down false positive error problems.[ ] this tandem method consists of three stages. firstly, one calculates orwin's fail-safe n, to check how many studies should be added in order to reduce the test statistic to a trivial size. if this number of studies is larger than the number of studies used in the meta-analysis, it is a sign that there is no publication bias, as in that case, one needs a lot of studies to reduce the effect size. secondly, one can do an egger's regression test, which tests whether the funnel plot is symmetrical. as mentioned before: a symmetrical funnel plot is a sign that there is no publication bias, as the effect size and sample size are not dependent. thirdly, one can do the trim-and-fill method, which imputes data if the funnel plot is asymmetrical. the problem of publication bias is not trivial as it is suggested that % of meta-analyses in the psychological sciences may have suffered from publication bias.[ ] however, low power of existing tests and problems with the visual appearance of the funnel plot remain an issue, and estimates of publication bias may remain lower than what truly exists. most discussions of publication bias focus on journal practices favoring publication of statistically significant findings. however, questionable research practices, such as reworking statistical models until significance is achieved, may also favor statistically significant findings in support of researchers' hypotheses.[ ][ ] problems related to studies not reporting non-statistically significant effects[edit] studies often do not report the effects when they do not reach statistical significance[citation needed]. for example, they may simply say that the groups did not show statistically significant differences, without reporting any other information (e.g. a statistic or p-value). exclusion of these studies would lead to a situation similar to publication bias, but their inclusion (assuming null effects) would also bias the meta-analysis. metansue, a method created by joaquim radua, has shown to allow researchers to include unbiasedly these studies.[ ] its steps are as follows: 	maximum likelihood estimation of the meta-analytic effect and the heterogeneity between studies. 	multiple imputation of the nsues adding noise to the estimate of the effect. 	separate meta-analyses for each imputed dataset. 	pooling of the results of these meta-analyses. problems related to the statistical approach[edit] other weaknesses are that it has not been determined if the statistically most accurate method for combining results is the fixed, ivhet, random or quality effect models, though the criticism against the random effects model is mounting because of the perception that the new random effects (used in meta-analysis) are essentially formal devices to facilitate smoothing or shrinkage and prediction may be impossible or ill-advised.[ ] the main problem with the random effects approach is that it uses the classic statistical thought of generating a "compromise estimator" that makes the weights close to the naturally weighted estimator if heterogeneity across studies is large but close to the inverse variance weighted estimator if the between study heterogeneity is small. however, what has been ignored is the distinction between the model we choose to analyze a given dataset, and the mechanism by which the data came into being.[ ] a random effect can be present in either of these roles, but the two roles are quite distinct. there's no reason to think the analysis model and data-generation mechanism (model) are similar in form, but many sub-fields of statistics have developed the habit of assuming, for theory and simulations, that the data-generation mechanism (model) is identical to the analysis model we choose (or would like others to choose). as a hypothesized mechanisms for producing the data, the random effect model for meta-analysis is silly and it is more appropriate to think of this model as a superficial description and something we choose as an analytical tool – but this choice for meta-analysis may not work because the study effects are a fixed feature of the respective meta-analysis and the probability distribution is only a descriptive tool.[ ] problems arising from agenda-driven bias[edit] the most severe fault in meta-analysis[ ] often occurs when the person or persons doing the meta-analysis have an economic, social, or political agenda such as the passage or defeat of legislation. people with these types of agendas may be more likely to abuse meta-analysis due to personal bias. for example, researchers favorable to the author's agenda are likely to have their studies cherry-picked while those not favorable will be ignored or labeled as "not credible". in addition, the favored authors may themselves be biased or paid to produce results that support their overall political, social, or economic goals in ways such as selecting small favorable data sets and not incorporating larger unfavorable data sets. the influence of such biases on the results of a meta-analysis is possible because the methodology of meta-analysis is highly malleable.[ ] a study done to disclose possible conflicts of interests in underlying research studies used for medical meta-analyses reviewed meta-analyses and found that conflicts of interests in the studies underlying the meta-analyses were rarely disclosed. the meta-analyses included from general medicine journals, from specialty medicine journals, and three from the cochrane database of systematic reviews. the meta-analyses reviewed a total of randomized controlled trials (rcts). of these, rcts reported funding sources, with ( %) receiving funding from industry (i.e. one or more authors having financial ties to the pharmaceutical industry). of the rcts, reported author conflict of interest disclosures, with studies ( %) disclosing one or more authors having financial ties to industry. the information was, however, seldom reflected in the meta-analyses. only two ( %) reported rct funding sources and none reported rct author-industry ties. the authors concluded "without acknowledgment of coi due to industry funding or author industry financial ties from rcts included in meta-analyses, readers' understanding and appraisal of the evidence from the meta-analysis may be compromised."[ ] for example, in , a us federal judge found that the united states environmental protection agency had abused the meta-analysis process to produce a study claiming cancer risks to non-smokers from environmental tobacco smoke (ets) with the intent to influence policy makers to pass smoke-free–workplace laws. the judge found that: epa's study selection is disturbing. first, there is evidence in the record supporting the accusation that epa "cherry picked" its data. without criteria for pooling studies into a meta-analysis, the court cannot determine whether the exclusion of studies likely to disprove epa's a priori hypothesis was coincidence or intentional. second, epa's excluding nearly half of the available studies directly conflicts with epa's purported purpose for analyzing the epidemiological studies and conflicts with epa's risk assessment guidelines. see ets risk assessment at - ("these data should also be examined in the interest of weighing all the available evidence, as recommended by epa's carcinogen risk assessment guidelines (u.s. epa, a) (emphasis added)). third, epa's selective use of data conflicts with the radon research act. the act states epa's program shall "gather data and information on all aspects of indoor air quality" (radon research act § (a)( )) (emphasis added).[ ] as a result of the abuse, the court vacated chapters – of and the appendices to epa's "respiratory health effects of passive smoking: lung cancer and other disorders".[ ] weak inclusion standards lead to misleading conclusions[edit] meta-analyses in education are often not restrictive enough in regards to the methodological quality of the studies they include. for example, studies that include small samples or researcher-made measures lead to inflated effect size estimates.[ ] applications in modern science[edit] modern statistical meta-analysis does more than just combine the effect sizes of a set of studies using a weighted average. it can test if the outcomes of studies show more variation than the variation that is expected because of the sampling of different numbers of research participants. additionally, study characteristics such as measurement instrument used, population sampled, or aspects of the studies' design can be coded and used to reduce variance of the estimator (see statistical models above). thus some methodological weaknesses in studies can be corrected statistically. other uses of meta-analytic methods include the development and validation of clinical prediction models, where meta-analysis may be used to combine individual participant data from different research centers and to assess the model's generalisability,[ ][ ] or even to aggregate existing prediction models.[ ] meta-analysis can be done with single-subject design as well as group research designs. this is important because much research has been done with single-subject research designs. considerable dispute exists for the most appropriate meta-analytic technique for single subject research.[ ] meta-analysis leads to a shift of emphasis from single studies to multiple studies. it emphasizes the practical importance of the effect size instead of the statistical significance of individual studies. this shift in thinking has been termed "meta-analytic thinking". the results of a meta-analysis are often shown in a forest plot. results from studies are combined using different approaches. one approach frequently used in meta-analysis in health care research is termed 'inverse variance method'. the average effect size across all studies is computed as a weighted mean, whereby the weights are equal to the inverse variance of each study's effect estimator. larger studies and studies with less random variation are given greater weight than smaller studies. other common approaches include the mantel–haenszel method[ ] and the peto method.[ ] seed-based d mapping (formerly signed differential mapping, sdm) is a statistical technique for meta-analyzing studies on differences in brain activity or structure which used neuroimaging techniques such as fmri, vbm or pet. different high throughput techniques such as microarrays have been used to understand gene expression. microrna expression profiles have been used to identify differentially expressed micrornas in particular cell or tissue type or disease conditions or to check the effect of a treatment. a meta-analysis of such expression profiles was performed to derive novel conclusions and to validate the known findings.[ ] see also[edit] 	mathematics portal 	estimation statistics 	metascience 	newcastle–ottawa scale 	reporting bias 	review journal 	secondary research 	study heterogeneity 	systematic review 	galbraith plot 	data aggregation references[edit] 	^ greenland s, o' rourke k: meta-analysis. page in modern epidemiology, rd ed. edited by rothman kj, greenland s, lash t. lippincott williams and wilkins; . 	^ walker e, hernandez av, kattan mw ( ). 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( ): – . doi: . /j.shpsc. . . . pmid  . 	^ roseman m, milette k, bero la, coyne jc, lexchin j, turner eh, thombs bd ( ), "reporting of conflicts of interest in meta-analyses of trials of pharmacological treatments", journal of the american medical association, ( ): – , doi: . /jama. . , pmid  cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ a b "the osteen decision". the united states district court for the middle district of north carolina. july . retrieved march . 	^ cheung, alan c. k.; slavin, robert e. ( june ). "how methodological features affect effect sizes in education". educational researcher. ( ): – . doi: . / x . issn  - x. 	^ debray, thomas p. a.; riley, richard d.; rovers, maroeska m.; reitsma, johannes b.; moons, karel g. m. ( october ). "individual participant data (ipd) meta-analyses of diagnostic and prognostic modeling studies: guidance on their use". plos medicine. ( ): e . doi: . /journal.pmed. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ debray tp, moons kg, ahmed i, koffijberg h, riley rd ( ). "a framework for developing, implementing, and evaluating clinical prediction models in an individual participant data meta-analysis". statistics in medicine. ( ): – . doi: . /sim. . pmid  . 	^ debray tp, koffijberg h, vergouwe y, moons kg, steyerberg ew ( ). "aggregating published prediction models with individual participant data: a comparison of different approaches". statistics in medicine. ( ): – . doi: . /sim. . pmid  . 	^ van den noortgate w, onghena p ( ). "aggregating single-case results". the behavior analyst today. ( ): – . doi: . /h . 	^ mantel n, haenszel w ( ). "statistical aspects of the analysis of data from the retrospective analysis of disease". journal of the national cancer institute. ( ): – . doi: . /jnci/ . . . pmid  . 	^ " . . . peto odds ratio method". cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions v . . . march . 	^ bargaje r, hariharan m, scaria v, pillai b ( ). "consensus mirna expression profiles derived from interplatform normalization of microarray data". rna. ( ): – . doi: . /rna. . pmc  . pmid  . further reading[edit] 	cooper, h. & hedges, l.v. ( ). the handbook of research synthesis. new york: russell sage. 	cornell, j. e. & mulrow, c. d. ( ). meta-analysis. in: h. j. adèr & g. j. mellenbergh (eds). research methodology in the social, behavioral and life sciences (pp.  – ). london: sage. 	normand sl ( ). "tutorial in biostatistics. meta-analysis: formulating, evaluating, combining, and reporting". statistics in medicine. ( ): – . doi: . /(sici) - ( ) : < ::aid-sim > . .co; -p. pmid  . 	sutton, a.j., jones, d.r., abrams, k.r., sheldon, t.a., & song, f. ( ). methods for meta-analysis in medical research. london: john wiley. isbn  - - - 	higgins jpt, green s (editors). cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions version . . [updated september ]. the cochrane collaboration, . available from www.cochrane-handbook.org 	thompson sg, pocock sj; pocock, stuart j ( november ). "can meta-analysis be trusted?" (pdf). the lancet. ( ): – . doi: . / - ( ) -z. pmid  . archived from the original (pdf) on november . retrieved june . . explores two contrasting views: does meta-analysis provide "objective, quantitative methods for combining evidence from separate but similar studies" or merely "statistical tricks which make unjustified assumptions in producing oversimplified generalisations out of a complex of disparate studies"? 	wilson, d. b., & lipsey, m. w. ( ). practical meta-analysis. thousand oaks: sage publications. isbn  - - - 	o'rourke, k. ( ) just the history from the combining of information: investigating and synthesizing what is possibly common in clinical observations or studies via likelihood. oxford: university of oxford, department of statistics. gives technical background material and details on the "an historical perspective on meta-analysis" paper cited in the references. 	owen, a. b. ( ). "karl pearson's meta-analysis revisited". annals of statistics, ( b), – . supplementary report. 	ellis, paul d. ( ). the essential guide to effect sizes: an introduction to statistical power, meta-analysis and the interpretation of research results. united kingdom: cambridge university press. isbn  - - - 	bonett, dg ( ) point-biserial correlation: confidence intervals, hypothesis testing, meta-analysis, and sample size planning. british journal of mathematical and statistical psychology . doi: . /bmsp. 	bonett dg, price rm ( ). "varying coefficient meta-analysis methods for odds ratios and risk ratios". psychol methods. ( ): – . doi: . /met . pmid  . 	bonett dg, price rm ( ). "meta-analysis methods for risk differences". br j math stat psychol. ( ): – . doi: . /bmsp. . pmid  . 	bonett dg ( ). "varying coefficient meta-analytic methods for alpha reliability". psychol methods. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	bonett dg ( ). "meta-analytic interval estimation for standardized and unstandardized mean differences". psychol methods. ( ): – . doi: . /a . pmid  . 	bonett dg ( ). "meta-analytic interval estimation for bivariate correlations". psychol methods. 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		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		distressing emotion experienced by a person who regrets actions they have done in the past this article is about the emotion. for the episode of the tv series house, see remorse (house). the remorse of orestes ( ), by william-adolphe bouguereau 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e remorse is a distressing emotion experienced by an individual who regrets actions which they have done in the past[ ] that they deem to be shameful, hurtful, or wrong. remorse is closely allied to guilt and self-directed resentment. when a person regrets an earlier action or failure to act, it may be because of remorse or in response to various other consequences, including being punished for the act or omission. people may express remorse through apologies, trying to repair the damage they've caused, or self-imposed punishments. in a legal context, the perceived remorse of an offender is assessed by western justice systems during trials, sentencing, parole hearings, and in restorative justice. however, there are epistemological problems with assessing an offender's level of remorse.[ ] a person who is incapable of feeling remorse is often diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder, as characterized in the dsm iv-tr. in general, a person needs to be unable to feel fear, as well as remorse, in order to develop psychopathic traits. legal and business professions such as insurance have done research on the expression of remorse via apologies, primarily because of the potential litigation and financial implications. contents 	 studies on apologizing 	 falsified expressions 	 psychopathy 	 forgiveness 	 versus self-condemnation 	 buyer's remorse 	 see also 	 references 	 external links studies on apologizing[edit] two studies on apologising are "the five languages of apology" by gary chapman and jennifer thomas[ ] and "on apology" by aaron lazare.[ ] these studies indicate that effective apologies that express remorse typically include a detailed account of the offense; acknowledgment of the hurt or damage done; acceptance of the responsibility for, and ownership of, the act or omission; an explanation that recognises one's role. as well, apologies usually include a statement or expression of regret, humility, or remorse; a request for forgiveness; and an expression of a credible commitment to change or a promise that it will not happen again. apologies may also include some form of restitution, compensation or token gesture in line with the damage that one has caused. john kleefeld has encapsulated this into "four rs" that typically make for a fully effective apology: remorse, responsibility, resolution and reparation.[ ] when an apology is delayed, for instance if a friend has been wronged and the offending party does not apologise, the perception of the offense can compound over time. this is sometimes known as compounding remorse. compunction refers to the act of actively expressing remorse, usually requiring the remorseful individual to physically approach the person to whom he is expressing regret. falsified expressions[edit] in a study led by leanne ten brinke, a professor at the university of british columbia, participants' genuine and falsified emotions were studied to investigate behavioral and facial cues. brinke and others found a significant difference in the presence of facial expressions in real and false remorse. with falsified emotions of remorse, they found that the participants experienced a greater range of emotions, which are close to genuine feelings, while deceptive descriptions of remorse were associated with positive emotions, such as happiness and surprise.[ ] the positive emotions felt by participants demonstrating a deceptive description of remorse are likely due to the leakage of genuine feelings from incomplete deception. brinke and others established that participants appeared surprised because they could only raise their eyebrows when trying to appear sad, which then caused the participants to feel embarrassed, feel genuine happiness, and let a smile slip.[ ] in contrast to deceptive and falsified accounts, genuine accounts were expressed with fewer emotions. participants showing deceptive or falsified emotions overcompensated their emotional performance. genuine negative feelings of remorse leaked by the lower face were immediately covered up with a neutral expression. brinke recorded a small number of body language and verbal cues for deceptive participants; instead, she recorded a large number of speech hesitations that cued deceptive and falsified accounts of remorse.[ ] current findings of deceptive and falsified remorse have a practical use for measuring the veracity of remorseful displays for judges, jurors, parole officers, and psychologists when sentencing offenders. psychopathy[edit] main article: psychopathy psychopathic individuals are best known for their flagrant disregard for social and moral norms. psychopaths have dysfunctional personal relationships, characterized by violence, exploitation, and philandering. emotionally, they are incapable of feeling guilt or empathy, they respond abnormally to fear and pain, and other emotions are shallow compared to population norms.[ ] psychopaths refuse to adopt social and moral norms because they are not swayed by the emotions, such as guilt, remorse, or fear of retribution, that influence other human beings.[ ] human societies tend to value remorse; conversely, a person who exhibits a lack of remorse is often perceived in a negative light. it is widely accepted that remorse is the proper reaction to misconduct. remorse may originate in from either actual or contrived regret for the misconduct that results in being caught or causing harm.[ ] research has shown that the facial expressions of offenders on trial affect the jury's attitude and, in turn, the sentencing decision. while remorse may present guilt that may influence a jury's decision, a lack of remorse influences the jury even more because it is one trait of psychopathy. psychopathy represents a configuration of traits that are missing within a person's personality, such as a lack of empathy and remorse. knowledge of psychopathic traits has been shown to affect how jurors perceive adult and juvenile offenders. assessments of psychopathy are introduced to direct a relatively wide variety of questions in the legal system, so investigators have started examining the effects of psychopathy evidences.[ ] through simulations in studies by john edens, who is a psychology professor at texas a&m university, data suggests that attributing psychopathic traits to adult and juvenile offenders can have a noticeable negative effect on how these individuals are viewed by others.[ ] remorselessness, a key feature of psychopathy, proves to be a strong predictor of juror attitudes.[ ] in the study by john edens, a pool of offenders were labeled as either having a "disorder" condition or having "no disorder." those labeled as "disorder" were given death verdicts by mock jurors.[ ] in the study, traits, such as callousness, remorselessness, and superficial charm, were a strong predictor of negative consequences for the offenders. this study found that remorselessness has the largest effect on the mock jurors' opinions of the "disorder" offenders and it explains support for the death sentence.[ ] the results of this study suggest that free of mental health testimonies, perceptions of a defendant's personality traits may have serious implications in the sentencing decisions of a capital case.[ ] forgiveness[edit] the perception of remorse is essential to an apology, and the greater the perception of remorse the more effective the apology. an effective apology reduces negative consequences and facilitates cognitive and behavioral changes associated with forgiveness.[ ] with empathy as the mediator between apologies and forgiveness and remorse as the essential part to an apology, one can expect empathy to mediate perceived remorse forgiveness. remorse may signal that one is suffering psychologically because of one's negative behavior, which leads to empathy from the victim, who may then express forgiveness.[ ] in a study by james davis and greg gold, university students filled out questionnaires about forgiveness within interpersonal relationships. davis and gold's findings suggest that when a victim perceives an apology to be remorseful, then they believe the negative behavior will not occur again, and they will be more willing to forgive the perpetrator.[ ] versus self-condemnation[edit] remorse is closely linked with the willingness to humble oneself and to repent for one's misdeeds. remorse is not as such when defined through the view of self-condemnation.[ ] self-condemnation, more so than remorse, is said to be associated with poor psychological well-being. remorse captures feelings of guilt, regret, and sorrow. forgiveness does not eliminate all negative feelings, but it may entail the reduction of bitter and angry feelings, not feelings of disappointment, regret, or sorrow. a study by mickie fisher found that people who forgive themselves for serious offenses may continue to harbor remorse or regret.[ ] in contrast to remorse, self-condemnation reflects a more global, negative, severe stance toward oneself. remorse may convey a sense of sorrow, while self-condemnation suggests the kind of loathing and desire for punishment that characterizes interpersonal grudges. fisher suggests that self-forgiveness does not necessarily require one to get rid of feelings or regret or remorse.[ ] based on the study by fisher, self-forgiveness seems to relate more closely to self-condemnation and not remorse. when trying to convince people to forgive themselves, it is crucial not to erase the potentially adaptive feelings of remorse along with the more destructive self-condemnation.[ ] people can grow and experience prosocial behaviors once they accept responsibility for their own transgressions. for genuine self-forgiveness, one must first accept responsibility for their offenses and not rush to rid themselves of guilty feelings. buyer's remorse[edit] main article: buyer's remorse purchases can be divided into two different categories: material or experiential. a material good is made to be kept in the buyer's possession, while an experiential good provides the buyer with life experience. a material good provides the buyer with a more enduring pleasure compared with an experiential, as these two purchases also result in different types of regret.[ ] while experiential purchases bring about regrets of a missed opportunity, material purchases result in buyer's remorse, which means that a person dwells on how their material purchase measure up to other purchases they could have made and how it compares with other people's purchases. these comparisons diminish satisfaction from the original purpose.[ ] past research explains that regrets of action are intense, but only in the short term, while regrets of inaction gains intensity over time and dominates people's experience. major life choices, such as marriage, jobs, and education, are often the focus of regret. everyday experience suggests that everyday decisions are the most frequent causes of regret.[ ] marketing directors know the effects of buyer's remorse, and use it to their advantage when planning marketing strategies. the regret felt over choosing a material over an experiential purchase depends on the pain of the factors underlying the purchase. based on research by thomas gilovich and emily rosenzwig, material purchases are more likely to lead to regret, while experiential purchases give the buyer more satisfaction even over time.[ ] see also[edit] 	atonement 	confession 	guilt 	moral emotions 	non-apology apology 	regret 	repentance 	resentment 	social emotions references[edit] 	^ remorse, cambridge dictionary. 	^ o'hear, michael m. ( – ), remorse, cooperation, and acceptance of responsibility: the structure, implementation, and reform of section e . of the federal sentencing guidelines, , nw. u. l. rev., p.  , archived from the original on - - 	^ gary chapman, jennifer thomas ( ). the five languages of apology. moody. isbn  - - - . see also gary chapman ( ). now you're speaking my language: honest communication and deeper intimacy for a stronger marriage. b&h. isbn  - - - - . 	^ aaron lazare ( ). on apology. new york: oxford university press. isbn  - - - - . 	^ john kleefeld ( ). "thinking like a human: british columbia's apology act" university of british columbia law review ( ): – , . http://ssrn.com/abstract= . 	^ a b c brinke, l; macdonald, s; et al. ( ), "crocodile tears: facial, verbal and body language behaviours associated with genuine and fabricated remorse", law and human behavior, ( ): – , doi: . /h , pmid  	^ a b maibom, h ( ), "moral unreason: the case of psychopathy", mind and language, ( ): – , doi: . /j. - . . .x 	^ maclin, m; downs, c; et al. ( ), "the effect of defendant facial expression on mock juror decision-making: the power of remorse", north american journal of psychology, ( ): – 	^ a b c d e f edens, j; davis, k; et al. ( ), "no sympathy for the devil: attributing psychopathic traits to capital murderers also predicts support for executing them", personality disorders: theory, research, and treatment, ( ): – , doi: . /a 	^ a b c davis, j; gold, g ( ), "an examination of emotional empathy, attributions of stability, and the link between perceived remorse and forgiveness", personality and individual differences, ( ): – , doi: . /j.paid. . . 	^ a b c d exline, j; fisher, m ( ), "self-forgiveness versus excusing: the roles of remorse, effort, and acceptance of responsibility", self and identity, ( ): – , doi: . / 	^ a b c d gilovich, t; rosenzweig, e ( ), "buyer's remorse or missed opportunity? differential regrets for material and experiential purchases", journal of personality and social psychology, ( ): – , doi: . /a , pmid  external links[edit] 		wikiversity has learning resources about apologizing 		look up remorse in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: remorse 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion 	 	v 	t 	e psychopathy 	contexts	 	in fiction 	in the workplace 	characteristics	 	anti-social behaviour 	bold 	callous 	diminished empathy 	disinhibited 	grandiose 	impulsive 	lack of guilt 	manipulative 	pathological lying 	remorseless 	shallow affect 	superficially charming 	related topics	 	antisocial personality disorder 	conduct disorder 	dark triad 	flying monkeys 	history of psychopathy 	juvenile delinquency 	machiavellianism 	macdonald triad 	narcissism 	psychopathic personality inventory 	psychopathy checklist 	sadistic personality disorder 	sexual sadism disorder 	sociopathy 	notable theorists	 	hervey m. cleckley 	george e. partridge 	robert d. hare 	authority control 	 	gnd: - 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wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	social capital 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		concept 	 	this article may be too technical for most readers to understand. please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. 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relationships, a shared sense of identity, a shared understanding, shared norms, shared values, trust, cooperation, and reciprocity. social capital is a measure of the value of resources, both tangible (e.g., public spaces, private property) and intangible (e.g., actors, human capital, people), and the impact that these relationships have on the resources involved in each relationship, and on larger groups. it is generally seen as a form of capital that produces public goods for a common purpose. social capital has been used to explain the improved performance of diverse groups, the growth of entrepreneurial firms, superior managerial performance, enhanced supply chain relations, the value derived from strategic alliances, and the evolution of communities. contents 	 history 	 . th– th century 	 . th century 	 definitions and forms 	 . definitional issues 	 . forms of capital (bourdieu) 	 . norms of trust and reciprocity (sander, putnam, coleman) 	 . civic association (fukuyama) 	 . social ties 	 negative social capital 	 . accessibility 	 . in political institutions 	 . in race and ethnicity 	 . social inequality 	 positive consequences of social capital 	 subtypes 	 . bonding, bridging, linking 	 . consummatory, instrumental 	 . . consummatory capital 	 . . instrumental capital 	 measurement 	 . name generators 	 . social capital scales 	 . cohesion measures 	 . economic measures 	 . group membership-based 	 . social behaviour-based 	 integrating history and socio-economic analysis 	 . beyond putnam 	 . social capital motives 	 relation with civil society 	 . sample societies 	 effects on women's engagement with politics 	 effects on health 	 influence of the internet 	 effects on educational achievement 	 . catholic schools (coleman and hoffer) 	 . community development 	 . parental involvement 	 . difference in male and female 	 . adaption and ethnic values 	 in fields of study 	 . geography 	 . leisure studies 	 . social capital, marriage, and romantic relationships 	 effects on informal economies 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links history[edit] the term social capital was in intermittent use from about , before becoming widely used in the late s.[ ] the debate of community versus modernization of society and individualism has been the most discussed topic among the founders of sociology: such theorists as tönnies ( ),[ ] durkheim ( ),[ ] simmel ( ),[ ] weber ( )[ ] were convinced that industrialisation and urbanization were transforming social relationships in an irreversible way. they observed a breakdown of traditional bonds and the progressive development of anomie and alienation in society.[ ] th– th century[edit] the power of community governance has been stressed by many philosophers from antiquity to the th century, from aristotle to thomas aquinas, and edmund burke.[ ] this vision was strongly criticised at the end of the th century, with the development of the idea of homo economicus and subsequently with rational choice theory. such a set of theories became dominant in the last centuries, but many thinkers questioned the complicated relationship between modern society and the importance of old institutions, in particular family and traditional communities.[ ] the concept that underlies social capital has a much longer history; thinkers exploring the relation between associational life and democracy were using similar concepts regularly by the th century, drawing on the work of earlier writers such as james madison (the federalist papers) and alexis de tocqueville (democracy in america) to integrate concepts of social cohesion and connectedness into the pluralist tradition in american political science. john dewey may have made the first direct mainstream use of social capital in the school and society in , though he did not offer a definition. in the first half of the th century, de tocqueville had observations about american life that seemed to outline and define social capital. he observed that americans were prone to meeting at as many gatherings as possible to discuss all possible issues of state, economics, or the world that could be witnessed. the high levels of transparency caused greater participation from the people and thus allowed for democracy to work better. th century[edit] l. j. hanifan's article regarding local support for rural schools is one of the first occurrences of the term social capital in reference to social cohesion and personal investment in the community.[ ][ ] in defining the concept, hanifan contrasts social capital with material goods by defining it as:[ ]: – i do not refer to real estate, or to personal property or to cold cash, but rather to that in life which tends to make these tangible substances count for most in the daily lives of people, namely, goodwill, fellowship, mutual sympathy and social intercourse among a group of individuals and families who make up a social unit.… if he may come into contact with his neighbour, and they with other neighbours, there will be an accumulation of social capital, which may immediately satisfy his social needs and which may bear a social potentiality sufficient to the substantial improvement of living conditions in the whole community. the community as a whole will benefit by the cooperation of all its parts, while the individual will find in his associations the advantages of the help, the sympathy, and the fellowship of his neighbours. following the works of tönnies ( )[ ] and weber ( ),[ ] reflection on social links in modern society continued with interesting contributions in the s and in the s. in particular, mass society theory—as developed by daniel bell ( ),[ ] robert nisbet ( ),[ ] maurice r. stein ( ),[ ] william h. whyte ( )[ ]—proposed themes similar to those of the founders, with a more pessimistic emphasis on the development of society. in the words of stein ( : ): "the price for maintaining a society that encourages cultural differentiation and experimentation is unquestionably the acceptance of a certain amount of disorganization on both the individual and social level." jane jacobs used the term early in the s. although she did not explicitly define the term social capital, her usage referred to the value of networks.[ ] political scientist robert salisbury advanced the term as a critical component of interest group formation in his article "an exchange theory of interest groups" in the midwest journal of political science. sociologist pierre bourdieu used the term in in his outline of a theory of practice,[ ] and clarified the term some years later in contrast to cultural, economic, administrative capital, physical capital, political capital, social capital and symbolic capital. sociologists james coleman ( ),[ ] as well as barry wellman & scot wortley ( ),[ ] adopted glenn loury's definition in developing and popularising the concept.[ ] in the late s, the concept gained popularity, serving as the focus of a world bank research programme and the subject of several mainstream books, including robert putnam's bowling alone,[ ] and putnam & lewis feldstein's better together. all of these reflections contributed remarkably to the development of the social capital concept in the following decades. the appearance of the modern social capital conceptualization is a new way to look at this debate, keeping together the importance of community to build generalized trust and the same time, the importance of individual free choice, in order to create a more cohesive society. it is for this reason that social capital generated so much interest in the academic and political world.[ ] definitions and forms[edit] social capital has multiple definitions, interpretations, and uses. david halpern argues that the popularity of social capital for policymakers is linked to the concept's duality, coming because "it has a hard nosed economic feel while restating the importance of the social." for researchers, the term is popular partly due to the broad range of outcomes it can explain;[ ] the multiplicity of uses for social capital has led to a multiplicity of definitions. social capital has been used at various times to explain superior managerial performance,[ ] the growth of entrepreneurial firms,[ ] improved performance of functionally diverse groups,[ ] the value derived from strategic alliances,[ ] and enhanced supply-chain relations.[ ] "a resource that actors derive from specific social structures and then use to pursue their interests; it is created by changes in the relationship among actors" (baker , p.  ). early attempts to define social capital focused on the degree to which social capital as a resource should be used for public good or for the benefit of individuals. robert d. putnam ( ) suggested that social capital would facilitate co-operation and mutually supportive relations in communities and nations and would therefore be a valuable means of combating many of the social disorders inherent in modern societies, for example crime. in contrast to those focusing on the individual benefit derived from the web of social relationships and ties individual actors find themselves in, attribute social capital to increased personal access to information and skill sets and enhanced power.[ ] according to this view, individuals could use social capital to further their own career prospects, rather than for the good of organisations. nan lin's concept of social capital has a more individualistic approach: "investment in social relations with expected returns in the marketplace." this may subsume the concepts of some others such as bourdieu, flap and eriksson.[ ] newton ( )[ ] considered social capital as subjective phenomenon formed by values and attitudes which influence interactions. nahapiet and ghoshal ( ) in their examination of the role of social capital in the creation of intellectual capital, suggest that social capital should be considered in terms of three clusters: structural, relational, and cognitive.[ ] definitional issues[edit] a number of scholars have raised concerns about lack of precise definition of social capital. portes ( ), for example, notes that the term has become so widely used, including in mainstream media, that "the point is approaching at which social capital comes to be applied to so many events and in so many different contexts as to lose any distinct meaning."[ ] the term capital is used by analogy with other forms of economic capital, as social capital is argued to have similar (although less measurable) benefits. however, the analogy with capital is misleading to the extent that, unlike traditional forms of capital, social capital is not depleted by use;[ ] in fact it is depleted by non-use (use it or lose it). in this respect, it is similar to the now well-established economic concept of human capital. robison, schmid, and siles ( ) reviewed various definitions of social capital and concluded that many did not satisfy the formal requirement of a definition.[ ] they noted that definitions must be of the form a=b while many definition of social capital described what it can be used to achieve, where it resides, how it can be created, and what it can transform. in addition, they argue that many proposed definition of social capital fail to satisfy the requirements of capital. they propose that social capital be defined as sympathy: the object of another's sympathy has social capital; those who have sympathy for others provide social capital.[ ] one of the main advantages of having social capital is that it provides access to resources on preferential terms. their definition of sympathy follows that used by adam smith, the title of his first chapter in the theory of moral sentiments. social capital is also distinguished from the economic theory social capitalism. social capitalism as a theory challenges the idea that socialism and capitalism are mutually exclusive. social capitalism posits that a strong social support network for the poor enhances capital output. by decreasing poverty, capital market participation is enlarged. forms of capital (bourdieu)[edit] in the forms of capital, pierre bourdieu distinguishes between three forms of capital: economic capital, cultural capital and social capital.[ ] he defines social capital as "the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition."[ ] his treatment of the concept is instrumental, focusing on the advantages to possessors of social capital and the "deliberate construction of sociability for the purpose of creating this resource."[ ] quite contrary to putnam's positive view of social capital, bourdieu employs the concept to demonstrate a mechanism for the generational reproduction of inequality. bourdieu thus points out that the wealthy and powerful use their "old boys network" or other social capital to maintain advantages for themselves, their social class, and their children. norms of trust and reciprocity (sander, putnam, coleman)[edit] thomas sander[ ] defines it as "the collective value of all social networks (who people know), and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other (norms of reciprocity)."[ ] social capital, in this view, emphasizes "specific benefits that flow from the trust, reciprocity, information, and cooperation associated with social networks." it "creates value for the people who are connected, and for bystanders as well."[ ] meanwhile, negative norms of reciprocity serve as disincentives for detrimental and violent behaviors.[ ][ ] james coleman defined social capital functionally as "a variety of entities with two elements in common: they all consist of some aspect of social structure, and they facilitate certain actions of actors...within the structure"[ ]—that is, social capital is anything that facilitates individual or collective action, generated by networks of relationships, reciprocity, trust, and social norms.[ ] in coleman's conception, social capital is a neutral resource that facilitates any manner of action, but whether society is better off as a result depends entirely on the individual uses to which it is put.[ ] according to robert d. putnam, social capital refers to "connections among individuals – social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them."[ ] in the view of putnam and his followers, social capital is a key component to building and maintaining democracy. putnam says that social capital is declining in the united states. this is seen in lower levels of trust in government and lower levels of civic participation. he also says that television and urban sprawl have had a significant role in making america far less 'connected'. putnam believes that social capital can be measured by the amount of trust and "reciprocity" in a community or between individuals.[citation needed] putnam also suggests that a root cause of the decline in social capital is women's entry the workforce, which could correlate with time restraints that inhibit civic organizational involvement like parent-teacher associations.[ ] technological transformation of leisure (e.g., television) is another cause of declining social capital, as stated by putnam. this offered a reference point from which several studies assessed social capital measurements by how media is engaged strategically to build social capital.[ ] civic association (fukuyama)[edit] in "social capital, civil society, and development", political economist francis fukuyama defines social capital as generally understood rules that enable people to cooperate such as the norm of reciprocity or religious doctrine like christianity. social capital is formed by repeated interactions over time and, he argues, is critical for development and difficult to generate through public policy. the importance of social capital for economic development is that these norms of behavior reduce transaction cost of exchange such as legal contracts and government regulations. fukuyama suggests that while social capital is beneficial for development, it also imposes cost on non-group members with unintended consequences for general welfare. referencing alexis de tocqueville in democracy in america, and what he described as the art of association of the american propensity for civil association, fukuyama argues social capital is what produces a civil society. while civic engagement is an important part of democracy and development, fukuyama states that, "one person's civic engagement is another's rent-seeking." therefore, while social capital can facilitate economic development by reducing transaction cost and increasing productivity, social capital can also distort democracy if civic association enables special interest to gain special favors. however, fukuyama argues despite the risk of society having too much social capital, it is nonetheless worse to have too little and be unable to organize for public goods and welfare enhancing activity. social ties[edit] carlos garcía timón describes that the structural dimensions of social capital relate to an individual ability to make weak and strong ties to others within a system. this dimension focuses on the advantages derived from the configuration of an actor's, either individual or collective, network.[citation needed] the differences between weak and strong ties are explained by granovetter ( ).[ ] the relational dimension focuses on the character of the connection between individuals. this is best characterized through trust of others and their cooperation and the identification an individual has within a network. hazleton and kennan ( )[ ] added a third angle, that of communication. communication is needed to access and use social capital through exchanging information, identifying problems and solutions, and managing conflict. according to boisot ( ),[ ] and boland & tenkasi ( ),[ ] meaningful communication requires at least some sharing context between the parties to such exchange. the cognitive dimension focuses on the shared meaning, representations and interpretations that individuals or groups have with one another.[ ] negative social capital[edit] it has been noted that social capital may not always be used for positive ends. social capital is often linked to the success of democracy and political involvement. robert d. putnam in his book bowling alone, for example, makes the argument that social capital is linked to the recent decline in american political participation.[ ] pierre bourdieu's work tends to show how social capital can be used practically to produce or reproduce inequality, demonstrating for instance how people gain access to powerful positions through the direct and indirect employment of social connections. lester, maheshwari, and mclain ( ) were the first to create figures and equate negative social capital with negative returns.[ ] before them, negative social capital was a societal ill, not a business one. an example of the complexities of the effects of negative social capital is violence or criminal gang activity that is encouraged through the strengthening of intra-group relationships (bonding social capital).[ ] the negative consequences of social capital are more often associated with bonding vis-à-vis bridging.[ ] without "bridging" social capital, "bonding" groups can become isolated and disenfranchised from the rest of society and, most importantly, from groups with which bridging must occur in order to denote an "increase" in social capital. bonding social capital is a necessary antecedent for the development of the more powerful form of bridging social capital.[ ] bonding and bridging social capital can work together productively if in balance, or they may work against each other. as social capital bonds and stronger homogeneous groups form, the likelihood of bridging social capital is attenuated. bonding social capital can also perpetuate sentiments of a certain group, allowing for the bonding of certain individuals together upon a common radical ideal. the strengthening of insular ties can lead to a variety of effects such as ethnic marginalization or social isolation. in extreme cases ethnic cleansing may result if the relationship between different groups is so strongly negative. in mild cases, it just isolates certain communities such as suburbs of cities because of the bonding social capital and the fact that people in these communities spend so much time away from places that build bridging social capital. accessibility[edit] edwards and foley, as editors of a special edition of the american behavioral scientist on "social capital, civil society and contemporary democracy", raised two key issues in the study of social capital. first, social capital is not equally available to all, in much the same way that other forms of capital are differently available. geographic and social isolation limit access to this resource. second, not all social capital is created equally. the value of a specific source of social capital depends in no small part on the socio-economic position of the source with society. on top of this, portes ( ) has identified four negative consequences of social capital:[ ] 	exclusion of outsiders; 	excess claims on group members; 	restrictions on individual freedom; and 	downward levelling norms. in political institutions[edit] social capital (in the institutional robert putnam sense) may also lead to bad outcomes if the political institution and democracy in a specific country is not strong enough and is therefore overpowered by the social capital groups. "civil society and the collapse of the weimar republic" suggests that "it was weak political institutionalization rather than a weak civil society that was germany's main problem during the wihelmine and weimar eras."[ ] because the political institutions were so weak people looked to other outlets. "germans threw themselves into their clubs, voluntary associations, and professional organizations out of frustration with the failures of the national government and political parties, thereby helping to undermine the weimar republic and facilitate hitler's rise to power." in this article about the fall of the weimar republic, the author makes the claim that hitler rose to power so quickly because he was able to mobilize the groups towards one common goal. even though german society was, at the time, a "joining" society these groups were fragmented and their members did not use the skills they learned in their club associations to better their society. they were very introverted in the weimar republic. hitler was able to capitalize on this by uniting these highly bonded groups under the common cause of bringing germany to the top of world politics. the former world order had been destroyed during world war i, and hitler believed that germany had the right and the will to become a dominant global power. additionally, in his essay "a criticism of putnam's theory of social capital",[ ] michael shindler expands upon berman's argument that weimar social clubs and similar associations in countries that did not develop democracy, were organized in such a way that they fostered a "we" instead of an "i" mentality among their members, by arguing that groups which possess cultures that stress solidarity over individuality, even ones that are "horizontally" structured and which were also common to pre-soviet eastern europe, will not engender democracy if they are politically aligned with non-democratic ideologies.[ ] in race and ethnicity[edit] using a network-based conception for characterizing the social capital of collectivities (such as organizations or business clusters),[ ] lester, maheshwari, and mclain ( ) note that negative social capital may be the cause for disadvantageous differences among minority firms versus majority firms. while studying norms among african-american family firms and euro-american family firms, lester et al noted that negative social capital was created when the owner of the company was pressured to engage in social behavior not conducive to firm profits.[ ] robert putnam, in his later work, also suggests that social capital, and the associated growth of public trust are inhibited by immigration and rising racial diversity in communities.[ ] putnam's study regarding the issue argued that in american areas with a lack of homogeneity, some individuals neither participated in bonding nor bridging social capital. in societies where immigration is high (usa) or where ethnic heterogeneity is high (eastern europe), it was found that citizens lacked in both kinds of social capital and were overall far less trusting of others than members of homogenous communities were found to be. lack of homogeneity led to people withdrawing from even their closest groups and relationships, creating an atomized society as opposed to a cohesive community. these findings challenge previous beliefs that exposure to diversity strengthens social capital, either through bridging social gaps between ethnicities or strengthening in-group bonds. it is very important for policy makers to monitor the level of perceived socio-economic threat from immigrants because negative attitudes towards immigrants make integration difficult and affect social capital.[ ] varshney ( ) studied the correlation between the presence of interethnic networks (bridging) versus intra-ethnic ones (bonding) on ethnic violence in india.[ ][ ] he argues that interethnic networks are agents of peace because they build bridges and manage tensions, by noting that if communities are organized only along intra-ethnic lines and the interconnections with other communities are very weak or even nonexistent, then ethnic violence is quite likely. three main implications of intercommunal ties explain their worth:[ ] 	facilitate communication in the community across ethnic lines 	squelch false rumors 	help the administration carry out its job and in particular peace, security and justice this is a useful distinction; nevertheless, its implication on social capital can only be accepted if one espouses the functionalist understanding of the latter concept. indeed, it can be argued that interethnic, as well as intra-ethnic networks can serve various purposes, either increasing or diminishing social capital. in fact, varshney himself notes that intra-ethnic policing (equivalent to the "self-policing"[disambiguation needed] mechanism proposed by fearon and laitin, )[ ] may lead to the same result as interethnic engagement. social inequality[edit] james coleman ( ) has indicated that social capital eventually led to the creation of human capital for the future generation.[ ] human capital, a private resource, could be accessed through what the previous generation accumulated through social capital. john field ( ) suggested that such a process could lead to the very inequality social capital attempts to resolve.[ ] while coleman viewed social capital as a relatively neutral resource, he did not deny the class reproduction that could result from accessing such capital, given that individuals worked toward their own benefit. even though coleman never truly addresses pierre bourdieu in his discussion, this coincides with bourdieu's argument set forth in reproduction in education, society and culture. bourdieu and coleman were fundamentally different at the theoretical level (as bourdieu believed the actions of individuals were rarely ever conscious, but more so only a result of their habitus being enacted within a particular field, but this realization by both seems to undeniably connect their understanding of the more latent aspects of social capital. according to bourdieu, habitus refers to the social context within which a social actor is socialized. thus, it is the social platform, itself, that equips one with the social reality they become accustomed to. out of habitus comes field, the manner in which one integrates and displays his or her habitus. to this end, it is the social exchange and interaction between two or more social actors. to illustrate this, we assume that an individual wishes to better his place in society. he therefore accumulates social capital by involving himself in a social network, adhering to the norms of that group, allowing him to later access the resources (e.g. social relationships) gained over time. if, in the case of education, he uses these resources to better his educational outcomes, thereby enabling him to become socially mobile, he effectively has worked to reiterate and reproduce the stratification of society, as social capital has done little to alleviate the system as a whole. this may be one negative aspect of social capital, but seems to be an inevitable one in and of itself, as are all forms of capital.[citation needed] positive consequences of social capital[edit] compared to bourdieu, robert d. putnam has used the concept in a much more positive light: though he was at first careful to argue that social capital was a neutral term, stating "whether or not [the] shared are praiseworthy is, of course, entirely another matter,"[ ] his work on american society tends to frame social capital as a producer of "civic engagement" and also a broad societal measure of communal health.[ ] he also transforms social capital from a resource possessed by individuals to an attribute of collectives, focusing on norms and trust as producers of social capital to the exclusion of networks. mahyar arefi ( ) identifies consensus-building as a direct positive indicator of social capital.[ ] consensus implies "shared interest" and agreement among various actors and stakeholders to induce collective action. collective action is thus an indicator of increased social capital. subtypes[edit] bonding, bridging, linking[edit] in bowling alone: the collapse and revival of american community ( ), harvard political scientist robert d. putnam writes:[ ] henry ward beecher's advice a century ago to 'multiply picnics' is not entirely ridiculous today. we should do this, ironically, not because it will be good for america – though it will be – but because it will be good for us. putnam speaks of two main components of the concept, the creation of which putnam credits to ross gittell and avis vidal: 	bonding social capital: the value assigned to social networks between homogeneous groups of people. 	bridging social capital: the value assigned to social networks between socially heterogeneous groups. typical examples are that criminal gangs create bonding social capital, while choirs and bowling clubs (hence the title, as putnam lamented their decline) create bridging social capital.[ ] the distinction is useful in highlighting how social capital may not always be beneficial for society as a whole (though it is always an asset for those individuals and groups involved). horizontal networks of individual citizens and groups that enhance community productivity and cohesion are said to be positive social capital assets whereas self-serving exclusive gangs and hierarchical patronage systems that operate at cross purposes to societal interests can be thought of as negative social capital burdens on society. similar to putnam, daniel p. aldrich describes three mechanisms of social capital: 	bonding capital: the relationships a person has with friends and family, making it also the strongest form of social capital. 	bridging capital: the relationship between friends of friends, making its strength secondary to bonding capital. 	linking capital: the relationship between a person and a government official or other elected leader. aldrich also applies the ideas of social capital to the fundamental principles of disaster recovery, and discusses factors that either aid or impede recovery, such as extent of damage, population density, quality of government and aid. in his book building resilience: social capital in post-disaster recovery, he primarily examines japanese recovery following the fukushima nuclear meltdown.[ ] social capital development on the internet via social networking websites such as facebook or myspace tends to be bridging capital according to one study, though "virtual" social capital is a new area of research.[ ] consummatory, instrumental[edit] there are two other sub-sources of social capital:[ ] 	consummatory capital: a behavior that is made up of actions that fulfill a basis of doing what is inherent. 	examples include value interjection and solidarity. 	instrumental capital: behavior that is taught through ones surroundings over time. consummatory capital[edit] consummatory capital a behavior that is made up of actions that fulfill a basis of doing what is inherent. two examples of consummatory social capital are value interjection and solidarity.[ ] value interjection pertains to a person or community who fulfills obligations such as paying bills on time, philanthropy, and following the rules of society. people who live their life this way feel that these are norms of society and are able to live their lives free of worry for their credit, children, and receive charity if needed. coleman goes on to say that when people live in this way and benefit from this type of social capital, individuals in the society are able to rest assured that their belongings and family will be safe.[ ] this understanding of solidarity may be traced to th century socialist thinkers, whose main focus was the urban working class of the industrial revolution. they analyzed the reasons these workers supported each other for the benefit of the group and held that this support was an adaptation to the immediate social environment, as opposed to a trait that had been taught to the workers in their youth.[ ] as another example, coleman states that possessing this type of social capital individuals to stand up for what they believe in, and even die for it, in the face of adversity.[ ] while the notion of solidarity as social capital is sometimes attributed to karl marx, in particular, the term social capital had a quite different meaning for marx. all forms of "capital" were, for marx, possessed only by capitalists and he emphasized the basis of labour in capitalist society, as a class constituted by individuals obliged to sell their labour power, because they lacked sufficient capital, in any sense of the word, to do otherwise. marx saw "social capital" as a theoretical total amount of capital, purely in the sense of accumulated wealth or property, that existed within in a particular society. he thereby contrasted it with specific and discrete "individual capital."[ ] instrumental capital[edit] instrumental capital is behavior that is taught through one's surroundings over time. the basis of this category of social capital is that an individual who donates his or her resources not because he is seeking direct repayment from the recipient, but because they are part of the same social structure. by his or her donation, the individual might not see a direct repayment, but, most commonly, they will be held by the society in greater honor.[ ] the best example of this, and the one that portes mentions, is the donation of a scholarship to a member of the same ethnic group. the donor is not freely giving up his resources to be directly repaid by the recipient, but, as stated above, the honor of the community. with this in mind, the recipient might not know the benefactor personally, but he or she prospers on the sole factor that he or she is a member of the same social group.[ ] social capital is also linked with religious communities. religion represents important aspect of social capital (religious social capital).[ ] measurement[edit] there is no widely held consensus on how to measure social capital, which has become a debate in itself.[ ] while usually one can intuitively sense the level/amount of social capital present in a given relationship (regardless of type or scale), quantitative measuring has proven somewhat complicated, resulting in different metrics for different functions.[citation needed] sociologists carl l. bankston and min zhou have argued that one of the reasons social capital is so difficult to measure is that it is neither an individual-level nor a group-level phenomenon, but one that emerges across levels of analysis as individuals participate in groups. they argue that the metaphor of "capital" may be misleading because, unlike financial capital, which is a resource held by an individual, the benefits of forms of social organization are not held by actors, but are results of the participation of actors in advantageously organized groups.[ ] name generators[edit] one type of quantitative social capital measure uses name generators to construct social networks and to measure the level of social capital.[ ] these networks are constructed by asking participants to name people that they interact with, such as "name all the people you've discussed important matters within the past six months."[ ] name generators are often useful to construct core discussion networks of close ties, rather than weaker ties. social capital scales[edit] many studies measure social capital by asking the question: "do you trust the others?" other researches analyse the participation in voluntary associations or civic activities. to expand upon the methodological potential of measuring online and offline social bonding, as it relates to social capital,[ ] offers a matrix of social capital measures that distinguishes social bridging as a form of less emotionally-tethered relationships compared to bonding. bonding and bridging sub-scales are proposed, which have been adopted by over scholarly articles.[ ] lin, peng, kim, kim & larose ( ) offer a noteworthy application of the scale by measuring international residents originating from locations outside of the united states. the study found that social media platforms like facebook provide an opportunity for increased social capital, but mostly for extroverts. however, less introverted social media users could engage social media and build social capital by connecting with americans before arriving and then maintaining old relationships from home upon arriving to the states. the ultimate outcome of the study indicates that social capital is measurable and is a concept that may be operationalized to understand strategies for coping with cross-cultural immersion through online engagement. cohesion measures[edit] the level of cohesion of a group also affects its social capital and vice versa.[ ][ ] however, there is no one quantitative way of determining the level of cohesiveness, but rather a collection of social network models that researchers have used over the decades to operationalize social capital. one of the dominant methods is ronald burt's constraint measure, which taps into the role of tie strength and group cohesion. another network-based model is network transitivity. economic measures[edit] knack and keefer ( ) measured econometric correlations between confidence and civic cooperation norms, with economic growth in a large group of countries. they found that confidence and civic cooperation have a great impact in economic growth, and that in less polarized societies in terms of inequality and ethnic differences, social capital is bigger. narayan and pritchet ( ) researched the associativity degree and economic performance in rural homes of tanzania. they observed that even in high poverty indexes, families with higher levels of incomes had more participation in collective organizations. the social capital they accumulated because of this participation had individual benefits for them, and created collective benefits through different routes, for example: their agricultural practices were better than those of the families without participation (they had more information about agrochemicals, fertilizers and seeds); they had more information about the market; they were prepared to take more risks, because being part of a social network made them feel more protected; they had an influence on the improvement of public services, showing a bigger level of participation in schools; they cooperated more in the municipality level. group membership-based[edit] in measuring political social capital, it is common to take the sum of society's membership of its groups. groups with higher membership (such as political parties) contribute more to the amount of capital than groups with lower membership, although many groups with low membership (such as communities) still add up to be significant. while it may seem that this is limited by population, this need not be the case as people join multiple groups. in a study done by yankee city,[ ] a community of , people was found to have over , different groups. how a group relates to the rest of society also affects social capital, but in a different manner. strong internal ties can in some cases weaken the group's perceived capital in the eyes of the general public, as in cases where the group is geared towards crime, distrust, intolerance, violence or hatred towards others. the ku klux klan is an example of this kind of organizations. social behaviour-based[edit] foschi and lauriola have presented a measure of sociability as a proxy of social capital. the authors demonstrated that facets of sociability can mediate between general personality traits and measures of civic involvement and political participation, as predictors of social capital, in a holistic model of political behavior.[ ] the world social capital monitor is an instrument for measuring social goods and social capital created by the united nations sustainable development group in partnership with civil society actors. the project identifies social values such as trust, solidarity, helpfulness, friendliness, hospitality and the willingness to finance public goods with the help of anonymous surveys. the surveys started in .[ ] integrating history and socio-economic analysis[edit] beyond putnam[edit] while influential, some have identified areas of concern or improvement within the work of robert d. putnam. this includes: 	the lack of awareness of the structural socio-economic conditions of society.[ ][ ][ ] for example, the level of income inequality.[ ][ ][ ] 	the excessive determinism of the historical analysis.[ ][ ][ ] 	putnam's social capital index does not consider racial diversity which links to worse outcomes.[ ] nor does putnam consider ethnic diversity, which often creates barriers to cooperation and democratization.[ ] 	the conflation of social capital with civil society, the lack of empirical evidence connecting social capital's promotion of economic growth and substantiating the decline of social capital in the united states in the last years, and the assumption that social networks produce win-win relationships.[ ] social capital motives[edit] robison and colleagues ( ) measured the relative importance of selfishness and four social capital motives using resource allocation data collected in hypothetical surveys and non-hypothetical experiments.[ ] the selfishness motive assumes that an agent's allocation of a scarce resource is independent of his relationships with others. this motive is sometimes referred to as the selfishness of preference assumption in neoclassical economics. social capital motives assume that agents' allocation of a scarce resource may be influenced by their social capital or sympathetic relationships with others which may produce socio-emotional goods that satisfy socio-emotional needs for validation and belonging:[ ] 	the first social capital motive seeks for validation by acting consistently with the values of one's ideal self. 	the second social capital motive seeks to be validated by others by winning their approval. 	the third social capital motive seeks to belong. recognizing that one may not be able to influence the sympathy of others, persons seeking to belong may act to increase their own sympathy for others and the organizations or institutions they represent. 	the fourth social capital motive recognizes that our sympathy or social capital for another person will motivate us to act in their interest. in doing so we satisfy our own needs for validation and belonging. empirical results reject the hypothesis often implied in economics that we are % selfish. relation with civil society[edit] various authors give definitions of civil society that refer to voluntary associations and organisations outside the market and state.[ ][ ][ ][ ] this definition is very close to that of the third sector, which consists of "private organisations that are formed and sustained by groups of people acting voluntarily and without seeking personal profit to provide benefits for themselves or for others."[citation needed] according to such authors as walzer ( ), alessandrini ( ),[ ] newtown, stolle & rochon, foley & edwards ( ),[ ] and walters, it is through civil society, or more accurately, the third sector, that individuals are able to establish and maintain relational networks. these voluntary associations also connect people with each other, build trust and reciprocity through informal, loosely structured associations, and consolidate society through altruism without obligation. it is "this range of activities, services and associations produced by... civil society" that constitutes the sources of social capital.[ ] not only has civil society been documented to produce sources of social capital, according to lyons' third sector ( ),[ ] social capital does not appear in any guise under either the factors that enable or those that stimulate the growth of the third sector. likewise, onyx ( ) describes how social capital depends on an already functioning community.[ ] the idea that creating social capital (i.e., creating networks) will strengthen civil society underlies current australian social policy aimed at bridging deepening social divisions. the goal is to reintegrate those marginalised from the rewards of the economic system into "the community." however, according to onyx ( ), while the explicit aim of this policy is inclusion, its effects are exclusionary. foley and edwards ( ) believe that "political systems...are important determinants of both the character of civil society and of the uses to which whatever social capital exists might be put."[ ] alessandrini agrees, saying that, "in australia in particular, neo-liberalism has been recast as economic rationalism and identified by several theorists and commentators as a danger to society at large because of the use to which they are putting social capital to work."[ ] the resurgence of interest in social capital as a remedy for the cause of today's social problems draws directly on the assumption that these problems lie in the weakening of civil society. however this ignores the arguments of many theorists who believe that social capital leads to exclusion rather than to a stronger civil society.[citation needed] in international development, ben fine ( ) and john harriss ( ) have been heavily critical of the inappropriate adoption of social capital as a supposed panacea (promoting civil society organisations and ngos, for example, as agents of development) for the inequalities generated by neoliberal economic development.[ ][ ] this leads to controversy as to the role of state institutions in the promotion of social capital. an abundance of social capital is seen as being almost a necessary condition for modern liberal democracy. a low level of social capital leads to an excessively rigid and unresponsive political system and high levels of corruption, in the political system and in the region as a whole. formal public institutions require social capital in order to function properly, and while it is possible to have too much social capital (resulting in rapid changes and excessive regulation), it is decidedly worse to have too little. sample societies[edit] post-communist: kathleen dowley and brian silver published an article entitled "social capital, ethnicity and support for democracy in the post-communist states", in which they find that in post-communist states, higher levels of social capital did not equate to higher levels of democracy. however, higher levels of social capital led to higher support for democracy.[ ] third-world: a number of intellectuals in developing countries have argued that the idea of social capital, particularly when connected to certain ideas about civil society, is deeply implicated in contemporary modes of donor and ngo-driven imperialism and that it functions, primarily, to blame the poor for their condition.[ ] chinese: the concept of social capital in a chinese social context has been closely linked with the concept of guanxi. american: one attempt to measure social capital, involving the quantity, quality and strength of an individual social capital, was spearheaded by corporate alliance in the english-speaking market segment of the usa,[ ] and xentrum through the latin american chamber of commerce in utah on the spanish-speaking population of the same country.[ ][ ] with the assistance of software applications and web-based relationship-oriented systems such as linkedin, these kinds of organizations are expected to provide its members with a way to keep track of the number of their relationships, meetings designed to boost the strength of each relationship using group dynamics, executive retreats and networking events as well as training in how to reach out to higher circles of influential people. effects on women's engagement with politics[edit] see also: sex differences in social capital there are many factors that drive volume towards the ballot box, including education, employment, civil skills, and time. careful evaluation of these fundamental factors often suggests that women do not vote at similar levels as men. however the gap between women and men voter turnout is diminishing and in some cases women are becoming more prevalent at the ballot box than their male counterparts. recent research on social capital is now serving as an explanation for this change.[ ] social capital offers a wealth of resources and networks that facilitate political engagement. since social capital is readily available no matter the type of community, it is able to override more traditional queues for political engagement; e.g.: education, employment, civil skills, etc. there are unique ways in which women organize. these differences from men make social capital more personable and impressionable to women audiences thus creating a stronger presence in regards to political engagement. a few examples of these characteristics are: 	women's informal and formal networks tend toward care work that is often considered apolitical.[ ] 	women are also more likely to engage in local politics and social movement activities than in traditional forums focused on national politics.[ ] 	women are more likely to organize themselves in less hierarchical ways and to focus on creating consensus.[ ] the often informal nature of female social capital allows women to politicize apolitical environments without conforming to masculine standards, thus keeping this activity at a low public profile. these differences are hard to recognize within the discourse of political engagement and may explain why social capital has not been considered as a tool for female political engagement until as of late.[ ] effects on health[edit] a growing body of research has found that the presence of social capital through social networks and communities has a protective quality on health. social capital affects health risk behavior in the sense that individuals who are embedded in a network or community rich in support, social trust, information, and norms, have resources that help achieve health goals.[ ] for example, a person who is sick with cancer may receive information, money, or moral support he or she needs to endure treatment and recover. social capital also encourages social trust and membership. these factors can discourage individuals from engaging in risky health behaviors such as smoking and binge drinking.[ ] furthermore, neighbourhood social capital may also aid in buffering health inequities amongst children and adolescents.[ ][ ] social capital indicators such as neighbourhood cohesion, social support, and ties providing a bond between members of the same religion, have been found to be associated with better health despite financial or socioeconomic hardship.[ ] the function of social capital as a health buffer in circumstances of social disadvantage has also received attention in research on the health of minority ethnic populations. the relationships and networks that are maintained by an ethnic minority population in a geographical area where a high percentage of residents belong to the same ethnic group may lead to better health outcomes than would be expected based on other individual and neighbourhood characteristics. such effects have been investigated in england,[ ] new zealand,[ ] and the united states.[ ] inversely, a lack of social capital can impair health. for example, results from a survey given to - to -year-old students in sweden showed that low social capital and low social trust are associated with higher rates of psychosomatic symptoms, musculoskeletal pain, and depression.[ ] additionally, negative social capital can detract from health. although there are only a few studies that assess social capital in criminalized populations, there is information that suggests that social capital does have a negative effect in broken communities. deviant behavior is encouraged by deviant peers via favorable definitions and learning opportunities provided by network-based norms.[ ] however, in these same communities, an adjustment of norms (i.e. deviant peers being replaced by positive role models) can pose a positive effect. researchers have also investigated the hypothesis that the health benefits of social capital depend on the socioeconomic resources an individual or community has available to them. for example, social capital may boost health only for those with higher levels of education, or more so for those with a higher rather than a lower income.[ ] this research is based on bourdieu's notion that social, economic, and cultural capital are dependent on each other.[ ] influence of the internet[edit] similar to watching the news and keeping abreast of current events, the use of the internet can relate to an individual's level of social capital. in one study, informational uses of the internet correlated positively with an individual's production of social capital, and social-recreational uses were negatively correlated (higher levels of these uses correlated with lower levels of social capital).[ ] an example supporting the former argument is the contribution of peter maranci's blog (charlie on the commuter line) to address the train problems in massachusetts. he created it after an incident where a lady passed out during a train ride due to the congestion in the train and help was delayed because of the congestion in the train and the inefficiency of the train conductor. his blog exposed the poor conditions of train stations, overcrowding train rides and inefficiency of the train conductor which eventually influenced changes within the transit system.[ ] another perspective holds that the rapid growth of social networking sites such as facebook and myspace suggests that individuals are creating a virtual-network consisting of both bonding and bridging social capital. unlike face to face interaction, people can instantly connect with others in a targeted fashion by placing specific parameters with internet use. this means that individuals can selectively connect with others based on ascertained interests, and backgrounds. facebook is currently the most popular social networking site and touts many advantages to its users including serving as a social lubricant for individuals who otherwise have difficulties forming and maintaining both strong and weak ties with others.[ ][ ] this argument continues, although the preponderance of evidence shows a positive association between social capital and the internet. critics of virtual communities believe that the internet replaces our strong bonds with online "weak-ties"[ ] or with socially empty interactions with the technology itself.[ ] others fear that the internet can create a world of "narcissism of similarity," where sociability is reduced to interactions between those that are similar in terms of ideology, race, or gender.[ ] a few articles suggest that technologically based interactions has a negative relationship with social capital by displacing time spent engaging in geographical/ in-person social activities.[ ] however, the consensus of research shows that the more time people spend online the more in-person contact they have, thus positively enhancing social capital.[ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] recent research, conducted in , also shows that internet users often have wider networks than those who access the internet irregularly or not at all. when not considering family and work contacts, internet users actually tend to have contact with a higher number of friends and relatives.[ ] this is supported by another study that shows that internet users and non-internet users do feel equally close to the same number of people; also the internet users maintain relationships with % more people whom they "feel somewhat close" to.[ ] other research shows that younger people use the internet as a supplemental medium for communication, rather than letting the internet communication replace face-to-face contact.[ ] this supports the view that internet communication does not hinder development of social capital and does not make people feel lonelier than before. ellison, steinfield & lampe ( ) suggest social capital exercised online is a result of relationships formed offline; whereby, bridging capital is enabled through a "maintenance" of relationships. among respondents of this study, social capital built exclusively online creates weaker ties.[ ] a distinction of social bonding is offered by ellison et al., , suggesting bonds, or strong ties, are possible through social media, but less likely. effects on educational achievement[edit] catholic schools (coleman and hoffer)[edit] coleman and hoffer collected quantitative data of , students in total , public, catholic and other private high schools in america from the years' period from to .[ ] it was found from this longitudinal research that social capital in students' families and communities attributed to the much lower dropout rates in catholic schools compared with the higher rates in public. teachman et al. ( ) further develop the family structure indicator suggested by coleman. they criticise coleman, who used only the number of parents present in the family, neglected the unseen effect of more discrete dimensions such as stepparents' and different types of single-parent families. they take into account of a detailed counting of family structure, not only with two biological parents or stepparent families, but also with types of single-parent families with each other (mother-only, father-only, never-married, and other). they also contribute to the literature by measuring parent-child interaction by the indicators of how often parents and children discuss school-related activities.[ ] morgan and sorensen ( ) directly challenge coleman for his lacking of an explicit mechanism to explain why catholic schools students perform better than public school students on standardised tests of achievement.[ ] researching students in catholic schools and public schools again, they propose two comparable models of social capital effect on mathematic learning. one is on catholic schools as norm-enforcing schools whereas another is on public schools as horizon-expanding schools. it is found that while social capital can bring about positive effect of maintaining an encompassing functional community in norm-enforcing schools, it also brings about the negative consequence of excessive monitoring. creativity and exceptional achievement would be repressed as a result. whereas in horizon expanding school, social closure is found to be negative for student's mathematic achievement. these schools explore a different type of social capital, such as information about opportunities in the extended social networks of parents and other adults. the consequence is that more learning is fostered than norm-enforcing catholic school students. in sum, morgan and sorensen study implies that social capital is contextualised, one kind of social capital may be positive in this setting but is not necessarily still positive in another setting.[ ] community development[edit] in the setting of education through kilpatrick, johns, and mulford ( ) state that "social capital is a useful lens for analysing lifelong learning and its relationship to community development."[ ] social capital is particularly important in terms of education. also the importance of education with "schools being designed to create 'functioning community' - forging tighter links between parents and the school" linking that without this interaction, the social capital in this area is disadvantaged and demonstrates that social capital plays a major role in education.[ ] parental involvement[edit] putnam ( ) mentions in his book bowling alone, "child development is powerfully shaped by social capital" and continues "presence of social capital has been linked to various positive outcomes, particularly in education."[ ]: according to his book, these positive outcomes are the result of parents' social capital in a community. in states where there is a high social capital, there is also a high education performance.[ ]: the similarity of these states is that parents were more associated with their children's education. teachers have reported that when the parents participate more in their children's education and school life, it lowers levels of misbehavior, such as bringing weapons to school, engaging in physical violence, unauthorized absence, and being generally apathetic about education.[ ]: borrowing coleman's quotation from putnam's book, coleman once mentioned we cannot understate "the importance of the embeddedness of young persons in the enclaves of adults most proximate to them, first and most prominent the family and second, a surrounding community of adults."[ ]: without social capital in the area of education, teachers and parents who play a responsibility in a students learning, the significant impacts on their child's academic learning can rely on these factors. with focus on parents contributing to their child's academic progress as well as being influenced by social capital in education. without the contribution by the parent in their child's education, gives parents less opportunity and participation in the student's life. as tedin and weiher ( )[ ] state, "one of the most important factors in promoting student success is the active involvement of parents in a child's education." with parents also involved in activities and meetings the school conducts, the more involved parents are with other parents and the staff members. thus parent involvement contributes to social capital with becoming more involved in the school community and participating makes the school a sustainable and easy to run community. sampson et al. ( ) stress the normative or goal-directed dimension of social capital,[ ] claiming that "resources or networks alone (e.g. voluntary associations, friendship ties, organisational density) are neutral---they may or may not be effective mechanism for achieving intended effect."[ ] difference in male and female[edit] marjoribanks and kwok ( ) conducted a survey in hong kong secondary schools with fourteen-year-old students with an aim to analyse female and male adolescents differential educational achievement by using social capital as the main analytic tool. in that research, social capital is approved of its different effects upon different genders.[ ] adaption and ethnic values[edit] in his thesis "new arrival students in hong kong: adaptation and school performance", hei hang hayes tang ( ) argues that adaptation is a process of activation and accumulation of (cultural and social) capitals. the research findings show that supportive networks is the key determinant differentiating the divergent adaptation pathways. supportive networks, as a form of social capital, is necessary for activating the cultural capital the newly arrived students possessed. the amount of accumulated capital is also relevant to further advancement in the ongoing adaptation process.[ ] min zhou and carl l. bankston ( ), in their study of a vietnamese community in new orleans, found that preserving traditional ethnic values enable immigrants to integrate socially and to maintain solidarity in an ethnic community.[ ] ethnic solidarity is especially important in the context where immigrants just arrive in the host society. in her article "social capital in chinatown", zhou examines how the process of adaptation of young chinese americans is affected by tangible forms of social relations between the community, immigrant families, and the younger generations.[ ] chinatown serves as the basis of social capital that facilitates the accommodation of immigrant children in the expected directions. ethnic support provides impetus to academic success. furthermore, maintenance of literacy in native language also provides a form of social capital that contributes positively to academic achievement. stanton-salazar and dornbusch[ ] found that bilingual students were more likely to obtain the necessary forms of institutional support to advance their school performance and their life chances. in fields of study[edit] geography[edit] in order to understand social capital as a subject in geography, one must look at it in a sense of space, place, and territory. in its relationship, the tenets[who?] of geography relate to the ideas of social capital in the family, community, and in the use of social networks. the biggest advocate for seeing social capital as a geographical subject was american economist and political scientist robert putnam. his main argument for classifying social capital as a geographical concept is that the relationships of people is shaped and molded by the areas in which they live.[ ] there are many areas in which social capital can be defined by the theories and practices. in , anthony giddens developed a theory in which he relates social structures and the actions that they produce. in his studies, he does not look at the individual participants of these structures, but how the structures and the social connections that stem from them are diffused over space.[ ] if this is the case, the continuous change in social structures could bring about a change in social capital, which can cause changes in community atmosphere. if an area is plagued by social organizations whose goals are to revolt against social norms, such as gangs, it can cause a negative social capital for the area causing those who disagreed with these organizations to relocate thus taking their positive social capital to a different space than the negative. another area where social capital can be seen as an area of study in geography is through the analysis of participation in volunteerism and its support of different governments. one area to look into with this is through those who participate in social organizations. people that participate are of different races, ages, and economic status.[ ] with these in mind, variances of the space in which these different demographics may vary, causing a difference in involvement among areas. secondly, there are different social programs for different areas based on economic situation.[ ] a governmental organization would not place a welfare center in a wealthier neighborhood where it would have very limited support to the community, as it is not needed. thirdly, social capital can be affected by the participation of individuals of a certain area based on the type of institutions that are placed there.[ ] mohan supports this with the argument of j. fox in his paper "decentralization and rural development in mexico", which states "structures of local governance in turn influence the capacity of grassroots communities to influence social investments."[ ] with this theory, if the involvement of a government in specific areas raises the involvement of individuals in social organizations and/or communities, this will in turn raise the social capital for that area. since every area is different, the government takes that into consideration and will provide different areas with different institutions to fit their needs thus there will be different changes in social capital in different areas. leisure studies[edit] in the context of leisure studies, social capital is seen as the consequence of investment in and cultivation of social relationships allowing an individual access to resources that would otherwise be unavailable to him or her.[ ] the concept of social capital in relation to leisure is grounded in a perspective that emphasizes the interconnectedness rather than the separateness of human activity and human goals. there is a significant connection between leisure and democratic social capital.[ ] specific forms of leisure activity contribute to the development of the social capital central to democracy and democratic citizenship. the more an individual participates in social activities, the more autonomy the individual experiences, which will help her or his individual abilities and skills to develop. the greater the accumulation of social capital a person experiences, may transfer to other leisure activities as well as personal social roles, relationships and in other roles within a social structure.[ ] social capital, marriage, and romantic relationships[edit] kislev ( ) shows that following vast changes to the status of marriage in modern society singles present higher social capital. they also derive greater happiness from equal levels of social capital compared with married people.[ ] in a later study, kislev ( ) shows the relation between romantic relationships desire and singleness. he shows that a lower degree of relationship desire has a significant effect on the relative importance of friends. furthermore, both higher levels of the relative importance of friends and social satisfaction are negatively correlated with relationship desire.[ ] effects on informal economies[edit] social capital has been associated with the reduction in access to informal credit in informal economies (especially in developing countries).[ ] mwangi and ouma ( ) ran a bivariate probit model on financial access national survey data to the impact of social capital on financial inclusion in kenya.[ ] they determined that membership to groups increased one's probability of getting an informal loan by . % and also the more group memberships one held, the more likely they were to access an informal loan. similar results were revealed in a cross-sectional study run by sarker in bangladesh.[ ] some other authors also note the importance of social capital among female entrepreneurship. epo ( ) presented the case that social capital and micro loans increase the likelihood of female entrepreneurship in cameroon.[ ] epo did this by comparing the welfare outcomes of the entrepreneurs who both had access and no access. other authors, however, disagree about the positive correlation between social capital and microfinance, kanak and iiguni argue that formation of social capital is largely dependent on strategies implemented by microfinance institutions.[citation needed] kanak and iiguni determined this while investigating social capital formation in a rural village in bangladesh. see also[edit] 	cultural economics 	intellectual capital management 	organization workshop 	organisational capital 	political capital 	reed's law 	relational capital 	structural capital references[edit] 	^ google ngram viewer. retrieved april . 	^ a b tonnies, f. 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( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. 	^ mcpherson, m.; smith-lovin, l.; brashears, m. e. ( ). "social isolation in america: changes in core discussion networks over two decades". american sociological review. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . 	^ ellison, n.b., steinfield, c. & lampe, c ( ) 	^ a b coleman and hoffer ( ) "high school and beyond" 	^ teachman et al. ( ) 	^ chen ( ) 	^ morgan and sorensen ( ) 	^ kilpatrick, s., s. johns, and b. mulford. . "social capital, educational institutions and leadership." in the international encyclopedia of education ( rd ed.), edited by e. baker, b. mcgraw & p. peterson. elsevier science. 	^ tedin, kent l.; weiher, gregory r. ( ). "general social capital, education-related social capital, and choosing charter schools". the policy studies journal. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. 	^ sampson; et al. ( ). "beyond social capital: spatial dynamics of collective efficacy for children". cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ sampson et al., , p. , quoted by chen, 	^ marjoribanks and kwok ( ) 	^ hei hang hayes tang ( ) "new arrival students in hong kong: adaptation and school performance" 	^ zhou, min, and carl l. bankston. . growing up american: how vietnamese children adapt to life in the united states. new york: russell sage foundation. 	^ zhou ( ) 	^ stanton-salazar ( ) (quoted by wong, ) 	^ mohan, p. 	^ mohan, p. – 	^ a b c mohan, p. 	^ mohan, p. 	^ glover, t. d.; shinew, k.j.; perry, d. ( ). "association, sociability, and civic culture: the democratic effect of community gardening". leisure sciences. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ a b hemingway, j. l. ( ). "leisure, social capital, and democratic citizenship" (pdf). journal of leisure research. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . 	^ kislev, elyakim ( july ). "social capital, happiness, and the unmarried: a multilevel analysis of european countries". cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ kislev, elyakim ( june ). "how do relationship desire and sociability relate to each other among singles? longitudinal analysis of the pairfam survey". cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ lawal, j.o.; omonona, b.t.; ajani, o.i.y.; oni, o.a. ( ). "effects of social capital on credit access among cocoa farming households in osun state, nigeria". agricultural journal. ( ): – . 	^ mwangi, isaac wachira; ouma, alfred ( ). "social capital and access to credit in kenya". american journal of social and management sciences. ( ): – . doi: . /ajsms. . . . . . 	^ sarker, md. masud. "social capital and access to microcredit: evidence from rural bangladesh". semantic scholar. retrieved february . 	^ epo, boniface ngah (august ). "implications of access to microcredit and social capital for female entrepreneurship in cameroon". africa portal. retrieved february . further reading[edit] 	adler, paul s., and seok-woo kwon. . "social capital: prospects for a new concept." academy of management review ( ) : – . jstor  . 	becker, gary s. ( ). accounting for tastes. part i: personal capital; part ii: social capital. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. isbn  - - - - . lay summary. 	bourdieu, pierre. . "Ökonomisches kapital, kulturelles kapital, soziales kapital." pp.  – in soziale ungleichheiten, (soziale welt, sonderheft ), edited by r. kreckel. goettingen: otto schartz & co. 	coleman, james s. ( ). "social capital in the creation of human capital". american journal of sociology. : s –s . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . jstor  . 	dasgupta, partha, and ismail serageldin, eds. . social capital: a multifaceted perspective. washington, dc: world bank. google books. 	edwards, b., and m. w. foley. . civil society and social capital beyond putnam. 	ellison, nicole b.; steinfield, charles; lampe, cliff ( ). "the benefits of facebook "friends:" social capital and college students' use of online social network sites". journal of computer-mediated communication. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. 	everingham, c. . reconstituting community 	folland, sherman; rocco, lorenzo, eds. ( ). the economics of social capital and health: a conceptual and empirical roadmap. world scientific series in global healthcare economics and public policy. . hackensack, new jersey: world scientific. p.  . doi: . / . isbn  - - - - . 	kay, a ( ). "social capital, the social economy and community development". community development journal. ( ): – . doi: . /cdj/bsi . 	koley, gaurav; deshmukh, jayati; srinivasa, srinath. "social capital as engagement and belief revision". socinfo : social informatics. : – . doi: . / - - - - _ . 	knack, stephen; keefer, philip ( ). "does social capital have an economic payoff? a cross-country investigation" (pdf). the quarterly journal of economics. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . archived from the original (pdf) on may . 	leyden, kevin m ( ). "social capital and the built environment: the importance of walkable neighborhoods" (pdf). american journal of public health. ( ): – . doi: . /ajph. . . . pmc  . pmid  . archived from the original (pdf) on october . retrieved february . 	lin, nan. . "building a network theory of social capital." connections ( ): – . 	reprint: lin, nan. . "building a network theory of social capital." pp. – in social capital, edited by n. lin, k. cook, and r. s. burt. doi: . / - . isbn  . 	lin, jih-hsuan, wei peng, mijung kim, sung yeun kim, and robert larose. . "social networking and adjustments among international students." new media & society ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	putnam, robert d. . "bowling alone: americas's declining social capital." journal of democracy ( ): – . doi: . /jod. . . 	—— . e pluribus unum: diversity and community in the twenty-first century. nordic political science association 	durlauf, steven n., and lawrence e. blume, eds. . the new palgrave dictionary of economics ( nd ed.) 	dasgupta, partha. "social capital." 	iannaccone, laurence r., and eli berman. "religion, economics of." 	young, h. peyton. "social norms" 	moody, james, and martina morris, "social networks, economic relevance of" 	mohan, giles, and john mohan. . "placing social capital." progress in human geography ( ): – . doi: . / ph ra. 	portes, a. . "social capital: its origins and applications in modern sociology." annual review of sociology : – . doi: . /annurev.soc. . . . 	silverman, r. m. . community-based organizations: the intersection of social capital and local context in contemporary urban society. detroit: wayne state university press. 	williams, d. . "on and off the 'net: scales for social capital in an online era." journal of computer-mediated communication ( ): – . doi: . /j. - . . .x. 	zhou, min, and carl l. bankston. . growing up american: how vietnamese children adapt to life in the united states. new york: russell sage foundation. isbn  - - - - . external links[edit] 		wikiversity has learning resources about social capital 	the world social capital monitor, survey in languages within the united nations sustainable development goals 	social capital as the social dimension of the un sdg, jos verbeek of the worldbank, august 	 	v 	t 	e types of capital 	by form	 	academic 	accumulation of capital 	circulating/floating 	cultural 	cross-cultural 	educational 	financial 	fixed 	human 	individual 	information 	instructional 	intellectual 	natural 	intangible 	organizational 	physical 	political 	public 	sexual 	social 	symbolic 	venture 	working 	by term	 	liquid (short) vs. patient (long) 	marxist analytical	 	constant 	variable 	fictitious 	marxist historical	 	monopoly 	financial capital 	 	v 	t 	e social networks and social media 	types	 	personal 	professional 	sexual 	value 	clique 	adolescent 	networks	 	distributed social network (list) 	enterprise social networking 	mobile social network 	personal knowledge networking 	services	 	list of social networking services 	concepts and theories	 	assortative mixing 	interpersonal bridge 	organizational network analysis 	small-world experiment 	social aspects of television 	social capital 	social data revolution 	social exchange theory 	social identity theory 	social network analysis 	social web 	structural endogamy 	models and processes	 	aggregation 	change detection 	collaboration graph 	collaborative consumption 	giant global graph 	lateral communication 	social graph 	social network analysis software 	social networking potential 	social television 	structural cohesion 	economics	 	collaborative finance 	social commerce 	phenomena	 	community recognition 	complex contagion 	consequential strangers 	friend of a friend 	friendship paradox 	six degrees of separation 	social media addiction 	social invisibility 	social network game 	social occultation 	tribe 	related topics	 	researchers 	user profile 	viral messages 	virtual community 	authority control 	 	bne: xx 	bnf: cb (data) 	gnd: - 	lccn: sh 	sudoc: retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=social_capital&oldid= " 		categories: 	capital (economics) 	community building 	community development 	cultural economics 	economic sociology 	social economy 	social networks 	sociological terminology 	socioeconomics hidden categories: 	cs errors: missing periodical 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	wikipedia articles that are too technical from june 	all articles that are too technical 	use dmy dates from may 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from april 	all articles with links needing disambiguation 	articles with links needing disambiguation from november 	articles with unsourced statements from august 	articles with unsourced statements from november 	articles with unsourced statements from july 	articles with unsourced statements from february 	all articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases 	articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from february 	articles with unsourced statements from december 	wikipedia articles with bne identifiers 	wikipedia articles with bnf identifiers 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	wikipedia articles with lccn identifiers 	wikipedia articles with sudoc identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	azərbaycanca 	bân-lâm-gú 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	eesti 	español 	euskara 	فارسی 	français 	galego 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	हिन्दी 	bahasa indonesia 	Íslenska 	italiano 	עברית 	Кыргызча 	latviešu 	magyar 	bahasa melayu 	nederlands 	日本語 	norsk bokmål 	norsk nynorsk 	ਪੰਜਾਬੀ 	polski 	português 	română 	Русский 	simple english 	slovenščina 	Српски / srpski 	suomi 	svenska 	தமிழ் 	ไทย 	türkçe 	Українська 	tiếng việt 	吴语 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 skill - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	skill 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		the ability to carry out a task a skill is the ability to perform an action with determined results often within a given amount of time, energy, or both. skills can often be divided into domain-general and domain-specific skills. for example, in the domain of work, some general skills would include time management, teamwork and leadership, self-motivation and others, whereas domain-specific skills would be used only for a certain job. skill usually requires certain environmental stimuli and situations to assess the level of skill being shown and used. people need a broad range of skills to contribute to the modern economy. a joint astd and u.s. department of labor study showed that through technology, the workplace is changing, and identified basic skills that employees must have to be able to change with it.[ ] three broad categories of skills are suggested and these are technical, human, and conceptual.[ ] the first two can be substituted with hard and soft skills, respectively.[ ] contents 	 hard skills 	 labor skills 	 life skills 	 people skills 	 social skills 	 soft skills 	 see also 	 references 	 external links hard skills[edit] hard skills, also called technical skills, are any skills relating to a specific task or situation. it involves both understanding and proficiency in such specific activity that involves methods, processes, procedures, or techniques.[ ] these skills are easily quantifiable unlike soft skills, which are related to one's personality.[ ] these are also skills that can be or have been tested and may entail some professional, technical, or academic qualification.[ ] labor skills[edit] main article: skill (labor) skilled workers have long had historical import (see division of labor) as electricians, masons, carpenters, blacksmiths, bakers, brewers, coopers, printers and other occupations that are economically productive. skilled workers were often politically active through their craft guilds.[ ] life skills[edit] main article: life skills an ability and capacity acquired through deliberate, systematic, and sustained effort to smoothly and adaptively carryout complex activities or job functions involving ideas (cognitive skills), things (technical skills), and/or people (interpersonal skills). people skills[edit] main article: people skills according to the portland business journal, people skills are described as:[ ] 	understanding ourselves and moderating our responses 	talking effectively and empathizing accurately 	building relationships of trust, respect and productive interactions. a british definition is "the ability to communicate effectively with people in a friendly way, especially in business."[ ] the term is not listed yet in major us dictionaries.[ ] the term people skills is used to include both psychological skills and social skills but is less inclusive than life skills. social skills[edit] main article: social skills social skill is any skill facilitating interaction and communication with others. social rules and relations are created, communicated, and changed in verbal and nonverbal ways. the process of learning such skills is called socialization. soft skills[edit] main article: soft skills soft skills are a combination of interpersonal people skills, social skills, communication skills, character traits, attitudes, career attributes and emotional intelligence quotient (eq) among others.[ ] see also[edit] 	communication skills 	deskilling 	disco - european dictionary of skills and competences 	dreyfus model of skill acquisition 	game of skill 	online skill-based game 	procedural knowledge 	transferable skills analysis references[edit] 	^ "publications and research search results, employment & training administration (eta)". wdr.doleta.gov. u.s. department of labor. archived from the original on april . retrieved april . 	^ sommerville, kerry ( ). hospitality employee management and supervision: concepts and practical applications. hoboken, nj: john wiley & sons, inc. p.  . isbn  . 	^ rao, m.s. ( ). soft skills - enhancing employability: connecting campus with corporate. new delhi: i. k. international publishing house pvt ltd. p.  . isbn  . 	^ dubrin, andrew ( ). essentials of management. mason, oh: south-western cengage learning. p.  . isbn  . 	^ staff ( may ). "hard skills". investopedia. archived from the original on december . retrieved april .cs maint: uses authors parameter (link) 	^ carter, jenny; o'grady, michael; rosen, clive ( ). higher education computer science. cham: springer. p.  . isbn  . 	^ cowan, ruth schwartz ( ). a social history of american technology. new york: oxford university press. p.  . isbn  - - - . 	^ rifkin, h. ( july ). "invest in people skills to boost bottom line". portland business journal. archived from the original on july . retrieved october . 	^ “macmillan dictionary” archived november at the wayback machine retrieved on - - 	^ dictionary.com definition. retrieved on - - 	^ robles, marcel m. ( august ). "executive perceptions of the top soft skills needed in today's workplace". business communication quarterly. ( ): – . doi: . / . external links[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to skills. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: skill 	american society for training & development 	australian national training authority 	ncver's review of generic skills for the new economy 	skills eu research integrated project retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=skill&oldid= " 		categories: 	skills 	learning hidden categories: 	cs maint: uses authors parameter 	webarchive template wayback links 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	use dmy dates from may 	commons category link is on wikidata 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	eesti 	Ελληνικά 	فارسی 	français 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	hrvatski 	bahasa indonesia 	interlingua 	isixhosa 	Íslenska 	italiano 	עברית 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	kiswahili 	lietuvių 	magyar 	Македонски 	nederlands 	日本語 	norsk bokmål 	ਪੰਜਾਬੀ 	polski 	português 	română 	Русский 	sicilianu 	simple english 	سنڌي 	slovenčina 	Српски / srpski 	suomi 	svenska 	tagalog 	தமிழ் 	తెలుగు 	Тоҷикӣ 	Українська 	اردو 	tiếng việt 	吴语 	ייִדיש 	粵語 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 social connection - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	social connection 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		term in psychology referring to the experience of feeling close and connected to others 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e social connection is the experience of feeling close and connected to others. it involves feeling loved, cared for, and valued,[ ] and forms the basis of interpersonal relationships. "connection is the energy that exists between people when they feel seen, heard and valued; when they can give and receive without judgement; and when they derive sustenance and strength from the relationship." —brené brown, professor of social work at the university of houston[ ] increasingly, social connection is understood as a core human need, and the desire to connect as a fundamental drive.[ ][ ] it is crucial to development; without it, social animals experience distress and face severe developmental consequences.[ ] in humans, one of the most social species, social connection is essential to nearly every aspect of health and well-being. lack of connection, or loneliness, has been linked to inflammation,[ ] accelerated aging and cardiovascular health risk,[ ] suicide,[ ] and all-cause mortality.[ ] feeling socially connected depends on the quality and number of meaningful relationships one has with family, friends, and acquaintances. going beyond the individual level, it also involves a feeling of connecting to a larger community. connectedness on a community level has profound benefits for both individuals and society.[ ] contents 	 related terms 	 a basic need 	 neurobiology 	 . brain areas 	 . key neurochemicals 	 . . opioids 	 . . oxytocin 	 health 	 . consequences of disconnection 	 . social immune system 	 . positive pathways 	 measures 	 experimental manipulations 	 see also 	 references related terms[edit] social support is the help, advice, and comfort that we receive from those with whom we have stable, positive relationships.[ ] importantly, it appears to be the perception, or feeling, of being supported, rather than objective number of connections, that appears to buffer stress and affect our health and psychology most strongly.[ ][ ] close relationships refer to those relationships between friends or romantic partners that are characterized by love, caring, commitment, and intimacy.[ ] attachment is a deep, emotional bond between two or more people, a "lasting psychological connectedness between human beings."[ ] attachment theory, developed by john bowlby during the s, is a theory that remains influential in psychology today. a basic need[edit] social connection involves feeling loved, cared for, and valued, and is as important to our well-being as food or water. in his influential theory on the hierarchy of needs, abraham maslow proposed that our physiological needs are the most basic and necessary to our survival, and must be satisfied before we can move on to satisfying more complex social needs like love and belonging.[ ] however, research over the past few decades has begun to shift our understanding of this hierarchy. social connection and belonging may in fact be a basic need, as powerful as our need for food or water.[ ] mammals are born relatively helpless, and rely on their caregivers not only for affection, but for survival. this may be evolutionarily why mammals need and seek connection, and also for why they suffer prolonged distress and health consequences when that need is not met.[ ] in , harry harlow conducted his landmark monkey studies. he separated baby monkeys from their mothers, and observed which surrogate mothers the baby monkeys bonded with: a wire "mother" that provided food, or a cloth "mother" that was soft and warm. overwhelmingly, the baby monkeys preferred to spend time clinging to the cloth mother, only reaching over to the wire mother when they became too hungry to continue without food.[ ] this study questioned the idea that food is the most powerful primary reinforcement for learning. instead, harlow's studies suggested that warmth, comfort, and affection (as perceived from the soft embrace of the cloth mother) are crucial to the mother-child bond, and may be a powerful reward that mammals may seek in and of itself. although historic, it is important to acknowledge that this study does not meet current research standards for the ethical treatment of animals.[ ] in , roy baumeister proposed his influential belongingness hypothesis: that human beings have a fundamental drive to form lasting relationships, to belong. he provided substantial evidence that indeed, the need to belong and form close bonds with others is itself a motivating force in human behavior. this theory is supported by evidence that people form social bonds relatively easily, are reluctant to break social bonds, and interpret situations with how they affect their relationships in mind. he also contends that our emotions are so deeply linked to our relationships that one of the primary functions of emotion may be to form and maintain social bonds, and that both partial and complete deprivation of relationships leads to not only painful but pathological consequences.[ ] satisfying or disrupting our need to belong, our need for connection, has been found to influence cognition, emotion, and behavior.[ ] neurobiology[edit] brain areas[edit] social connection activates the reward system of the brain. while it appears that social isolation triggers a "neural alarm system" of threat-related regions of the brain (including the amygdala, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dacc), anterior insula, and periaqueductal gray (pag)),[ ] separate regions may process social connection. two brain areas that are part of the brain's reward system are also involved in processing social connection and attention to loved ones: the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmpfc), a region that also responds to safety and inhibits threat responding, and the ventral striatum (vs) and septal area (sa), part of a neural system that is activated by taking care of one's own young.[ ] key neurochemicals[edit] opioids[edit] in , neuroscientist jaak panksepp observed that small doses of opiates reduced the distressed cries of puppies that were separated from their mothers. as a result, he developed the brain opioid theory of attachment, which posits that endogenous (internally produced) opioids underlie the pleasure that social animals derive from social connection, especially within close relationships.[ ] extensive animal research supports this theory. mice who have been genetically modified to not have mu-opioid receptors (mu-opioid receptor knockout mice), as well as sheep with their mu-receptors blocked temporarily following birth, do not recognize or bond with their mother. when separated from their mother and conspecifics, rats, chicks, puppies, guinea pigs, sheep, dogs, and primates emit distress vocalizations, however giving them morphine (i.e. activating their opioid receptors), quiets this distress. endogenous opioids appear to be produced when animals engage in bonding behavior, while inhibiting the release of these opioids results in signs of social disconnection.[ ][ ] in humans, blocking mu-opioid receptors with the opioid antagonist, naltrexone, has been found to reduce feelings of warmth and affection in response to a film clip about a moment of bonding, and to increase feelings of social disconnection towards loved ones in daily life as well as in the lab in response to a task designed to elicit feelings of connection. although the human research on opioids and bonding behavior is mixed and ongoing, this suggests that opioids may underlie feelings of social connection and bonding in humans as well.[ ] oxytocin[edit] opioids and oxytocin are neurochemicals that support the mother-child bond in humans and other mammals. in mammals, oxytocin has been found to be released during childbirth, breastfeeding, sexual stimulation, bonding, and in some cases stress.[ ] in , sue carter discovered that administering oxytocin to prairie voles would accelerate their monogamous pair-bonding behavior.[ ] oxytocin has also been found to play many roles in the bonding between mother and child.[ ] in addition to pair-bonding and motherhood, oxytocin has been found to play a role in prosocial behavior and bonding in humans. nicknamed the “love drug” or “cuddle chemical,” plasma levels of oxytocin increase following physical affection,[ ] and are linked to more trusting and generous social behavior, positively biased social memory, attraction, and anxiety and hormonal responses.[ ] further supporting a nuanced role in adult human bonding, greater circulating oxytocin over a -hour period was associated with greater love and perceptions of partner responsiveness and gratitude,[ ] however was also linked to perceptions of a relationship being vulnerable and in danger. thus oxytocin may play a flexible role in relationship maintenance, supporting both the feelings that bring us closer and the distress and instinct to fight for an intimate bond in peril.[ ] health[edit] consequences of disconnection[edit] see also: loneliness a wide range of mammals, including rats, prairie voles, guinea pigs, cattle, sheep, primates, and humans, experience distress and long-term deficits when separated from their parent.[ ] in humans, long-lasting health consequences result from early experiences of disconnection. in , john bowlby observed profound distress and developmental consequences when orphans lacked warmth and love of our first and most important attachments: our parents.[ ] loss of a parent during childhood was found to lead to altered cortisol and sympathetic nervous system reactivity even a decade later,[ ] and affect stress response and vulnerability to conflict as a young adult.[ ] in addition to the health consequences of lacking connection in childhood, chronic loneliness at any age has been linked to a host of negative health outcomes. in a meta-analytic review conducted in , results from , participants across studies found that people with strong social relationships had a % greater chance of survival. this effect on mortality is not only on par with one of the greatest risks, smoking, but exceeds many other risk factors such as obesity and physical inactivity.[ ] loneliness has been found to negatively affect the healthy function of nearly every system in the body: the brain,[ ] immune system,[ ] circulatory and cardiovascular systems,[ ] endocrine system,[ ] and genetic expression.[ ] between – % of the general population feels chronic loneliness. not only is social isolation harmful to health, but it is more and more common. as many as % of young people under years old, and % of adults over the age of report being lonely sometimes, and – % of the general population feel chronic loneliness.[ ] these numbers appear to be on the rise, and researchers have called for social connection to be public health priority.[ ] social immune system[edit] one of the main ways social connection may affect our health is through the immune system. the immune system's primary activity, inflammation, is the body's first line of defense against injury and infection. however, chronic inflammation has been tied to atherosclerosis, type ii diabetes, neurodegeneration, and cancer, as well as compromised regulation of inflammatory gene expression by the brain.[ ] research over the past few decades has revealed that the immune system not only responds to physical threats, but social ones as well. it has become clear that there is a bidirectional relationship between circulating biomarkers of inflammation (e.g. the cytokine il- ) and feelings of social connection and disconnection; not only are feelings of social isolation linked to increased inflammation, but experimentally induced inflammation alters social behavior and induces feelings of social isolation.[ ] this has important health implications. feelings of chronic loneliness appear to trigger chronic inflammation. however, social connection appears to inhibit inflammatory gene expression and increase antiviral responses.[ ] performing acts of kindness for others were also found to have this effect, suggesting that helping others provides similar health benefits.[ ] why might our immune system respond to our perceptions of our social world? one theory is that it may have been evolutionarily adaptive for our immune system to "listen" in to our social world to anticipate the kinds of bacterial or microbial threats we face. in our evolutionary past, feeling socially isolated may have meant we were separated from our tribe, and therefore more likely to experience physical injury or wounds, requiring an inflammatory response to heal. on the other hand, feeling connected may have meant we were in relative physical safety of community, but at greater risk of socially transmitted viruses. to meet these threats with greater efficiency, the immune system responds with anticipatory changes.[ ][ ] a genetic profile was discovered to initiate this pattern of immune response to social adversity and stress — up-regulation of inflammation, down-regulation of antiviral activity — known as conserved transcriptional response to adversity.[ ] the inverse of this pattern, associated with social connection, has been linked to positive health outcomes as well as eudaemonic well-being.[ ] positive pathways[edit] social connection and support have been found to reduce the physiological burden of stress and contribute to health and well-being through several other pathways as well, although there remains a subject of ongoing research. one way social connection reduces our stress response is by inhibiting activity in our pain and alarm neural systems. brain areas that respond to social warmth and connection (notably, the septal area) have inhibitory connections to the amygdala, which have the structural capacity to reduce threat responding.[ ] another pathway by which social connection positively affects health is through the parasympathetic nervous system (pns), the "rest and digest" system which parallels and offsets the "flight or fight" sympathetic nervous system (sns). flexible pns activity, indexed by vagal tone, helps regulate the heart rate and has been linked to a healthy stress response as well as numerous positive health outcomes.[ ] vagal tone has been found to predict both positive emotions and social connectedness, which in turn result in increased vagal tone, in an "upward spiral" of well-being.[ ] social connection often occurs along with and causes positive emotions, which themselves benefit our health.[ ][ ] measures[edit] social connectedness scale[ ] this scale was designed to measure general feelings of social connectedness as an essential component of belongingness. items on the social connectedness scale reflect feelings of emotional distance between the self and others, and higher scores reflect more social connectedness. ucla loneliness scale[ ] measuring feelings of social isolation or disconnection can be helpful as an indirect measure of feelings of connectedness. this scale is designed to measure loneliness, defined as the distress that results when one feels disconnected from others.[ ] relationship closeness inventory (rci)[ ] this measure conceptualizes closeness in a relationship as a high level of interdependence in two people's activities, or how much influence they have over one another. it correlates moderately with self-reports of closeness, measured using the subjective closeness index (sci). liking and loving scales[ ] these scales were developed to measure the difference between liking and loving another person—critical aspects of closeness and connection. good friends were found to score highly on the liking scale, and only romantic partners scored highly on the loving scale. they support zick rubin's conceptualization of love as containing three main components: attachment, caring, and intimacy. personal acquaintance measure (pam)[ ] this measure identifies six components that can help determine the quality of a person's interactions and feelings of social connectedness with others: 	duration of relationship 	frequency of interaction with the other person 	knowledge of the other person's goals 	physical intimacy or closeness with the other person 	self-disclosure to the other person 	social network familiarity—how familiar is the other person with the rest of your social circle experimental manipulations[edit] social connection is a unique, elusive, person-specific quality of our social world. yet, can it be manipulated? this is a crucial question for how it can be studied, and whether it can be intervened on in a public health context. there are at least two approaches that researchers have taken to manipulate social connection in the lab: social connection task this task was developed at ucla by tristen inagaki and naomi eisenberger to elicit feelings of social connection in the laboratory. it consists of collecting positive and neutral messages from loved ones of a participant, and presenting them to the participant in the laboratory. feelings of connection and neural activity in response to this task have been found to rely on endogenous opioid activity.[ ] closeness-generating procedure arthur aron at the state university of new york at stony brook and collaborators designed a series of questions designed to generate interpersonal closeness between two individuals who have never met. it consists of questions that subject pairs ask each other over a -minute period. it was found to generate a degree of closeness in the lab, and can be more carefully controlled than connection within existing relationships.[ ] see also[edit] 	affection 	attachment theory 	friendship 	interpersonal relationships 	interpersonal ties 	interpersonal emotion regulation 	intimate relationships 	human bonding 	love 	social isolation 	social support references[edit] 	^ a b c d eisenberger, naomi i; cole, steve w. 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oxytocin - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	oxytocin 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		this article is about the hormone. for its use as a medication, see oxytocin (medication). not to be confused with oxycontin. peptide hormone and neuropeptide oxytocin	 	 	clinical data 	pronunciation	/ˌɒksɪˈtoʊsɪn/ 	physiological data 	source tissues	pituitary gland 	target tissues	wide spread 	receptors	oxytocin receptor 	antagonists	atosiban 	precursor	oxytocin/neurophysin i prepropeptide 	metabolism	liver and other oxytocinases 	pharmacokinetic data 	protein binding	 % 	metabolism	liver and other oxytocinases 	elimination half-life	 – min (iv) ~ h (intranasal)[ ][ ] 	excretion	biliary and kidney 	identifiers 	 iupac name 	 -({( r, s, s, s, s, r)- -amino- -( -amino- -oxoethyl)- -( -amino- -oxopropyl)- -( -hydroxybenzyl)- -[( s)- -methylpropyl]- , , , , -pentaoxo- , -dithia- , , , , -pentaazacycloicosan- -yl}carbonyl)-l-prolyl-l-leucylglycinamide 	cas number		 - -  y 	pubchem cid		 	iuphar/bps		 	drugbank		db  y 	chemspider		  y 	unii		 jqs eyn 	kegg		d  y 	chebi		chebi:  y 	chembl		chembl  y 	comptox dashboard (epa)		dtxsid 	echa infocard	 . . 	chemical and physical data 	formula	c h n o s 	molar mass	 .  g·mol− 	 d model (jsmol)		interactive image 	 smiles 	cc[c@h](c)[c@@h] nc(=o)[c@h](cc ccc(o)cc )nc(=o)[c@@h](n)cssc[c@h](nc(=o)[c@h](cc(n)=o)nc(=o)[c@h](ccc(n)=o)nc =o)c(=o)n ccc[c@h] c(=o)n[c@@h](cc(c)c)c(=o)ncc(n)=o 	 inchi 	inchi= s/c h n o s /c - - ( ) - ( ) - ( - - ( ) ) ( ) - ( - ( ) ) ( ) - ( - - - - ( ) ( ) - ( ( ) - ) - - - - ( ) - - ) ( ) - - - - ( ) ( ) - ( - ( ) ) ( ) - - ( ) /h - , - , - , , h, - , - , h , - h ,(h , , )(h , , )(h , , )(h, , )(h, , )(h, , )(h, , )(h, , )(h, , )(h, , )/t -, -, -, -, -, -, -, -, -/m /s  y 	key:xnoprxbhlzrzkh-dszyjqqasa-n y 	  (verify) oxytocin (oxt) is a peptide hormone and neuropeptide. it is normally produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary.[ ] it plays a role in social bonding, reproduction, childbirth, and the period after childbirth.[ ] oxytocin is released into the bloodstream as a hormone in response to love and in labor.[ ][ ] this helps with birth, bonding with the baby, and milk production.[ ][ ] oxytocin is derived by enzymatic splitting from the peptide precursor encoded by the human oxt gene. the deduced structure of the active nonapeptide is: ·cys – tyr – ile – gln – asn – cys – pro – leu – gly – nh , or cyiqncplg-nh . contents 	 discovery 	 biochemistry 	 . biosynthesis 	 . neural sources 	 . non-neural sources 	 . . male 	 . . female 	 . evolution 	 biological function 	 . physiological 	 . psychological 	 . . bonding 	 . . drugs 	 . . fear and anxiety 	 . . mood and depression 	 . . sex differences 	 . . social 	 chemistry 	 history 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links discovery[edit] oxytocin was discovered by henry dale in .[ ] its molecular structure was determined in .[ ] it is also used as a medication to facilitate childbirth (see oxytocin (medication) for more information).[ ][ ][ ] in the early s, american biochemist vincent du vigneaud found that oxytocin is made up of nine amino acids, and he identified its amino acid sequence. in du vigneaud carried out the synthesis of oxytocin, making it the first polypeptide hormone to be synthesized.[ ] biochemistry[edit] 	oxt 	 	identifiers 	aliases	oxt, ot, ot-npi, oxt-npi, oxytocin/neurophysin i prepropeptide 	external ids	omim: mgi: homologene: genecards: oxt 		gene location (human) 	 	chr.	chromosome (human)[ ] 	 	band	 p 	start	 , , bp[ ] 	end	 , , bp[ ] 		gene location (mouse) 	 	chr.	chromosome (mouse)[ ] 	 	band	 f | . cm	start	 , , bp[ ] 	end	 , , bp[ ] 		gene ontology 	molecular function	• oxytocin receptor binding • hormone activity • neurohypophyseal hormone activity • neuropeptide hormone activity 	cellular component	• terminal bouton • extracellular region • cytoplasm • secretory granule • extracellular 	biological process	• response to amphetamine • regulation of digestive system process • sperm ejaculation • positive regulation of hindgut contraction • female pregnancy • positive regulation of penile erection • response to steroid hormone • signal transduction • response to activity • regulation of heart rate • response to sucrose • positive regulation of ossification • positive regulation of synapse assembly • drinking behavior • hyperosmotic salinity response • male mating behavior • positive regulation of cytosolic calcium ion concentration • response to estradiol • regulation of sensory perception of pain • response to camp • response to cocaine • response to progesterone • positive regulation of blood pressure • heart development • negative regulation of urine volume • response to organic cyclic compound • negative regulation of gastric acid secretion • positive regulation of prostaglandin secretion • response to peptide hormone • maternal behavior • negative regulation of blood pressure • memory • positive regulation of norepinephrine secretion • social organism behavior • response to glucocorticoid • personal grooming • response to prostaglandin e • eating behavior • response to ether • positive regulation of female receptivity • sleep • maternal aggressive behavior • positive regulation of synaptic transmission • response to electrical stimulus • positive regulation of uterine smooth muscle contraction • response to food • response to retinoic acid • positive regulation of renal sodium excretion • regulation of receptor activity • g-protein coupled receptor signaling pathway 	sources:amigo / quickgo 	orthologs 	species	human	mouse 	entrez		 	 		 	 	ensembl		 	ensg 		 	ensmusg 	uniprot		 	p 		 	p 	refseq (mrna)		 	nm_ 		 	nm_ 	refseq (protein)		 	np_ 		 	np_ 	location (ucsc)	chr : . – . mb	chr : . – . mb 	pubmed search	[ ]	[ ] 	wikidata 		view/edit human	view/edit mouse estrogen has been found to increase the secretion of oxytocin and to increase the expression of its receptor, the oxytocin receptor, in the brain.[ ] in women, a single dose of estradiol has been found to be sufficient to increase circulating oxytocin concentrations.[ ] biosynthesis[edit] the biosynthesis of the different forms of ot the oxytocin peptide is synthesized as an inactive precursor protein from the oxt gene.[ ][ ][ ] this precursor protein also includes the oxytocin carrier protein neurophysin i.[ ] the inactive precursor protein is progressively hydrolyzed into smaller fragments (one of which is neurophysin i) via a series of enzymes. the last hydrolysis that releases the active oxytocin nonapeptide is catalyzed by peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase (pam).[ ] the activity of the pam enzyme system is dependent upon vitamin c (ascorbate), which is a necessary vitamin cofactor. by chance, sodium ascorbate by itself was found to stimulate the production of oxytocin from ovarian tissue over a range of concentrations in a dose-dependent manner.[ ] many of the same tissues (e.g. ovaries, testes, eyes, adrenals, placenta, thymus, pancreas) where pam (and oxytocin by default) is found are also known to store higher concentrations of vitamin c.[ ] oxytocin is known to be metabolized by the oxytocinase, leucyl/cystinyl aminopeptidase.[ ][ ] other oxytocinases are also known to exist.[ ][ ] amastatin, bestatin (ubenimex), leupeptin, and puromycin have been found to inhibit the enzymatic degradation of oxytocin, though they also inhibit the degradation of various other peptides, such as vasopressin, met-enkephalin, and dynorphin a.[ ][ ][ ][ ] neural sources[edit] in the hypothalamus, oxytocin is made in magnocellular neurosecretory cells of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei, and is stored in herring bodies at the axon terminals in the posterior pituitary. it is then released into the blood from the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) of the pituitary gland. these axons (likely, but dendrites have not been ruled out) have collaterals that innervate neurons in the nucleus accumbens, a brain structure where oxytocin receptors are expressed.[ ] the endocrine effects of hormonal oxytocin and the cognitive or behavioral effects of oxytocin neuropeptides are thought to be coordinated through its common release through these collaterals.[ ] oxytocin is also produced by some neurons in the paraventricular nucleus that project to other parts of the brain and to the spinal cord.[ ] depending on the species, oxytocin receptor-expressing cells are located in other areas, including the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. in the pituitary gland, oxytocin is packaged in large, dense-core vesicles, where it is bound to neurophysin i as shown in the inset of the figure; neurophysin is a large peptide fragment of the larger precursor protein molecule from which oxytocin is derived by enzymatic cleavage. secretion of oxytocin from the neurosecretory nerve endings is regulated by the electrical activity of the oxytocin cells in the hypothalamus. these cells generate action potentials that propagate down axons to the nerve endings in the pituitary; the endings contain large numbers of oxytocin-containing vesicles, which are released by exocytosis when the nerve terminals are depolarised. non-neural sources[edit] endogenous oxytocin concentrations in the brain have been found to be as much as -fold higher than peripheral levels.[ ] outside the brain, oxytocin-containing cells have been identified in several diverse tissues, including in females in the corpus luteum[ ][ ] and the placenta;[ ] in males in the testicles' interstitial cells of leydig;[ ] and in both sexes in the retina,[ ] the adrenal medulla,[ ] the thymus[ ] and the pancreas.[ ] the finding of significant amounts of this classically "neurohypophysial" hormone outside the central nervous system raises many questions regarding its possible importance in these diverse tissues. male[edit] the leydig cells in some species have been shown to possess the biosynthetic machinery to manufacture testicular oxytocin de novo, to be specific, in rats (which can synthesize vitamin c endogenously), and in guinea pigs, which, like humans, require an exogenous source of vitamin c (ascorbate) in their diets.[ ] female[edit] oxytocin is synthesized by corpora lutea of several species, including ruminants and primates. along with estrogen, it is involved in inducing the endometrial synthesis of prostaglandin f α to cause regression of the corpus luteum.[ ] evolution[edit] virtually all vertebrates have an oxytocin-like nonapeptide hormone that supports reproductive functions and a vasopressin-like nonapeptide hormone involved in water regulation. the two genes are usually located close to each other (less than , bases apart) on the same chromosome, and are transcribed in opposite directions (however, in fugu,[ ] the homologs are further apart and transcribed in the same direction). the two genes are believed to result from a gene duplication event; the ancestral gene is estimated to be about million years old and is found in cyclostomata (modern members of the agnatha).[ ] biological function[edit] oxytocin has peripheral (hormonal) actions, and also has actions in the brain. its actions are mediated by specific oxytocin receptors. the oxytocin receptor is a g-protein-coupled receptor, ot-r, which requires magnesium and cholesterol and is expressed in myometrial cells.[ ] it belongs to the rhodopsin-type (class i) group of g-protein-coupled receptors.[ ] studies have looked at oxytocin's role in various behaviors, including orgasm, social recognition, pair bonding, anxiety, in-group bias, situational lack of honesty, autism, and maternal behaviors.[ ] physiological[edit] the peripheral actions of oxytocin mainly reflect secretion from the pituitary gland. the behavioral effects of oxytocin are thought to reflect release from centrally projecting oxytocin neurons, different from those that project to the pituitary gland, or that are collaterals from them.[ ] oxytocin receptors are expressed by neurons in many parts of the brain and spinal cord, including the amygdala, ventromedial hypothalamus, septum, nucleus accumbens, and brainstem, although the distribution differs markedly between species.[ ] furthermore, the distribution of these receptors changes during development and has been observed to change after parturition in the montane vole.[ ] 	milk ejection reflex/letdown reflex: in lactating (breastfeeding) mothers, oxytocin acts at the mammary glands, causing milk to be 'let down' into lactiferous ducts, from where it can be excreted via the nipple.[ ] suckling by the infant at the nipple is relayed by spinal nerves to the hypothalamus. the stimulation causes neurons that make oxytocin to fire action potentials in intermittent bursts; these bursts result in the secretion of pulses of oxytocin from the neurosecretory nerve terminals of the pituitary gland. 	uterine contraction: important for cervical dilation before birth, oxytocin causes contractions during the second and third stages of labor.[ ] oxytocin release during breastfeeding causes mild but often painful contractions during the first few weeks of lactation. this also serves to assist the uterus in clotting the placental attachment point postpartum. however, in knockout mice lacking the oxytocin receptor, reproductive behavior and parturition are normal.[ ] 	in male rats, oxytocin may induce erections.[ ] a burst of oxytocin is released during ejaculation in several species, including human males; its suggested function is to stimulate contractions of the reproductive tract, aiding sperm release.[ ] 	human sexual response: oxytocin levels in plasma rise during sexual stimulation and orgasm . at least two uncontrolled studies have found increases in plasma oxytocin at orgasm – in both men and women.[ ][ ] plasma oxytocin levels are increased around the time of self-stimulated orgasm and are still higher than baseline when measured five minutes after self arousal.[ ] the authors of one of these studies speculated that oxytocin's effects on muscle contractibility may facilitate sperm and egg transport.[ ] 	in a study measuring oxytocin serum levels in women before and after sexual stimulation, the author suggests it serves an important role in sexual arousal. this study found genital tract stimulation resulted in increased oxytocin immediately after orgasm.[ ] another study reported increases of oxytocin during sexual arousal could be in response to nipple/areola, genital, and/or genital tract stimulation as confirmed in other mammals.[ ] murphy et al. ( ), studying men, found oxytocin levels were raised throughout sexual arousal with no acute increase at orgasm.[ ] a more recent study of men found an increase in plasma oxytocin immediately after orgasm, but only in a portion of their sample that did not reach statistical significance. the authors noted these changes "may simply reflect contractile properties on reproductive tissue".[ ] 	due to its similarity to vasopressin, it can reduce the excretion of urine slightly, and so it can be classified as an antidiuretic. in several species, oxytocin can stimulate sodium excretion from the kidneys (natriuresis), and, in humans, high doses can result in low sodium levels (hyponatremia). 	cardiac effects: oxytocin and oxytocin receptors are also found in the heart in some rodents, and the hormone may play a role in the embryonal development of the heart by promoting cardiomyocyte differentiation.[ ][ ] however, the absence of either oxytocin or its receptor in knockout mice has not been reported to produce cardiac insufficiencies.[ ] 	modulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity: oxytocin, under certain circumstances, indirectly inhibits release of adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol and, in those situations, may be considered an antagonist of vasopressin.[ ] 	preparing fetal neurons for delivery (in rats): crossing the placenta, maternal oxytocin reaches the fetal brain and induces a switch in the action of neurotransmitter gaba from excitatory to inhibitory on fetal cortical neurons. this silences the fetal brain for the period of delivery and reduces its vulnerability to hypoxic damage.[ ] 	feeding: a paper suggested that oxytocin neurons in the para-ventricular hypothalamus in the brain may play a key role in suppressing appetite under normal conditions and that other hypothalamic neurons may trigger eating via inhibition of these oxytocin neurons. this population of oxytocin neurons is absent in prader-willi syndrome, a genetic disorder that leads to uncontrollable feeding and obesity, and may play a key role in its pathophysiology.[ ] research on the oxytocin-related neuropeptide asterotocin in starfish also showed that in echinoderms, the chemical induces muscle relaxation, and in starfish specifically caused the organisms to evert their stomach and react as though feeding on prey, even when none were present.[ ] psychological[edit] 	autism: oxytocin has been implicated in the etiology of autism, with one report suggesting autism is correlated to a mutation on the oxytocin receptor gene (oxtr). studies involving caucasian, finnish and chinese han families provide support for the relationship of oxtr with autism.[ ][ ] autism may also be associated with an aberrant methylation of oxtr.[ ] bonding[edit] in the prairie vole, oxytocin released into the brain of the female during sexual activity is important for forming a pair bond with her sexual partner. vasopressin appears to have a similar effect in males.[ ] oxytocin has a role in social behaviors in many species, so it likely also does in humans. in a study, both humans and dog oxytocin levels in the blood rose after five to minutes of a petting session. this possibly plays a role in the emotional bonding between humans and dogs.[ ] 	maternal behavior: female rats given oxytocin antagonists after giving birth do not exhibit typical maternal behavior.[ ] by contrast, virgin female sheep show maternal behavior toward foreign lambs upon cerebrospinal fluid infusion of oxytocin, which they would not do otherwise.[ ] oxytocin is involved in the initiation of human maternal behavior, not its maintenance; for example, it is higher in mothers after they interact with unfamiliar children rather than their own.[ ] 	human ingroup bonding: oxytocin can increase positive attitudes, such as bonding, toward individuals with similar characteristics, who then become classified as "in-group" members, whereas individuals who are dissimilar become classified as "out-group" members. race can be used as an example of in-group and out-group tendencies because society often categorizes individuals into groups based on race (caucasian, african american, latino, etc.). one study that examined race and empathy found that participants receiving nasally administered oxytocin had stronger reactions to pictures of in-group members making pained faces than to pictures of out-group members with the same expression.[ ] moreover, individuals of one race may be more inclined to help individuals of the same race than individuals of another race when they are experiencing pain. oxytocin has also been implicated in lying when lying would prove beneficial to other in-group members. in a study where such a relationship was examined, it was found that when individuals were administered oxytocin, rates of dishonesty in the participants' responses increased for their in-group members when a beneficial outcome for their group was expected.[ ] both of these examples show the tendency of individuals to act in ways that benefit those considered to be members of their social group, or in-group. oxytocin is not only correlated with the preferences of individuals to associate with members of their own group, but it is also evident during conflicts between members of different groups. during conflict, individuals receiving nasally administered oxytocin demonstrate more frequent defense-motivated responses toward in-group members than out-group members. further, oxytocin was correlated with participant desire to protect vulnerable in-group members, despite that individual's attachment to the conflict.[ ] similarly, it has been demonstrated that when oxytocin is administered, individuals alter their subjective preferences in order to align with in-group ideals over out-group ideals.[ ] these studies demonstrate that oxytocin is associated with intergroup dynamics. further, oxytocin influences the responses of individuals in a particular group to those of another group. the in-group bias is evident in smaller groups; however, it can also be extended to groups as large as one's entire country leading toward a tendency of strong national zeal. a study done in the netherlands showed that oxytocin increased the in-group favoritism of their nation while decreasing acceptance of members of other ethnicities and foreigners.[ ] people also show more affection for their country's flag while remaining indifferent to other cultural objects when exposed to oxytocin.[ ] it has thus been hypothesized that this hormone may be a factor in xenophobic tendencies secondary to this effect. thus, oxytocin appears to affect individuals at an international level where the in-group becomes a specific "home" country and the out-group grows to include all other countries. drugs[edit] 	drug interaction: according to several studies in animals, oxytocin inhibits the development of tolerance to various addictive drugs (opiates, cocaine, alcohol), and reduces withdrawal symptoms.[ ] mdma (ecstasy) may increase feelings of love, empathy, and connection to others by stimulating oxytocin activity primarily via activation of serotonin -ht a receptors, if initial studies in animals apply to humans.[ ] the anxiolytic drug buspirone may produce some of its effects via -ht a receptor-induced oxytocin stimulation as well.[ ][ ] 	addiction vulnerability: concentrations of endogenous oxytocin can impact the effects of various drugs and one's susceptibility to substance use disorders, with higher concentrations associated with lower susceptibility. the status of the endogenous oxytocin system can enhance or reduce susceptibility to addiction through its bidirectional interaction with numerous systems, including the dopamine system, the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis and the immune system. individual differences in the endogenous oxytocin system based on genetic predisposition, gender and environmental influences, may therefore affect addiction vulnerability.[ ] oxytocin may be related to the place conditioning behaviors observed in habitual drug abusers. fear and anxiety[edit] oxytocin is typically remembered for the effect it has on prosocial behaviors, such as its role in facilitating trust and attachment between individuals.[ ][qualify evidence] however, oxytocin has a more complex role than solely enhancing prosocial behaviors. there is consensus that oxytocin modulates fear and anxiety; that is, it does not directly elicit fear or anxiety.[ ] two dominant theories explain the role of oxytocin in fear and anxiety. one theory states that oxytocin increases approach/avoidance to certain social stimuli and the second theory states that oxytocin increases the salience of certain social stimuli, causing the animal or human to pay closer attention to socially relevant stimuli.[ ] nasally administered oxytocin has been reported to reduce fear, possibly by inhibiting the amygdala (which is thought to be responsible for fear responses).[ ] indeed, studies in rodents have shown oxytocin can efficiently inhibit fear responses by activating an inhibitory circuit within the amygdala.[ ][ ] some researchers have argued oxytocin has a general enhancing effect on all social emotions, since intranasal administration of oxytocin also increases envy and schadenfreude.[ ] individuals who receive an intranasal dose of oxytocin identify facial expressions of disgust more quickly than individuals who do not receive oxytocin.[ ][qualify evidence] facial expressions of disgust are evolutionarily linked to the idea of contagion. thus, oxytocin increases the salience of cues that imply contamination, which leads to a faster response because these cues are especially relevant for survival. in another study, after administration of oxytocin, individuals displayed an enhanced ability to recognize expressions of fear compared to the individuals who received the placebo.[ ] oxytocin modulates fear responses by enhancing the maintenance of social memories. rats that are genetically modified to have a surplus of oxytocin receptors display a greater fear response to a previously conditioned stressor. oxytocin enhances the aversive social memory, leading the rat to display a greater fear response when the aversive stimulus is encountered again.[ ] mood and depression[edit] oxytocin produces antidepressant-like effects in animal models of depression,[ ] and a deficit of it may be involved in the pathophysiology of depression in humans.[ ] the antidepressant-like effects of oxytocin are not blocked by a selective antagonist of the oxytocin receptor, suggesting that these effects are not mediated by the oxytocin receptor.[ ] in accordance, unlike oxytocin, the selective non-peptide oxytocin receptor agonist way- , does not produce antidepressant-like effects, at least in the tail suspension test.[ ] in contrast to way- , , carbetocin, a close analogue of oxytocin and peptide oxytocin receptor agonist, notably does produce antidepressant-like effects in animals.[ ] as such, the antidepressant-like effects of oxytocin may be mediated by modulation of a different target, perhaps the vasopressin v a receptor where oxytocin is known to weakly bind as an agonist.[ ][ ] sildenafil enhances electrically evoked oxytocin release from the pituitary gland.[ ] in accordance, it may have promise as an antidepressant.[ ] sex differences[edit] it has been shown that oxytocin differentially affects males and females. females who are administered oxytocin are overall faster in responding to socially relevant stimuli than males who received oxytocin.[ ][ ] additionally, after the administration of oxytocin, females show increased amygdala activity in response to threatening scenes; however, males do not show increased amygdala activation. this phenomenon can be explained by looking at the role of gonadal hormones, specifically estrogen, which modulate the enhanced threat processing seen in females. estrogen has been shown to stimulate the release of oxytocin from the hypothalamus and promote receptor binding in the amygdala.[ ] it has also been shown that testosterone directly suppresses oxytocin in mice.[ ] this has been hypothesized to have evolutionary significance. with oxytocin suppressed, activities such as hunting and attacking invaders would be less mentally difficult as oxytocin is strongly associated with empathy.[ ] social[edit] 	affecting generosity by increasing empathy during perspective taking: in a neuroeconomics experiment, intranasal oxytocin increased generosity in the ultimatum game by %, but had no effect in the dictator game that measures altruism. perspective-taking is not required in the dictator game, but the researchers in this experiment explicitly induced perspective-taking in the ultimatum game by not identifying to participants into which role they would be placed.[ ] serious methodological questions have arisen, however, with regard to the role of oxytocin in trust and generosity.[ ] empathy in healthy males has been shown to be increased after intranasal oxytocin[ ][ ] this is most likely due to the effect of oxytocin in enhancing eye gaze.[ ] there is some discussion about which aspect of empathy oxytocin might alter – for example, cognitive vs. emotional empathy.[ ] while studying wild chimpanzees, it was noted that after a chimpanzee shared food with a non-kin related chimpanzee, the subjects' levels of oxytocin increased, as measured through their urine. in comparison to other cooperative activities between chimpanzees that were monitored including grooming, food sharing generated higher levels of oxytocin. this comparatively higher level of oxytocin after food sharing parallels the increased level of oxytocin in nursing mothers, sharing nutrients with their kin.[ ] 	trust is increased by oxytocin.[ ][ ][ ] disclosure of emotional events is a sign of trust in humans. when recounting a negative event, humans who receive intranasal oxytocin share more emotional details and stories with more emotional significance.[ ] humans also find faces more trustworthy after receiving intranasal oxytocin. in a study, participants who received intranasal oxytocin viewed photographs of human faces with neutral expressions and found them to be more trustworthy than those who did not receive oxytocin.[ ] this may be because oxytocin reduces the fear of social betrayal in humans.[ ] even after experiencing social alienation by being excluded from a conversation, humans who received oxytocin scored higher in trust on the revised neo personality inventory.[ ] moreover, in a risky investment game, experimental subjects given nasally administered oxytocin displayed "the highest level of trust" twice as often as the control group. subjects who were told they were interacting with a computer showed no such reaction, leading to the conclusion that oxytocin was not merely affecting risk aversion.[ ] when there is a reason to be distrustful, such as experiencing betrayal, differing reactions are associated with oxytocin receptor gene (oxtr) differences. those with the ct haplotype[clarification needed] experience a stronger reaction, in the form of anger, to betrayal.[ ] 	romantic attachment: in some studies, high levels of plasma oxytocin have been correlated with romantic attachment. for example, if a couple is separated for a long period of time, anxiety can increase due to the lack of physical affection. oxytocin may aid romantically attached couples by decreasing their feelings of anxiety when they are separated.[ ] 	group-serving dishonesty/deception: in a carefully controlled study exploring the biological roots of immoral behavior, oxytocin was shown to promote dishonesty when the outcome favored the group to which an individual belonged instead of just the individual.[ ] 	oxytocin affects social distance between adult males and females, and may be responsible at least in part for romantic attraction and subsequent monogamous pair bonding. an oxytocin nasal spray caused men in a monogamous relationship, but not single men, to increase the distance between themselves and an attractive woman during a first encounter by to centimeters. the researchers suggested that oxytocin may help promote fidelity within monogamous relationships.[ ] for this reason, it is sometimes referred to as the "bonding hormone". there is some evidence that oxytocin promotes ethnocentric behavior, incorporating the trust and empathy of in-groups with their suspicion and rejection of outsiders.[ ] furthermore, genetic differences in the oxytocin receptor gene (oxtr) have been associated with maladaptive social traits such as aggressive behavior.[ ] 	social behavior[ ][ ] and wound healing: oxytocin is also thought to modulate inflammation by decreasing certain cytokines. thus, the increased release in oxytocin following positive social interactions has the potential to improve wound healing. a study by marazziti and colleagues used heterosexual couples to investigate this possibility. they found increases in plasma oxytocin following a social interaction were correlated with faster wound healing. they hypothesized this was due to oxytocin reducing inflammation, thus allowing the wound to heal more quickly. this study provides preliminary evidence that positive social interactions may directly influence aspects of health.[ ] according to a study published in , silencing of oxytocin receptor interneurons in the medial prefrontal cortex (mpfc) of female mice resulted in loss of social interest in male mice during the sexually receptive phase of the estrous cycle.[ ] oxytocin evokes feelings of contentment, reductions in anxiety, and feelings of calmness and security when in the company of the mate.[ ] this suggests oxytocin may be important for the inhibition of the brain regions associated with behavioral control, fear, and anxiety, thus allowing orgasm to occur. research has also demonstrated that oxytocin can decrease anxiety and protect against stress, particularly in combination with social support.[ ] it is found, that endocannabinoid signaling mediates oxytocin-driven social reward.[ ] chemistry[edit] oxytocin (ball-and-stick) bound to its carrier protein neurophysin (ribbons) oxytocin is a peptide of nine amino acids (a nonapeptide) in the sequence cysteine-tyrosine-isoleucine-glutamine-asparagine-cysteine-proline-leucine-glycine-amide (cys – tyr – ile – gln – asn – cys – pro – leu – gly – nh , or cyiqncplg-nh ); its c-terminus has been converted to a primary amide and a disulfide bridge joins the cysteine moieties.[ ] oxytocin has a molecular mass of  da, and one international unit (iu) of oxytocin is the equivalent of .  μg of pure peptide.[ ] while the structure of oxytocin is highly conserved in placental mammals, a novel structure of oxytocin was recently reported in marmosets, tamarins, and other new world primates. genomic sequencing of the gene for oxytocin revealed a single in-frame mutation (thymine for cytosine) which results in a single amino acid substitution at the -position (proline for leucine).[ ] since this original lee et al. paper, two other laboratories have confirmed pro -ot and documented additional oxytocin structural variants in this primate taxon. vargas-pinilla et al. sequenced the coding regions of the oxt gene in other genera in new world primates and identified the following variants in addition to leu - and pro -ot: ala -ot, thr -ot, and val /pro -ot.[ ] ren et al. identified a variant further, phe -ot in howler monkeys.[ ] the biologically active form of oxytocin, commonly measured by ria and/or hplc techniques, is the oxidized octapeptide oxytocin disulfide, but oxytocin also exists as a reduced straight-chain (non-cyclic) dithiol nonapeptide called oxytoceine.[ ] it has been theorized that oxytoceine may act as a free radical scavenger, as donating an electron to a free radical allows oxytoceine to be re-oxidized to oxytocin via the dehydroascorbate / ascorbate redox couple.[ ] recent advances in analytical instrumental techniques highlighted the importance of liquid chromatography (lc) coupled with mass spectrometry (ms) for measuring oxytocin levels in various samples derived from biological sources. most of these studies optimized the oxytocin quantification in electrospray ionization (esi) positive mode, using [m+h]+ as the parent ion at mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) . and the fragment ions as diagnostic peaks at m/z . ,[ ] m/z . [ ] and m/z . .[ ] these important ion selections paved the way for the development of current methods of oxytocin quantification using ms instrumentation. the structure of oxytocin is very similar to that of vasopressin. both are nonapeptides with a single disulfide bridge, differing only by two substitutions in the amino acid sequence (differences from oxytocin bolded for clarity): cys – tyr – phe – gln – asn – cys – pro – arg – gly – nh .[ ] oxytocin and vasopressin were isolated and their total synthesis reported in ,[ ] work for which vincent du vigneaud was awarded the nobel prize in chemistry with the citation: "for his work on biochemically important sulphur compounds, especially for the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone."[ ] oxytocin and vasopressin are the only known hormones released by the human posterior pituitary gland to act at a distance. however, oxytocin neurons make other peptides, including corticotropin-releasing hormone and dynorphin, for example, that act locally. the magnocellular neurosecretory cells that make oxytocin are adjacent to magnocellular neurosecretory cells that make vasopressin. these are large neuroendocrine neurons which are excitable and can generate action potentials.[ ] history[edit] the uterine-contracting properties of the principle that would later be named oxytocin were discovered by british pharmacologist sir henry hallett dale in ,[ ][ ] and its milk ejection property was described by ott and scott in [ ] and by schafer and mackenzie in .[ ] in the s, oxytocin and vasopressin were isolated from pituitary tissue and given their current names. the word oxytocin was coined from the term oxytocic, greek ὀξύς, oxys, meaning "sharp" or "swift", and τόκος, toκos, meaning "childbirth". oxytocin became the first polypeptide hormone to be sequenced[ ] or synthesized.[ ][ ][ ] du vigneaud was awarded the nobel prize in for his work.[ ] references[edit] 	^ weisman o, zagoory-sharon o, feldman r ( ). 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"food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees". proceedings. biological sciences. ( ): . doi: . /rspb. . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b theodoridou a, rowe ac, penton-voak is, rogers pj (june ). "oxytocin and social perception: oxytocin increases perceived facial trustworthiness and attractiveness". hormones and behavior. ( ): – . doi: . /j.yhbeh. . . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ a b lane a, luminet o, rimé b, gross jj, de timary p, mikolajczak m ( ). "oxytocin increases willingness to socially share one's emotions". international journal of psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / . . . pmid  . 	^ a b cardoso c, ellenbogen ma, serravalle l, linnen am (november ). "stress-induced negative mood moderates the relation between oxytocin administration and trust: evidence for the tend-and-befriend response to stress?". psychoneuroendocrinology. 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"a relationship between oxytocin and anxiety of romantic attachment". clinical practice and epidemiology in mental health. ( ): . doi: . / - - - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ shalvi s, de dreu ck (april ). "oxytocin promotes group-serving dishonesty". proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america. ( ): – . bibcode: pnas.. . s. doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . lay summary – bbc news ( april ). 	^ scheele d, striepens n, güntürkün o, deutschländer s, maier w, kendrick km, hurlemann r (november ). "oxytocin modulates social distance between males and females". the journal of neuroscience. ( ): – . doi: . /jneurosci. - . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ malik ai, zai cc, abu z, nowrouzi b, beitchman jh (july ). "the role of oxytocin and oxytocin receptor gene variants in childhood-onset aggression". genes, brain, and behavior. ( ): – . doi: . /j. - x. . .x. pmid  . s cid  . 	^ zak pj, kurzban r, matzner wt (december ). "the neurobiology of trust". annals of the new york academy of sciences. ( ): – . bibcode: nyasa .. z. doi: . /annals. . . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ gouin jp, carter cs, pournajafi-nazarloo h, glaser r, malarkey wb, loving tj, stowell j, kiecolt-glaser jk (august ). "marital behavior, oxytocin, vasopressin, and wound healing". psychoneuroendocrinology. ( ): – . doi: . /j.psyneuen. . . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ nakajima m, görlich a, heintz n (october ). "oxytocin modulates female sociosexual behavior through a specific class of prefrontal cortical interneurons". cell. ( ): – . doi: . /j.cell. . . . pmc  . pmid  . lay summary – sciguru science news. 	^ heinrichs m, baumgartner t, kirschbaum c, ehlert u (december ). "social support and oxytocin interact to suppress cortisol and subjective responses to psychosocial stress". biological psychiatry. ( ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ wei d, lee d, cox cd, karsten ca, peñagarikano o, geschwind dh, gall cm, piomelli d (november ). "endocannabinoid signaling mediates oxytocin-driven social reward". proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america. ( ): – . bibcode: pnas.. w. doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ a b burtis ca, ashwood er, bruns de ( ). tietz textbook of clinical chemistry and molecular diagnostics ( th ed.). elsevier health sciences. p.  . isbn  - . 	^ https://www.nibsc.org/documents/ifu/ - .pdf 	^ lee ag, cool dr, grunwald wc, neal de, buckmaster cl, cheng my, hyde sa, lyons dm, parker kj (august ). "a novel form of oxytocin in new world monkeys". biology letters. ( ): – . doi: . /rsbl. . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ vargas-pinilla p, paixão-côrtes vr, paré p, tovo-rodrigues l, vieira cm, xavier a, comas d, pissinatti a, sinigaglia m, rigo mm, vieira gf, lucion ab, salzano fm, bortolini mc (january ). "evolutionary pattern in the oxt-oxtr system in primates: coevolution and positive selection footprints". proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america. ( ): – . bibcode: pnas.. ... v. doi: . /pnas. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ ren d, lu g, moriyama h, mustoe ac, harrison eb, french ja ( ). "genetic diversity in oxytocin ligands and receptors in new world monkeys". plos one. ( ): e . bibcode: ploso.. r. doi: . /journal.pone. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ vigneaud v ( ). "experiences in the polypeptide field: insulin to oxytocin". annals of the new york academy of sciences. ( ): – . bibcode: nyasa.. .. v. doi: . /j. - . .tb .x. s cid  . 	^ kukucka ma ( - - ). "mechanisms by which hypoxia augments leydig cell viability and differentiated cell function in vitro". virginia tech. hdl: / . cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	^ moriyama, eri; kataoka, hiroyuki ( - - ). "automated analysis of oxytocin by on-line in-tube solid-phase microextraction coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry". chromatography. ( ): – . doi: . /chromatography . issn  - . 	^ wang, lei; marti, dakota w.; anderson, rachel e. ( - - ). "development and validation of a simple lc-ms method for the quantification of oxytocin in dog saliva". molecules. ( ): . doi: . /molecules . issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ franke, adrian a.; li, xingnan; menden, ariane; lee, mary r.; lai, jennifer f. ( ). "oxytocin analysis from human serum, urine, and saliva by orbitrap liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry". drug testing and analysis. ( ): – . doi: . /dta. . issn  - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ du vigneaud v, ressler c, swan jm, roberts cw, katsoyannis pg ( ). "the synthesis of oxytocin". journal of the american chemical society. ( ): – . doi: . /ja a . 	^ "the nobel prize in chemistry ". nobelprize.org. nobel media ab. retrieved november . 	^ leng g, brown ch, russell ja ( ). "physiological pathways regulating the activity of magnocellular neurosecretory cells". progress in neurobiology. ( ): – . doi: . /s - ( ) - . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ dale hh (may ). "on some physiological actions of ergot". the journal of physiology. ( ): – . doi: . /jphysiol. .sp . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ ott i, scott jc ( ). "the action of infundibulin upon the mammary secretion". experimental biology and medicine. ( ): – . doi: . / - - . s cid  . 	^ schafer ea, mackenzie k (july ). "the action of animal extracts on milk secretion". proceedings of the royal society b. ( ): – . bibcode: rspsb.. ... s. doi: . /rspb. . . 	^ du vigneaud v, ressler c, trippett s (december ). "the sequence of amino acids in oxytocin, with a proposal for the structure of oxytocin". the journal of biological chemistry. ( ): – . pmid  . 	^ du vigneaud v, ressler c, swan jm, roberts cw, katsoyannis pg, gordon s ( ). "the synthesis of an octapeptide amide with the hormonal activity of oxytocin". j. am. chem. soc. ( ): – . doi: . /ja a . 	^ du vigneaud v, ressler c, swan jm, roberts cw, katsoyannis pg (june ). "the synthesis of oxytocin". j. am. chem. soc. ( ): – . doi: . /ja a . 	^ du vigneaud v, ressler c, swan jm, roberts cw, katsoyannis pg ( ). "the synthesis of oxytocin ". journal of the american chemical society. ( ): – . doi: . /ja a . 	^ du vigneaud v (june ). "trail of sulfur research: from insulin to oxytocin". science. ( ): – . bibcode: sci... .. d. doi: . /science. . . . pmid  . further reading[edit] 	caldwell hk, young ws ( ). "oxytocin and vasopressin: genetics and behavioral implications" (pdf). in abel l, lim r (eds.). handbook of neurochemistry and molecular neurobiology. berlin: springer. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	fillod o ( ), "oxytocin as proximal cause of 'maternal instinct': weak science, post-feminism, and the hormones of mystique", in schmitz s, höppner g (eds.), gendered neurocultures: feminist and queer perspectives on current brain discourses, challenge gender, , wien: zaglossus, isbn  - . 	yong e ( november ), "the weak science behind the wrongly named moral molecule", the atlantic . external links[edit] 	 media related to oxytocin at wikimedia commons 		v 	t 	e hormones 	endocrine glands	 	hypothalamic- pituitary	 	hypothalamus	 	gnrh 	trh 	dopamine 	crh 	ghrh 	somatostatin (ghih) 	mch 	posterior pituitary	 	oxytocin 	vasopressin 	anterior pituitary	 	fsh 	lh 	tsh 	prolactin 	pomc 	clip 	acth 	msh 	endorphins 	lipotropin 	gh 	adrenal axis	 	adrenal cortex 	aldosterone 	cortisol 	cortisone 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commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 pubmed - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	pubmed 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from pmid (identifier)) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		online database with abstracts of medical articles, hosted by us national library of medicine not to be confused with pubmed central. pubmed	 	contact 	research center	united states national library of medicine (nlm) 	release date	january  ;  years ago ( - ) 	access 	website	pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov pubmed is a free search engine accessing primarily the medline database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. the united states national library of medicine (nlm) at the national institutes of health maintain the database as part of the entrez system of information retrieval.[ ] from to , online access to the medline database had been primarily through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. pubmed, first released in january , ushered in the era of private, free, home- and office-based medline searching.[ ] the pubmed system was offered free to the public starting in june .[ ] contents 	 content 	 characteristics 	 . website design 	 . . pubmed for handhelds/mobiles 	 . search 	 . . standard search 	 . . comprehensive search 	 . journal article parameters 	 . . publication type: clinical queries/systematic reviews 	 . . secondary id 	 . see also 	 . mapping to mesh 	 . my ncbi 	 . linkout 	 . pubmed commons 	 . askmedline 	 . pubmed identifier 	 alternative interfaces 	 data mining of pubmed 	 see also 	 references 	 external links content[edit] in addition to medline, pubmed provides access to: 	older references from the print version of index medicus, back to and earlier 	references to some journals before they were indexed in index medicus and medline, for instance science, bmj, and annals of surgery 	very recent entries to records for an article before it is indexed with medical subject headings (mesh) and added to medline 	a collection of books available full-text and other subsets of nlm records[ ] 	pmc citations 	ncbi bookshelf many pubmed records contain links to full text articles, some of which are freely available, often in pubmed central[ ] and local mirrors, such as europe pubmed central.[ ] information about the journals indexed in medline, and available through pubmed, is found in the nlm catalog.[ ] as of  january  [update], pubmed has more than million citations and abstracts dating back to , selectively to the year , and very selectively to . as of the same date[update], million of pubmed's records are listed with their abstracts, and . million records have links to full-text versions (of which . million articles are available, full-text for free).[ ] over the last years (ending december ), an average of nearly million new records were added each year. approximately % of the records in pubmed correspond to cancer-related entries, which have grown from % in the s to % in .[ ] other significant proportion of records correspond to "chemistry" ( . %), "therapy" ( . %), and "infection" ( %).[citation needed] in , nlm changed the indexing system so that publishers are able to directly correct typos and errors in pubmed indexed articles.[ ] pubmed has been reported to include some articles published in predatory journals. medline and pubmed policies for the selection of journals for database inclusion are slightly different. weaknesses in the criteria and procedures for indexing journals in pubmed central may allow publications from predatory journals to leak into pubmed.[ ] characteristics[edit] website design[edit] a new pubmed interface was launched in october and encouraged the use of such quick, google-like search formulations; they have also been described as 'telegram' searches.[ ] by default the results are sorted by most recent, but this can be changed to best match, publication date, first author, last author, journal, or title.[ ] the pubmed website design and domain was updated in january and became default on may , with the updated and new features.[ ] there was a critical reaction from many researchers who frequently use the site.[ ] pubmed for handhelds/mobiles[edit] pubmed/medline can be accessed via handheld devices, using for instance the "pico" option (for focused clinical questions) created by the nlm.[ ] a "pubmed mobile" option, providing access to a mobile friendly, simplified pubmed version, is also available.[ ] search[edit] standard search[edit] simple searches on pubmed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into pubmed's search window. pubmed translates this initial search formulation and automatically adds field names, relevant mesh (medical subject headings) terms, synonyms, boolean operators, and 'nests' the resulting terms appropriately, enhancing the search formulation significantly, in particular by routinely combining (using the or operator) textwords and mesh terms. the examples given in a pubmed tutorial[ ] demonstrate how this automatic process works: causes sleep walking is translated as ("etiology"[subheading] or "etiology"[all fields] or "causes"[all fields] or "causality"[mesh terms] or "causality"[all fields]) and ("somnambulism"[mesh terms] or "somnambulism"[all fields] or ("sleep"[all fields] and "walking"[all fields]) or "sleep walking"[all fields]) likewise, soft attack aspirin prevention is translated as ("myocardial infarction"[mesh terms] or ("myocardial"[all fields] and "infarction"[all fields]) or "myocardial infarction"[all fields] or ("heart"[all fields] and "attack"[all fields]) or "heart attack"[all fields]) and ("aspirin"[mesh terms] or "aspirin"[all fields]) and ("prevention and control"[subheading] or ("prevention"[all fields] and "control"[all fields]) or "prevention and control"[all fields] or "prevention"[all fields]) comprehensive search[edit] for optimal searches in pubmed, it is necessary to understand its core component, medline, and especially of the mesh (medical subject headings) controlled vocabulary used to index medline articles. they may also require complex search strategies, use of field names (tags), proper use of limits and other features; reference librarians and search specialists offer search services.[ ][ ] the search into pubmed's search window is only recommended for the search of unequivocal topics or new interventions that do not yet have a mesh heading created, as well as for the search for commercial brands of medicines and proper nouns. it is also useful when there is no suitable heading or the descriptor represents a partial aspect. the search using the thesaurus mesh is more accurate and will give fewer irrelevant results. in addition, it saves the disadvantage of the free text search in which the spelling, singular/plural or abbreviated differences have to be taken into consideration. on the other side, articles more recently incorporated into the database to which descriptors have not yet been assigned will not be found. therefore, to guarantee an exhaustive search, a combination of controlled language headings and free text terms must be used.[ ] journal article parameters[edit] when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. such parameters are: article type (mesh terms, e.g., "clinical trial"), secondary identifiers, (mesh terms), language, country of the journal or publication history (e-publication date, print journal publication date). publication type: clinical queries/systematic reviews[edit] publication type parameter allows searching by the type of publication, including reports of various kinds of clinical research.[ ] secondary id[edit] since july , the medline article indexing process extracts identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called secondary identifier (si). the secondary identifier field is to store accession numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds and clinical trial ids. for clinical trials, pubmed extracts trial ids for the two largest trial registries: clinicaltrials.gov (nct identifier) and the international standard randomized controlled trial number register (irctn identifier).[ ] see also[edit] a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and "related articles" can be identified. if relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated (on pubmed or any of the other ncbi entrez databases) using the 'find related data' option. the related articles are then listed in order of "relatedness". to create these lists of related articles, pubmed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the mesh headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm.[ ] the 'related articles' function has been judged to be so precise that the authors of a paper suggested it can be used instead of a full search.[ ] mapping to mesh[edit] pubmed automatically links to mesh terms and subheadings. examples would be: "bad breath" links to (and includes in the search) "halitosis", "heart attack" to "myocardial infarction", "breast cancer" to "breast neoplasms". where appropriate, these mesh terms are automatically "expanded", that is, include more specific terms. terms like "nursing" are automatically linked to "nursing [mesh]" or "nursing [subheading]". this feature is called auto term mapping and is enacted, by default, in free text searching but not exact phrase searching (i.e. enclosing the search query with double quotes).[ ] this feature makes pubmed searches more sensitive and avoids false-negative (missed) hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology.[ ] pubmed does not apply automatic mapping of the term in the following circumstances: by writing the quoted phrase (e.g., "kidney allograft"), when truncated on the asterisk (e.g., kidney allograft*), and when looking with field labels (e.g., cancer [ti]).[ ] my ncbi[edit] the pubmed optional facility "my ncbi" (with free registration) provides tools for 	saving searches 	filtering search results 	setting up automatic updates sent by e-mail 	saving sets of references retrieved as part of a pubmed search 	configuring display formats or highlighting search terms and a wide range of other options.[ ] the "my ncbi" area can be accessed from any computer with web-access. an earlier version of "my ncbi" was called "pubmed cubby".[ ] linkout[edit] linkout, a nlm facility to link (and make available full-text) local journal holdings.[ ] some , sites (mainly academic institutions) participate in this nlm facility (as of march  [update]), from aalborg university in denmark to zymogenetics in seattle.[ ] users at these institutions see their institution's logo within the pubmed search result (if the journal is held at that institution) and can access the full-text. link out is being consolidated with outside tool as of the major platform update coming in the summer of .[ ] pubmed commons[edit] in , pubmed allows authors of articles to comment on articles indexed by pubmed. this feature was initially tested in a pilot mode (since ) and was made permanent in .[ ] in february , pubmed commons was discontinued due to the fact that "usage has remained minimal".[ ][ ] askmedline[edit] askmedline, a free-text, natural language query tool for medline/pubmed, developed by the nlm, also suitable for handhelds.[ ] pubmed identifier[edit] for help using pubmed identifiers within wikipedia, see wikipedia:pmid. a pmid (pubmed identifier or pubmed unique identifier)[ ] is a unique integer value, starting at , assigned to each pubmed record. a pmid is not the same as a pmcid (pubmed central identifier) which is the identifier for all works published in the free-to-access pubmed central.[ ] the assignment of a pmid or pmcid to a publication tells the reader nothing about the type or quality of the content. pmids are assigned to letters to the editor, editorial opinions, op-ed columns, and any other piece that the editor chooses to include in the journal, as well as peer-reviewed papers. the existence of the identification number is also not proof that the papers have not been retracted for fraud, incompetence, or misconduct. the announcement about any corrections to original papers may be assigned a pmid. each number that is entered in the pubmed search window is treated by default as if it were a pmid. therefore, any reference in pubmed can be located using the pmid. alternative interfaces[edit] medline is one of the databases which are accessible via pubmed. several companies provide access to medline through their platforms. the national library of medicine leases the medline information to a number of private vendors such as embase, ovid, dialog, ebsco, knowledge finder and many other commercial, non-commercial, and academic providers.[ ] as of october  [update], more than licenses had been issued, more than of them to providers outside the united states. as licenses to use medline data are available for free, the nlm in effect provides a free testing ground for a wide range[ ] of alternative interfaces and rd party additions to pubmed, one of a very few large, professionally curated databases which offers this option. lu[ ] identifies a sample of current and free web-based pubmed versions, requiring no installation or registration, which are grouped into four categories: 	ranking search results, for instance: etblast; medlineranker;[ ] misearch;[ ] 	clustering results by topics, authors, journals etc., for instance: anne o'tate;[ ] clustermed;[ ] 	enhancing semantics and visualization, for instance: ebimed;[ ] medevi.[ ] 	improved search interface and retrieval experience, for instance, askmedline[ ][ ] babelmesh;[ ] and pubcrawler.[ ] as most of these and other alternatives rely essentially on pubmed/medline data leased under license from the nlm/pubmed, the term "pubmed derivatives" has been suggested.[ ] without the need to store about  gb of original pubmed datasets, anybody can write pubmed applications using the eutils-application program interface as described in "the e-utilities in-depth: parameters, syntax and more", by eric sayers, phd.[ ] various citation format generators, taking pmid numbers as input, are examples of web applications making use of the eutils-application program interface. sample web pages include citation generator - mick schroeder, pubmed citation generator - ultrasound of the week, pmid cite, and cite this for me. data mining of pubmed[edit] alternative methods to mine the data in pubmed use programming environments such as matlab, python or r. in these cases, queries of pubmed are written as lines of code and passed to pubmed and the response is then processed directly in the programming environment. code can be automated to systematically queries with different keywords such as disease, year, organs, etc. a recent publication ( ) found that the proportion of cancer-related entries in pubmed has risen from % in the s to % in .[ ] the data accessible by pubmed can be mirrored locally using an unofficial tool such as medoc.[ ] millions of pubmed records augment various open data datasets about open access, like unpaywall. data analysis tools like unpaywall journals are used by libraries to assist with big deal cancellations: libraries can avoid subscriptions for materials already served by instant open access via open archives like pubmed central.[ ] see also[edit] 	pubmed central 	europe pubmed central 	pubmed central canada 	journalreview.org 	list of academic databases and search engines references[edit] 	^ "pubmed". 	^ "pubmed celebrates its th anniversary". technical bulletin. united states national library of medicine. october . retrieved march . 	^ lindberg da ( ). "internet access to the national library of medicine" (pdf). effective clinical practice. ( ): – . pmid  . archived from the original (pdf) on november . 	^ "pubmed: medline retrieval on the world wide web". fact sheet. united states national library of medicine. june . retrieved march . 	^ roberts rj (january ). "pubmed central: the genbank of the published literature". proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america. ( ): – . bibcode: pnas... .. r. doi: . /pnas. . . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ mcentyre jr, ananiadou s, andrews s, black wj, boulderstone r, buttery p, et al. (january ). "ukpmc: a full text article resource for the life sciences". nucleic acids research. (database issue): d - . doi: . /nar/gkq . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ "nlm catalogue: journals referenced in the ncbi databases". ncbi. . 	^ (note: to see the current size of the database simply type " : [dp]" into the search bar at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ and click "search".) 	^ a b reyes-aldasoro cc ( ). "the proportion of cancer-related entries in pubmed has increased considerably; is cancer truly "the emperor of all maladies"?". plos one. ( ): e . bibcode: ploso.. r. doi: . /journal.pone. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ "medline/pubmed production improvements underway". nlm technical bulletin ( ): e . july–august . 	^ manca a, moher d, cugusi l, dvir z, deriu f (september ). "how predatory journals leak into pubmed". cmaj. ( ): e –e . doi: . /cmaj. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ clarke j, wentz r (september ). "pragmatic approach is effective in evidence based health care". bmj. ( ): – . doi: . /bmj. . . /a. pmc  . pmid  . 	^ fatehi f, gray lc, wootton r (january ). "how to improve your pubmed/medline searches: . display settings, complex search queries and topic searching". journal of telemedicine and telecare. ( ): – . doi: . / x . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ trawick, bart ( january ). "a new and improved pubmed®". nlm musings from the mezzanine. 	^ price, michael ( may ). "they redesigned pubmed, a beloved website. it hasn't gone over well". science. 	^ "pubmed via handhelds (pico)". technical bulletin. united states national library of medicine. . 	^ "pubmed mobile beta". technical bulletin. united states national library of medicine. . 	^ "simple subject search with quiz". ncbi. . 	^ jadad ar, mcquay hj (july ). "searching the literature. be systematic in your searching". bmj. ( ): . doi: . /bmj. . . -a. pmc  . pmid  . 	^ allison jj, kiefe ci, weissman nw, carter j, centor rm (spring ). "the art and science of searching medline to answer clinical questions. finding the right number of articles". international journal of technology assessment in health care. ( ): – . doi: . /s . pmid  . 	^ a b campos-asensio c ( ). "cómo elaborar una estrategia de búsqueda bibliográfica". enfermería intensiva (in spanish). ( ): – . doi: . /j.enfi. . . . pmid  . 	^ clinical queries filter terms explained. ncbi. . 	^ huser v, cimino jj (june ). "evaluating adherence to the international committee of medical journal editors' policy of mandatory, timely clinical trial registration". journal of the american medical informatics association. (e ): e - . doi: . /amiajnl- - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ "computation of related articles explained". ncbi. 	^ chang aa, heskett km, davidson tm (february ). "searching the literature using medical subject headings versus text word with pubmed". the laryngoscope. ( ): – . doi: . / .mlg. . .a . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ a b fatehi f, gray lc, wootton r (march ). "how to improve your pubmed/medline searches: . advanced searching, mesh and my ncbi". journal of telemedicine and telecare. ( ): – . doi: . / x . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ my ncbi explained. ncbi. december . 	^ "pubmed cubby". technical bulletin. united states national library of medicine. . 	^ "linkout overview". ncbi. . 	^ "linkout participants ". ncbi. . 	^ "an updated pubmed is on its way". 	^ pubmed commons team ( december ). "commenting on pubmed: a successful pilot". 	^ "pubmed commons to be discontinued". ncbi insights. february . retrieved february . 	^ "pubmed shuts down its comments feature, pubmed commons". retraction watch. february . retrieved february . 	^ "askmedline". ncbi. . 	^ "search field descriptions and tags". national center for biotechnology information. retrieved july . 	^ keener m. "pmid vs. pmcid: what's the difference?" (pdf). university of chicago. archived from the original (pdf) on july . retrieved january . 	^ "leasing journal citations from pubmed/medline". nlm. . 	^ a b c lu z ( ). "pubmed and beyond: a survey of web tools for searching biomedical literature". database. : baq . doi: . /database/baq . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ fontaine jf, barbosa-silva a, schaefer m, huska mr, muro em, andrade-navarro ma (july ). "medlineranker: flexible ranking of biomedical literature". nucleic acids research. (web server issue): w - . doi: . /nar/gkp . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ states dj, ade as, wright zc, bookvich av, athey bd (april ). "misearch adaptive pubmed search tool". bioinformatics. ( ): – . doi: . /bioinformatics/btn . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ smalheiser nr, zhou w, torvik vi (february ). "anne o'tate: a tool to support user-driven summarization, drill-down and browsing of pubmed search results". journal of biomedical discovery and collaboration. : . doi: . / - - - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ "clustermed". vivisimo clustering engine. . archived from the original on august . retrieved july . 	^ rebholz-schuhmann d, kirsch h, arregui m, gaudan s, riethoven m, stoehr p (january ). "ebimed--text crunching to gather facts for proteins from medline". bioinformatics. ( ): e - . doi: . /bioinformatics/btl . pmid  . 	^ kim jj, pezik p, rebholz-schuhmann d (june ). "medevi: retrieving textual evidence of relations between biomedical concepts from medline". bioinformatics. ( ): – . doi: . /bioinformatics/btn . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ fontelo p, liu f, ackerman m, schardt cm, keitz sa ( ). "askmedline: a report on a year-long experience". amia ... annual symposium proceedings. amia symposium. : . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ fontelo p, liu f, ackerman m ( ). "mesh speller + askmedline: auto-completes mesh terms then searches medline/pubmed via free-text, natural language queries". amia ... annual symposium proceedings. amia symposium. : . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ fontelo p, liu f, leon s, anne a, ackerman m ( ). "pico linguist and babelmesh: development and partial evaluation of evidence-based multilanguage search tools for medline/pubmed". studies in health technology and informatics. (pt ): – . pmid  . 	^ hokamp k, wolfe kh (july ). "pubcrawler: keeping up comfortably with pubmed and genbank". nucleic acids research. (web server issue): w - . doi: . /nar/gkh . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ eric sayers, phd ( october ). the e-utilities in-depth: parameters, syntax and more. ncbi. 	^ "medoc (medline downloading contrivance)". . 	^ denise wolfe ( april ). "suny negotiates new, modified agreement with elsevier - libraries news center university at buffalo libraries". library.buffalo.edu. university at buffalo. retrieved april . external links[edit] 		wikidata has the property: 	 pubmed id (p ) (see uses) 	official website 	pubmed legacy, the previous interface 	pubmed search tags & field qualifiers 		v 	t 	e telemedicine 	background concepts	 	health informatics 	in absentia health care 	telecommunication 	medical record	 	admission note 	blue button 	de-identification 	electronic health record 	health insurance portability and accountability act 	personal health record 	patient participation	 	decision aids 	doctor–patient relationship 	e-patient 	health . 	health education 	knowledge translation 	mhealth 	participative decision-making in organizations 	patient activation measure 	shared decision-making 	health information on the internet	 	health information on wikipedia 	online patient education 	pubmed 	telemedicine subspecialties	 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from a specific action, command, or request, but people also alter their attitudes and behaviors in response to what they perceive others might do or think. in , harvard psychologist herbert kelman identified three broad varieties of social influence.[ ] 	compliance is when people appear to agree with others but actually keep their dissenting opinions private. 	identification is when people are influenced by someone who is liked and respected, such as a famous celebrity. 	internalization is when people accept a belief or behavior and agree both publicly and privately. morton deutsch and harold gerard described two psychological needs that lead humans to conform to the expectations of others. these include our need to be right (informational social influence) and our need to be liked (normative social influence).[ ] informational influence (or social proof) is an influence to accept information from another as evidence about reality. informational influence comes into play when people are uncertain, either because stimuli are intrinsically ambiguous or because there is social disagreement. normative influence is an influence to conform to the positive expectations of others. in terms of kelman's typology, normative influence leads to public compliance, whereas informational influence leads to private acceptance.[ ] contents 	 types 	 . kelman's varieties 	 . . compliance 	 . . identification 	 . . internalization 	 . conformity 	 . minority influence 	 . self-fulfilling prophecy 	 . reactance 	 . obedience 	 . persuasion 	 . psychological manipulation 	 . abusive power and control 	 . propaganda 	 . hard power 	 antecedents 	 . social impact theory 	 . cialdini's "weapons of influence" 	 . unanimity 	 . status 	 . culture 	 . emotions 	 social structure 	 . social networks 	 global approach to the phenomenon of influence 	 . provisional introduction 	 see also 	 references types[edit] social influence is a broad term that relates to many different phenomena. listed below are some major types of social influence that are being researched in the field of social psychology. for more information, follow the main article links provided. kelman's varieties[edit] there are three processes of attitude change as defined by harvard psychologist herbert kelman in a paper published in the journal of conflict resolution.[ ] the purpose of defining these processes was to help determine the effects of social influence: for example, to separate public conformity (behavior) from private acceptance (personal belief). compliance[edit] main article: compliance (psychology) compliance is the act of responding favorably to an explicit or implicit request offered by others. technically, compliance is a change in behavior but not necessarily in attitude; one can comply due to mere obedience or by otherwise opting to withhold private thoughts due to social pressures.[ ] according to kelman's paper, the satisfaction derived from compliance is due to the social effect of the accepting influence (i.e., people comply for an expected reward or punishment-aversion).[ ] identification[edit] main article: identification (psychology) identification is the changing of attitudes or behaviors due to the influence of someone who is admired. advertisements that rely upon celebrity endorsements to market their products are taking advantage of this phenomenon. according to kelman, the desired relationship that the identifier relates to the behavior or attitude change.[ ] internalization[edit] main article: internalization internalization is the process of acceptance of a set of norms established by people or groups that are influential to the individual. the individual accepts the influence because the content of the influence accepted is intrinsically rewarding. it is congruent with the individual's value system, and according to kelman the "reward" of internalization is "the content of the new behavior".[ ] conformity[edit] main article: conformity conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in behavior, belief, or thinking to align with those of others or with normative standards. it is the most common and pervasive form of social influence. social psychology research in conformity tends to distinguish between two varieties: informational conformity (also called social proof, or "internalization" in kelman's terms ) and normative conformity ("compliance" in kelman's terms).[ ] in the case of peer pressure, a person is convinced to do something that they might not want to do (such as taking illegal drugs) but which they perceive as "necessary" to keep a positive relationship with other people (such as their friends). conformity from peer pressure generally results from identification with the group members or from compliance of some members to appease others. minority influence[edit] main article: minority influence minority influence takes place when a majority is influenced to accept the beliefs or behaviors of a minority. minority influence can be affected by the sizes of majority and minority groups, the level of consistency of the minority group, and situational factors (such as the affluence or social importance of the minority).[ ] minority influence most often operates through informational social influence (as opposed to normative social influence) because the majority may be indifferent to the liking of the minority.[ ] self-fulfilling prophecy[edit] main article: self-fulfilling prophecy a self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true due to positive feedback between belief and behavior. a prophecy declared as truth (when it is actually false) may sufficiently influence people, either through fear or logical confusion, so that their reactions ultimately fulfill the once-false prophecy. this term is credited to sociologist robert k. merton from an article he published in .[ ] reactance[edit] main article: reactance (psychology) reactance is the adoption of a view contrary to the view that a person is being pressured to accept, perhaps due to a perceived threat to behavioral freedoms. this phenomenon has also been called anticonformity. while the results are the opposite of what the influencer intended, the reactive behavior is a result of social pressure.[ ] it is notable that anticonformity does not necessarily mean independence. in many studies, reactance manifests itself in a deliberate rejection of an influence, even if the influence is clearly correct.[ ] obedience[edit] main article: obedience (human behavior) obedience is a form of social influence that derives from an authority figure. the milgram experiment, zimbardo's stanford prison experiment, and the hofling hospital experiment are three particularly well-known experiments on obedience, and they all conclude that humans are surprisingly obedient in the presence of perceived legitimate authority figures. persuasion[edit] main article: persuasion persuasion is the process of guiding oneself or another toward the adoption of an attitude by rational or symbolic means. robert cialdini defined six "weapons of influence": reciprocity, commitment, social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity. these "weapons of influence" attempt to bring about conformity by directed means. persuasion can occur through appeals to reason or appeals to emotion.[ ] psychological manipulation[edit] main article: psychological manipulation psychological manipulation is a type of social influence that aims to change the behavior or perception of others through abusive, deceptive, or underhanded tactics.[ ] by advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at another's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative, abusive, devious, and deceptive. social influence is not necessarily negative. for example, doctors can try to persuade patients to change unhealthy habits. social influence is generally perceived to be harmless when it respects the right of the influenced to accept or reject it, and is not unduly coercive. depending on the context and motivations, social influence may constitute underhanded manipulation. abusive power and control[edit] main article: abusive power and control controlling abusers use various tactics to exert power and control over their victims. the goal of the abuser is to control and intimidate the victim or to influence them to feel that they do not have an equal voice in the relationship.[ ] propaganda[edit] main article: propaganda propaganda is information that is not objective and is used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is presented.[ ] hard power[edit] main article: hard power hard power is the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies. this form of political power is often aggressive (coercion), and is most effective when imposed by one political body upon another of lesser military and/or economic power.[ ] hard power contrasts with soft power, which comes from diplomacy, culture and history.[ ] antecedents[edit] many factors can affect the impact of social influence. social impact theory[edit] main article: social impact theory social impact theory was developed by bibb latané in . this theory asserts that there are three factors which increase a person's likelihood to respond to social influence:[ ] 	strength: the importance of the influencing group to the individual 	immediacy: physical (and temporal) proximity of the influencing group to the individual at the time of the influence attempt 	number: the number of people in the group cialdini's "weapons of influence"[edit] robert cialdini defines six "weapons of influence" that can contribute to an individual's propensity to be influenced by a persuader:[ ][ ] 	reciprocity: people tend to return a favor. 	commitment and consistency: people do not like to be self-contradictory. once they commit to an idea or behavior, they are averse to changing their minds without good reason. 	social proof: people will be more open to things that they see others doing. for example, seeing others compost their organic waste after finishing a meal may influence the subject to do so as well.[ ] 	authority: people will tend to obey authority figures. 	liking: people are more easily swayed by people they like. 	scarcity: a perceived limitation of resources will generate demand. unanimity[edit] social influence is strongest when the group perpetrating it is consistent and committed. even a single instance of dissent can greatly wane the strength of an influence. for example, in milgram's first set of obedience experiments, % of participants complied with fake authority figures to administer "maximum shocks" to a confederate. in iterations of the milgram experiment where three people administered shocks (two of whom were confederates), once one confederate disobeyed, only ten percent of subjects administered the maximum shocks.[ ] status[edit] main article: appeal to authority see also: reputation those perceived as experts may exert social influence as a result of their perceived expertise. this involves credibility, a tool of social influence from which one draws upon the notion of trust. people believe an individual to be credible for a variety of reasons, such as perceived experience, attractiveness, knowledge, etc. additionally, pressure to maintain one's reputation and not be viewed as fringe may increase the tendency to agree with the group. this phenomenon is known as groupthink.[ ] appeals to authority may especially affect norms of obedience. the compliance of normal humans to authority in the famous milgram experiment demonstrate the power of perceived authority. those with access to the media may use this access in an attempt to influence the public. for example, a politician may use speeches to persuade the public to support issues that he or she does not have the power to impose on the public. this is often referred to as using the "bully pulpit." likewise, celebrities don't usually possess any political power, but they are familiar to many of the world's citizens and, therefore, possess social status. power is one of the biggest reasons an individual feels the need to follow through with the suggestions of another. a person who possesses more authority (or is perceived as being more powerful) than others in a group is an icon or is most "popular" within a group. this person has the most influence over others. for example, in a child's school life, people who seem to control the perceptions of the students at school are most powerful in having a social influence over other children.[ ] culture[edit] culture appears to play a role in the willingness of an individual to conform to the standards of a group. stanley milgram found that conformity was higher in norway than in france.[ ] this has been attributed to norway's longstanding tradition of social responsibility, compared to france's cultural focus on individualism. japan likewise has a collectivist culture and thus a higher propensity to conformity. however, a asch-style study found that when alienated, japanese students were more susceptible to anticonformity (giving answers that were incorrect even when the group had collaborated on correct answers) one third of the time, significantly higher than has been seen in asch studies in the past.[ ] while gender does not significantly affect a person's likelihood to conform, under certain conditions gender roles do affect such a likelihood. studies from the s and s concluded that women were more likely to conform than men. but a study found that experimenter bias was involved; all of the researchers were male, while all of the research participants were female. studies thereafter found that the likelihood to conform almost equal between the genders. furthermore, men conformed more often when faced with traditionally feminine topics, and women conformed more often when presented with masculine topics. in other words, ignorance about a subject can lead a person to defer to "social proof".[ ] emotions[edit] main article: appeal to emotion emotion and disposition may affect an individual's likelihood of conformity or anticonformity.[ ] in , a study concluded that fear increases the chance of agreeing with a group, while romance or lust increases the chance of going against the group.[ ] social structure[edit] social networks[edit] main article: social network analysis a social network is a social structure made up of nodes (representing individuals or organizations) which are connected (through ties, also called edges, connections, or links) by one or more types of interdependency (such as friendship, common interests or beliefs, sexual relations, or kinship). social network analysis uses the lens of network theory to examine social relationships. social network analysis as a field has become more prominent since the mid- th century in determining the channels and effects of social influence. for example, christakis and fowler found that social networks transmit states and behaviors such as obesity,[ ] smoking,[ ][ ] drinking[ ] and happiness.[ ] identifying the extent of social influence, based on large-scale observational data with a latent social network structure, is pertinent to a variety of collective social phenomena including crime, civil unrest, and voting behavior in elections. for example, methodologies for disentangling social influence by peers from external influences—with latent social network structures and large-scale observational data—were applied to us presidential elections,[ ][ ] stock markets,[ ] and civil unrest.[ ] however, important flaws have been identified in the contagion model for social influence which is assumed and used in many of the above studies.[ ][ ][ ] in order to address these flaws, causal inference methods have been proposed instead, to systematically disentangle social influence from other possible confounding causes when using observational data.[ ][ ] global approach to the phenomenon of influence[edit] provisional introduction[edit] as described above, theoretical approaches are in the form of knowledge clusters. a global theory of influence is missing for an easy understanding and an education to protect from manipulators.[ ] see also[edit] 	authority bias 	bystander effect 	impression management 	judge–advisor system references[edit] 	^ a b c d e f kelman, h. ( ). "compliance, identification, and internalization: three processes of attitude change" (pdf). journal of conflict resolution. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ deutsch, m. & gerard, h. b. ( ). "a study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment" (pdf). journal of abnormal and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /h . pmid  . 	^ a b aronson, elliot, timothy d. wilson, and robin m. akert. social psychology. upper saddle river, nj: prentice hall, . print. 	^ moscovici, s. and nemeth ( ) minority influence. in c. nemetn (ed.), social psychology: classic and contemporary integrations (pp. – ), chicago:rand mcnally 	^ wood, w.; lundgren, s.; ouellette, j.; busceme, s. & blackstone, t. ( ). "minority influence: a meta-analytic review of social influence processes". psychological bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ merton, robert k. ( ), "the self fulfilling prophecy", antioch review, ( (summer)): – , doi: . / , jstor  	^ a b brehm, j. w. ( ). a theory of psychological reactance. academic press 	^ a b frager, r ( ). "conformity and anti-conformity in japan". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /h . 	^ a b cialdini, robert b. ( ). influence: science and practice ( th ed.). boston: allyn & bacon. isbn  - - - 	^ braiker, harriet b. ( ). who's pulling your strings ? how to break the cycle of manipulation. isbn  - - - - . 	^ jill cory; karen mcandless-davis. when love hurts: a woman's guide to understanding abuse in relationships. womankind press; january . isbn  - - - - . p. . 	^ smith, bruce l. ( february ). "propaganda". britannica.com. encyclopædia britannica, inc. retrieved april . 	^ a b daryl copeland (feb , ). "hard power vs. soft power". the mark. archived from the original on may . retrieved april . 	^ latané, b ( ). "the psychology of social impact". american psychologist. ( ): – . doi: . / - x. . . . 	^ "what are the principles of influence?". conceptually.org. retrieved october , . 	^ sussman, r. & gifford, r. ( ). "be the change you want to see: modeling food composting in public places". environment & behavior. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ milgram, stanley ( ). "behavioral study of obedience". journal of abnormal and social psychology. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /h . pmid  . archived from the original on - - . full-text pdf. archived june , , at the wayback machine 	^ ivory tower unswayed by crashing economy. new york times. 	^ c. mugny; l souchet; c codaccioni; a quiamzade ( ). social representation and social influence. ( ), pp. – . 	^ blass, t. ( ). the man who shocked the world: the life and legacy of stanley milgram. new york: basic books. 	^ sistrunk, frank; mcdavid, john w.; journal of personality and social psychology, vol ( ), feb, . pp. – . 	^ eurekalert. ( ). fear or romance could make you change your mind, u of minnesota study finds. 	^ christakis, n.a.; fowler, j.h. ( ). "the spread of obesity in a large social network over years". new england journal of medicine. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /nejmsa . pmid  . 	^ christakis, n.a.; fowler, j.h. ( ). "the collective dynamics of smoking in a large social network". new england journal of medicine. ( ): – . doi: . /nejmsa . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ gina kolata, "study finds big social factor in quitting smoking," the new york times, may , . 	^ rosenquist, j.n.; murabito, j.; fowler, j.h.; christakis, n.a. ( ). "the spread of alcohol consumption behavior in a large social network". annals of internal medicine. ( ): – . doi: . / - - - - - . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ fowler, j.h.; christakis, n.a. ( ). "the dynamic spread of happiness in a large social network: longitudinal analysis over years in the framingham heart study". british medical journal. : a . doi: . /bmj.a . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ braha, d., & de aguiar, m. a. ( ). voting contagion. arxiv preprint arxiv: . . 	^ braha, d., & de aguiar, m. a. ( ). voting contagion: modeling and analysis of a century of u.s. presidential elections. plos one ( ): e . https://doi.org/ . /journal.pone. 	^ harmon, d.; lagi, m.; de aguiar, m. a.; chinellato, d. d.; braha, d.; epstein, i. r.; bar-yam, y. ( ). "anticipating economic market crises using measures of collective panic". plos one. ( ): e . bibcode: ploso.. h. doi: . /journal.pone. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ braha, d ( ). "global civil unrest: contagion, self-organization, and prediction". plos one. ( ): e . bibcode: ploso... b. doi: . /journal.pone. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ lerman, kristina ( may ). "information is not a virus, and other consequences of human cognitive limits". future internet. ( ): . arxiv: . . bibcode: arxiv l. doi: . /fi . 	^ lyons, russell ( ). "the spread of evidence-poor medicine via flawed social-network analysis". statistics, politics, and policy. ( ). arxiv: . . doi: . / - . . 	^ tufekci, zeynep ( ). "big questions for social media big data: representativeness, validity and other methodological pitfalls". eighth international aaai conference on weblogs and social media. arxiv: . . bibcode: arxiv . t. 	^ liotsiou, dimitra; halford, susan; moreau, luc ( ). "social influence: from contagion to a richer causal understanding" (pdf). social informatics. lecture notes in computer science. . pp.  – . doi: . / - - - - _ . isbn  - - - - . 	^ shalizi, cosma rohilla; thomas, andrew c ( ). "homophily and contagion are generically confounded in observational social network studies". sociological methods & research. ( ): – . doi: . / . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ http://www.theory-influence.com/books/document_uk_web.pdf 		v 	t 	e conformity 	enforcement	 	proscription	 	enemy of the people 	enemy of the state 	ostracism 	outlaw 	civil death 	vogelfrei 	public enemy 	group pressure	 	bandwagon effect 	collectivism 	coercive persuasion 	consensus reality 	deplatforming 	dogma 	contagion 	behavioral 	crime 	hysterical 	suicide 	fear of missing out 	groupthink 	hazing 	herd mentality 	indoctrination 	invented tradition 	memory conformity 	milieu control 	mobbing 	nationalism 	normalization 	normative social influence 	patriotism 	peer pressure 	pluralistic ignorance 	propaganda 	rally 'round the flag effect 	right-wing authoritarianism 	scapegoating 	shunning 	social influence 	socialization 	spiral of silence 	teasing 	tyranny of the majority 	untouchability 	xeer 	individual pressure	 	authoritarian personality 	control freak 	obsessive–compulsive personality disorder 	conformity	 	compliance 	communal reinforcement 	countersignaling 	herd behavior 	internalization 	social proof 	obedience 	experiments	 	asch conformity experiments 	breaching experiment 	milgram experiment 	stanford prison experiment 	counterconformity	 	alternative media and journalism 	anti-authoritarianism 	antisocial tendencies 	auto-segregation 	civil disobedience 	cosmopolitanism 	counterculture 	culture jamming 	deviance 	devil's advocate 	dissent 	eclecticism 	eccentricity 	hermit 	idiosyncrasy 	individualism 	rebellion 	red team 	ritual clown 	satire 	shock value 	counterconformists	 	dissident 	outcast 	homo sacer 	persona non grata 	exile 	nonperson 	damnatio memoriae 	cagot retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=social_influence&oldid= " 		categories: 	social status 	influence (social and political) hidden categories: 	webarchive template wayback links 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	Български 	català 	Чӑвашла 	dansk 	deutsch 	eesti 	Ελληνικά 	فارسی 	français 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	हिन्दी 	italiano 	עברית 	nederlands 	日本語 	norsk bokmål 	polski 	português 	Русский 	simple english 	slovenščina 	türkçe 	tiếng việt 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 social identity approach - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	social identity approach 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		research and theory pertaining to two intertwined, but distinct, social psychological theories.[ 	 	this article's lead section may be too short and does not adequately summarize key points of its contents. please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (november ) the term social identity approach refers to research and theory pertaining to social identity theory and self-categorization theory—two intertwined, but distinct, social psychological theories.[ ][ ][ ][ ] the social identity approach has been applied to a wide variety of fields and continues to be very influential. there is a high citation rate for key social identity papers and that rate continues to increase.[ ] contents 	 aspects 	 implications 	 . social groups 	 applications 	 . leadership 	 . economics 	 related theoretical work 	 . social identity model of deindividuation effects 	 . intergroup emotion theory 	 controversies 	 . social identity vs. interdependence 	 references aspects[edit] figure . the explanatory profiles of social identity and self-categorization theories. the term "social identity approach" arose as an attempt to mitigate against the tendency to conflate the two theories,[ ][ ] as well as the tendency to mistakenly believe one theory to be a component of the other. these theories should be thought of as overlapping in the manner demonstrated in fig .[ ] while there are similarities, self categorisation theory has greater explanatory scope (i.e. is less focused on intergroup relationships specifically) and has been investigated in a broader range of empirical conditions. self-categorization theory can also be thought of as developed to address limitations of social identity theory.[ ] specifically the limited manner in which social identity theory deals with the cognitive processes that underpin the behaviour it describes. although this term may be useful when contrasting broad social psychological movements, when applying either theory it is thought of as beneficial to distinguish carefully between the two theories in such a way that their specific characteristics can be retained.[ ] implications[edit] social groups[edit] the social identity approach has been contrasted with the social cohesion approach when it comes to defining social groups. the social identity approach describes the state of people thinking of themselves and others as a group. therefore, three intrapsychological processes proceed. firstly, social categorization (see self-categorization theory) means that people organize social information by categorizing people into groups. secondly, social comparison (see social comparison theory) means that people give a meaning to those categories in order to understand the task of the group in the specific situation. thirdly, social identification is the process in which people relate the self to one of those categories. regarding the relation between collective identification and work motivation, several propositions have been made regarding situational influences, the acceptance of the leader and the self-definition of a collective. as a situational influence, research says that individuals are activated by situations that challenge their inclusion to the group. the acceptance of the leader is another proposition. the so-called ingroup-favoring-bias (see in-group favoritism) means that if the team leader is interpreted as an ingroup member, the other team members will attribute his or her good behavior internally while they will attribute bad behavior externally. for self-definition of a collective the value of the group as well as the belief in current and future success is important.[ ] closely linked to self-definition to a collective, cohesion is another construct that has an impact on the development of group motivation and in a broader sense also to the group performance. on the topic of social groups, some social psychologists draw a distinction between different types of group phenomenon. specifically, "those that derive from interpersonal relationships and interdependence with specific others and those that derive from membership in larger, more impersonal collectives or social categories".[ ] the social identity approach however does not anticipate this distinction. instead it anticipates that the same psychological processes underlie intergroup and intragroup phenomenon involving both small and large groups. relatedly, the persistent perception that the social identity approach is only relevant to large group phenomenon has led some social identity theorists to specifically reassert (both theoretically and empirically) the relevance of the social identity approach to small group interactions.[ ] applications[edit] leadership[edit] main article: leadership according to the social identity approach, leadership is a function of the group instead of the individual.[ ][ ] individuals who are leaders in their groups tend to be closer to the prototypical group member than are followers.[ ] additionally, they tend to be more socially attractive, which makes it easier for group members to accept their authority and comply with their decisions. finally, leaders tend to be viewed by others as the leader. in this final distinction, group members attribute leadership traits to the person and not the situation, furthering the distinction between the leader and others in the group by viewing him or her as special.[ ] consistent with this view of leadership, researchers have found that individuals can manipulate their own leadership status in groups by portraying themselves as prototypical to the group.[ ] economics[edit] social identity concepts have been applied to economics resulting in what is now known as identity economics.[ ][ ] for example, two separate papers and a book by akerlof and kranton incorporate social identity as a factor in the principal–agent model. the main conclusion is that when agents consider themselves insiders, they will maximize their identity utility by exerting greater effort compared to the prescription behavior. on the other hand, if they consider themselves outsiders, they will require a higher wage to compensate their loss for behavior difference with prescribed behaviors.[ ][ ][ ] related theoretical work[edit] social identity model of deindividuation effects[edit] main article: social identity model of deindividuation effects (side) the social identity model of deindividuation effects (side) was developed from further research on the social identity theory and the self-categorization theory, further specifying the effects of situational factors on the functioning of processes proposed by the two theories. the side model uses this framework to explain cognitive effects of visibility and anonymity in intra-group and inter-group contexts. the model is based on the idea that the self-concept is flexible and different in different situations or contexts. the theory consists of a range of different self-categories that define people as unique individuals or in terms of their membership to specific social groups and other, broader social categories based on the context of the situation. the side model proposes that anonymity shifts both the focus of self-awareness from the individual self to the group self and the perceptions of others from being mostly interpersonal to being group-based (stereotyping).[ ] research has suggested that visual anonymity not only increases negative behavior towards others, but can also promote positive social relations. in one study, all volunteers participated individually in group discussion based on three different topics. in the visually anonymous condition, all communications between participants were text-based while in the visually identifiable condition, the communication was also supplemented by two-way video cameras. the study resulted in the findings that showed anonymity significantly increased group attraction.[ ] intergroup emotion theory[edit] intergroup emotion theory further expands on the concept of personally significant group memberships as posed by social identity and self-categorization theories. this theory is primarily based on the concept of depersonalization and the interchangeability of the self with other ingroup members. this causes cognitive representations of the self and the group to become inevitably connected, and therefore the group obtains an emotional significance. this means that individuals not only categorize themselves as members of the ingroup but also "react emotionally when situations or events affect the ingroup".[ ] for example, people often report that their group is being discriminated against, even though they feel that they personally are not subject to that discrimination.[ ] controversies[edit] social identity vs. interdependence[edit] some researchers have claimed that the majority of results in research using the minimal group paradigm can be derived from self-interest and interdependence and that this poses a serious problem for social identity theory and self-categorization theory, and in particular self-categorization theory's account of social groups.[ ][ ] social identity researchers have responded by suggesting that the interdependence centric analysis that has been proposed as an alternative is inconsistent and still relies heavily on the social categorization processes detailed in self-categorization theory.[ ][ ][ ] moreover, they argue that researchers making the above criticisms have also significantly misinterpreted the role of sociological categories in the two theories.[ ][ ] references[edit] 	^ a b turner, j. c. ( ). ellemers, n.; spears, r.; doosje, b. (eds.). "some current issues in research on social identity and self-categorization theories". social identity: – . 	^ a b c d haslam, a. s. ( ). psychology in organizations. london, sage publications. 	^ turner, j. c., oakes, p. j. ( ). the socially structured mind. in c. mcgarty & s. a. haslam (eds.), the message of social psychology: perspectives on mind in society (pp. - ). oxford: blackwell. 	^ a b postmes, t. & branscombe, n. ( ). sources of social identity. in t. postmes & n. branscombe (eds). rediscovering social identity: core sources. psychology press. 	^ brown, rupert ( november ). "social identity theory: past achievements, current problems and future challenges". european journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - ( / ) : < ::aid-ejsp > . .co; -o. 	^ haslam, s. a.; ellemers, n.; reicher, s. d.; reynolds, k. j.; schmitt, m. t. ( ). postmes, t.; branscombe, n. r. (eds.). "the social identity perspective today: an overview of its defining ideas". rediscovering social identity: – . 	^ ellemers, gilder & haslam ( ). "motivating individuals and groups at work: a social identity perspective on leadership and group performance". academy of management review. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ brewer, m. b.; gardner, w. ( ). "who is this we? levels of collective identity and self representations". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . 	^ postmes, tom; haslam, s. alexander; swaab, roderick i. ( january ). "social influence in small groups: an interactive model of social identity formation". european review of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ hogg, michael a. ( august ). "a social identity theory of leadership". personality and social psychology review. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /s pspr _ . 	^ platow, m. j.; hoar, s.; reid, s.; harley, k.; morrison, d. ( ). "endorsement of distributively fair and unfair leaders in interpersonal and intergroup situations". european journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /(sici) - ( ) : < ::aid-ejsp > . .co; - . 	^ hogg, michael a.; terry, deborah j. ( january ). "social identity and self-categorization processes in organizational contexts". academy of management review. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ haslam, s. alexander; reicher, stephen d.; platow, michael j. ( ). the new psychology of leadership: identity, influence and power. new york, ny: psychology press. isbn  - - - - . 	^ garai, laszlo: identity economics 	^ a b akerlof, george a., and rachel e. kranton ( ). identity economics: how our identities shape our work, wages, and well-being, princeton university press, "introduction," pp. – , and preview. 	^ akerlof, george a.; kranton, rachel e. ( ). "economics and identity". quarterly journal of economics. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ akerlof, george a.; kranton, rachel e. ( ). "identity and the economics of organizations" (pdf). journal of economic perspectives. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / . 	^ a b lea, martin; spears, r., de groot, d. ( may ). "knowing me, knowing you: anonymity effects on social identity processes within groups". personality and social psychology bulletin. ( ): – . doi: . / .cs maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 	^ miller, d. a. ( july ). "effects of intergroup contact and political predispositions on prejudice: role of intergroup emotions". group processes & intergroup relations. ( ): – . doi: . / . 	^ taylor, j. a. ( ). "the relationship between the contact variable and racial stereotyping in school-aged children". u south carolina, dissertation abstracts international. 	^ rabbie, j. m.; schot, j. c.; visser, l. ( ). "social identity theory: a conceptual and empirical critique from the perspective of a behavioural interaction model". european journal of social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . /ejsp. . 	^ brewer, m. b.; brown, r. j. ( ). gilbert, d. t.; fiske, s. t.; lindzey, g. (eds.). "intergroup relations". the handbook of social psychology. : – . 	^ a b turner, j. c.; bourhis, r. y. ( ). robinson, w. p. (ed.). "social identity, interdependence and the social group: a reply to rabbie et al". social groups and identities: developing the legacy of henri tajfel: – . 	^ bourhis, r. y.; turner, j. c.; gagnon, a. ( ). spears, r.; oakes, p. j.; ellemers, n; et al. (eds.). "interdependance, social identity and discrimination". the social psychology of stereotyping and group life: – . 	^ bourhis, r. y.; gagnon, a. ( ). brown, rupert; gaertner, sam l. (eds.). "social orientations in the minimal group paradigm". blackwell handbook of social psychology: intergroup processes. ( ): – . 	^ turner, john c.; reynolds, katherine j. ( ). "the social identity perspective in intergroup relations: theories, themes, and controversies". in brown, rupert; gaertner, sam l. (eds.). blackwell handbook of social psychology. . isbn  - - - - . retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=social_identity_approach&oldid= " 		categories: 	collective identity hidden categories: 	cs maint: multiple names: authors list 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	wikipedia introduction cleanup from november 	all pages needing cleanup 	articles covered by wikiproject wikify from november 	all articles covered by wikiproject wikify 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			العربية 	türkçe 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 source criticism - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	source criticism 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		process of evaluating an information source source criticism (or information evaluation) is the process of evaluating an information source, i.e. a document, a person, a speech, a fingerprint, a photo, an observation, or anything used in order to obtain knowledge. in relation to a given purpose, a given information source may be more or less valid, reliable or relevant. broadly, "source criticism" is the interdisciplinary study of how information sources are evaluated for given tasks. contents 	 meaning 	 principles 	 levels of generality 	 contributing fields 	 . epistemology 	 . research methodology 	 . science studies 	 . textual criticism 	 . psychology 	 . library and information science (lis) 	 . ethics 	 in specific domains 	 . photos 	 . internet sources 	 . archaeology and history 	 . biblical studies 	 . journalism 	 . legal studies 	 see also 	 notes 	 references 	 external links meaning[edit] problems in translation: the danish word kildekritik, like the norwegian word kildekritikk and the swedish word källkritik, derived from the german quellenkritik and is closely associated with the german historian leopold von ranke ( – ). historian wolfgang hardtwig wrote: his [ranke's] first work geschichte der romanischen und germanischen völker von – (history of the latin and teutonic nations from to ) ( ) was a great success. it already showed some of the basic characteristics of his conception of europe, and was of historiographical importance particularly because ranke made an exemplary critical analysis of his sources in a separate volume, zur kritik neuerer geschichtsschreiber (on the critical methods of recent historians). in this work he raised the method of textual criticism used in the late eighteenth century, particularly in classical philology to the standard method of scientific historical writing. (hardtwig, , p.  ) historical theorist chris lorenz wrote: the larger part of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries would be dominated by the research-oriented conception of historical method of the so-called historical school in germany, led by historians as leopold ranke and berthold niebuhr. their conception of history, long been regarded as the beginning of modern, 'scientific' history, harked back to the 'narrow' conception of historical method, limiting the methodical character of history to source criticism. (lorenz, ) in the early st century, source criticism is a growing field in, among other fields, library and information science. in this context source criticism is studied from a broader perspective than just, for example, history or biblical studies.[ ][ ] principles[edit] the following principles are cited from two scandinavian textbooks on source criticism, written by the historians olden-jørgensen ( ) and thurén ( ): 	human sources may be relics (e.g. a fingerprint) or narratives (e.g. a statement or a letter). relics are more credible sources than narratives. 	a given source may be forged or corrupted; strong indications of the originality of the source increases its reliability. 	the closer a source is to the event which it purports to describe, the more one can trust it to give an accurate description of what really happened 	a primary source is more reliable than a secondary source, which in turn is more reliable than a tertiary source and so on. 	if a number of independent sources contain the same message, the credibility of the message is strongly increased. 	the tendency of a source is its motivation for providing some kind of bias. tendencies should be minimized or supplemented with opposite motivations. 	if it can be demonstrated that the witness (or source) has no direct interest in creating bias, the credibility of the message is increased. two other principles are: 	knowledge of source criticism cannot substitute for subject knowledge: "because each source teaches you more and more about your subject, you will be able to judge with ever-increasing precision the usefulness and value of any prospective source. in other words, the more you know about the subject, the more precisely you can identify what you must still find out". (bazerman, , p. ). 	the reliability of a given source is relative to the questions put to it. "the empirical case study showed that most people find it difficult to assess questions of cognitive authority and media credibility in a general sense, for example, by comparing the overall credibility of newspapers and the internet. thus these assessments tend to be situationally sensitive. newspapers, television and the internet were frequently used as sources of orienting information, but their credibility varied depending on the actual topic at hand" (savolainen, ). the following questions are often good ones to ask about any source according to the american library association ( ) and engeldinger ( ): 	how was the source located? 	what type of source is it? 	who is the author and what are the qualifications of the author in regard to the topic that is discussed? 	when was the information published? 	in which country was it published? 	what is the reputation of the publisher? 	does the source show a particular cultural or political bias? for literary sources complementing criteria are: 	does the source contain a bibliography? 	has the material been reviewed by a group of peers, or has it been edited? 	how does the article/book compare with similar articles/books? levels of generality[edit] some principles of source criticism are universal, other principles are specific for certain kinds of information sources. there is today no consensus about the similarities and differences between source criticism in the natural science and humanities. logical positivism claimed that all fields of knowledge were based on the same principles. much of the criticism of logical positivism claimed that positivism is the basis of the sciences, whereas hermeneutics is the basis of the humanities. this was, for example, the position of jürgen habermas. a newer position, in accordance with, among others, hans-georg gadamer and thomas kuhn, understands both science and humanities as determined by researchers' preunderstanding and paradigms. hermeneutics is thus a universal theory. the difference is, however, that the sources of the humanities are themselves products of human interests and preunderstanding, whereas the sources of the natural sciences are not. humanities are thus "doubly hermeneutic". natural scientists, however, are also using human products (such as scientific papers) which are products of preunderstanding (and can lead to, for example, academic fraud). contributing fields[edit] epistemology[edit] epistemological theories are the basic theories about how knowledge is obtained and are thus the most general theories about how to evaluate information sources. 	empiricism evaluates sources by considering the observations (or sensations) on which they are based. sources without basis in experience are not seen as valid. 	rationalism provides low priority to sources based on observations. in order to be meaningful, observations must be explained by clear ideas or concepts. it is the logical structure and the well definedness that is in focus in evaluating information sources from the rationalist point of view. 	historicism evaluates information sources on the basis of their reflection of their sociocultural context and their theoretical development. 	pragmatism evaluate sources on the basis of how their values and usefulness to accomplish certain outcomes. pragmatism is skeptical about claimed neutral information sources. the evaluation of knowledge or information sources cannot be more certain than is the construction of knowledge. if one accepts the principle of fallibilism then one also has to accept that source criticism can never % verify knowledge claims. as discussed in the next section, source criticism is intimately linked to scientific methods. the presence of fallacies of argument in sources is another kind of philosophical criterion for evaluating sources. fallacies are presented by walton ( ). among the fallacies are the ad hominem fallacy (the use of personal attack to try to undermine or refute a person's argument) and the straw man fallacy (when one arguer misrepresents another's position to make it appear less plausible than it really is, in order more easily to criticize or refute it.) research methodology[edit] see also: unobtrusive measures and triangulation (social science) research methods are methods used to produce scholarly knowledge. the methods that are relevant for producing knowledge are also relevant for evaluating knowledge. an example of a book that turns methodology upside-down and uses it to evaluate produced knowledge is katzer; cook & crouch ( ). science studies[edit] studies of quality evaluation processes such as peer review, book reviews and of the normative criteria used in evaluation of scientific and scholarly research. another field is the study of scientific misconduct. harris ( ) provides a case study of how a famous experiment in psychology, little albert, has been distorted throughout the history of psychology, starting with the author (watson) himself, general textbook authors, behavior therapists, and a prominent learning theorist. harris proposes possible causes for these distortions and analyzes the albert study as an example of myth making in the history of psychology. studies of this kind may be regarded a special kind of reception history (how watson's paper was received). it may also be regarded as a kind of critical history (opposed to ceremonial history of psychology, cf. harris, ). such studies are important for source criticism in revealing the bias introduced by referring to classical studies. textual criticism[edit] main article: textual criticism textual criticism (or broader: text philology) is a part of philology, which is not just devoted to the study of texts, but also to edit and produce "scientific editions", "scholarly editions", "standard editions", "historical editions", "reliable editions", "reliable texts", "text editions" or "critical editions", which are editions in which careful scholarship has been employed to ensure that the information contained within is as close to the author's/composer's original intentions as possible (and which allows the user to compare and judge changes in editions published under influence by the author/composer). the relation between these kinds of works and the concept "source criticism" is evident in danish, where they may be termed "kildekritisk udgave" (directly translated "source critical edition"). in other words, it is assumed that most editions of a given works is filled with noise and errors provided by publishers, why it is important to produce "scholarly editions". the work provided by text philology is an important part of source criticism in the humanities. psychology[edit] see also: cognitive bias the study of eyewitness testimony is an important field of study used, among other purposes, to evaluate testimony in courts. the basics of eyewitness fallibility includes factors such as poor viewing conditions, brief exposure, and stress. more subtle factors, such as expectations, biases, and personal stereotypes can intervene to create erroneous reports. loftus ( ) discuss all such factors and also shows that eyewitness memory is chronically inaccurate in surprising ways. an ingenious series of experiments reveals that memory can be radically altered by the way an eyewitness is questioned after the fact. new memories can be implanted and old ones unconsciously altered under interrogation. anderson ( ) and anderson & pichert ( ) reported an elegant experiment demonstrating how change in perspective affected people's ability to recall information that was unrecallable from another perspective. in psychoanalysis the concept of defence mechanism is important and may be considered a contribution to the theory of source criticism because it explains psychological mechanisms, which distort the reliability of human information sources. library and information science (lis)[edit] see also: craap test 		this section needs expansion. you can help by adding to it. (january ) 		this section needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (january ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) in schools of library and information science (lis), source criticism is taught as part of the growing field of information literacy. issues such as relevance, quality indicators for documents, kinds of documents and their qualities (e.g. scholarly editions) are studied in lis and are relevant for source criticism. bibliometrics is often used to find the most influential journal, authors, countries and institutions. librarians study book reviews and their function in evaluating books. in library and information science the checklist approach has often been used.[ ] a criticism of this approach is given by meola ( ): "chucking the checklist". libraries sometimes provide advice on how their users may evaluate sources.[ ][ ] the library of congress has a "teaching with primary sources" (tps) program.[ ] ethics[edit] 		this section needs expansion. you can help by adding to it. (september ) source criticism is also about ethical behavior and culture. it is about a free press and an open society, including the protecting information sources from being persecuted (cf., whistleblower). in specific domains[edit] photos[edit] see also: photo manipulation photos are often manipulated during wars and for political purposes. one well known example is joseph stalin's manipulation of a photograph from may , on which stalin's predecessor lenin held a speech for soviet troops that leon trotsky attended. stalin had later trotsky retouched out of this photograph. (cf. king, ). a recent example is reported by healy ( ) about north korean leader kim jong il.[ ] internet sources[edit] see also: e-mail fraud, internet fraud, and reliability of wikipedia much interest in evaluating internet sources (such as wikipedia) is reflected in the scholarly literature of library and information science and in other fields. mintz ( ) is an edited volume about this issue. examples of literature examining internet sources include chesney ( ), fritch & cromwell ( ), leth & thurén ( ) and wilkinson, bennett, & oliver ( ). archaeology and history[edit] "in history, the term historical method was first introduced in a systematic way in the sixteenth century by jean bodin in his treatise of source criticism, methodus ad facilem historiarium cognitionem ( ). characteristically, bodin's treatise intended to establish the ways by which reliable knowledge of the past could be established by checking sources against one another and by so assessing the reliability of the information conveyed by them, relating them to the interests involved." (lorenz, , p.  ). as written above, modern source criticism in history is closely associated with the german historian leopold von ranke ( – ), who influenced historical methods on both sides of the atlantic ocean, although in rather different ways. american history developed in a more empirist and antiphilosophical way (cf., novick, ). two of the best-known rule books from the th century are bernheim ( ) and langlois & seignobos ( ). these books provided a seven-step procedure (here quoted from howell & prevenier, , p.  – ): 	if the sources all agree about an event, historians can consider the event proved. 	however, majority does not rule; even if most sources relate events in one way, that version will not prevail unless it passes the test of critical textual analysis. 	the source whose account can be confirmed by reference to outside authorities in some of its parts can be trusted in its entirety if it is impossible similarly to confirm the entire text. 	when two sources disagree on a particular point, the historian will prefer the source with most "authority"—i.e. the source created by the expert or by the eyewitness. 	eyewittnesses are, in general, to be preferred, especially in circumstances where the ordinary observer could have accurately reported what transpired and, more specifically, when they deal with facts known by most contemporaries. 	if two independently created sources agree on a matter, the reliability of each is measureably enhanced. 	when two sources disagree (and there is no other means of evaluation), then historians take the source which seems to accord best with common sense. gudmundsson ( , p.  ) wrote: "source criticism should not totally dominate later courses. other important perspectives, for example, philosophy of history/view of history, should not suffer by being neglected" (translated by bh). this quote makes a distinction between source criticism on the one hand and historical philosophy on the other hand. however, different views of history and different specific theories about the field being studied may have important consequences for how sources are selected, interpreted and used. feminist scholars may, for example, select sources made by women and may interpret sources from a feminist perspective. epistemology should thus be considered a part of source criticism. it is in particular related to "tendency analysis". in archaeology, radiocarbon dating is an important technique to establish the age of information sources. methods of this kind were the ideal when history established itself as both a scientific discipline and as a profession based on "scientific" principles in the last part of the s (although radiocarbon dating is a more recent example of such methods). the empiricist movement in history brought along both "source criticism" as a research method and also in many countries large scale publishing efforts to make valid editions of "source materials" such as important letters and official documents (e.g. as facsimiles or transcriptions). historiography and historical method include the study of the reliability of the sources used, in terms of, for example, authorship, credibility of the author, and the authenticity or corruption of the text. biblical studies[edit] main article: source criticism (biblical studies) source criticism, as the term is used in biblical criticism, refers to the attempt to establish the sources used by the author and/or redactor of the final text. the term "literary criticism" is occasionally used as a synonym. biblical source criticism originated in the th century with the work of jean astruc, who adapted the methods already developed for investigating the texts of classical antiquity (homer's iliad in particular) to his own investigation into the sources of the book of genesis. it was subsequently considerably developed by german scholars in what was known as "the higher criticism", a term no longer in widespread use. the ultimate aim of these scholars was to reconstruct the history of the biblical text, as well as the religious history of ancient israel. related to source criticism is redaction criticism which seeks to determine how and why the redactor (editor) put the sources together the way he did. also related is form criticism and tradition history which try to reconstruct the oral prehistory behind the identified written sources. journalism[edit] see also: journalism fraud journalists often work with strong time pressure and have access to only a limited number of information sources such as news bureaus, persons which may be interviewed, newspapers, journals and so on (see journalism sourcing). journalists' possibility for conducting serious source criticism is thus limited compared to, for example, historians' possibilities. legal studies[edit] see also: evidence (law) the most important legal sources are created by parliaments, governments, courts, and legal researchers. they may be written or informal and based on established practices. views concerning the quality of sources differ among legal philosophies: legal positivism is the view that the text of the law should be considered in isolation, while legal realism, interpretivism (legal), critical legal studies and feminist legal criticism interprets the law on a broader cultural basis. see also[edit] 	argumentation theory 	bias 	deception 	fabrication (science) 	exegesis 	false document 	fraud 	plagiarism 	psychological warfare 	q source 	scholarly method notes[edit] 	^ hjørland, birger ( ). methods for evaluating information sources: an annotated catalogue. journal of information science ( ), – . doi: . / 	^ balin, a. & grafstein, a. ( ). the critical assessment of research: traditional and new methods of evaluation. oxford: chandos publishing. 	^ "checklists for internet sources". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - . 	^ general source criticism archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ topicality and reliability of printed documents archived - - at the wayback machine 	^ "about the program: teaching with primary sources – teacher resources – library of congress". www.loc.gov. 	^ healy, jack ( - - ). "was the dear leader photoshopped in?". the new york times. references[edit] 	american library association ( ) evaluating information: a basic checklist. brochure. american library association 	anderson, richard c. ( ). schema-directed processes in language comprehension. in: nato international conference on cognitive psychology and instruction, , amsterdam: cognitive psychology and instruction. ed. by a. m. lesgold, j. w. pellegrino, s. d. fokkema & r. glaser. new york: plenum press (pp.  – ). 	anderson, richard c. & pichert, j. w. ( ). recall of previously unrecallable information following a shift of perspective. urbana, il: university of illinois, center for the study of reading, april. . (technical report ). available in full-text from: http://eric.ed.gov/ericdocs/data/ericdocs sql/content_storage_ / b/ / / / .pdf 	bazerman, charles ( ). the informed writer: using sources in the disciplines. th ed. houghton mifflin. 	bee, ronald e. ( ). statistics and source criticism. vetus testamentum, volume , number , – . 	beecher-monas, erica ( ). evaluating scientific evidence : an interdisciplinary framework for intellectual due process. cambridge; new york: cambridge university press. 	bernheim, ernst ( ). lehrbuch der historischen methode und der geschichtsphilosophie [guidebook for historical method and the philosophy of history]. leipzig: duncker & humblot. 	brundage, anthony ( ). going to the sources: a guide to historical research and writing, th ed. wheeling, illinois: harlan davidson, inc. ( rd edition, cited in text above). 	chesney, t. ( ). an empirical examination of wikipedia's credibility. first monday, ( ), url: http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue _ /chesney/index.html 	encyclopædia britannica ( ). fatally flawed. refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal nature. http://corporate.britannica.com/britannica_nature_response.pdf nature's response march , : http://www.nature.com/press_releases/britannica_response.pdf 	engeldinger, eugene a. ( ) bibliographic instruction and critical thinking: the contribution of the annotated bibliography. research quarterly, vol. , winter, p.  – 	engeldinger, eugene a. ( ) technology infrastructure and information literacy. library philosophy and practice vol. , no. 	fritch, j. w., & cromwell, r. l. ( ). evaluating internet resources: identity, affiliation, and cognitive authority in a networked world. journal of the american society for information science and technology, , – . 	gerhart, susan l. ( ). do web search engines suppress controversy?. first monday ( ). 	giles, jim ( december ). "internet encyclopaedias go head to head". nature. ( ): – . bibcode: natur. .. g. doi: . / a. pmid  . 	gudmundsson, david ( ). när kritiska elever är målet. att undervisa i källkritik på gymnasiet. [when the goal is critical students. teaching source criticism in upper secondary school]. malmö, sweden: malmö högskola. full text (in swedish) 	hardtwig, w. ( ). ranke, leopold von ( – ). in: smelser, n. j. & baltes, p. b. (eds.) international encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences. amsterdam: elsevier. ( – ). 	harris, ben ( ). whatever happened to little albert? american psychologist, , , pp.  – . link to full text 	harris, ben ( ). ceremonial versus critical history of psychology. american psychologist, ( ), – . (note). 	healy, jack ( ). was the dear leader photoshopped in? november , , : pm [president kim jong il, north korea]. http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/ / / /was-the-dear-leader-photoshopped-in/?scp= &sq=kim% jong-il&st=cse 	hjørland, birger ( ). source criticism. in: epistemological lifeboat. ed. by birger hjørland & jeppe nicolaisen. 	howell, martha & prevenier, walter ( ). from reliable sources: an introduction to historical methods. ithaca: cornell university press. isbn  - - - . 	katzer, jeffrey; cook, kenneth h. & crouch, wayne w. ( ). evaluating information: a guide for users of social science research. th ed. boston, ma: mcgraw-hill. 	king, david ( ) the commissar vanishes: the falsification of photographs and art in stalin's russia. metropolitan books, new york. 	langlois, charles-victor & seignobos, charles ( ). introduction aux études historiques [introduction to the study of history]. paris: librairie hachette. full text (in french). introduction to the study of history full text (english) 	leth, göran & thurén, torsten ( ). källkritik för internet . stockholm: styrelsen för psykologiskt försvar. (retrieved - - ). 	loftus, elizabeth f. ( ). eyewitness testimony. revised edition cambridge, ma: harward university press. (original edition: ). 	lorenz, c. ( ). history: theories and methods. in: smelser, n. j. & baltes, p. b. (eds.) international encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences. amsterdam: elsevier. (pp.  – ). 	mathewson, daniel b. ( ). a critical binarism: source criticism and deconstructive criticism. journal for the study of the old testament no , pp.  – . abstract: when classifying the array of interpretive methods currently available, biblical critics regularly distinguish between historical-critical methods, on the one hand, and literary critical methods, on the other. frequently, methods on one side of the divide are said to be antagonistic to certain methods on the other. this article examines two such presumed antagonistic methods, source criticism and deconstructive criticism, and argues that they are not, in fact, antagonistic, but similar: both are postmodern movements, and both share an interpretive methodology (insofar as it is correct to speak of a deconstructive methodology). this argument is illustrated with a source-critical and a deconstructive reading of exodus . 	mattus, maria ( ). finding credible information: a challenge to students writing academic essays. human it ( ), – . retrieved - - from: http://www.hb.se/bhs/ith/ - /mm.pdf[permanent dead link] 	meola, marc ( july ). "chucking the checklist: a contextual approach to teaching undergraduates web-site evaluation". portal: libraries and the academy. ( ): – . doi: . /pla. . . 	mintz, anne p. (ed.). ( ). web of deception. misinformation on the internet. medford, nj: information today. 	müller, philipp ( ). understanding history: hermeneutics and source-criticism in historical scholarship. in: dobson, miriam & ziemann, benjamin (eds): reading primary sources. the interpretation of texts from nineteenth and twentieth-century history. london: routledge (pp.  – ). 	olden-jørgensen, sebastian ( ). til kilderne: introduktion til historisk kildekritik (in danish). [to the sources: introduction to historical source criticism]. københavn: gads forlag. isbn  - - - - . 	reinfandt, christohp ( ). reading texts after the linguistic tturn: approaches from literary studies and their implementation. in: dobson, miriam & ziemann, benjamin (eds): reading primary sources. the interpretation of texts from nineteenth and twentieth-century history. london: routledge (pp.  – ). 	rieh, s. y. ( ). judgment of information quality and cognitive authority in the web. journal of the american society for information science and technology, ( ), – . https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.si.umich.edu/rieh/papers/rieh_jasist .pdf 	rieh, s. y. ( ). cognitive authority. i: k. e. fisher, s. erdelez, & e. f. mckechnie (eds.), theories of information behavior: a researchers' guide . medford, nj: information today (pp.  – ). https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://newweb .si.umich.edu/rieh/papers/rieh_ibtheory.pdf 	rieh, soo young & danielson, david r. ( ). credibility: a multidisciplinary framework. annual review of information science and technology, , – . 	riegelman, richard k. ( ). studying a study and testing a test: how to read the medical evidence. th ed. philadelphia, pa: lippincott williams & wilkins. 	savolainen, r. ( ). media credibility and cognitive authority. the case of seeking orienting information. information research, ( ) paper . available at https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.informationr.net/ir/// - /paper .html 	slife, brent d. & williams, r. n. ( ). what's behind the research? discovering hidden assumptions in the behavioral sciences. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. ("a consumers guide to the behavioral sciences"). 	taylor, john ( ). war photography; realism in the british press. london : routledge. 	thurén, torsten. ( ). källkritik. stockholm: almqvist & wiksell. 	walton, douglas ( ). fallacies. in: routledge encyclopedia of philosophy, version . , london: routledge 	webb, e j; campbell, d t; schwartz, r d & sechrest, l ( ). unobtrusive measures; revised edition. sage publications inc. 	"wikipedia: testsieg und verschwörungen" [sterns test of wikipedia]. heise online (in german). december . 	wilkinson, g.l., bennett, l.t., & oliver, k.m. ( ). evaluation criteria and indicators of quality for internet resources. educational technology, ( ), – . 	wilson, patrick ( ). second-hand knowledge. an inquiry into cognitive authority. westport, conn.: greenwood. external links[edit] 	the source compass: source criticism 	the history sourcebook: the need for source criticism 		look up quellenforschung in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		v 	t 	e literary criticism 	literary theory	 	archetypal criticism 	biographical criticism 	chicago school 	cultural materialism 	darwinian criticism 	deconstruction 	descriptive poetics 	ecocriticism 	feminist criticism 	formalism 	geocriticism 	marxist criticism 	new criticism 	new historicism 	postcolonial criticism 	postcritique 	psychoanalytic criticism 	reader-response criticism 	russian formalism 	semiotic criticism 	sociological criticism 	source criticism 	thing theory 	 retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=source_criticism&oldid= " 		categories: 	error 	library 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of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 pareto efficiency - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	pareto efficiency 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		state in which no reallocation of resources can make everyone at least as well off 	 	this article needs additional citations for verification. please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. unsourced material may be challenged and removed. find sources: "pareto efficiency" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · jstor (november ) (learn how and when to remove this template message) pareto efficiency or pareto optimality is a situation where no individual or preference criterion can be better off without making at least one individual or preference criterion worse off or without any loss thereof. the concept is named after vilfredo pareto ( – ), italian engineer and economist, who used the concept in his studies of economic efficiency and income distribution. the following three concepts are closely related: 	given an initial situation, a pareto improvement is a new situation where some agents will gain, and no agents will lose. 	a situation is called pareto dominated if there exists a possible pareto improvement. 	a situation is called pareto optimal or pareto efficient if no change could lead to improved satisfaction for some agent without some other agent losing or if there's no scope for further pareto improvement. the pareto frontier is the set of all pareto efficient allocations, conventionally shown graphically. it also is variously known as the pareto front or pareto set.[ ] pareto originally used the word "optimal" for the concept, but as it describes a situation where a limited number of people will be made better off under finite resources, and it does not take equality or social well-being into account, it is in effect a definition of and better captured by "efficiency".[ ] in addition to the context of efficiency in allocation, the concept of pareto efficiency also arises in the context of efficiency in production vs. x-inefficiency: a set of outputs of goods is pareto efficient if there is no feasible re-allocation of productive inputs such that output of one product increases while the outputs of all other goods either increase or remain the same.[ ]: besides economics, the notion of pareto efficiency has been applied to the selection of alternatives in engineering and biology. each option is first assessed, under multiple criteria, and then a subset of options is ostensibly identified with the property that no other option can categorically outperform the specified option. it is a statement of impossibility of improving one variable without harming other variables in the subject of multi-objective optimization (also termed pareto optimization). contents 	 overview 	 weak pareto efficiency 	 constrained pareto efficiency 	 fractional pareto efficiency 	 pareto-efficiency and welfare-maximization 	 use in engineering 	 . pareto frontier 	 . marginal rate of substitution 	 . computation 	 use in public policy 	 use in biology 	 common misconceptions 	 criticism 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading overview[edit] formally, an allocation is pareto optimal if there is no alternative allocation where improvements can be made to at least one participant's well-being without reducing any other participant's well-being. if there is a transfer that satisfies this condition, the new reallocation is called a "pareto improvement". when no pareto improvements are possible, the allocation is a "pareto optimum". the formal presentation of the concept in an economy is the following: consider an economy with n {\displaystyle n} agents and k {\displaystyle k} goods. then an allocation { x , . . . , x n } {\displaystyle \{x_{ },...,x_{n}\}} , where x i ∈ r k {\displaystyle x_{i}\in \mathbb {r} ^{k}} for all i, is pareto optimal if there is no other feasible allocation { x ′ , . . . , x n ′ } {\displaystyle \{x_{ }',...,x_{n}'\}} where, for utility function u i {\displaystyle u_{i}} for each agent i {\displaystyle i} , u i ( x i ′ ) ≥ u i ( x i ) {\displaystyle u_{i}(x_{i}')\geq u_{i}(x_{i})} for all i ∈ { , . . . , n } {\displaystyle i\in \{ ,...,n\}} with u i ( x i ′ ) > u i ( x i ) {\displaystyle u_{i}(x_{i}')>u_{i}(x_{i})} for some i {\displaystyle i} .[ ] here, in this simple economy, "feasibility" refers to an allocation where the total amount of each good that is allocated sums to no more than the total amount of the good in the economy. in a more complex economy with production, an allocation would consist both of consumption vectors and production vectors, and feasibility would require that the total amount of each consumed good is no greater than the initial endowment plus the amount produced. under the assumptions of the first welfare theorem, a competitive market leads to a pareto-efficient outcome. this result was first demonstrated mathematically by economists kenneth arrow and gérard debreu.[ ][citation needed] however, the result only holds under the assumptions of the theorem: markets exist for all possible goods, there are no externalities; markets are perfectly competitive; and market participants have perfect information. in the absence of perfect information or complete markets, outcomes will generally be pareto inefficient, per the greenwald-stiglitz theorem.[ ] the second welfare theorem is essentially the reverse of the first welfare-theorem. it states that under similar, ideal assumptions, any pareto optimum can be obtained by some competitive equilibrium, or free market system, although it may also require a lump-sum transfer of wealth.[ ] weak pareto efficiency[edit] weak pareto optimality is a situation that cannot be strictly improved for every individual.[ ] formally, a strong pareto improvement is defined as a situation in which all agents are strictly better-off (in contrast to just "pareto improvement", which requires that one agent is strictly better-off and the other agents are at least as good). a situation is weak pareto-optimal if it has no strong pareto-improvements. any strong pareto-improvement is also a weak pareto-improvement. the opposite is not true; for example, consider a resource allocation problem with two resources, which alice values at , and george values at , . consider the allocation giving all resources to alice, where the utility profile is ( , ): 	it is a weak-po, since no other allocation is strictly better to both agents (there are no strong pareto improvements). 	but it is not a strong-po, since the allocation in which george gets the second resource is strictly better for george and weakly better for alice (it is a weak pareto improvement) - its utility profile is ( , ). a market doesn't require local nonsatiation to get to a weak pareto-optimum.[ ] constrained pareto efficiency [edit] constrained pareto optimality is a weakening of pareto-optimality, accounting for the fact that a potential planner (e.g., the government) may not be able to improve upon a decentralized market outcome, even if that outcome is inefficient. this will occur if it is limited by the same informational or institutional constraints as are individual agents.[ ]: an example is of a setting where individuals have private information (for example, a labor market where the worker's own productivity is known to the worker but not to a potential employer, or a used-car market where the quality of a car is known to the seller but not to the buyer) which results in moral hazard or an adverse selection and a sub-optimal outcome. in such a case, a planner who wishes to improve the situation is unlikely to have access to any information that the participants in the markets do not have. hence, the planner cannot implement allocation rules which are based on the idiosyncratic characteristics of individuals; for example, "if a person is of type a, they pay price p , but if of type b, they pay price p " (see lindahl prices). essentially, only anonymous rules are allowed (of the sort "everyone pays price p") or rules based on observable behavior; "if any person chooses x at price px, then they get a subsidy of ten dollars, and nothing otherwise". if there exists no allowed rule that can successfully improve upon the market outcome, then that outcome is said to be "constrained pareto-optimal". fractional pareto efficiency[edit] fractional pareto optimality is a strengthening of pareto-optimality in the context of fair item allocation. an allocation of indivisible items is fractionally pareto-optimal (fpo) if it is not pareto-dominated even by an allocation in which some items are split between agents. this is in contrast to standard pareto-optimality, which only considers domination by feasible (discrete) allocations.[ ] as an example, consider an item allocation problem with two items, which alice values at , and george values at , . consider the allocation giving the first item to alice and the second to george, where the utility profile is ( , ): 	it is pareto-optimal, since any other discrete allocation (without splitting items) makes someone worse-off. 	however, it is not fractionally-pareto-optimal, since it is pareto-dominated by the allocation giving to alice / of the first item and the whole second item, and the other / of the first item to george - its utility profile is ( . , ). pareto-efficiency and welfare-maximization[edit] see also: pareto-efficient envy-free division suppose each agent i is assigned a positive weight ai. for every allocation x, define the welfare of x as the weighted sum of utilities of all agents in x, i.e.: w a ( x ) := ∑ i = n a i u i ( x ) {\displaystyle w_{a}(x):=\sum _{i= }^{n}a_{i}u_{i}(x)} . let xa be an allocation that maximizes the welfare over all allocations, i.e.: x a ∈ arg ⁡ max x w a ( x ) {\displaystyle x_{a}\in \arg \max _{x}w_{a}(x)} . it is easy to show that the allocation xa is pareto-efficient: since all weights are positive, any pareto-improvement would increase the sum, contradicting the definition of xa. japanese neo-walrasian economist takashi negishi proved[ ] that, under certain assumptions, the opposite is also true: for every pareto-efficient allocation x, there exists a positive vector a such that x maximizes wa. a shorter proof is provided by hal varian.[ ] use in engineering[edit] the notion of pareto efficiency has been used in engineering.[ ]: – given a set of choices and a way of valuing them, the pareto frontier or pareto set or pareto front is the set of choices that are pareto efficient. by restricting attention to the set of choices that are pareto-efficient, a designer can make tradeoffs within this set, rather than considering the full range of every parameter.[ ]: – example of a pareto frontier. the boxed points represent feasible choices, and smaller values are preferred to larger ones. point c is not on the pareto frontier because it is dominated by both point a and point b. points a and b are not strictly dominated by any other, and hence lie on the frontier. a production-possibility frontier. the red line is an example of a pareto-efficient frontier, where the frontier and the area left and below it are a continuous set of choices. the red points on the frontier are examples of pareto-optimal choices of production. points off the frontier, such as n and k, are not pareto-efficient, since there exist points on the frontier which pareto-dominate them. pareto frontier[edit] for a given system, the pareto frontier or pareto set is the set of parameterizations (allocations) that are all pareto efficient. finding pareto frontiers is particularly useful in engineering. by yielding all of the potentially optimal solutions, a designer can make focused tradeoffs within this constrained set of parameters, rather than needing to consider the full ranges of parameters.[ ]: – the pareto frontier, p(y), may be more formally described as follows. consider a system with function f : x → r m {\displaystyle f:x\rightarrow \mathbb {r} ^{m}} , where x is a compact set of feasible decisions in the metric space r n {\displaystyle \mathbb {r} ^{n}} , and y is the feasible set of criterion vectors in r m {\displaystyle \mathbb {r} ^{m}} , such that y = { y ∈ r m : y = f ( x ) , x ∈ x } {\displaystyle y=\{y\in \mathbb {r} ^{m}:\;y=f(x),x\in x\;\}} . we assume that the preferred directions of criteria values are known. a point y ′ ′ ∈ r m {\displaystyle y^{\prime \prime }\in \mathbb {r} ^{m}} is preferred to (strictly dominates) another point y ′ ∈ r m {\displaystyle y^{\prime }\in \mathbb {r} ^{m}} , written as y ′ ′ ≻ y ′ {\displaystyle y^{\prime \prime }\succ y^{\prime }} . the pareto frontier is thus written as: 	 p ( y ) = { y ′ ∈ y : { y ′ ′ ∈ y : y ′ ′ ≻ y ′ , y ′ ≠ y ′ ′ } = ∅ } . {\displaystyle p(y)=\{y^{\prime }\in y:\;\{y^{\prime \prime }\in y:\;y^{\prime \prime }\succ y^{\prime },y^{\prime }\neq y^{\prime \prime }\;\}=\emptyset \}.} marginal rate of substitution[edit] a significant aspect of the pareto frontier in economics is that, at a pareto-efficient allocation, the marginal rate of substitution is the same for all consumers.[ ] a formal statement can be derived by considering a system with m consumers and n goods, and a utility function of each consumer as z i = f i ( x i ) {\displaystyle z_{i}=f^{i}(x^{i})} where x i = ( x i , x i , … , x n i ) {\displaystyle x^{i}=(x_{ }^{i},x_{ }^{i},\ldots ,x_{n}^{i})} is the vector of goods, both for all i. the feasibility constraint is ∑ i = m x j i = b j {\displaystyle \sum _{i= }^{m}x_{j}^{i}=b_{j}} for j = , … , n {\displaystyle j= ,\ldots ,n} . to find the pareto optimal allocation, we maximize the lagrangian: 	 l i ( ( x j k ) k , j , ( λ k ) k , ( μ j ) j ) = f i ( x i ) + ∑ k = m λ k ( z k − f k ( x k ) ) + ∑ j = n μ j ( b j − ∑ k = m x j k ) {\displaystyle l_{i}((x_{j}^{k})_{k,j},(\lambda _{k})_{k},(\mu _{j})_{j})=f^{i}(x^{i})+\sum _{k= }^{m}\lambda _{k}(z_{k}-f^{k}(x^{k}))+\sum _{j= }^{n}\mu _{j}\left(b_{j}-\sum _{k= }^{m}x_{j}^{k}\right)} where ( λ k ) k {\displaystyle (\lambda _{k})_{k}} and ( μ j ) j {\displaystyle (\mu _{j})_{j}} are the vectors of multipliers. taking the partial derivative of the lagrangian with respect to each good x j k {\displaystyle x_{j}^{k}} for j = , … , n {\displaystyle j= ,\ldots ,n} and k = , … , m {\displaystyle k= ,\ldots ,m} and gives the following system of first-order conditions: 	 ∂ l i ∂ x j i = f x j i − μ j =  for  j = , … , n , {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial l_{i}}{\partial x_{j}^{i}}}=f_{x_{j}^{i}}^{ }-\mu _{j}= {\text{ for }}j= ,\ldots ,n,} 	 ∂ l i ∂ x j k = − λ k f x j k i − μ j =  for  k = , … , m  and  j = , … , n , {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial l_{i}}{\partial x_{j}^{k}}}=-\lambda _{k}f_{x_{j}^{k}}^{i}-\mu _{j}= {\text{ for }}k= ,\ldots ,m{\text{ and }}j= ,\ldots ,n,} where f x j i {\displaystyle f_{x_{j}^{i}}} denotes the partial derivative of f {\displaystyle f} with respect to x j i {\displaystyle x_{j}^{i}} . now, fix any k ≠ i {\displaystyle k\neq i} and j , s ∈ { , … , n } {\displaystyle j,s\in \{ ,\ldots ,n\}} . the above first-order condition imply that 	 f x j i i f x s i i = μ j μ s = f x j k k f x s k k . {\displaystyle {\frac {f_{x_{j}^{i}}^{i}}{f_{x_{s}^{i}}^{i}}}={\frac {\mu _{j}}{\mu _{s}}}={\frac {f_{x_{j}^{k}}^{k}}{f_{x_{s}^{k}}^{k}}}.} thus, in a pareto-optimal allocation, the marginal rate of substitution must be the same for all consumers.[citation needed] computation[edit] algorithms for computing the pareto frontier of a finite set of alternatives have been studied in computer science and power engineering.[ ] they include: 	"the maximum vector problem" or the skyline query.[ ][ ][ ] 	"the scalarization algorithm" or the method of weighted sums.[ ][ ] 	"the ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } -constraints method".[ ][ ] use in public policy[edit] the modern microeconomic theory drew inspirations heavily from pareto efficiency. since pareto showed that the equilibrium achieved through competition would optimize resource allocation, it is effectively corroborating adam smith's "invisible hand" notion. more specifically, it motivated the debate over "market socialism" in the s. [ ] use in biology[edit] pareto optimisation has also been studied in biological processes.[ ]: – in bacteria, genes were shown to be either inexpensive to make (resource efficient) or easier to read (translation efficient). natural selection acts to push highly expressed genes towards the pareto frontier for resource use and translational efficiency.[ ]: – genes near the pareto frontier were also shown to evolve more slowly (indicating that they are providing a selective advantage).[ ] common misconceptions[edit] it would be incorrect to treat pareto efficiency as equivalent to societal optimization,[ ]: – as the latter is a normative concept that is a matter of interpretation that typically would account for the consequence of degrees of inequality of distribution.[ ]: – an example would be the interpretation of one school district with low property tax revenue versus another with much higher revenue as a sign that more equal distribution occurs with the help of government redistribution.[ ]: – criticism[edit] this section will introduce criticisms from the most radical to more moderate ones. some commentators contest that pareto efficiency could potentially serve as an ideological tool. with it implying that capitalism is self-regulated thereof, it is likely that the embedded structural problems such as unemployment would be treated as deviating from the equilibrium or norm, and thus neglected or discounted. [ ] pareto efficiency does not require a totally equitable distribution of wealth, which is another aspect that draws in criticism.[ ]: an economy in which a wealthy few hold the vast majority of resources can be pareto efficient. a simple example is the distribution of a pie among three people. the most equitable distribution would assign one third to each person. however the assignment of, say, a half section to each of two individuals and none to the third is also pareto optimal despite not being equitable, because none of the recipients could be made better off without decreasing someone else's share; and there are many other such distribution examples. an example of a pareto inefficient distribution of the pie would be allocation of a quarter of the pie to each of the three, with the remainder discarded.[ ]: the liberal paradox elaborated by amartya sen shows that when people have preferences about what other people do, the goal of pareto efficiency can come into conflict with the goal of individual liberty.[ ]: – lastly, it is proposed that pareto efficiency to some extent inhibited discussion of other possible criteria of efficiency. as the scholar lockhood argues, one possible reason is that any other efficiency criteria established in the neoclassical domain will reduce to pareto efficiency at the end. [ ] see also[edit] 	admissible decision rule, analog in decision theory 	arrow's impossibility theorem 	bayesian efficiency 	fundamental theorems of welfare economics 	deadweight loss 	economic efficiency 	highest and best use 	kaldor–hicks efficiency 	market failure, when a market result is not pareto optimal 	maximal element, concept in order theory 	maxima of a point set 	multi-objective optimization 	pareto-efficient envy-free division 	social choice and individual values for the '(weak) pareto principle' 	totrep 	welfare economics references[edit] 	^ proximedia. "pareto front". www.cenaero.be. retrieved october , . 	^ lockwood, b. ( ). the new palgrave dictionary of economics ( nd ed.). london: palgrave macmillan. isbn  - - - - . 	^ black, j. d., hashimzade, n., & myles, g., eds., a dictionary of economics, th ed. (oxford: oxford university press, ), p. . 	^ a b mas-colell, a.; whinston, michael d.; green, jerry r. ( ), "chapter : equilibrium and its basic welfare properties", microeconomic theory, oxford university press, isbn  - - - - 	^ gerard, debreu ( ). "valuation equilibrium and pareto optimum*". proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america. ( ): – . doi: . /pnas. . . . 	^ greenwald, b.; stiglitz, j. e. ( ). "externalities in economies with imperfect information and incomplete markets". quarterly journal of economics. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ mock, william b t. ( ). "pareto optimality". encyclopedia of global justice. pp.  – . doi: . / - - - - _ . isbn  - - - - . 	^ markey‐towler, brendan and john foster. "why economic theory has little to say about the causes and effects of inequality", school of economics, university of queensland, australia, february , repec:qld:uq : 	^ magill, m., & quinzii, m., theory of incomplete markets, mit press, , p. . 	^ barman, s., krishnamurthy, s. k., & vaish, r., "finding fair and efficient allocations", ec ' : proceedings of the acm conference on economics and computation, june . 	^ negishi, takashi ( ). "welfare economics and existence of an equilibrium for a competitive economy". metroeconomica. ( – ): – . doi: . /j. - x. .tb .x. 	^ varian, hal r. ( ). "two problems in the theory of fairness". journal of public economics. ( – ): – . doi: . / - ( ) - . hdl: . / . 	^ goodarzi, e., ziaei, m., & hosseinipour, e. z., introduction to optimization analysis in hydrosystem engineering (berlin/heidelberg: springer, ), pp. – . 	^ jahan, a., edwards, k. l., & bahraminasab, m., multi-criteria decision analysis, nd ed. (amsterdam: elsevier, ), pp. – . 	^ costa, n. r., & lourenço, j. a., "exploring pareto frontiers in the response surface methodology", in g.-c. yang, s.-i. ao, & l. gelman, eds., transactions on engineering technologies: world congress on engineering (berlin/heidelberg: springer, ), pp. – . 	^ just, richard e. ( ). the welfare economics of public policy : a practical approach to project and policy evaluation. hueth, darrell l., schmitz, andrew. cheltenham, uk: e. elgar. pp.  – . isbn  - - - . oclc  . 	^ tomoiagă, bogdan; chindriş, mircea; sumper, andreas; sudria-andreu, antoni; villafafila-robles, roberto ( ). "pareto optimal reconfiguration of power distribution systems using a genetic algorithm based on nsga-ii". energies. ( ): – . doi: . /en . 	^ nielsen, frank ( ). "output-sensitive peeling of convex and maximal layers". information processing letters. ( ): – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . / - ( ) - . 	^ kung, h. t.; luccio, f.; preparata, f.p. ( ). "on finding the maxima of a set of vectors". journal of the acm. ( ): – . doi: . / . . s cid  . 	^ godfrey, p.; shipley, r.; gryz, j. ( ). "algorithms and analyses for maximal vector computation". vldb journal. : – . citeseerx  . . . . . doi: . /s - - - . s cid  . 	^ kim, i. y.; de weck, o. l. ( ). "adaptive weighted sum method for multiobjective optimization: a new method for pareto front generation". structural and multidisciplinary optimization. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . issn  - x. s cid  . 	^ marler, r. timothy; arora, jasbir s. ( ). "the weighted sum method for multi-objective optimization: new insights". structural and multidisciplinary optimization. ( ): – . doi: . /s - - - . issn  - x. s cid  . 	^ "on a bicriterion formulation of the problems of integrated system identification and system optimization". ieee transactions on systems, man, and cybernetics. smc- ( ): – . . doi: . /tsmc. . . issn  - . 	^ mavrotas, george ( ). "effective implementation of the ε-constraint method in multi-objective mathematical programming problems". applied mathematics and computation. ( ): – . doi: . /j.amc. . . . issn  - . 	^ lockwood, b. ( ). the new palgrave dictionary of economics ( nd ed.). london: palgrave macmillan. isbn  - - - - . 	^ moore, j. h., hill, d. p., sulovari, a., & kidd, l. c., "genetic analysis of prostate cancer using computational evolution, pareto-optimization and post-processing", in r. riolo, e. vladislavleva, m. d. ritchie, & j. h. moore, eds., genetic programming theory and practice x (berlin/heidelberg: springer, ), pp. – . 	^ eiben, a. e., & smith, j. e., introduction to evolutionary computing (berlin/heidelberg: springer, ), pp. – . 	^ seward, e. a., & kelly, s., "selection-driven cost-efficiency optimization of transcripts modulates gene evolutionary rate in bacteria", genome biology, vol. , . 	^ drèze, j., essays on economic decisions under uncertainty (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), pp. – 	^ backhaus, j. g., the elgar companion to law and economics (cheltenham, uk / northampton, ma: edward elgar, ), pp. – . 	^ paulsen, m. b., "the economics of the public sector: the nature and role of public policy in the finance of higher education", in m. b. paulsen, j. c. smart, eds. the finance of higher education: theory, research, policy, and practice (new york: agathon press, ), pp. – . 	^ lockwood, b. ( ). the new palgrave dictionary of economics ( nd ed.). london: palgrave macmillan. isbn  - - - - . 	^ bhushi, k., ed., farm to fingers: the culture and politics of food in contemporary india (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), p. . 	^ wittman, d., economic foundations of law and organization (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), p. . 	^ sen, a., rationality and freedom (cambridge, ma / london: belknep press, ), pp. – . 	^ lockwood, b. ( ). the new palgrave dictionary of economics ( nd ed.). london: palgrave macmillan. isbn  - - - - . further reading[edit] 	fudenberg, drew; tirole, jean ( ). game theory. cambridge, massachusetts: mit press. pp.  – . isbn  . book preview. 	bendor, jonathan; mookherjee, dilip (april ). "communitarian versus universalistic norms". quarterly journal of political science. ( ): – . doi: . / . .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	kanbur, ravi (january–june ). "pareto's revenge" (pdf). journal of social and economic development. ( ): – .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	ng, yew-kwang ( ). welfare economics towards a more complete analysis. basingstoke, hampshire new york: palgrave macmillan. isbn  . 	rubinstein, ariel; osborne, martin j. ( ), "introduction", in rubinstein, ariel; osborne, martin j. (eds.), a course in game theory, cambridge, massachusetts: mit press, pp.  – , isbn  book preview. 	mathur, vijay k. (spring ). "how well do we know pareto optimality?". the journal of economic education. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  .cs maint: ref=harv (link) 	newbery, david m.g.; stiglitz, joseph e. (january ). "pareto inferior trade". the review of economic studies. 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navigation 		jump to search 			part of a series on 	sociology 	 	 	history 	outline 	index 	 theories 	conflict theory 	structural functionalism 	symbolic interactionism 	critical theory 	positivism 	social change 	social constructionism 	social movement theory 	 methods 	quantitative 	qualitative 	comparative 	computational 	ethnographic 	conversation analysis 	historical 	interview 	mathematical 	network analysis 	survey 	 subfields 	criminology 	culture 	demography 	development 	deviance 	economic 	education 	environmental 	family 	feminist 	gender 	health 	immigration 	industrial 	knowledge 	law 	literature 	medical 	military 	organizational 	political 	race and ethnicity 	religion 	rural 	science 	social anthropology 	social psychology in sociology 	sociolinguistics 	stratification 	technology 	terrorism 	urban 	 people 	Émile durkheim 	herbert spencer 	max weber 	friedrich engels 	auguste comte 	george herbert mead 	georg simmel 	w.e.b. du bois 	roland barthes 	ernest burgess 	michel foucault 	erving goffman 	antonio gramsci 	jürgen habermas 	thorstein veblen 	ferdinand tönnies 	william graham sumner 	 lists 	bibliography 	terminology 	journals 	organizations 	people 	timeline 	by country 	 	 society portal 		v 	t 	e in social science, agency is defined as the capacity of individuals to act independently and to make their own free choices. by contrast, structure are those factors of influence (such as social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, ability, customs, etc.) that determine or limit an agent and their decisions.[ ] the influences from structure and agency are debated—it is unclear to what extent a person's actions are constrained by social systems. one's agency is one's independent capability or ability to act on one's will. this ability is affected by the cognitive belief structure which one has formed through one's experiences, and the perceptions held by the society and the individual, of the structures and circumstances of the environment one is in and the position they are born into. disagreement on the extent of one's agency often causes conflict between parties, e.g. parents and children. agency has also been defined in the american journal of sociology as a temporally embedded process, that encompasses three different constitutive elements: iteration, projectivity and practical evaluation.[ ] each of these elements is a component of agency as a whole. they are used to study different aspects of agency independently to make conclusions about the bigger concept. the iteration element of agency refers to the selective reactivation of past patterns of thought and action. in this way actors have routine actions in response to typical situations that help them sustain identities, interactions and institutions over time. the projective element encompasses the process of imagining possible future trajectories of action connected to the actor's hopes, fears, and desires for the future.[ ] the last element, the practical-evaluative element, entails the capacity of people to make practical and normative judgements amongst alternative possible actions in response to a context, demand or a presently evolving situation.[ ] contents 	 history 	 feelings of agency 	 children's sense of agency 	 hewson's classification 	 agency in conversation 	 see also 	 references history[edit] the overall concept of agency has existed since the enlightenment where there was debate over whether human freedom was expressed through instrumental rationality or moral and norm-based action. john locke argued in favor of freedom being based on self-interest. his rejection of the binding on tradition and the concept of the social contract led to the conception of agency as the capacity of human beings to shape the circumstances in which they live.[ ] jean-jacques rousseau explored an alternative conception of this freedom by framing it as a moral will. there was a bifurcation between the rational-utilitarian and non-rational-normative dimensions of action that immanuel kant addressed. kant saw freedom as normative grounded individual will, governed by the categorical imperative. these ideas were the point of departure for concerns regarding non-rational, norm-oriented action in classical sociological theory contrasting with the views on the rational instrumental action.[ ] these definitions of agency remained mostly unquestioned until the nineteenth century, when philosophers began arguing that the choices humans make are dictated by forces beyond their control.[ ] for example, karl marx argued that in modern society, people were controlled by the ideologies of the bourgeoisie, friedrich nietzsche argued that man made choices based on his own selfish desires, or the "will to power" and, famously, paul ricœur added freud – as a third member of the "school of suspicion" – who accounted for the unconscious determinants of human behavior.[ ] feelings of agency[edit] thinkers have only just begun to empirically explore the many factors that cause a person to feel as though they are in control – particularly, in control of a physical action. social psychologist daniel wegner discusses how an "illusion of control" may cause people to take credit for events that they did not cause.[ ] these false judgments of agency occur especially under stress, or when the results of the event were ones that the individual desired (also see self-serving biases). janet metcalfe and her colleagues have identified other possible heuristics, or rules of thumb that people use to make judgments of agency.[ ] these include a "forward model" in which the mind actually compares two signals to judge agency: the feedback from a movement, but also an "efferent copy" – a mental prediction of what that movement feedback should feel like. top down processing (understanding of a situation, and other possible explanations) can also influence judgments of agency. furthermore, the relative importance of one heuristic over another seems to change with age.[ ] from an evolutionary perspective, the illusion of agency would be beneficial in allowing social animals to ultimately predict the actions of others.[ ] if one considers him or herself a conscious agent, then the quality of agency would naturally be intuited upon others. as it is possible to deduce another's intentions, the assumption of agency allows one to extrapolate from those intentions what actions someone else is likely to perform. under other conditions, cooperation between two subjects with a mutual feeling of control is what james m. dow, associate professor of philosophy at hendrix college, defines as "joint agency."[ ] according to various studies on optimistic views of cooperation, "the awareness of doing things together jointly suggest that the experience of subjects engaging in cooperation involves a positive here and now experience of the activity being under joint control."[ ] shared agency increases the amount of control between those cooperating in any given situation, which, in return, could have negative effects on individuals that the partners in control associate with. if joint agency is held by two people that are already in a position of power, the partners' heightened feeling of agency directly affects those who are inferior to them. the inferiors' sense of agency will most likely decrease upon the superiors' joint control because of intimidation and solitude factors. although working together towards a common goal tends to cause an increased feeling of agency, the inflation of control could have many unforeseen consequences. children's sense of agency[edit] children's sense of agency is often not taken into account because of the common disbelief that they are not capable of making their own rational decisions without adult guidance.[ ] in many cases, the social norms for the parental role in a family contributes to the frequent disallowance of their children's agency to be fully shown. consequently, the children under oppression of free will by their parents tend to show signs of frustration and have trouble exploring their self-identity in the near future. the internal struggles concerning lack of agency faced by children commonly lead to behavioral issues and disobedience of authoritative figures in hopes that the extent of their agency will be stretched.[citation needed] children whose parents oppress their free will tend to show signs of frustration and have trouble exploring their self-identity in adolescence and later in life. children’s internal struggles concerning lack of agency commonly lead to behavioral issues, including the disobedience of authoritative figures and counter control. they test boundaries in the hope that they can further extend their agency and therefore their sense of independence in life as a whole.[citation needed] hewson's classification[edit] martin hewson,[ ] associate at the york centre for international and security studies, york university, describes three types of agency: individual, proxy, and collective. individual agency is when a person acts on his/her own behalf, whereas proxy agency is when an individual acts on behalf of someone else (such as an employer). collective agency occurs when people act together, such as a social movement. hewson also identifies three properties of human beings that give rise to agency: intentionality, power, and rationality. human beings act with intention and are goal oriented. they also have differing amounts of abilities and resources resulting in some having greater agency (power) than others. finally, human beings use their intellect to guide their actions and predict the consequences of their actions. agency in conversation[edit] in his work on conversational agency, david r. gibson defines agency as action that furthers an actor's idiosyncratic objectives in the face of localized constraints that also have the potential of suppressing the very same action.[ ] constraints such as who is speaking, how is participation shifted among participants, and topical and relevance constraints can impact the possibility of expressing agency. seizing the moment when the "looseness" of such constraints allows, enables users to express what gibson calls "colloquial agency".[ ] see also[edit] 	action theory 	agency (philosophy) 	agency (psychology) 	negative capability 	paracosm, an alternate reality created by some people as they develop agency 	social action 	social relation 	structure and agency 	theory of structuration 	dignity of risk references[edit] 	^ barker, chris. . cultural studies: theory and practice. london: sage. isbn  - - - p 	^ a b c d e emirbayer, mustafa; mische, ann (january ). "what is agency?". american journal of sociology. ( ): – . doi: . / . issn  - . s cid  . 	^ littlejohn, stephen w. & foss, karen a. ( ). agency. in s. littlejohn, & k. foss (eds.), encyclopedia of communication theory. (pp. – ). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications, inc. 	^ littlejohn, stephen w. & foss, karen a. ( ). agency. in s. littlejohn, & k. foss (eds.), encyclopedia of communication theory. (pp. – ). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications, inc. 	^ pronin e; wegner dm; mccarthy k; rodriguez s ( ). "everyday magical powers: the role of apparent mental causation in the overestimation of personal influence". journal of personality and social psychology. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . . . pmid  . 	^ metcalfe, j., eich, t. s., & castel, a. d. ( ). "metacognition of agency across the lifespan". cognition, – . 	^ metcalfe, j., eich, t. s., & castel, a. d. ( ). "metacognition of agency across the lifespan". cognition, – . 	^ rita, carter ( ). the human brain book. p.  . 	^ larkins, c ( ). "excursions as corporate agents: a critical realist account of children's agency". childhood. ( ): ( ), – . doi: . / . 	^ dow, j.m. ( ). "on the awareness of joint agency: a pessimistic account of the feelings of acting together". j soc philos. : – . doi: . /josp. . 	^ larkins, c ( ). "excursions as corporate agents: a critical realist account of children's agency". childhood. ( ): ( ), – . doi: . / . 	^ hewson, m. ( ). agency. in a. mills, g. durepos, & e. wiebe (eds.), encyclopedia of case study research. (pp. - ). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications, inc. 	^ gibson, david r. (november ). "seizing the moment: the problem of conversational agency". sociological theory. ( ): – . doi: . / - . . issn  - . 	^ gibson, david r. (november ). "seizing the moment: the problem of conversational agency". sociological theory. 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a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 trust - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	trust 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from trust (disambiguation)) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 				look up trust in wiktionary, the free dictionary. trust may refer to: 	trust (social science), confidence in or dependence on a person or quality 	trust, north carolina, a community in the united states contents 	 business and law 	 arts, entertainment, and media 	 . films 	 . music 	 . . artists 	 . . albums 	 . . songs 	 . periodicals 	 . television 	 brands and enterprises 	 computing 	 government and political organizations 	 see also business and law[edit] 	trust law, a body of law under which one person holds property for the benefit of another 	trust (business), the combination of several businesses under the same management to prevent competition arts, entertainment, and media[edit] 	the trust, a fictional entity in the stargate franchise films[edit] 	the trust ( film), a lost silent drama film 	trust ( film), a finnish-soviet historical drama 	trust ( film), a dark romantic comedy 	the trust ( film), an american drama about a murder in 	trust ( film), a british television crime drama 	trust, a film starring jamie luner and nels lennarson 	trust ( film), a drama film directed by david schwimmer 	the trust ( film), a film starring nicolas cage and elijah wood music[edit] artists[edit] 	trust (belgian band), a pop music group formed in 	trust (canadian band), a synthpop music group formed in 	trust (french band), a rock music group formed in 	the trust (music production duo), a u.s. music production duo albums[edit] 	trust (alfie boe album), 	trust (boney james album), 	trust (brother beyond album), 	trust (elvis costello album), 	trust (jaci velasquez album), 	trust (low album), 	trust (saga album), songs[edit] 	"trust" (ayumi hamasaki song), 	"trust" (brother beyond song), 	"trust" (keyshia cole and monica song), 	"trust" (kmfdm song), 	"trust" (megadeth song), 	"trust" (pharcyde song), 	"trust", english version title of lara fabian's song "croire" 	"trust", on adema's eponymous album 	"trust", on the cure's album wish 	"trust", on l'arc-en-ciel's album awake 	"trust", on nightingale's album white darkness 	"trust", on prince's album batman 	"trust", on thrice's album the illusion of safety 	"trust", on gfriend's album snowflake 	"trust", on jonas brothers' album happiness begins periodicals[edit] 	trust (magazine), a free tri-annual investment trust magazine 	the brand trust report, an annual study by n. chandramouli based on a primary research conducted across indian cities based on a proprietary -attribute "trust matrix" television[edit] 	trust (game show), french game show aired on 	trust (british tv series), a uk legal drama 	trust (american tv series), a fx anthology series 	"trust" (revenge), a episode of the american television series 	"trust", a episode of the abc family drama television series wildfire brands and enterprises[edit] 	trust (electronics company), a european producer and designer of computer peripherals and accessories, mainly in the low-budget market 	trust company ltd., a car parts company computing[edit] 	trust, a computer system for tracking trains 	computational trust, generation of trusted authorities or user trust through cryptography 	trust metric, a measurement of the degree to which group members trust each other, as in online networking 	trusted system, a computerized system relied on to enforce a security policy 	web of trust, a system used in cryptography to establish authenticity 	wot services or web of trust, a crowdsourced internet website reputation rating tool government and political organizations[edit] 	trust (british political party), formed by stuart wheeler in 	trust (greek political party), a muslim party in the rhodope region 	nhs trust, a public health organization 	operation trust, a soviet counter-intelligence operation see also[edit] 	trieste united states troops, a – us army occupation unit 	trust company (disambiguation) 	trustee (disambiguation) 	trusteeship (disambiguation) 	trustor (disambiguation) 	national trust (disambiguation) 	trst (disambiguation) 	 	 disambiguation page providing links to topics that could be referred to by the same search term this disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title trust. if an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=trust&oldid= " 		categories: 	disambiguation pages hidden categories: 	disambiguation pages with short descriptions 	short description is different from wikidata 	all article disambiguation pages 	all disambiguation pages 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not 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, at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 trustworthy - wiktionary 	 	 	 	 	trustworthy 	 		definition from wiktionary, the free dictionary 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		contents 	 english 	 . etymology 	 . pronunciation 	 . adjective 	 . . synonyms 	 . . antonyms 	 . . derived terms 	 . . translations 	 . . see also english[edit] etymology[edit] from trust +‎ -worthy. english wikipedia has an article on:trust (social sciences) wikipedia pronunciation[edit] 	enpr: trŭst-'wûr-thē, ipa(key): /ˈtɹʌst.wɜɹ.ði/ 		audio (us)	 	(file) adjective[edit] trustworthy (comparative trustworthier, superlative trustworthiest) 	deserving of trust, reliable. 	 , thomas feller, trustworthy reconfigurable systems:	the storage of cryptographic secrets is one of the paramount requirements in building trustworthy systems. synonyms[edit] 	believable 	convincing 	credible 	dependable 	ethical 	honest 	honorable 	kosher 	principled 	reliable 	responsible 	righteous 	secure 	sensible 	straight 	true 	trustable 	trusty 	truthful 	unfailing antonyms[edit] 	untrustworthy derived terms[edit] 	untrustworthy translations[edit] reliable 	 	arabic: ثِقَةٌ‎ (ṯiqatun) 	egyptian arabic: امين‎ (amīn) 	armenian: վստահելի (hy) (vstaheli), հուսալի (hy) (husali) 	bashkir: ышаныслы (ïšanïslï), яуаплы (yawaplï) 	belarusian: надзе́йны (nadzjéjny), дакла́дны (dakládny) 	catalan: fidedigne, fiable (ca) 	chinese: 	mandarin: 可信 (zh) (kěxìn), 可靠 (zh) (kěkào) 	czech: důvěryhodný (cs) 	danish: troværdig 	dutch: betrouwbaar (nl) 	esperanto: fidinda 	finnish: luotettava (fi), luottamuksen arvoinen 	french: de confiance (fr), digne de confiance, digne de foi, fiable (fr) 	galician: fidedigno 	georgian: სანდო (sando), სანდომიანი (sandomiani), საიმედო (saimedo), ნდობის ღირსი (ndobis ɣirsi) 	german: vertrauenswürdig (de), glaubwürdig (de) 	greek: αξιόπιστος (el) (axiópistos) 	ancient: ἀξιόπιστος (axiópistos), πιστός (pistós) 	hungarian: megbízható (hu) 	irish: barántúil 	italian: affidabile (it), attendibile (it), credibile (it), fidato (it) m 	 	 	japanese: 頼もしい (ja) (たのもしい, tanomoshii), 信頼できる (ja) (しんらいできる, shinrai dekiru), 着実 (ちゃくじつ, chakujitsu) 	khmer: please add this translation if you can 	latin: fīdus 	manx: barrantagh 	maori: horopū 	mongolian: please add this translation if you can 	ngazidja comorian: -aminifu 	norwegian: pålitelig (no), til å stole på 	bokmål: troverdig (no) 	nynorsk: truverdig, påliteleg 	portuguese: confiável (pt) 	romanian: sigur (ro), demn de încredere 	russian: надёжный (ru) (nadjóžnyj), благонадёжный (ru) (blagonadjóžnyj), (e.g. information) достове́рный (ru) (dostovérnyj), ве́рный (ru) (vérnyj) 	scottish gaelic: earbsach 	spanish: fidedigno (es), fiable (es), de confianza, confiable (es), de fiar 	swedish: pålitlig (sv), trovärdig (sv) 	telugu: విశ్వసనీయము (te) (viśvasanīyamu), నమ్మదగిన (te) (nammadagina) 	thai: น่าไว้ใจ (nâa-wái-jai) 	ukrainian: наді́йний (nadíjnyj), достові́рний (dostovírnyj) 	vietnamese: please add this translation if you can see also[edit] 	trustful retrieved from "https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=trustworthy&oldid= " 		categories: 	english words suffixed with -worthy 	english -syllable words 	english terms with ipa pronunciation 	english terms with audio links 	english lemmas 	english adjectives 	english terms with quotations hidden categories: 	requests for translations into khmer 	requests for translations into mongolian 	russian redlinks 	russian redlinks/t+ 	spanish redlinks 	spanish redlinks/t 	requests for translations into vietnamese 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 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additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. 		privacy policy 	about wiktionary 	disclaimers 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 ನಂಬಿಕೆ - ವಿಕಿಪೀಡಿಯ 	 	 	 	 	ನಂಬಿಕೆ 	 		ವಿಕಿಪೀಡಿಯ ಇಂದ 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		ಸಾಮಾಜಿಕ ಸನ್ನಿವೇಶದಲ್ಲಿ, ನಂಬಿಕೆ (ವಿಶ್ವಾಸ) ಪದವು ಹಲವಾರು ಅರ್ಥಗಳನ್ನು ಹೊಂದಿದೆ.[೧] ನಂಬಿಕೆ ವ್ಯಾಖ್ಯಾನಗಳು ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯವಾಗಿ ಮುಂದೆ ಹೇಳಲಾದ ಅಂಶಗಳನ್ನು ಲಕ್ಷಣಗಳಾಗಿ ಹೊಂದಿರುವ ಸನ್ನಿವೇಶವನ್ನು ಸೂಚಿಸುತ್ತವೆ: ಒಂದು ಪಕ್ಷವು (ವಿಶ್ವಾಸಿ) ಮತ್ತೊಂದು ಪಕ್ಷದ (ವಿಶ್ವಸ್ತ) ಕ್ರಿಯೆಗಳ ಮೇಲೆ ಅವಲಂಬಿಸಲು ಸಿದ್ಧವಿರುತ್ತದೆ; ಸನ್ನಿವೇಶವು ಭವಿಷ್ಯದಲ್ಲಿ ನಡೆಯುವಂತದ್ದಾಗಿರುತ್ತದೆ. ಜೊತೆಗೆ, ವಿಶ್ವಾಸಿಯು ವಿಶ್ವಸ್ತನು ನೆರವೇರಿಸುವ ಕ್ರಿಯೆಗಳ ಮೇಲೆ (ಸ್ವಯಂಪ್ರೇರಿತವಾಗಿ ಅಥವಾ ಒತ್ತಾಯಪೂರ್ವಕವಾಗಿ) ನಿಯಂತ್ರಣವನ್ನು ಬಿಟ್ಟು ಬಿಡುತ್ತಾನೆ. ಪರಿಣಾಮವಾಗಿ, ವಿಶ್ವಾಸಿಯು ವಿಶ್ವಸ್ತನ ಕ್ರಿಯೆಗಳ ಫಲಿತಾಂಶಗಳ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಅನಿಶ್ಚಿತನಾಗಿರುತ್ತಾನೆ; ಅವನು ಕೇವಲ ನಿರೀಕ್ಷೆಗಳನ್ನು ಬೆಳೆಸಿಕೊಂಡು ಮೌಲ್ಯಮಾಪನ ಮಾಡಬಲ್ಲನು. ವಿಶ್ವಸ್ತನು ಅಪೇಕ್ಷಿಸಿದಂತೆ ವರ್ತಿಸದಿದ್ದರೆ ಅನಿಶ್ಚಿತತೆಯು ವಿಶ್ವಾಸಿಗೆ ಆಗುವ ಹಾನಿ ಅಥವಾ ವೈಫಲ್ಯದ ಅಪಾಯವನ್ನು ಒಳಗೊಳ್ಳುತ್ತದೆ. ಉಲ್ಲೇಖಗಳು[ಬದಲಾಯಿಸಿ] 	↑ mcknight, d. h., and chervany, n. l. ( ). the meanings of trust. scientific report, university of minnesota. error in webarchive template: check |url= value. empty. "https://kn.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ನಂಬಿಕೆ&oldid= " ಇಂದ ಪಡೆಯಲ್ಪಟ್ಟಿದೆ 		ವರ್ಗಗಳು: 	webarchive template errors 	ಭಾವನೆಗಳು 	 	 	ಸಂಚರಣೆ ಪಟ್ಟಿ 	 		 	 		ವೈಯಕ್ತಿಕ ಉಪಕರಣಗಳು 	 	 			ಲಾಗಿನ್ ಆಗಿಲ್ಲ 	ಈ ಐ.ಪಿ ಗೆ ಮಾತನಾಡಿ 	ಕಾಣಿಕೆಗಳು 	ಹೊಸ ಖಾತೆ ತೆರೆಯಿರಿ 	ಲಾಗ್ ಇನ್ 		 	 		 			 	 		ನಾಮವರ್ಗಗಳು 	 	 			ಲೇಖನ 	ಚರ್ಚೆ 		 	 			 	 	 		ರೂಪಾಂತರಗಳು 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		ನೋಟಗಳು 	 	 			ಓದು 	ಸಂಪಾದಿಸಿ 	ಇತಿಹಾಸವನ್ನು ನೋಡಿ 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		ಹುಡುಕು 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		ಸಂಚರಣೆ 	 	 			ಮುಖ್ಯ ಪುಟ 	ಸಮುದಾಯ ಪುಟ 	ಪ್ರಚಲಿತ 	ಇತ್ತೀಚೆಗಿನ ಬದಲಾವಣೆಗಳು 	ಯಾವುದೋ ಒಂದು ಪುಟ 	ಸಹಾಯ 	ಅರಳಿ ಕಟ್ಟೆ 	ವಿಕಿಮೀಡಿಯಾಕ್ಕೆ ದಾನ ಮಾಡಿ 		 	 	 	 		ಉಪಕರಣ 	 	 			ಇಲ್ಲಿಗೆ ಯಾವ ಸಂಪರ್ಕ ಕೂಡುತ್ತದೆ 	ಸಂಬಂಧಪಟ್ಟ ಬದಲಾವಣೆಗಳು 	ವಿಶೇಷ ಪುಟಗಳು 	ಸ್ಥಿರ ಕೊಂಡಿ 	ಪುಟದ ಮಾಹಿತಿ 	ಈ ಪುಟವನ್ನು ಉಲ್ಲೇಖಿಸಿ 	short url 	wikidata ವಸ್ತು 		 	 	 		ಮುದ್ರಿಸು/ರಫ್ತು ಮಾಡು 	 	 			ಪುಸ್ತಕವನ್ನು ಸೃಷ್ಟಿಸಿ 	pdf ಎಂದು ನಕಲಿಳಿಸಿ 	ಮುದ್ರಣ ಆವೃತ್ತಿ 		 	 	 		ಇತರೆ ಯೋಜನೆಗಳಲ್ಲಿ 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		ಇತರ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	galego 	עברית 	hrvatski 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	日本語 	Қазақша 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		ಕೊಂಡಿಗಳನ್ನು ಸಂಪಾದಿಸಿ 	 		 ಈ ಪುಟವನ್ನು ೧೦ ಮೇ ೨೦೧೯, ೧೧:೦೫ ರಂದು ಕೊನೆಯಾಗಿ ಸಂಪಾದಿಸಲಾಯಿತು. 	ಪಠ್ಯವು creative commons attribution-sharealike license ನಡಿ ಲಭ್ಯವಿದೆ; ಮತ್ತಷ್ಟು ಷರತ್ತುಗಳು ಅನ್ವಯಿಸಬಹುದು. ಹೆಚ್ಚಿನ ವಿವರಗಳಿಗೆ ಬಳಕೆಯ ಷರತ್ತುಗಳು ನೋಡಿ. 		ಖಾಸಗಿ ಮಾಹಿತಿಯ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ನಿಲುವು 	ಕನ್ನಡ ವಿಕಿಪೀಡಿಯ ಬಗ್ಗೆ 	ಹಕ್ಕು ನಿರಾಕರಣೆಗಳು 	ಮೊಬೈಲ್ ವೀಕ್ಷಣೆ 	ಡೆವೆಲಪರ್‌ಗಳು 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 user contributions for . . . - wikipedia 	 	 	 	help 	 	user contributions 	 		 		for . . . talk block log logs filter log 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		this ip address is currently blocked. the latest block log entry is provided below for reference: 	 : , june sql talk contribs blocked . . . / talk with an expiration time of years, minutes and seconds (account creation blocked) ({{colocationwebhost}} <!-- microsoft azure-->) view full log this ip address is currently globally blocked. if the block is marked as locally disabled, this means that it applies on other sites, but a local administrator has decided to disable it on this wiki. the global block log entry is provided below for reference: 	 : , july : jon kolbert (meta.wikimedia.org) globally blocked . . . / (global block log) (expires on january at : ) (open proxy: webhost: contact stewards if you are affected <!-- microsoft azure-->) search for contributionsshowhide⧼contribs-top⧽user: namespace:all (article) talk user user talk wikipedia wikipedia talk file file talk mediawiki mediawiki talk template template talk help help talk category category talk portal portal talk book book talk draft draft talk education program education program talk timedtext timedtext talk module module talk gadget gadget talk gadget definition gadget definition talk invert selection associated namespace tag filter: only show edits that are latest revisions only show edits that are page creations hide minor edits ⧼contribs-date⧽from date: to date: hide probably good edits search no changes were found matching these criteria. 		 this is the contributions page for an ip user, identified by the user's ip address. many ip addresses change periodically, and are often shared by several users. if you are an ip user, you may create an account or log in to avoid future confusion with other ip users. registering also hides your ip address. 	(whois (alt • old) 	geolocate (alternate) 	proxy checker 	current blocks 	xtools 	global contributions) 	(rirs: africa 	america 	asia-pacific 	europe 	latin america/caribbean) retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:contributions/ . . . " 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			special page 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			atom 	user contributions 	user logs 	upload file 	special pages 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 wonder (emotion) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	wonder (emotion) 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		emotion comparable to surprise i wonder..., image. ( ) 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e wonder is an emotion comparable to surprise that people feel when perceiving something rare or unexpected (but not threatening). it has historically been seen as an important aspect of human nature, specifically being linked with curiosity and the drive behind intellectual exploration.[ ] wonder is also often compared to the emotion of awe[ ] but awe implies fear or respect rather than joy. contents 	 philosophical musings 	 notes 	 bibliography 	 external links philosophical musings[edit] french philosopher, mathematician, scientist, and writer rené descartes described admiration as one of the primary emotions because he claimed that emotions, in general, are reactions to unexpected phenomena. he noted that when people first encounter a surprising or new object that is "far different from what we knew before, or from what we supposed it should have been, we admire it, and are astonished at it."[ ] but descartes, unlike the greek philosophers before him, held a fundamentally negative view of admiration: "although it is good to be born with some kind of inclination to this passion [admiration] because it disposes us to the acquisition of sciences, yet we ought afterwards to endeavor as much as we can to be rid of it."[ ] this sentiment is reflected in other early modern authors like thomas hobbes in his discussion about the english words curiosity, joy and admiration. hobbes argued that since "... whatsoever therefore happeneth new to a man, giveth him hope and matter of knowing somewhat that he knew not before", which creates "...hope and expectation of future knowledge from anything that happeneth new and strange", a "passion which we commonly call admiration; and the same considered as appetite, is called curiosity, which is appetite for knowledge."[ ] in de homine xii, hobbes discussed the "joy" of "admiration" again contrasting humans to other animals. hobbes argues that "...this passion is almost peculiar to men." he pointed out that "even if other animals, whenever they behold something new or unusual, admire it as far as they behold something new or unusual" so that they can determine if it dangerous or harmless, men on the other hand, "when they see something new, seek to know whence it came and to what use they can put it." in the history of astronomy, scottish th century economist and philosopher adam smith dwells on wonder not to explain the difference between human and animal thinking only, but rather to explain why we study natural science. an uncivilized person, or child, is still clearly different from other animals because "it beats the stone that hurts it". the child is concerned with finding an account of cause and effect, but it is limited in its ability to do so:[ ] "but when law has established order and security, and subsistence ceases to be precarious, the curiosity of mankind is increased, and their fears are diminished. ... wonder, therefore, and not any expectation of advantage from its discoveries, is the first principle which prompts mankind to the study of philosophy, of that science which pretends to lay open the concealed connections that unite the various appearance of nature; and they pursue this study for its own sake, as an original pleasure or good in itself, without regarding its tendency to procure them the means of many other pleasures."[ ] in god in search of man, abraham joshua heschel claims that wonder is a key emotion in living a worthy life. the attitude a religious person must take is, "this is the lord's doing, it is marvelous in our eyes" (psalms : ). heschel insists that ultimate meaning can be sensed beyond a naturalistic understanding of natural phenomena, and that such meaning is mysterious and awe-inspiring.[ ] in the tangled wing, melvin konner reviews the biologist's view of this pain and pleasure of learning. he notes that "if the problem is too unfamiliar, it will evoke attention; if it is difficult but doable, it will evoke interest, attention, and arousal and, when solved, it will evoke pleasure, often signalled by a smile" (p.  ). he says that "wonder" is "the hallmark of our species and the central feature of the human spirit".[ ] notes[edit] 	^ fisher 	^ keltner 	^ descartes, rene. the passions of the soul. article . 	^ descartes, article . 	^ elements of law i (human nature) ix, paragraph . 	^ smith, adam ( ) [ ], the history of astronomy - adam smith, glasgow edition of the works and correspondence vol. essays on philosophical subjects, archived from the original on august , 	^ section iii history of astronomy 	^ heschel, abraham joshua. god in search of man. 	^ konner, melvin j ( ) [ ]. the tangled wing: biological constraints on the human spirit ( nd ed.). new york: times books. bibliography[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to wondering in art. 		look up wonder in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 	philip fisher ( ). "wonder, the rainbow, and the aesthetics of rare experiences". london: harvard university press. cite journal requires |journal= (help) 	nicola gess ( ). "instruments of wonder - wondrous instruments. optical devices in the poetics of the marvelous of fontenelle, rist, breitinger, and hoffmann". the german quarterly ( / ): – . 	keltner, d.; haidt, j. ( ). "approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. cognition and emotion" (pdf) ( ): – . cite journal requires |journal= (help) external links[edit] 	snsf sinergia research project the power of wonder. the instrumentalization of admiration, astonishment and surprise in discourses of knowledge, power and art, led by prof. dr. nicola gess (university of basel) and prof. dr. mireille schnyder (university of zurich). 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	excitement 	fear 	flow (psychology) 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hiraeth 	homesickness 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	hygge 	hysteria 	indulgence 	infatuation 	insecurity 	inspiration 	interest 	irritation 	isolation 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	longing 	love 	limerence 	lust 	mono no aware 	neglect 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	self-pity 	pleasure 	pride 	grandiosity 	hubris 	insult 	vanity 	rage 	regret 	social connection 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	melancholy 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	sehnsucht 	self-confidence 	sentimentality 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	sorrow 	spite 	stress 	suffering 	surprise 	sympathy 	tenseness 	trust 	wonder 	worry 	 	world views	 	cynicism 	defeatism 	nihilism 	optimism 	pessimism 	reclusion 	weltschmerz 	related	 	affect 	consciousness 	in education 	measures 	in psychology 	affective 	computing 	forecasting 	neuroscience 	science 	spectrum 	affectivity 	positive 	negative 	appeal to emotion 	emotion 	and art 	and memory 	and music 	and sex 	classification 	evolution 	expressed 	functional accounts 	group 	homeostatic 	perception 	recognition 	in conversation 	in animals 	regulation 	interpersonal 	work 	emotional 	aperture 	bias 	blackmail 	competence 	conflict 	contagion 	detachment 	dysregulation 	eating 	exhaustion 	expression 	intelligence 	and bullying 	intimacy 	isolation 	lability 	labor 	lateralization 	literacy 	prosody 	reasoning 	responsivity 	security 	selection 	symbiosis 	well-being 	emotionality 	bounded 	emotions 	and culture 	in decision-making 	in the workplace 	in virtual communication 	history 	moral 	self-conscious 	social 	social sharing 	sociology 	feeling 	gender and emotional expression 	group affective tone 	interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems 	meta-emotion 	pathognomy 	pathos 	social emotional development 	stoic passions 	theory 	affect 	appraisal 	discrete emotion 	somatic marker 	constructed emotion 	authority control 	 	gnd: - retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=wonder_(emotion)&oldid= " 		categories: 	emotions 	positive mental attitude 	virtue hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	commons category link is on wikidata 	cs errors: missing periodical 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			Български 	deutsch 	eesti 	français 	italiano 	עברית 	jawa 	lietuvių 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 信頼 - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	信頼 	 		出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（wikipedia）』 		 		 		 		 		ナビゲーションに移動 		検索に移動 		信頼 	信頼（しんらい）については、以下で解説。 	信頼（のぶより）は、日本人の人名の一つ。藤原信頼など。 信頼（しんらい）とは、相手を信用し、頼りにすること。信用とは見返りを求めない事。 目次 	 社会学・社会心理学・心理学における信頼 	 脚注 	 . 注釈 	 . 出典 	 参考文献 	 外部リンク 社会学・社会心理学・心理学における信頼[編集] 乳児期・幼児期の発達課題に、信頼の獲得があり、これに失敗すると、生涯他者を信用することを躊躇するという。 社会学者ニクラス・ルーマンが自著で、信頼概念の社会学的分析の必要性を訴えた後、アンソニー・ギデンズや社会心理学者たちの研究が増加した。現在リスク研究などの分野でも、信頼は重要な分析概念である。 社会心理学者山岸俊男は『信頼の構造』（ 年）で、「相手が自分を搾取[注 ]しようとする意図をもっていないという期待」のうち、相手が自分を搾取しようとすることが相手自身にとっての不利益になるからそうしないだろうという期待、すなわち「相手の自己利益の評価」にもとづく期待を「安心」（assurance）、「相手の人格や相手が自分に対してもつ感情についての評価」にもとづく期待を「信頼」（trust）として、安心と信頼を区別して考察する。[ ] 	 	自然の秩序に対する期待 	道徳的秩序に対する期待	相手の能力に対する期待 	相手の意図に対する期待	安心 - 「相手の自己利益の評価」にもとづく期待 	信頼＜信頼する側の特性＞ - 「相手の人格や相手が自分に対してもつ感情についての評価」にもとづく期待	人間関係的信頼（情報依存的信頼） 	人格的信頼	個別的信頼（情報依存的信頼） 	カテゴリー的信頼（情報依存的信頼） 	一般的信頼 	信頼性＜信頼される側の特性＞ [ ] 山岸によれば、現在[注 ]、欧米では信頼の崩壊が[ ]、旧社会主義国では中央権力の弱体化による安心の崩壊が[ ]起こっており、日本社会では閉鎖的な社会から開かれた社会への移行が課題になっている[ ]とする。山岸は、「集団主義社会[ ]は安心を生み出すが信頼を破壊する」[ ]がこの本で言おうとするメッセージだとして、他人を信頼する正直者が馬鹿を見ない開かれた社会を目指し[ ]、社会的知性[ ]に裏打ちされた「一般的信頼」[ ]が集団主義的関係、すなわち やくざ型コミットメント[ ]が提供する「安心」[ ]にとって変わる道を、進化ゲーム的アプローチ、共進化の概念を中心に据えて[ ]模索する[ ]。 脚注[編集] 	[脚注の使い方] 注釈[編集] 	^ 社会関係の中で 酷い目 に遭うことを指す。酷い目に遭う可能性が存在することを社会的不確実性と呼ぶ。 	^ 年初版の本。 出典[編集] 	^ a b 『信頼の構造』 pp. - 信頼概念の整理 	^ 『信頼の構造』 pp. , 。筆者は信頼の崩壊ではなく、用心深さの増大だと認識しているとする。 	^ 『信頼の構造』 pp. , 	^ 『信頼の構造』 pp. , 	^ 『信頼の構造』 p. 。「『内集団ひいき』の程度がとくに強い社会のこと」。 	^ 『信頼の構造』 pp. , 	^ a b 『信頼の構造』 p. 	^ 『信頼の構造』 p. 	^ 『信頼の構造』 pp. - コミットメント関係、やくざ型コミットメント関係の形成 	^ 『信頼の構造』 p. 	^ 『信頼の構造』 pp. - 	^ 『信頼の構造』 pp. - 開かれた社会の基盤を求めて 参考文献[編集] 		出典は列挙するだけでなく、脚注などを用いてどの記述の情報源であるかを明記してください。記事の信頼性向上にご協力をお願いいたします。（ 年 月） 	ニクラス・ルーマン (訳)大庭 健 , 正村 俊之 , , 信頼—社会的な複雑性の縮減メカニズム , 勁草書房, isbn 	アンソニー・ギデンズ (訳)松尾 精文 , 小幡 正敏, , 近代とはいかなる時代か?—モダニティの帰結, 而立書房, isbn 	山岸俊男, , 信頼の構造—こころと社会の進化ゲーム，東京大学出版会， isbn 外部リンク[編集] 		ウィクショナリーに関連の辞書項目があります。信頼 	信頼の意味と構造―信頼とコミットメント関係に関する理論的・実証的研究 (pdf) 年 月 日閲覧. 		この項目は、社会科学に関連した書きかけの項目です。この項目を加筆・訂正などしてくださる協力者を求めています（pj:社会科学）。 		この項目は、人間関係・コミュニケーションに関連した書きかけの項目です。この項目を加筆・訂正などしてくださる協力者を求めています。 「https://ja.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=信頼&oldid= 」から取得 		カテゴリ: 	人間関係 	アカウンタビリティ 隠しカテゴリ: 	参照方法 	社会科学関連のスタブ項目 	人間関係・コミュニケーション関連のスタブ 	isbnマジックリンクを使用しているページ 	 	 	案内メニュー 	 		 	 		個人用ツール 	 	 			ログインしていません 	トーク 	投稿記録 	アカウント作成 	ログイン 		 	 		 			 	 		名前空間 	 	 			ページ 	ノート 		 	 			 	 	 		変種 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		表示 	 	 			閲覧 	編集 	履歴表示 		 	 			 	 	 		その他 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		検索 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		案内 	 	 			メインページ 	コミュニティ・ポータル 	最近の出来事 	新しいページ 	最近の更新 	おまかせ表示 	練習用ページ 	アップロード (ウィキメディア・コモンズ) 		 	 	 	 		ヘルプ 	 	 			ヘルプ 	井戸端 	お知らせ 	バグの報告 	寄付 	ウィキペディアに関するお問い合わせ 		 	 	 		ツール 	 	 			リンク元 	関連ページの更新状況 	ファイルをアップロード 	特別ページ 	この版への固定リンク 	ページ情報 	このページを引用 	ウィキデータ項目 		 	 	 		印刷/書き出し 	 	 			ブックの新規作成 	pdf 形式でダウンロード 	印刷用バージョン 		 	 	 		他のプロジェクト 	 	 			コモンズ 		 	 	 	 		他言語版 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	galego 	עברית 	hrvatski 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	Қазақша 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		リンクを編集 	 		 最終更新 年 月 日 (火) : （日時は個人設定で未設定ならばutc）。 	テキストはクリエイティブ・コモンズ 表示-継承ライセンスの下で利用可能です。追加の条件が適用される場合があります。詳細は利用規約を参照してください。 		プライバシー・ポリシー 	ウィキペディアについて 	免責事項 	モバイルビュー 	開発者 	統計 	cookieに関する声明 		 	 	 facial resemblance enhances trust - pubmed this site needs javascript to work properly. please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! clipboard, search history, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. skip to main page content covid- is an emerging, rapidly evolving situation. get the latest public health information from cdc: https://www.coronavirus.gov get the latest research information from nih: https://www.nih.gov/coronavirus find ncbi sars-cov- literature, sequence, and clinical content: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sars-cov- /   	 		 			 				national institutes of health 				national library of medicine 				national center for biotechnology information 				ncbi homepage 			 			 				log in 				 					 					 					show account info 				 			 			 				 					 						close 						account 					 					 						logged in as: 						username 					 					 							dashboard (my ncbi) 	publications (my bibliography) 	account settings 	log out 					 				 			 		 	 access keys ncbi homepage myncbi homepage main content main navigation 	 search: search advanced clipboard user guide save email send to	 clipboard 	my bibliography 	collections 	citation manager display options display options format abstract pubmed pmid save citation to file format: summary (text) pubmed pmid abstract (text) csv create file cancel email citation subject: to: format: summary summary (text) abstract abstract (text) mesh and other data send email cancel add to collections 	 create a new collection 	 add to an existing collection name your collection: name must be less than characters choose a collection: unable to load your collection due to an error please try again add cancel add to my bibliography 	 my bibliography unable to load your delegates due to an error please try again add cancel your saved search name of saved search: search terms: test search terms would you like email updates of new search results? saved search alert radio buttons 	 yes 	 no email: (change) frequency: monthly weekly daily which day? the first sunday the first monday the first tuesday the first wednesday the first thursday the first friday the first saturday the first day the first weekday which day? sunday monday tuesday wednesday thursday friday saturday report format: summary summary (text) abstract abstract (text) pubmed send at most: item items items items items items items send even when there aren't any new results optional text in email: save cancel create a file for external citation management software create file cancel your rss feed name of rss feed: number of items displayed: create rss cancel rss link copy full text links atypon free pmc article full-text links actions cite favorites display options display options format abstract pubmed pmid share 	 	 	 permalink copy page navigation 	 title & authors 	 abstract 	 similar articles 	 cited by 	 references 	 publication types 	 mesh terms 	 linkout - more resources title & authors abstract similar articles cited by references publication types mesh terms linkout - more resources proc biol sci actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in nlm catalog 	 add to search . jul ; ( ): - . doi: . /rspb. . . facial resemblance enhances trust lisa m debruine  affiliations expand affiliation 	 department of psychology, mcmaster university, hamilton, ontario, canada l s k . debruilm@mcmaster.ca 	 pmid: 	 pmcid: pmc 	 doi: . /rspb. . free pmc article item in clipboard facial resemblance enhances trust lisa m debruine. proc biol sci. . free pmc article show details display options display options format abstract pubmed pmid proc biol sci actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in nlm catalog 	 add to search . jul ; ( ): - . doi: . /rspb. . . author lisa m debruine  affiliation 	 department of psychology, mcmaster university, hamilton, ontario, canada l s k . debruilm@mcmaster.ca 	 pmid: 	 pmcid: pmc 	 doi: . /rspb. . item in clipboard full-text links citedisplay options display options format abstract pubmed pmid abstract organisms are expected to be sensitive to cues of genetic relatedness when making decisions about social behaviour. relatedness can be assessed in several ways, one of which is phenotype matching: the assessment of similarity between others' traits and either one's own traits or those of known relatives. one candidate cue of relatedness in humans is facial resemblance. here, i report the effects of an experimental manipulation of facial resemblance in a two-person sequential trust game. subjects were shown faces of ostensible playing partners manipulated to resemble either themselves or an unknown person. resemblance to the subject's own face raised the incidence of trusting a partner, but had no effect on the incidence of selfish betrayals of the partner's trust. control subjects playing with identical pictures failed to show such an effect. in a second experiment, resemblance of the playing partner to a familiar (famous) person had no effect on either trusting or betrayals of trust. similar articles 	 friend or foe: the effect of implicit trustworthiness judgments in social decision-making. van 't wout m, sanfey ag. van 't wout m, et al. cognition. sep; ( ): - . doi: . /j.cognition. . . . epub aug . cognition. . pmid: 	 trustworthy but not lust-worthy: context-specific effects of facial resemblance. debruine lm. debruine lm. proc biol sci. may ; ( ): - . doi: . /rspb. . . proc biol sci. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 does facial resemblance enhance cooperation? giang t, bell r, buchner a. giang t, et al. plos one. ; ( ):e . doi: . /journal.pone. . epub oct . plos one. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 perceived trustworthiness of faces drives trust behaviour in children. ewing l, caulfield f, read a, rhodes g. ewing l, et al. dev sci. mar; ( ): - . doi: . /desc. . epub jul . dev sci. . pmid: 	 social perception of facial resemblance in humans. debruine lm, jones bc, little ac, perrett di. debruine lm, et al. arch sex behav. feb; ( ): - . doi: . /s - - - . arch sex behav. . pmid: review. see all similar articles cited by articles 	 how we perceive others resembling us. hoffmann a, maran t, sachse p. hoffmann a, et al. iperception. nov ; ( ): . doi: . / . ecollection nov-dec. iperception. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 sibling relations in patchwork families: co-residence is more influential than genetic relatedness. gyuris p, kozma l, kisander z, láng a, ferencz t, kocsor f. gyuris p, et al. front psychol. jun ; : . doi: . /fpsyg. . . ecollection . front psychol. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 kin recognition and perceived facial similarity. hansen f, debruine lm, holzleitner ij, lee aj, o'shea kj, fasolt v. hansen f, et al. j vis. jun ; ( ): . doi: . /jov. . . . j vis. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 association of facial paralysis with perceptions of personality and physical traits. parsa km, hancock m, nguy pl, donalek hm, wang h, barth j, reilly mj. parsa km, et al. jama netw open. jun ; ( ):e . doi: . /jamanetworkopen. . . jama netw open. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 herding friends in similarity-based architecture of social networks. david-barrett t. david-barrett t. sci rep. mar ; ( ): . doi: . /s - - - . sci rep. . pmid: free pmc article. see all "cited by" articles references 	 	 proc biol sci. apr ; ( ): - - pubmed 	 	 trends neurosci. oct; ( ): - - pubmed 	 	 psychol sci. may; ( ): - - pubmed 	 	 proc biol sci. jul ; ( ): - - pubmed 	 	 nature. nov ; ( ): - - pubmed show all references publication types 	 research support, non-u.s. gov't actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search mesh terms 	 cues actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 face / anatomy & histology* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 family relations* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 female actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 humans actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 male actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 pattern recognition, visual* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 phenotype actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 trust* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search linkout - 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Älä poista mallinetta ennen kuin viitteet on lisätty. voit auttaa wikipediaa lisäämällä artikkelille asianmukaisia viitteitä. lähteettömät tiedot voidaan kyseenalaistaa tai poistaa. tarkennus: kokonaisiin väitöskirjoihin ja teoksiin viittaaminen on kirjoittajalle vaivatonta mutta lukijalle hyödytöntä. luottamus on tunne tai varmuus siitä, että johonkuhun tai johonkin voi luottaa, että joku tai jokin ei petä toiveita tai aiheuta pettymystä.[ ] itseluottamus on luottamusta omaan itseensä.[ ] ihmisten välinen luottamus on tunnetta ja kokemusperäistä tietoa. luottava ihminen uskoo, että luottamuksen kohde ei halua hänelle pahaa, vaan tarkoittaa hyvää. jos ihminen epäilee toisen moraalia ja aikeita, luottamusta ei synny. luottamuksen edellytyksiä ovat hyvien aikeiden lisäksi osaaminen (kompetenssi) ja riski. luottamus tai luottavaisuus voi ihmisten lisäksi kohdistua instituutioihin tai järjestelmiin.[ ] sisällysluettelo 	 katso myös 	 lähteet 	 . viitteet 	 kirjallisuutta 	 aiheesta muualla katso myös[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] 	itsetunto lähteet[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] 	nina laine: trust in superior-subordinate relationship. (väitöskirja; tampereen yliopisto, ) 	nina laine: luja luottamus. miten työpaikan luottamussuhteet saa toimimaan? (taurus media, . täydennetty painos ) viitteet[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] 	↑ a b kielitoimiston sanakirja. kotimaisten kielten tutkimuskeskuksen julkaisuja . internet-versio mot kielitoimiston sanakirja . . helsinki: kotimaisten kielten tutkimuskeskus ja kielikone oy, . isbn - - - . 	↑ ilmonen, kaj ja jokinen, kimmo: luottamus modernissa maailmassa tekijöiden tiivistys ilmestyneestä kirjastaan. kirjallisuutta[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] 	ilmonen, kaj & jokinen, kimmo: luottamus modernissa maailmassa. jyväskylä: jyväskylän yliopisto, yhteiskuntatieteiden ja filosofian laitos: kopijyvä, . isbn - - - . 	keskinen, jarkko & teräs, kari (toim.): luottamus, sosiaalinen pääoma, historia. historia mirabilis . turku: turun historiallinen yhdistys, . isbn - - - - . aiheesta muualla[muokkaa | muokkaa wikitekstiä] wikimedia commonsissa on kuvia tai muita tiedostoja aiheesta luottamus. 	tomi kankainen: luottamus. jyväskylän yliopiston kansalaisyhteiskunnan tutkimusportaali . . . 	tomi kankaisen väitöskirja käsittelee yhdistystoiminnan, instituutioiden ja luottamuksen yhteyksiä. jyväskylän yliopisto. tämä psykologiaan liittyvä artikkeli on tynkä. voit auttaa wikipediaa laajentamalla artikkelia. noudettu kohteesta ”https://fi.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=luottamus&oldid= ” 		luokat: 	persoonallisuuspsykologia 	kliininen psykologia 	tunteet piilotetut luokat: 	sivut, jotka käyttävät isbn-taikalinkkejä 	lähdeviitteet puuttuvat 	psykologiatyngät 	seulonnan keskeiset artikkelit 	 	 	navigointivalikko 	 		 	 		henkilökohtaiset työkalut 	 	 			et ole kirjautunut 	keskustelu 	muokkaukset 	luo tunnus 	kirjaudu sisään 		 	 		 			 	 		nimiavaruudet 	 	 			artikkeli 	keskustelu 		 	 			 	 	 		kirjoitusjärjestelmät 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		näkymät 	 	 			lue 	muokkaa 	muokkaa wikitekstiä 	näytä historia 		 	 			 	 	 		muut 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		haku 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		valikko 	 	 			etusivu 	tietoja wikipediasta 	kaikki sivut 	satunnainen artikkeli 		 	 	 	 		osallistuminen 	 	 			ohje 	kahvihuone 	ajankohtaista 	tuoreet odottavat muutokset 	tuoreet muutokset 	lahjoitukset 		 	 	 		työkalut 	 	 			tänne viittaavat sivut 	linkitettyjen sivujen muutokset 	toimintosivut 	ikilinkki 	sivun tiedot 	viitetiedot 	wikidata-kohde 		 	 	 		tulosta tai vie 	 	 			lataa pdf-tiedostona 	tulostettava versio 		 	 	 		muissa hankkeissa 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		muilla kielillä 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	chishona 	dansk 	deutsch 	eesti 	english 	español 	esperanto 	euskara 	français 	frysk 	galego 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	hrvatski 	italiano 	עברית 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	Қазақша 	nederlands 	日本語 	polski 	português 	Русский 	simple english 	slovenčina 	Српски / srpski 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		muokkaa linkkejä 	 		 sivua on viimeksi muutettu . marraskuuta kello . . 	teksti on saatavilla creative commons attribution/share-alike -lisenssillä; lisäehtoja voi sisältyä. katso käyttöehdot. wikipedia® on wikimedia foundationin rekisteröimä tavaramerkki. ongelma artikkelissa? 		tietosuojakäytäntö 	tietoja wikipediasta 	vastuuvapaus 	mobiilinäkymä 	kehittäjät 	tilastot 	evästekäytäntö 		 	 	 related changes - wikipedia 	 	 	 	help 	 	related changes 	 		 		← trust (social science) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 enter a page name to see changes on pages linked to or from that page. (to see members of a category, enter category:name of category). changes to pages on your watchlist are shown in bold with a green bullet. recent changes options show last | | | changes in last | | | | days hide registered users | hide unregistered users | hide my edits | show bots | hide minor edits | show page categorization | show wikidata | hide probably good edits show new changes starting from : , december 	namespace:	all (article) talk user user talk wikipedia wikipedia talk file file talk mediawiki mediawiki talk template template talk help help talk category category talk portal portal talk book book talk draft draft talk education program education program talk timedtext timedtext talk module module talk gadget gadget talk gadget definition gadget definition talk  invert selection  associated namespace 	tag filter:	 	page name:	 show changes to pages linked to the given page instead list of abbreviations (help):	d 	edit made at wikidata 	r 	edit flagged by ores 	n 	new page 	m 	minor edit 	b 	bot edit 	(± ) 	page byte size change 	 	temporarily watched page december 	 diffhist module:wikidataib‎ : + ‎ ‎rexxs talk contribs‎ update linkeditem to take table of arguments instead of individual parameters; turn off checking for redirect by default when no sitelink is available, and implement parameter linkredir to control the check 	 diffhist m information technology‎ : + ‎ ‎sdkb talk contribs‎ clean up, replaced: |work=new york times → |work=the new york times tag: awb 	 diffhist m happiness‎ : + ‎ ‎sdkb talk contribs‎ clean up, replaced: |work=washington post → |work=the washington post tag: awb 	 diffhist m embarrassment‎ : + ‎ ‎dylsss talk contribs‎ reverted edits by . . . (talk) (hg) ( . . ) tag: rollback 	 diffhist embarrassment‎ : − ‎ ‎ . . . talk‎ tags: manual revert reverted 	 diffhist m embarrassment‎ : + ‎ ‎dylsss talk contribs‎ reverted edits by . . . (talk) (hg) ( . . ) tags: rollback reverted 	 diffhist embarrassment‎ : − ‎ ‎ . . . talk‎ tags: visual edit reverted 	 diffhist m embarrassment‎ : + ‎ ‎dylsss talk contribs‎ reverted edits by . . . (talk) (hg) ( . . ) tags: rollback reverted 	 diffhist embarrassment‎ : − ‎ ‎ . . . talk‎ changed word strutcure tags: visual edit reverted 	 diffhist self-pity‎ : + ‎ ‎lcscnc talk contribs‎ →‎see also 	 diffhist self-pity‎ : + ‎ ‎lcscnc talk contribs‎ →‎see also 	 diffhist module:wikidataib‎ : + ‎ ‎rexxs talk contribs‎ only call wikidata for p when formats[] exists -- update url function from sandbox 	 diffhist template:emotion‎ : − ‎ ‎liz talk contribs‎ removing a page that is a redirect 	 diffhist emotion‎ : + ‎ ‎eridian talk contribs‎ undid good faith edit by eweqw (talk) most of them are already correct tag: undo 	 diffhist m emotion‎ : − ‎ ‎eweqw talk contribs‎ i fixed some spelling isues tags: visual edit reverted 	 diffhist emotion‎ : − ‎ ‎xstoe talk contribs‎ reverting edit(s) by eweqw (talk) to rev. by pk : non-constructive (rw ) tags: undo redwarn 	 diffhist emotion‎ : + ‎ ‎eweqw talk contribs‎ tag: reverted 	 diffhist happiness‎ : + , ‎ ‎jcjc talk contribs‎ →‎indirect approaches 	 diffhist happiness‎ : − ‎ ‎jcjc talk contribs‎ →‎possible limits on happiness seeking 	 diffhist anger‎ : + , ‎ ‎ . . . talk‎ →‎causes: added sentence referring to cognitive-consistency theory 	 diffhist courage‎ : + ‎ ‎ . . . talk‎ →‎theories 	 diffhist m information technology‎ : − ‎ ‎larry hockett talk contribs‎ reverted edits by : : : c : : :b ae: (talk) to last version by theroadislong tag: rollback 	 diffhist information technology‎ : + ‎ ‎ : : : c : : :b ae: talk‎ tags: mobile edit mobile web edit reverted 	 diffhist information technology‎ : + ‎ ‎ : : : c : : :b ae: talk‎ tags: mobile edit mobile web edit reverted 	 diffhist anxiety‎ : + ‎ ‎hlsbby talk contribs‎ tags: mobile edit mobile web edit visual edit 	 diffhist template:sister project‎ : + ‎ ‎jonesey talk contribs‎ update wikiversity logo per tper december 	 diffhist depression (mood)‎ : + ‎ ‎gumgl talk contribs‎ adding/removing wikilink(s) tag: visual edit 	 diffhist m social rejection‎ : − ‎ ‎keith d talk contribs‎ →‎ball toss / cyberball experiments: fix pmc warnings tag: awb 	 diffhist social rejection‎ : + ‎ ‎alexh talk contribs‎ 	 diffhist anxiety‎ : + ‎ ‎alexh talk contribs‎ 	 diffhist wayback machine‎ : ‎ ‎pppery talk contribs‎ 	 diffhist m wayback machine‎ : − ‎ ‎materialscientist talk contribs‎ reverted edits by : :a: : : : : b (talk): not providing a reliable source (wp:cite, wp:rs) (hg) ( . . ) tag: rollback 	 diffhist wayback machine‎ : + ‎ ‎ : :a: :: b talk‎ →‎history tag: reverted 	 diffhist divorce‎ : − ‎ ‎mrollie talk contribs‎ unreliable source / blog 	 diffhist divorce‎ : + ‎ ‎ . . . talk‎ 	 diffhist m jealousy‎ : − ‎ ‎fehufanga talk contribs‎ reverted edit by . . . (talk) to last revision by . . . tags: undo twinkle 	 diffhist jealousy‎ : + ‎ ‎ . . . talk‎ tags: mobile edit mobile web edit reverted 	 diffhist m shyness‎ : − ‎ ‎larry hockett talk contribs‎ reverted edits by . . . (talk) to last version by garnarblarnar tag: rollback 	 diffhist shyness‎ : + ‎ ‎ . . . talk‎ added content tags: mobile edit mobile web edit manual revert reverted 	 diffhist shyness‎ : − ‎ ‎garnarblarnar talk contribs‎ reverted vandalism tags: manual revert reverted 	 diffhist shyness‎ : + ‎ ‎ . . . talk‎ type tags: mobile edit mobile web edit reverted 	 diffhist motivation‎ : − ‎ ‎wikignome wintergreen talk contribs‎ not yet ready for copy editing (see the talk page). removing the template for now. 	 diffhist information theory‎ : + ‎ ‎dimadick talk contribs‎ →‎external links 	 diffhist information theory‎ : + ‎ ‎dimadick talk contribs‎ →‎external links december 	 diffhist social identity theory‎ : + ‎ ‎flagrant hysterical curious talk contribs‎ add "see also" heading, add bullet list and ""other (philosophy)" with wl to other (philosophy) tag: visual edit 	 diffhist economic growth‎ : + ‎ ‎flagrant hysterical curious talk contribs‎ add wl for list of national and international statistical services to "statistical agencies" tag: visual edit 	 diffhist wonder (emotion)‎ : + , ‎ ‎ . . . talk‎ undid revision by . . . 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	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 fertrouwen - wikipedy 	 	 	 	 	fertrouwen 	 		ut wikipedy 		 		 		 		 		springe nei navigaasje 		springe nei sykjen 		fertrouwen, betrouwen of fidúsje (fan it latynske fiducia, mei deselde betsjutting) is in gemoedstastân en emoasje dy't men ûndergiet as men jinsels út frije wil ôfhinklik makket fan 'e aksjes fan in oar. dejinge dy't fertrout, ferlit him dan op dejinge dy't fertroud wurdt of yn wa't men fertrouwen stelt. soksoarte sitewaasjes binne altyd rjochte op 'e takomst, hoewol't ûnderfinings út it ferline in grûnslach foar it fertrouwen fan no skeppe kinne. om't er sels gjin sizzenskip mear oer de fierdere ûntjouwing fan 'e oangeande sitewaasje hat, is dejinge dy't fertrout ûnwis oer de útkomst, dy't ommers ôfhinget fan 'e dieden fan dejinge dy't fertroud wurdt. dejinge dy't fertrout kin inkeld ôfwachtsje hoe't it beteare sil en neitiid evaluëarje oft syn fertrouwen rjochtlik wie of dat dejinge dy't fertroud waard it yn him stelde fertrouwen beskamme hat. de ûnwissichheid betsjut dat der in risiko bestiet dat dejinge dy't fertrout skea oprinne sil troch it fertrouwen dat er stelt yn dejinge dy't fertroud wurdt. fertrouwen kin fan tapassing wêze op 'e relaasje tusken twa minsken, mar der kinne ek mear lju by it fertrouwen belutsen wêze. ferkiezings foarmje yn beskate sin in fertrouwensbân dêr't it hiele lân by belutsen is, mei't de kiezers derop fertrouwe moatte dat dejingen dy't sy yn it parlemint kieze, harren belangen dêr oprjocht fertsjintwurdigje sille. in beropsmjittige fertrouwensrelaasje bestiet fierders ek tusken bgl. in dokter en syn pasjinten of in abbekaat en syn kliïnten; foar sokke beroppen bestiet formele regeljouwing (yn 'e foarm fan it beropsgeheim) dy't it beskamjen fan fertrouwen foarkomme moat. as it giet om 'e relaasje tusken minsken en technology binne sosjologen en psychologen, dy't it begryp 'fertrouwen' ûndersykje, it der net oer iens oft de term fertrouwen ek dêrop fan tapassing is. guon wolle hawwe dat it wol sa neamd wurde kin as minsken harrensels mei opsetsin ôfhinklik meitsje fan technology: bgl. as se harren aginda inkeld yn 'e mobile tillefoan byhâlde, sadat se alles kwyt binne as dat apparaat stikken giet. oaren binne fan miening dat rasjonele beprakkesearring ta de konklúzje liede moat dat soks net itselde is as fertrouwen. wittenskiplik ûndersyk hat oantoand dat minsken der fan natuere ta oerhingje om oaren te fertrouwen. ek hawwe se in natuerlik fermogen om 'e fertrouwensweardichheid fan oaren te beoardieljen, dat fuortkomt út 'e neurobiologyske struktuer en aktiviteit fan 'e minsklike harsens. guon ûndersiken wize derop dat de niging ta fertrouwen feroare wurde kin troch de tapassing fan it hormoan oksytosine. yn 'e sosjale wittenskippen binne de details fan it begryp 'fertrouwen' noch altyd folop it ûnderwerp fan ûndersyk. yn 'e sosjology en de psychology jout de mjitte fan fertrouwen dy't immen yn in oar skept, oan ynhoefier't men leaut yn 'e oprjochtens, earlikheid en/of goedaardichheid fan 'e oare. it beskamjen fan fertrouwen wurdt oer it algemien earder ferjûn as dat fuortkomt út in gebrek oan kompetinsje (oftewol in gebrek oan fermogen) as út in gebrek oan goedaardichheid of oprjochtens. selsfertrouwen, dat op jinsels rjochte is, hat net folle mei fertrouwen te krijen, mei't dêrby gjin sprake is fan in sitewaasje wêrby't ûnwissichheid in rol spilet. boarnen, noaten en referinsjes[boarne bewurkje] 	boarnen, noaten en/as referinsjes: 	 foar boarnen en oare literatuer, sjoch ûnder: references, op dizze side. untfongen fan "https://fy.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=fertrouwen&oldid= " 		kategoryen: 	emoasje 	gemoedstastân 	sosjology 	psychology 	 	 	navigaasjemenu 	 		 	 		persoanlike ynstellingen 	 	 			net oanmeld 	oerlis 	bydragen 	registrearje 	oanmelde 		 	 		 			 	 		nammeromten 	 	 			artikel 	oerlis 		 	 			 	 	 		farianten 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		werjeften 	 	 			lêze 	bewurkje 	boarne bewurkje 	skiednis besjen 		 	 			 	 	 		mear 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		sykje 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigaasje 	 	 			haadside 	wikipedy-mienskip 	hjoed 	koartlyn feroare 	samar in side 	help 	donaasjes 		 	 	 	 		helpmiddels 	 	 			hjirmei keppele 	keppelings folgje 	bysûndere siden 	fêste keppeling 	sidegegevens 	dizze side sitearje 	wikidata-item 		 	 	 		ofdrukke/eksportearje 	 	 			boek meitsje 	ynlade as pdf 	ofdrukferzje 		 	 	 		yn oare projekten 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		yn oare talen 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	galego 	עברית 	Հայերեն 	hrvatski 	italiano 	日本語 	Қазақша 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		keppelings bewurkje 	 		 dizze side is it lêst bewurke op aug om . . 	de tekst is beskikber ûnder de lisinsje creative commons nammefermelding-lyk diele; der kinne oanfoljende betingsten fan tapassing wêze. sjoch de gebrûksbetingsten foar mear ynformaasje. 		privacybelied 	oer wikipedy 	foarbehâld 	mobile ferzje 	untwikkelders 	statistiken 	taljochting koekjes 		 	 	 신뢰 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전 	 	 	 	 	신뢰 	 		위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전. 		 		 		 		 		둘러보기로 가기 		검색하러 가기 			정서 	 	 	애착 	노여움 	고뇌 	괴로움 	짜증 	불안 	무감정 	각성 	경외 	지루함 	확신 	경멸 	만족 	용기 	호기 	우울 	욕구 	실망 	혐오 	불신 	황홀 	어색 	시기 	다행 	공포 	불만 	감사 	비탄 	죄책 	행복 	증오 	희망 	호러 	적의 	히스테리 	흥미 	질투 	재미 	외로움 	사랑 	성욕 	격분 	공황 	열정 	연민 	기쁨 	교만 	분노 	후회 	안도 	슬픔 	샤덴프로이데 	자신 	수치 	충격 	수줍음 	비애 	고통 	놀라움 	테러 	신뢰 	경탄 	걱정 	열의 	격정 		v 	t 	e 신뢰(信賴)는 타인의 미래 행동이 자신에게 호의적이거나 또는 최소한 악의적이지는 않을 가능성에 대한 기대와 믿음을 말한다. 즉 신뢰는 상대가 어떻게 행동할 것이라는 믿음 하에 상대방의 협조를 기대하는 것[ ]이라고 볼 수 있다. 보통 불확실성이 제도화함에 따라 순응의 발생이 확실해지는 상황에 신뢰가 형성된다.[ ] 신뢰에 대한 다양한 정의들을 정리하면, 신뢰란 '한 행위자가 위험에도 불구하고 다른 행위자가 자신의 기대 혹은 이해에 맞도록 행동할 것이라는 주관적 기대'이다. 이러한 신뢰는 사회적 관계를 전제로 하며, 그 관계속에서 존재하며, 신뢰가 있음으로 해서 관련 행위자들은 협동을 할 수 있고, 감시와 통제 비용을 줄일 수 있다는 점에서 사회적 자본의 전형적인 경우이다. 또한 신뢰는 사회적 자본으로서 공공재의 성격을 가지고 있다. 이는 다시 말해 신뢰 또한 공중재로서의 딜레마를 갖고 있다는 것을 의미한다. 즉, 사회적 관계 내에서 합리적 개인이라면 자신은 신뢰를 주지 않으면서 타인들은 자신에게 신뢰를 주거나 혹은 자신과 관련된 사람들간에 사회적 신뢰가 형성되기를 바랄 것이다.[ ] 신뢰 논의를 최초로 이론적으로 전개한 사회학자는 니클라스 루만이다. 년대 말 루만은 체계이론의 시각에서 사회적 복잡성의 한 해소 기제로 신뢰문제를 다루기 시작하면서 이 문제에 대한 사회과학적 논의의 가능성이 크게 열리게 되었다.[ ] 목차 	 신뢰의 구조 	 대한민국에서의 신뢰 연구 	 참고 문헌 	 같이 보기 신뢰의 구조[편집] 	신뢰는 언제나 위험을 전제로 하고 있으며, 즉 신뢰자는 신뢰의 대상이 기대대로 행위하지 않을 수 있다는 배신의 가능성을 항상 전제한다. 만일 신뢰의 대상이 어떤 이유에서든지 특정 행위만을 할 수 밖에 없다면 그 내용에 상관없이 우리는 신뢰가 존재한다고 할 수 없다. 	신뢰는 정보의 불확실성과 감시의 불완전성을 둘다 모두! 전제한다. 	신뢰는 자발적이다. 즉, 신뢰는 신뢰자나 신뢰의 대상 모두에게 자발성을 전제로 한다. 	신뢰는 신뢰자의 계산성을 전제로 한다. 계산성을 정의하면 신뢰자가 신뢰의 대상이 신뢰의 기대대로 행동할 확률과 실제로 기대대로 행동했을 때의 이익과 배반했을 때의 손실을 예상하고 이에 따라 신뢰할 것인가 아닐 것인가를 미리 정한다는 것이다. 혹은 신뢰자는 무조건적으로 손해보는 것을 예상하고 신뢰하지는 않을 것이라는 것이다. 	신뢰의 궁극적인 목표는 협조이다. 즉 한 행위자가 다른 행위자를 신뢰한다는 것은 다른 행위자가 자신의 이해에 부응하도록 협조할 것을 주관적으로 기대하는 것이다. 	신뢰란 사회적 관계성을 전제로 한다. 즉, 신뢰란 최소한 두 사람 이상의 사회적 관계를 나타내는 특성이며 그 사회적 관계 내에 존재한다.[ ] 대한민국에서의 신뢰 연구[편집] 대한민국에서 신뢰에 대한 사회학적인 논의가 국내에서 본격적으로 전개되기 시작한 역사가 짧음에도 불구하고 학계의 비교적 커다란 관심을 끌게 된 데에는 경제 위기 경험이 크게 작용하였다.[ ] 이러한 사회 현실의 배경과 함께 근래에 와서 해외 학계에서 신뢰 문제에 관한 논의가 빠르게 확산되어온 것도 중요한 배경이 되었다. 또한 국내의 신뢰론자들은 대체로 신뢰를 대표적인 사회자본으로 간주하여 신뢰의 축적 방안을 모색하는 데 공통된 관심을 기울이는 경향이 있다.[ ] 참고 문헌[편집] 		위키미디어 공용에 관련된 미디어 분류가 있습니다.신뢰 	↑ 가 나 홍재우. “민주주의 공고화의 이해: 불확실성과 불신의 제도화”. 《신뢰연구》. 년 월 일에 확인함.  	↑ 가 나 박찬웅. “경쟁의 사회적 구조”. 《한국사회학》. 년 월 일에 확인함.  	↑ 가 나 다 강수택. “사회적 신뢰에 관한 이론적 시각들과 한국 사회”. 《사회와 이론》. 년 월 일에 확인함.  같이 보기[편집] 		철학 포털 	믿음 		v 	t 	e 윤리학 	이론	 	결의론 	결과주의 	의무론 	칸트주의 윤리학 	보살핌의 윤리 	실존주의 윤리학 	메타윤리학 	특수주의 	실용주의 	역할 윤리 	덕 윤리 	공리주의 	사회계약론 	개념	 	자주권 	가치론 	믿음 	양심 	동의 	평등 	돌봄 	자유 의지 	선악 	선 	악 	행복 	이상 	부도덕 	정의 	자유 	도덕 	규범 	정치적 자유 	원리 	고통 	스튜어드십 	동정 	연민 	신뢰 	가치 	가치관 	덕 	세계관 	범법 	더 보기... 	윤리학자	 	노자 	소크라테스 	플라톤 	아리스토텔레스 	디오게네스 	티루발루바 	키케로 	공자 	아우구스티누스 	맹자 	묵자 	순자 	아퀴나스 	스피노자 	흄 	칸트 	헤겔 	쇼펜하우어 	벤담 	밀 	키르케고르 	시즈위크 	니체 	무어 	바르트 	틸리히 	본회퍼 	푸트 	롤스 	듀이 	윌리엄스 	매키 	앤스콤 	프랑케나 	매킨타이어 	헤어 	니부어 	싱어 	파핏 	네이글 	애덤스 	테일러 	샌델 	비첨 	코스가드 	누스바움 	해리스 	더 보기... 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looking for is in a language other than english, you might find it helpful to look at the equivalent pages on other wikipedias, linked below – they are more likely to have sources appropriate for that language. special:booksources in other language wikipedias 	isbn prefix ranges 	wikipedia 	 	english (this page) 	 - 	french 	 	german 	 (japan)	japanese 	 (russia, former ussr)	russian 	 (china, pr) / (taiwan, roc) / (hong kong, sar) (singapore) (macau, sar) 	chinese 	 (czech republic)	czech 	 (poland)	polish 	 (spain) (argentina) (chile) (colombia) (cuba) / (mexico) (venezuela) / (ecuador)	spanish 	 (brasil) (portugal)	portuguese 	 (serbia, montenegro)	serbian 	 (former yugoslavia) (croatia)	croatian 	 (former yugoslavia) (slovenia)	slovenian 	 	danish 	 	italian 	 	korean 	 	dutch 	 	swedish 	 	international organizations (multilingual) 	 (india)	hindi 	 (india) (sri lanka)	tamil 	 / (finland)	finnish 	 	bulgarian 	 (sri lanka)	sinhalese 	 	greek 	 	hungarian 	 / (iran)	persian 	 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(bangladesh)	bangla 		welsh bibliographical information these links produce citations in various referencing styles. 	bibliographical information on ottobib (mla) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (apa) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (chicago) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (wikipedia) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (bibtex) find other editions you can look up isbns for different editions of the same book, hardback or paperback, first print or a reprint, even re-editions where the title has changed using xisbn. xisbn's linkages are determined algorithmically, based on the concepts of the functional requirements for bibliographic records. 	results in xml 	results in html you can also convert between and digit isbn numbers with these tools: 	isbn converter at isbn.org 	isbn converter (with optional hyphenation after conversion) at the library of congress find on wikipedia 	find articles on wikipedia which cite this isbn. see also 	wikipedia:book sources – "wikipedia:book sources" will be clickable in the non-editable version of this page, and will take one to the editable version of this page. 	wikipedia talk:book sources – for questions and discussion about this page. 	wikipedia:isbn – explanation of mediawiki software treatment of isbn numbers. 	list of academic databases and search engines 	list of digital library projects 	list of online encyclopedias 	list of online databases 	wikipedia:list of bibliographies 		the wikipedia library (talk | e) apply for free access to research! research tools and services 	resource exchange 	reference desk 	research desk 	discover open access 	free resource guides 	book sources 	journal sources 	bibliographies 	free newspaper sources 	online archives 	find your local library tips 	find your source tips 	how to find sources 	citation tools guide outreach 	the wikipedia library bookshelf (meta) 	universities and libraries 	archivists 	publishers 	wikipedia loves libraries 	wikidata source metadata get involved 	get free access to sources 	read the books & bytes newsletter 	help disambiguate authors of scholarly papers 	be a wikipedia visiting scholar 	teach library interns 	become a coordinator 	learn about twl ...support open access... retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:booksources/ - - - " 		categories: 	wikipedia resources for researchers hidden categories: 	pages with short description 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			special page 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			upload file 	special pages 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 none book sources - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	book sources 	 		 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 this page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the - or -digit isbn number. spaces and dashes in the isbn number do not matter. search for book sourcesisbn: search wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources for assistance, see help:isbn. this page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its international standard book number (isbn). 	if you arrived at this page by clicking an isbn link in a wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. to search for a different book, type that 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(bangladesh)	bangla 		welsh bibliographical information these links produce citations in various referencing styles. 	bibliographical information on ottobib (mla) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (apa) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (chicago) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (wikipedia) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (bibtex) find other editions you can look up isbns for different editions of the same book, hardback or paperback, first print or a reprint, even re-editions where the title has changed using xisbn. xisbn's linkages are determined algorithmically, based on the concepts of the functional requirements for bibliographic records. 	results in xml 	results in html you can also convert between and digit isbn numbers with these tools: 	isbn converter at isbn.org 	isbn converter (with optional hyphenation after conversion) at the library of congress find on wikipedia 	find articles on wikipedia which cite this isbn. see also 	wikipedia:book sources – "wikipedia:book sources" will be clickable in the non-editable version of this page, and will take one to the editable version of this page. 	wikipedia talk:book sources – for questions and discussion about this page. 	wikipedia:isbn – explanation of mediawiki software treatment of isbn numbers. 	list of academic databases and search engines 	list of digital library projects 	list of online encyclopedias 	list of online databases 	wikipedia:list of bibliographies 		the wikipedia library (talk | e) apply for free access to research! research tools and services 	resource exchange 	reference desk 	research desk 	discover open access 	free resource guides 	book sources 	journal sources 	bibliographies 	free newspaper sources 	online archives 	find your local library tips 	find your source tips 	how to find sources 	citation tools guide outreach 	the wikipedia library bookshelf (meta) 	universities and libraries 	archivists 	publishers 	wikipedia loves libraries 	wikidata source metadata get involved 	get free access to sources 	read the books & bytes newsletter 	help disambiguate authors of scholarly papers 	be a wikipedia visiting scholar 	teach library interns 	become a coordinator 	learn about twl ...support open access... retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:booksources/ - - - " 		categories: 	wikipedia resources for researchers hidden categories: 	pages with short description 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			special page 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			upload file 	special pages 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 Довіра — Вікіпедія 	 	 	 	 	Довіра 	 		Матеріал з Вікіпедії — вільної енциклопедії. 		 змін у цій версії очікують на перевірку. Стабільну версію було перевірено квітня . змін у цій версії очікують на перевірку. Стабільну версію було перевірено квітня . 		 		 		 		Перейти до навігації 		Перейти до пошуку 			 	Цю статтю треба вікіфікувати для відповідності стандартам якості Вікіпедії. Будь ласка, допоможіть додаванням доречних внутрішніх посилань або вдосконаленням розмітки статті. (жовтень ) 	 	Цей розділ потребує додаткових посилань на джерела для поліпшення його перевірності. Будь ласка, допоможіть удосконалити цей розділ, додавши посилання на надійні джерела. Матеріал без джерел може бути піддано сумніву та вилучено. (жовтень ) Довіра — соціологічна та психологічна категорія впевненість у порядності й доброзичливості іншої сторони, з котрою довіряючий знаходиться в тих чи інших відносинах, що базується на його досвіді. Довіра не має потреби у включенні якоїсь дії, так що ви та протилежна сторона є взаємно втягнуті в неї. Довіра є всього лише передбачення покладання на якусь дію, яке базується на тому, що знає одна сторона про іншу. Наприклад, тому, що подія відбувається десь далеко і не може бути підтвердженою, або подія відбудеться тільки в майбутньому. З цієї точки зору довіра має певні межі, що базуються на знанні про іншу сторону, якій довіряють. Довіра — це твердження про те, що поки що невідоме, але має якусь вірогідність статися. Повну довіру часто ототожнюють з вірою, бо механізм такої довіри вже не базується на раціональних засадах тобто на досвіді й на передбаченні, та на попередньому знанні однієї сторони другою і включає ірраціональні мотиви взаємовідносин. Зміст 	 Соціологія 	 Психологія 	 Походження категорії довіра та її зв'язок з природничими науками 	 . Семантично- лінгвістичний парадокс 	 . Внутрішньовидова довіра 	 . . Онтогенезна довіра 	 . . Філогенезна довіра 	 . . Міжродова довіра всередині виду 	 . . . Міжродова довіра у вищих ссавців 	 . . . Міжродова довіра серед людей 	 . Міжвидова довіра 	 . . Міжвидова довіра серед тварин 	 . . Доместикаційна довіра як варіант міжвидової довіри 	 . Довіра і біологія 	 . . Довіра на генетичному рівні 	 . . Довіра на клітинному рівні 	 . . Довіра на системному/органічному рівні 	 . . Довіра на рівні периферійної нервової системи 	 . . Довіра на рівні вищої нервової системи 	 . Довіра і математика 	 . Довіра і фізика 	 . Довіра і девіаційна поведінка 	 Див. також 	 Примітки 	 Джерела 	 Література 	 Посилання Соціологія[ред. | ред. код] В соціальних науках категорія довіри сьогодні є предметом активних досліджень. В соціології (та психології) рівні довіри, до яких одна сторона може довіряти іншій, вимірюються у вірі в чесності, доброчинності та компетенції іншої сторони. Базуючись на останніх наукових дослідженнях, недовіра може бути прощена значно легше, коли вона інтерпретується як недостатня компетентність, ніж недостатня доброзичливість, чи чесність. З цих перспектив, довіра являє собою ментальний стан, котрий не може бути виміряний безпосередньо. Впевненість в результатах процесу довіри може бути виміряна через поведінку, або навпаки, кожен може робити само- оцінки довіри (з усіма обмовками, що супроводжують цей суб'єктивний метод). Довіра може розглядатися як моральний вибір, або нарешті як еврістичний крок, що дозволяє людині діяти в умовах надзвичайно складної ситуації (з явно недостатньою інформацією про ситуацію), коли все одно приходиться приймати раціональне рішення. В цьому випадку комп'ютерний «розв'язок» проблеми не має сенсу, оскільки останній не має морального почуття і повністю покладаються на раціональну логіку. Будь-яка довіра в рамках комп'ютерного програмування насправді враховує властивості користувача (user), конкретного комп'ютера та творця комп'ютерної програми, котрий вставив раціональні правила в конкретну програму. Френсіс Фукуяма та Том Тайлер[ ] — академіки, що підтримують цю концепцію довіри, як моральну систему, що не завжди піддається явному розгляду. Друга перспектива в соціальній теорії випливає із класичних «Начал соціальної теорії» Джеймса Колемана. Колеман пропонує наступне чотирьох- часткове визначення: 	Установлення довіри дозволяє дії, котрі в інших умовах є неможливі (тобто довіра дозволяє дії в умовах недостатньої інформації про ситуацію та шляхи виходу з неї). 	У випадку, коли ми маємо особу, наділену довірою (довірун/trustee) і вона є варта довіри, тоді довірнику (trustor) буде краще, коли довіруну довіряють. Навпаки, коли (довірун/trustee) є не вартий довір'я, тоді довірнику (trustor) буде гірше, коли довіруну довіряють (це є ремінісценсія класичної дилеми в'язня). 	Довіра є дія, що включає довільну (волюнтаристську) передачу ресурсів (фізичних, фінансових, інтелектуальних, чи тимчасових інших) від довірника (trustor/truster/settler) до довіруна (trustee) і, знову отримуємо т.з. дилему в'язня). 	Існує певна затримка між процесами надання довіри та результатами довірчої поведінки. Сила визначень Колемана полягає в тому, що вони дозволяють розглядати в деталях довірчу поведінку. Ці розгляди корисні не тільки в частковому випадку людино- машинних процесів розгляду довіри, проте і в загальній довірчій поведінці сторін/партій. Одним із критичних елементів довірчої поведінки є «влада». Той, хто знаходиться в залежній позиції не може бути наділений довірою відносно інших в моральному сенсі, проте може бути визначеним як вартий довірення у більшості часткових випадків, що не стосуються влади. Процес довіри іншій стороні, коли перша сторона вимушена робити це, іноді називають «залежною довірою»(reliance), щоб підкреслити що віра в доброчинність та компетентність може бути відсутньою, тоді як «бажання досягти вигоди» — присутнє. Інші посилаються тільки на примус/коерцію. Визначення Колемана не приймають до уваги різницю між «довірою» (достойність = worthiness), як моральним (іраціональним) атрибутом, та «вірністю» (trustworthiness), як чисто раціональною «надійністю» (reliability). Аннета Баєр (ethics, ) характерезувала контексти довіри, як структури взаємодії, в яких моральні зобов'язання діють між договорунами (trustees). Суть конфлікту в сучасних соціальних науках полягає в тому, що невідомо чи довіра є повністю внутрішньо- імманентна категорія (невидима), і тільки впевненість можна спостерігати зовні, чи довірча поведінка (та самооцінка рівня довіри) може осмислено вимірювати довіру у відсутності коерції (насильницьких дій). Необхідно відзначити, що в багатьох мовах (наприклад німецькій) не розрізняються слова- категорії «довіра» та «впевненість», що ускладнює розгляд проблеми. Різниця між довірою та впевненістю сьогодні являє собою нерозв'язну проблему соціальних «довірчо — впевненістних» досліджень. В загальному випадку довіра важлива як соціальний інститут (урядові організації тощо), і тому спільноти потребують перманетної присутності довіри в суспільстві. Тому довіра та альтруїзм (іраціональні категорії) сьогодні є областями досліджень навіть в галузі економіки не зважаючи на те, що ці концепції виходять далеко за межі традиційної раціональної економіки. Психологія[ред. | ред. код] У психології довіра являє собою інтегральну ідею соціального впливу: адже значно легше впливати на тих, чи їх переконувати, у випадку коли вони вірять (один із варіантів «суггестії»). Посилання на довіру в значній мірі використовується при передбаченні прийнятності майбутньої поведінки народних мас, соціальними інститутами (такими як Урядові установи та комп'ютерне моделювання). Проте, знову ж таки сприйняття чесності, компетенції та категорійної подібності, дещо подібної до доброчинності, продовжують залишатися чинними. Як тільки довіра втрачена, шляхом обов'язкового насильницького удару по одній із цих основних детермінант, тоді буде дуже важко знову відновити довіру в суспільстві. Більше того, існує явна симетрія в процесах будівництва та руйнування довіри. Тому тільки вірна/правильна (trustworthy) дія/чин на певну детермінанту — ось єдино можливий шлях для підтримки заданого рівня довіри в суспільстві. Достатня кількість досліджень була зробленна з розробки проблеми довіри та її соціального використання: 	Варвара Міжтал в своїй книзі[ ] спробувала об'єднати всі посилання на довіру разом. Вона відмічає «довіра робить три основні речі в житті людини»: Вона створює соціальне життя передбачуваним, вона створює почуття спільноти, та вона полегшує спільну роботу людей разом. 	В контексті сексуальної довіри Рікі Роббінз[ ] описує чотири стани довіри: 	В контексті інформаційної теорії Ед Джерк визначає та розрізняє довіру від соціальних функцій, таких як[ ] влада, прислуговування, та однозначність сприймання (accountability/answerability): Походження категорії довіра та її зв'язок з природничими науками[ред. | ред. код] Семантично- лінгвістичний парадокс[ред. | ред. код] Цей парадокс виникає в т.з. «примордіальних мовах», котрі в найменшій мірі піддалися цивілізаційному впливу (у вторинних мовах, котрі зазнали цивілізаційного впливу, від цього парадоксу лишаються лише релікти, або зовсім нічого). Дійсно, за самим визначенням «примордіальної мови» (тобто мови, яка була сучасником процесу «творення Світу») повинні залишитися «сліди», котрі несуть інформацію про процеси утворення «семантичних ніш», наприклад, ніші «довіри» та «віри». Оскільки всі «слов'янські мови» належать до класу примордіальних, тому в них в явній формі представлений процес «словотворення». Наприклад, в українській мові категорія «довіра» є похідна від категорії «віра». Дійсно, складне слово «довіра» складається з двох слів: префікса «до» та кореня «віра». Тому семантика категорії «довіра» декодується, як те, що було до «віри». Тобто із семантичної точки зору, категорія «довіра» є значно старшою від категорії «віра», яка є відносно молода. Проте з лінгвістичної точки зору, слово «довіра», як похідне від простого «віра», є значно молодшим від «віри». Це протиріччя і складає суть «семантично- лінгвістичного парадоксу», розв'язок якого можна шукати у наступному напрямі. На ранніх етапах розвитку суспільства існувала семантична пракатегорія, котра можливо мала назву «віра» (це не обов'язково в загальному випадку) і вона в собі містила (не розрізняла) обидві сучасні категорії, котрі мають назву «довіра» та «віра». Проте з ускладненням супільства та суспільних відносин ця пракатегорія уже не могла підтримувати суспільний лад, і вона природним чином розділилася на дві незалежні категорії — нової — «віри», котра зберегла стару назву пракатегорії (вона на тому етапі здалася важливішою для виживання суспільства), та старої «довіра», котра отримала нову назву, як похідну від назви пракатегорії «віра» (а не від назви нової категорії «віра»). Внутрішньовидова довіра[ред. | ред. код] Онтогенезна довіра[ред. | ред. код] В процесі онтогенезу кожна жива істота (особливо вищі ссавці) проходять після народження стадію дитинства, під час якої протікає т.з. научання (не має принципового значення якими методами — насильницькими, чи добровільними), під час якого дитинча ссавця переймає стандартні моделі/алгоритми поведінки дорослих осіб (як правило близьких родичів), що дозволяє в наступному періоді без суттєвих проблем увійти в соціальну структуру дорослих. Очевидно, що на етапі дитинства кожна істота повинна в першу чергу призвичаїтися до онтогенезної довіри, простими словами — довіри до самого себе, причому це призвичаєння повинне протікати під ретельним доглядом дорослих (спершу під наглядом люблячої матері, потім — під наглядом старших братів, чи сестер, а потім і старших родичів). Стадія нагляду старших обов'язкова, оскільки при її ослабленні онтогенезна довіра стає домінантою в поведінці як маляти, так і дорослої особи, що зрештою ослаблює соціальну адаптацію маляти в дорослому світі (це є один із можливих варіантів девіантної поведінки, що відрізняється від стандартної для кожного виду). Філогенезна довіра[ред. | ред. код] За визначенням, філогенезна довіра, на відміну від онтогенезної, означає тривіальну довіру до представників свого роду (матері, батька та близьких родичів) у вузькому сенсі, або довіру до зграї/племені і навіть до всіх представників цього виду в широкому сенсі. Очевидно, що філогенезна довіра закладає основи для соціальної поведінки, а значить і виконує роль потенційного базису для створення складних соціальних структур типу зграї, прайду, чи племені. Міжродова довіра всередині виду[ред. | ред. код] Міжродова довіра є різновид філогенезної довіри. Не зважаючи на багато спільних моментів, слід відрізняти її варіанти серед вищих ссавців та людей, оскільки останні мають значно складнішу організацію суспільних відношень. Міжродова довіра у вищих ссавців[ред. | ред. код] Оскільки вищі ссавці поділяються на два антоганістичні класи — хижаків та жертв, тому міжродова довіра в них суттєво відрізняється. Дійсно, в процесі еволюційного розвитку хижаки до тонкощів відпрацювали механізм агресії, як до представників інших видів, що виступають як потенційні жертви, прийнятні для споживання, так і до інших хижаків (не має суттєвого значення якого виду). Основна відміна хижаків від їхніх жертв полягає в тому, що перші мають контрольовану агресію, а другі — неконтрольовану агресію. Тому в процесі еволюції був відпрацьований етологічний захисний механізм серед хижаків, що дозволяє при подачі певного знаку повністю зупиняти агресію сильнішого хижака. Тобто, якщо суперник хижак подає сигнал про поразку в змаганні за щось, тоді його сильніший суперник приймає поразку слабшого і призупиняє свій стан агресії відносно нього. А це і є не що інше, як стан довіри переможця до сигналізації переможеного. Звичайно і для травоїдних також характерний стан агресії в певних ситуаціях змагань між суперниками, проте на відміну від хижаків, перші не мають етологічних правил для припинення (контролю) такої агресії (тому кролики, чи олені можуть загризти/забити суперника до смерті). Як правило, травоїдні мають низький рівень агресії відносно членів свого виду у випадку достатніх природних ресурсів (тобто міжродова довіра серед них є досить висока), проте це зовсім не означає, що вони створюють складну соціальну структуру при об'єднанні в стадо. Навпаки, хижаки мають високий рівень агресії навіть всередині одного роду, тому міжродова довіра у них є дуже низька і вони дуже рідко створюють міжродові об'єднання між собою (особливо крупні хижаки). Серед дрібних хижаків, котрі не здатні самостійно здобувати їжу, міжродова довіра може бути високою (наприклад в зграї шакалів, чи вовків), проте і в цьому випадку соціальна структура зграї не дуже складна. Міжродова довіра серед людей[ред. | ред. код] Міжродова довіра серед людей дозволяє створювати племінні структури, які базуються не на ознаці приналежності до певного роду, а до приналежності спершу до вищої підвидової структури — раси, а потім і до міжрасових соціальних об'єднань. Потреба в міжродовій структурі спершу виникла в критичні моменти для виживання роду, обумовлені природними катаклізмами при різкій депопопуляції окремих родів. Проте і у випадку перенаселення знову ж таки виникає потреба у міжродовій довірі для зменшення тертя між родовими групами (перманентний стан агресії може тривіально призвести не тільки до геноциду якогось роду/племені, проте і до взаємного знищення племен, що базуються тільки на родовій довірі). Міжвидова довіра[ред. | ред. код] Міжвидова довіра серед тварин[ред. | ред. код] Міжвидова довіра серед тварин є досить рідкісним явищем, особливо серед близьких видів. Проте серед досить віддалених видів вона зрідка трапляється, в результаті чого виникає своєрідний та взаємовигідний симбіоз (союз). Наприклад, поряд з акулами можна помітити маленьких рибок- лоцманів, що постійно супроводжують грізного хижака. З одного боку вони виконують певні санітарні функції відносно хазяїна, а з іншого боку вони є достатньо жваві, щоб не попадати на зуби хижака. Існує також певна міжвидова довіра між дельфінами та людиною (не плутати з одомашненням!). Можливо це є наслідок спільної еволюційної історії співжиття в шельфовій зоні (див. т.з. акватичну теорію походження людини), що закріпилася у дельфінів на генетичному рівні. Тобто з одного боку у дельфінів немає страху (та агресії) перед людиною, тому в критичні моменти вони приходять на допомогу, а з іншого боку люди, вийшовши з води, не зазнали негативного досвіду полювання на дельфінів тоді, коли їхні вміння та знаряддя праці досягли того рівня, щоб подолати їхній супротив. Доместикаційна довіра як варіант міжвидової довіри[ред. | ред. код] Доместикаційна довіра практично не відома серед диких тварин, оскільки в її основі лежить дихотомія майстер — підлеглий (master — slave), в якій ролю майстра (володаря) виконує завжди людина-розумна, а як підлеглого — одомашнена тварина. Раціональні уявлення про порівняно пізню доместикацію тварин (післяльодовиковий період, близько років), що базуються на польових дослідженнях, не витримують критики. Дійсно, крім польових досліджень існують також лабораторні дослідження (наприклад різноманітні генетичні дослідження, серед яких мітохондріальний спектральний аналіз). Останні переконливо показали, що генетичне розходження між сучасними одомашненими котами та собаками і їхніми дикими предками має відстань близько тис. років. Для порівняння, саме виникнення людини розумної (кроманьйонця) оцінюється в тис. років! Проте генетична відстань між кроманьйонцем та неандертальцем оцінюється в тис. років. Звідси тривіально випливає, що процеси взаємної доместикації протікали задовго до того, коли на світ з'явилась людина розумна. Більше того, тис. років тому головна ініціатива доместикаційної довіри виходила не від предків людини (оскільки нагальної раціональної потреби в ній не було!), а від предків одомашнених котів та собак! Іншими словами, протікав корельовано та одночасно процес одомашенення котів та собак і процес формування людини розумної! Тобто і коти, і собаки певним чином впливали на становлення людини розумної (тобто своєрідно доместикували її) і скоріше всього без доместикаційного впливу останніх навряд чи утворився б сучасний кроманьйонець тис. років тому. Наскільки цей процес взаємної доместикації був сильний говорить тривіальний факт, що тільки серед сучасних людей та котів ми маємо дивергенцію «кольору очей», що безумовно закріплена на генетичному рівні (блакитний та зелений колір очей є характерний тільки для сучасних білих людей та котів). Також не виключено, що при достатньо великій цивілізаційній відстані між родами/племенами в суспільстві, цивілізованіші роди проводили свою місію серед менш цивілізованих не за рахунок міжродової довіри, а за рахунок доместикаційної довіри (хоч можлива також ситуація і комплексної взаємодії обох довір). Звичайно одним насиллям тут обійтися не вдасться, а в першу чергу необхідна готовність менш цивілізованих родів до довіри та на певні втрати в своєму генофонді. Довіра і біологія[ред. | ред. код] Довіра на генетичному рівні[ред. | ред. код] На генетичному рівні довірчі процеси протікають при реплікації. Дійсно, розщеплення двох ДНК а потім з'єднання двох комплементарних частин можливе тільки при повній довірі між реплікантами. Звичайно при мутагенезі можливі деякі відмінності між реплікантами, котрі не носять фатального характеру. Довіра на клітинному рівні[ред. | ред. код] Типовий приклад довіри на клітинному рівні — це мирне співжиття (своєрідний симбіоз)) в одній клітинній оболонці різних/чужих структур, таких як ядро та мітохондрія, взаємовідношення яких за межами клітини просто не можливе або носить антоганістичний характер. Довіра на системному/органічному рівні[ред. | ред. код] У внутрішніх органах тварин та людини живе велике різноманіття живих істот, що знаходиться на нижчих щаблях еволюції. Серед них різноманітні бактерії, що сприяють процесам травлення, а також різноманітні глисти- паразити (можливо вони також мають певну користь для організму). Очевидно, що всі ці паразити мають повну довіру до середовища свого існування (поза ним вони просто не виживають). З іншого боку, ці паразити приносять певну вигоду їхнім носіям, тому їх терплять і це вказує на певний рівень довіри також з боку носія цих паразитів. Слід також відмітити певну «користь» і від різноманітних вірусів, що перманентно вражають всі вищі види тварин та людей. Адже вони до певної міри підтримують стан готовності організму (якщо не вмре і створить імунітет) до еволюційних змін генотипу в нових природних умовах. Довіра на рівні периферійної нервової системи[ред. | ред. код] Очевидно, що довіра на рівні першої сигнальної системи, спільної і для тварин, і для людей, виконує ролю наріжного каменю для виживання кожної живої істоти. Звичайно ця довіра реалізується на рівні підсвідомості за допомогою безумовних рефлексів. Оскільки на рівні першої сигнальної системи категорія моралі відсутня за замовчуванням, тому довірчий процес можна розглянути на прикладі простої комп'ютерної моделі. В рамках цього підходу розглядається тривіальний контролер, котрий має центральний процесор, що обробляє різноманітну інформацію, що поступає шиною і частково зберігається в оперативній та довгострокової пам'яті контролера. Цілісність такого контролера забезпечує т.з. операційна система. Цей контролер (перша сигнальна система) виконує роль «майстра» над усім «організмом», яким він керує. Тому, очевидно, що організм істоти повністю довіряє/вірить будь- якому рішенню, що прийме контролер в будь-якій ситуації. Не менш очевидно, що контролер переслідує певну ціль, котра в даному випадку є не стільки виживання (це само собою зрозуміло), скільки підтримки комфортного стану всього організму (температура, тиск, наявність енергії для дії і т.і.). В рамках теорії систем цей комфортний стан ще називають гомеостазом (простими словами — стабілізатором комфорту). Зміна будь-якого зовнішнього, чи внутрішнього подразнення викликає автоматичну компенсаторну дію контролера з відновлення гомеостазу, тобто по суті система організм — контролер працює в аналоговому режимі (тобто неперервна зміна зовнішніх/внутрішніх подразників викликає компенсаторну неперервну реакцію контролера, а значить і організму). Наприклад, коли людина, чи тварина рухається по землі, то воне не задумується над тим, куди ногу поставити, наскільки високо її підняти, куди повернути тощо. Вона просто «йде», повністю довірившись першій сигнальній системі, яка в неперервному компенсаторному режимі відпрацьовує всі тонкощі руху дорогою. Насправді це є тривіальним прикладом віри, а не довіри, що виникає тільки в умовах невизначеності зовнішніх чинників. Стан невизначеності реакції організму обумовлений недостатньою кількістю інформації, що поступає разом з подразненням. Наприклад, зір людини і тварин в першу чергу бачить рухомі об'єкти, оскільки останні можуть бути загрозою. Зачепившись за рухомий об'єкт контролер переходить в режим розпізнавання образів, і добре буде, коли контролеру вдасться однозначно ідентифікувати об'єкт і перейти в режим безумовного рефлексу, а якщо ні… Ось тоді і входить в силу режим довіри, в якому при не повній інформації про рухомий об'єкт, контролер все одно включає безумовний рефлекс, котрий найближче відповідає даній ситуації. Із теорії кібернетики відомий т.з. істеричний автомат Ешбі, котрий при зовнішньому подразненні просто переходив у наступний за чергою стан. Звичайно така безумовна реакція (за вірою) не сприяє еволюційному виживанню. Тому навіть у ситуації невизначеності і використовується довіра, а не віра, оскільки перша вимагає процесу оцінки загрози, а друга тривіально вірить, що перехід в будь-який інший стан допоможе зняти напругу. Цей простий приклад показує, що категорії довіри та віри спільні для тварин та людей і відрізняються лише ступенем довіри. У випадку віри ступінь довіри рівний %, а у всіх інших випадках, навіть коли буде , % ми маємо справу з довірою. Люди і тварини в умовах недостатньої інформації про зовнішній подразник просто вимушені цілеспрямовано діяти, навіть коли вони «знають», що ефективність такої дії-реакції не перевершує декількох процентів. Довіра на рівні вищої нервової системи[ред. | ред. код] Довіра і математика[ред. | ред. код] Довіра і фізика[ред. | ред. код] Довіра і девіаційна поведінка[ред. | ред. код] Див. також[ред. | ред. код] 		У Вікісловнику є сторінка Довіра. 	Соціальна віра 	Впевненість 	Дилема в'язня 	Соціальна психологія 	Інтимність 	Вірність 	Віра, котра в деяких релігійних традиціях може бути визначена як (екстремальна) довіра до Бога 	базальна довіра 	Окситоцин Примітки[ред. | ред. код] 	↑ Книги Тома Р. Тайлера 	↑ barbara misztal, trust in modern societies: the search for the bases of social order, polity press, isbn - - - 	↑ riki robbins, betrayed!: how you can restore sexual trust and rebuild your life, adams media corporation, isbn - - - 	↑ ed gerck, in trust points, digital certificates: applied internet security by j. feghhi, j. feghhi and p. williams, addison-wesley, isbn - - - , . Джерела[ред. | ред. код] 	bachmann, reinhard and zaheer, akbar (eds.)( ). handbook of trust research. cheltenham: edward elgar. 	kelton, kari; fleischmann, kenneth r. & wallace, william a. ( ). trust in digital information. journal of the american society for information science and technology, ( ): - . 	kini, a., & choobineh, j. ( , january). trust in electronic commerce: definition and theoretical considerations. paper presented at the thirty-firstnhawaii international conference on system sciences, kohala coast, hi. Література[ред. | ред. код] 	Довіра // Філософський енциклопедичний словник / В. І. Шинкарук (гол. редкол.) та ін. — Київ : Інститут філософії імені Григорія Сковороди НАН України : Абрис, . —  с. — екз. — ББК  я . — isbn - - -x. 	Г. Постригань. Довіра політична // Політична енциклопедія. Редкол.: Ю. Левенець (голова), Ю. Шаповал (заст. голови) та ін. — К.: Парламентське видавництво, . — с. isbn - - - - Посилання[ред. | ред. код] 	Довір'я // Українська мала енциклопедія : кн. : у   т. / проф. Є. Онацький. — Накладом Адміністратури УАПЦ в Аргентині. — Буенос-Айрес, . — Т.   : Д — Є, кн.  . — С.  . — екз. 		Вікіцитати містять висловлювання на тему: Довіра 		Вікісховище має мультимедійні дані за темою: Довіра 	Довіра // Словник української мови : в т. — К. : Наукова думка, — . 	trust building activities 	trust: making and breaking cooperative relations, edited by diego gambetta 	am i trustworthy? ( ). educational video clip 	Олександр ФІЛЬЦ: Про довіру, цінності, патерналізм і таке инше // zbruch, . . 	Доверие как фактор экономического развития: исследованияс позиций институциональной экономической теории 	 	Це незавершена стаття з психології. 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on wipf and stock book-swapping websites 	find this book on bookcrossing.com 	find this book on bookmooch.com 	find this book on inventaire.io 	find this book on paperbackswap.com non-english book sources if the book you are looking for is in a language other than english, you might find it helpful to look at the equivalent pages on other wikipedias, linked below – they are more likely to have sources appropriate for that language. special:booksources in other language wikipedias 	isbn prefix ranges 	wikipedia 	 	english (this page) 	 - 	french 	 	german 	 (japan)	japanese 	 (russia, former ussr)	russian 	 (china, pr) / (taiwan, roc) / (hong kong, sar) (singapore) (macau, sar) 	chinese 	 (czech republic)	czech 	 (poland)	polish 	 (spain) (argentina) (chile) (colombia) (cuba) / (mexico) (venezuela) / (ecuador)	spanish 	 (brasil) (portugal)	portuguese 	 (serbia, montenegro)	serbian 	 (former yugoslavia) (croatia)	croatian 	 (former yugoslavia) (slovenia)	slovenian 	 	danish 	 	italian 	 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(bangladesh)	bangla 		welsh bibliographical information these links produce citations in various referencing styles. 	bibliographical information on ottobib (mla) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (apa) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (chicago) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (wikipedia) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (bibtex) find other editions you can look up isbns for different editions of the same book, hardback or paperback, first print or a reprint, even re-editions where the title has changed using xisbn. xisbn's linkages are determined algorithmically, based on the concepts of the functional requirements for bibliographic records. 	results in xml 	results in html you can also convert between and digit isbn numbers with these tools: 	isbn converter at isbn.org 	isbn converter (with optional hyphenation after conversion) at the library of congress find on wikipedia 	find articles on wikipedia which cite this isbn. see also 	wikipedia:book sources – "wikipedia:book sources" will be clickable in the non-editable version of this page, and will take one to the editable version of this page. 	wikipedia talk:book sources – for questions and discussion about this page. 	wikipedia:isbn – explanation of mediawiki software treatment of isbn numbers. 	list of academic databases and search engines 	list of digital library projects 	list of online encyclopedias 	list of online databases 	wikipedia:list of bibliographies 		the wikipedia library (talk | e) apply for free access to research! research tools and services 	resource exchange 	reference desk 	research desk 	discover open access 	free resource guides 	book sources 	journal sources 	bibliographies 	free newspaper sources 	online archives 	find your local library tips 	find your source tips 	how to find sources 	citation tools guide outreach 	the wikipedia library bookshelf (meta) 	universities and libraries 	archivists 	publishers 	wikipedia loves libraries 	wikidata source metadata get involved 	get free access to sources 	read the books & bytes newsletter 	help disambiguate authors of scholarly papers 	be a wikipedia visiting scholar 	teach library interns 	become a coordinator 	learn about twl ...support open access... retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:booksources/ " 		categories: 	wikipedia resources for researchers hidden categories: 	pages with short description 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			special page 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			upload file 	special pages 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 trust - wikidata 	 	 	 	 	 trust (q ) 	 		from wikidata 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 assumption of and reliance on the honesty of another party 	faith edit 	language	label	description	also known as 	english	 trust 	 assumption of and reliance on the honesty of another party 	 	faith statements instance of positive emotion references basic emotion references core concept statement is subject of religion references subclass of belief of honesty good capability references part of psychology terminology references studied by theory of emotion references pronunciation audio ll-q (deu)-sebastian wallroth-vertrauen.wav . s; kb language of work or name german references opposite of distrust references used by confidence trick references described by source brockhaus and efron encyclopedic dictionary statement is subject of q references lean logic: a dictionary for the future and how to survive it described at url https://leanlogic.online/glossary/trust references different from vertrauen references conviction references commons category trust reference imported from wikimedia project english wikipedia wordlift url http://data.thenextweb.com/tnw/entity/trust reference reference url https://thenextweb.com/vocabulary/trust/ identifiers gnd id - references library of congress authority id sh references mesh descriptor id d references australian educational vocabulary id scot/ references bncf thesaurus id reference stated in nuovo soggettario encyclopædia britannica online id topic/trust-religious-philosophy references freebase id /m/ h p reference stated in freebase data dumps publication date october quora topic id trust’-english-word references french vikidia id confiance references yso id reference stated in yso-wikidata linking   sitelinks wikipedia( entries) edit 	 arwiki ثقة (علم الاجتماع) 	 astwiki enfotu 	 bewiki Давер 	 bgwiki Доверие 	 cawiki confiança 	 cswiki důvěra 	 dawiki tillid 	 dewiki vertrauen 	 enwiki trust (social science) 	 eowiki konfido 	 eswiki confianza 	 etwiki usaldus 	 euwiki konfiantza 	 fiwiki luottamus 	 frwiki confiance 	 fywiki fertrouwen 	 glwiki confianza 	 hewiki אמון 	 hrwiki povjerenje 	 hywiki Վստահություն 	 itwiki fiducia 	 jawiki 信頼 	 kkwiki Тәрбиедегі сенім 	 knwiki ನಂಬಿಕೆ 	 kowiki 신뢰 	 nlwiki vertrouwen 	 plwiki zaufanie 	 ptwiki confiança 	 ruwiki Доверие 	 shwiki povjerenje 	 simplewiki trust (social sciences) 	 skwiki dôvera 	 snwiki ruvimbo 	 srwiki Поверење 	 trwiki güven (sosyoloji) 	 ukwiki Довіра 	 zhwiki 信任 wikibooks( entries) edit wikinews( entries) edit wikiquote( entries) edit 	 bgwikiquote Доверие — Недоверие 	 bswikiquote povjerenje 	 cawikiquote confiança 	 cswikiquote důvěra 	 dewikiquote vertrauen 	 elwikiquote Εμπιστοσύνη 	 enwikiquote trust 	 eowikiquote konfido 	 eswikiquote confianza 	 fawikiquote اعتماد 	 hewikiquote אמון 	 hrwikiquote povjerenje 	 huwikiquote bizalom 	 hywikiquote Վստահություն 	 itwikiquote fiducia 	 nlwikiquote vertrouwen 	 plwikiquote zaufanie 	 ptwikiquote confiança 	 ruwikiquote Доверие 	 skwikiquote dôvera 	 ukwikiquote Довіра wikisource( entries) edit wikiversity( entries) edit wikivoyage( entries) edit wiktionary( entries) edit other sites( entry) edit 	 commonswiki category:trust retrieved from "https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=q &oldid= " 		 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			english 	not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			item 	discussion 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	community portal 	project chat 	create a new item 	recent changes 	random item 	query service 	nearby 	help 	donate 		 	 	 	 		lexicographical data 	 	 			create a new lexeme 	recent changes 	random lexeme 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	concept uri 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			create a book 	download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at : . 	all structured data from the main, property, lexeme, and entityschema namespaces is available under the creative commons cc license; text in the other namespaces is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. 		privacy policy 	about wikidata 	disclaimers 	mobile view 	data access 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 earning trust - wikiversity 	 	 	 	 	earning trust 	 		from wikiversity 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		—relying on another introduction[edit | edit source] trust requires both intent and ability. contents 	 introduction 	 objectives 	 related terms 	 . assignment 	 benefits 	 levels of trust 	 . distrust 	 . wary 	 . optimistic 	 . quid pro quo 	 . transactional 	 . unconditional 	 . assignment 	 intent and ability 	 . assignment 	 betrayal 	 trustworthy behaviors 	 . assignment 	 power and vulnerability 	 . the costs of mistrust 	 . assignment 	 extending trust 	 recommended reading 	 references whenever we meet someone for the first time, we instinctively begin to evaluate the level of trust we can wisely attribute to our relationship with the other person. we use several clues to guide us in extending or withholding trust. we hear what they say, but can we rely on their promises? we are constantly reevaluating the question “can i trust you?” trust can provide many interpersonal advantages including: 	relying on another. 	confident expectation of future events. 	the expectation of fair exchange. 	authentic connection, and 	communicating understanding. trust is congruence between what is said and what is done. trust is valuable, and it is wise to earn the trust of others by being trustworthy. similarly, it is wise to accurately assess the trust we can safely place in others we interact with. it is helpful to strike an accurate balance between trusting others and being wary of them. objectives[edit | edit source] the objectives of this course are to help you: 	assess and describe various levels of trust, 	understand the nature of trust, 	adopt trustworthy behaviors, 	evaluate the costs and benefits of trusting others, 	use good judgement in extending or withholding trust to others, 	 	completion status: this resource is considered to be complete. 	 	attribution: user lbeaumont created this resource and is actively using it. please coordinate future development with this user if possible. the course contains many hyperlinks to further information. use your judgment and these link following guidelines to decide when to follow a link, and when to skip over it. this course is part of the applied wisdom curriculum. this material has been adapted from the emotionalcompetency.com page on trust, with permission of the author. if you wish to contact the instructor, please click here to send me an email or leave a comment or question on the discussion page. related terms[edit | edit source] various trust-related terms differ in the reliability they describe and the strength of the evidence supporting each evaluation. each current trust assessment varies as more evidence accumulates about the relationship. several terms are related to trust in various ways. it is helpful to review the definitions of related terms and understand the distinctions and relationships. each of the terms defined below are plotted on the reliability / evidence grid at the right. 	trust implies depth and assurance of feeling often based on inconclusive evidence. 	confidence frequently implies stronger grounds for assurance than does trust. 	faith is confidence or trust in a particular ideology, often a religious doctrine. 	blind-faith describes an unfounded trust that can leave us vulnerable to exploitation. 	rely implies complete confidence. we act on trust when we rely on others. 	dependence suggests reliance on another having the greater power. 	gullibility refers to a blind trust—an unfounded or misplaced trust. 	betrayal and cheating describe a broken trust. this is shown as a red arrow on the diagram at the right to illustrate the rapid shift toward distrust based on new evidence. 	distrust is a lack of trust. distrust may be based on any evidence or no evidence at all. 	suspicion is a lack of trust. 	manipulation describes behavior that takes place before establishing trust. 	reputation is the history of trust behaviors accessible from past transactions. we use reputation information to help set expectations for future transactions; it eases exchange of valuables and reduces risk. assignment[edit | edit source] 	recall a time when you were betrayed. 	what word best describes your level of trust before the betrayal? 	what word best describes your level of trust after the betrayal? 	what evidence supported your initial level of trust? 	what new evidence lead to the betrayal? 	what evidence is there supporting the new level of (dis)trust? benefits[edit | edit source] trust forms the basis for social interactions, especially reciprocity and the agreements for future actions essential for planning and working together. trust is one of the strongest predictors of a country's wealth; nations with the lowest levels of trust tend to be poor.[ ] levels of trust[edit | edit source] as we meet people, spend time with them, and establish a relationship we naturally estimate how much we trust them. we approach each person beginning with our natural inclination toward trust or distrust. in addition, as we learn more about each person, primarily from first-hand experience, we have reason to trust or mistrust them. of course, they are also estimating how much they trust us. it can be revealing to estimate for each of your friends, acquaintances, coworkers, and contacts the level of trust you have in them, and they have in you. are you trusting? are you trustworthy? trust levels fall roughly into one of the following categories: distrust[edit | edit source] we have reason to believe they cannot be trusted. we have evidence, or just a sense of their unreliability, indirectness, unfairness, unreliability, deceit, or carelessness. they may have already betrayed us or people we know. their reputation is not good. we are constantly on guard with strong defenses alert to protect ourselves. wary[edit | edit source] we may be wary when we don't yet have evidence of their trustworthiness, so we are cautious and not willing to extend them the full benefit of the doubt. we also understand the value of extending trust. we are alert and on guard as we gather more information and work together. this is the “trust, but verify” transitional strategy made famous by ronald regan. optimistic[edit | edit source] we may be optimistic when we don't yet have strong evidence of their trustworthiness, but we are generous and willing to extend them the benefit of the doubt. they have a favorable reputation that we continue to evaluate as we work together. each kept promise increases the trust. we continue to proceed with caution, we trust and verify. the more difficult it is to keep a promise, the greater the increase in trust. trust is tested most when you are most vulnerable. broken promises lead quickly to distrust. the term blind-faith describes an unfounded trust that can leave us vulnerable to exploitation. quid pro quo[edit | edit source] quid pro quo—something for something—is an exchange agreement that focuses narrowly on a transaction, often without regard for the broader trust levels of the parties. it may refer to a narrow agreement to conduct business among parties that distrust each other, sometimes strongly. transactional[edit | edit source] we have been interacting with each other for some time and have not yet been let down or disappointed. however, it seems the transactions form the basis of our relationship and i'm not sure we care and connect with each other as concerned humans. the trust is situational and depends on continued benefits of the transactions. if the transactions disappear or become less favorable, this ephemeral trust will disappear with them. the relationship is instrumental and temporary; the relationship ends when the deal ends. unconditional[edit | edit source] we have established a human bond and truly care about each other. even if our tangible or material interchanges end, or become burdensome, we continue to care about each other, and can rely on each other. we have gone beyond reciprocity and attained grace where good-will and even unmerited favors characterize the relationship. the trust has been tested and withstood our vulnerability, disputes, hardships, and other difficulties. the trust is unconditional and based on empathy, caring, and a lasting human bond. the relationship is genuine, deep, committed, and permanent. assignment[edit | edit source] 	consider several of your family members, friends, acquaintances, and co-workers. 	consider the level of trust that exists in the relationship you have with that person. 	name at least one person that fits each of the trust levels described above. intent and ability[edit | edit source] consider the photograph at the top of this page. does the lower acrobat intend to support the upper acrobat? is the lower acrobat able to support the upper one? trust requires both. trust depends on two independent components; intent and ability. unless you intend to fulfill your agreements and keep your word, there is no trust. but intent is not enough, you have to deliver on your promises, and that requires the ability to do what you promise. since none of us can be expert and capable in all areas, we are all specialists. therefore, our trust in someone's abilities is limited to their areas of expertise. we trust our dentist with our teeth, but not with car repair. do not promise more than you can deliver. do not tempt others to promise more than they can deliver. do not confuse intent with ability, address each independently. assignment[edit | edit source] 	recall a time when someone relied on you to fulfill some promise or expectation. 	recall an instance when you did not meet their expectations. 	to what extent did a failure of intent lead to this failure to meet their expectations? 	to what extent did a failure of ability lead to this failure to meet their expectations? betrayal[edit | edit source] betrayal is the shattering of a trusted relationship. betrayal is the breaking or violation of a presumptive contract, trust, or confidence that produces moral and psychological conflict within a relationship amongst individuals, between organizations or between individuals and organizations. betrayal elicits anger. an act of betrayal creates a constellation of negative behaviors, thoughts, and feelings in both its victims and its perpetrators. the interactions are complex. the victims exhibit anger and confusion, and demand atonement from the perpetrator; who in turn may experience guilt or shame, and exhibit remorse. if, after the perpetrator has exhibited remorse or apologized, the victim continues to express anger, this may in turn cause the perpetrator to become defensive, and angry in turn. acceptance of betrayal can be exhibited if victims forego the demands of atonement and retribution; but is only demonstrated if the victims do not continue to demand apologies, repeatedly remind the perpetrator or perpetrators of the original act, or ceaselessly review the incident over and over again. trustworthy behaviors[edit | edit source] former secretary of the treasury, hank paulson noted “trust is established through action.” certain actions are interpreted as increasing the trust in a relationship, and others diminish trust. choosing the following behaviors can help earn the trust of others. 	express yourself authentically, speak carefully, accurately, clearly, and honestly to gain and sustain a full and accurate common understanding. become intellectually honest. 	understand what is being proposed, described, and discussed; the expectations of others, problems you might encounter, the risks involved, changes that may occur, what you are agreeing to, others you may need to rely on, and your preparation and ability to meet commitments. establish and maintain clear expectations. 	don't promise more than you can deliver. describe your doubts, uncertainties, risks, and events beyond your control. don’t overstate your ability. don't overcommit. 	make and keep promises, do what you say. deliver results. hold yourself and others you depend on accountable. go beyond what you promised when you can. 	behave consistently and predictably, avoid unpleasant surprises and erratic behavior. don't manipulate others, be entirely clear about your full intentions. do not harm others. do not mislead others. do not betray others. 	provide early notice of problems, obstacles, and choices. share your thoughts, concerns, and proposed solutions. face issues and obstacles directly, fully, and promptly. don't make assumptions. 	manage risk. foresee risks early and take steps to reduce the uncertainty and impact. always keep “plan b”—your contingency plan—up to date. 	work transparently, keep others up-to-date on progress and problems, allow others to observe the progress of your work, involve others in key decisions. expose any hidden agendas, sources of influence, conflicts of interest, or vested interest. former associate justice of the supreme court louis brandeis declared “sunshine is the best disinfectant.” 	use dialogue to reveal, describe, and solve unanticipated problems. 	take responsibility for solving problems and delivering results. don't blame others for problems you can anticipate, avoid, or solve yourself. do your best, especially when it matters most. 	take full responsibility for your actions. adopt an internal locus of control. apologize fully for your harmful actions. 	acknowledge your humanity, anticipate your limitations and inevitable mistakes. quickly identify, acknowledge, repair, and apologize for errors. learn from your mistakes. remain humble. 	ensure both truth and grace. provide authentic, proportional, and timely feedback expressing your careful and thoughtful assessment, both positive and negative, of the issues and relationship. accomplish the task as you strengthen the relationship. demonstrate and express your appreciation of others as you reaffirm your commitment to strengthening a meaningful relationship. confront and resolve conflict so obstacles can be identified, resolved, and overcome. when being critical, talk to people rather than about them. never make, overlook, or tolerate an ad hominem attack. 	proceed in stages, commit only as far in advance as you can clearly foresee and plan. proceed with step-wise refinement of complex problems or extensive plans. reassess and re-plan as information unfolds and becomes clearer. 	stay firmly grounded in the full reality of the situation. accept, evaluate, and assimilate new information as it emerges. facts are our friends. confront reality; the good, the bad, and the ugly. 	continue to build your reputation for trustworthiness by keeping your promises. 	don't gossip and don't make assumptions. innuendo—an indirect attack—and rumors—unverified information from unreliable sources—can quickly destroy trust. rather than spread rumors or be influenced by innuendo it is best to challenge the source and get all the facts and the full story. advance no falsehoods. assignment[edit | edit source] part : 	recall a time when someone lost trust in you. 	which, if any, of the behaviors listed above were lacking and contributed to the loss of trust? 	work to earn trust. part : 	consider the people in your life. 	identify the people you most trust. why do you trust those people? 	identify the people you least trust. why do you not trust those people? 	what, if anything, could someone you distrust do to regain your trust? power and vulnerability[edit | edit source] we trust people most who are similar to us and who genuinely care about us. we trust people with substantial but not invulnerable power. exposing vulnerabilities increases trust because it demonstrates human qualities. in addition, exercising restraint by showing compassion rather than taking advantage of exposed vulnerabilities demonstrates trust. the costs of mistrust[edit | edit source] in addition to the trillion dollars spent each year on national defense budgets, mistrust has many other costs: 	missed opportunities. we are often wary when we meet a stranger for the first time. we are often approach people we first meet with caution, and sometimes even alarm, fearing they may be untrustworthy. we miss many opportunities to meet new people, explore interesting topics, innovate, create, collaborate, and discover new friends because of this caution. 	defensive actions. complex contracts, legal fees; review time, effort, and expense; investigation time and expense, litigation time and expenses, rework, inflated cost or time estimates, 	suspicion. doubts, anguish, anxiety, uncertainty, reservations, contingencies, conflict, lack of commitment, disengagement, apathy, uncertainty, micromanagement, calculating, hesitation. 	security systems. guards, metal detectors, surveillance systems, safes, locks, encryption, security software, spam. 	swindles—trusting someone who is not trustworthy—are the basis for con jobs, rip-offs, swindles, scams, and ploys of all description. getting taken by these schemes is financially costly and emotionally humiliating. 	complexity and delay. reviews, approvals, investigations, double checks, audits, surveillance, duplication, bureaucracy, . . . friedrich wilhelm nietzsche expressed this cost well when he said: “i'm not upset that you lied to me. i'm upset that from now on i can't believe you.” 	manipulation—attempting to control people without letting them know your intentions—deceit, blather, obfuscation, bogus issues, swashbuckling, intimidation, busy work, infighting, cross purposes, playing games, back stabbing, getting even, entrapment, gotcha, hidden agendas, speculation, covert operations. 	cya—recording evidence of your trustworthy behavior. effort devoted to looking good. choosing image over substance. 	disrespect. sniping, ignoring, humiliation, discounting, retaliating, disloyalty, 	theft, fraud, deceit, cheating, slacking off, distortion, waste. 	deniability—avoiding creating records that could provide evidence of bad decisions or unwise actions. withholding information. 	dissatisfaction and disengagement. participating is no longer fun, people look forward to leaving the relationship or organization. enthusiasm decays into complacency and malaise. people leave mentally at first, and then physically. 	obstruction—failing to help others. dragging your feet when you could be helping others succeed. slow walking. engaging in mischief. assignment[edit | edit source] 	recall instances when you distrusted others. 	which of the costs listed above resulted from that lack of trust? 	were those costs avoidable? 	were those costs warranted? extending trust[edit | edit source] when do you extend trust to others and when do you withhold it? do you approach new relationships from a stance of suspicion or one of trust? how extensively do you have to observe their behavior before you have reason to trust or distrust another? how strongly do they reciprocate and reflect your trust or distrust of them? consider both your wanting to trust and your reasons to trust. use good judgment to find the balance between gullibility and suspicion. trust breeds trust. approach new relationships assuming good-will and trust until careful analysis proves this is unwarranted. however, respectfully require due diligence and don't be gullible whenever the risks are truly unacceptable. manage risk, fairly balancing the certain costs of distrust with the possible cost of gullibility. in his book the speed of trust, stephen m. r. covey presents these choices in the “smart trust™” matrix[ ]. he uses the phrase “propensity to trust” to describe wanting to trust, and “analysis” to describe reasons to trust. recommended reading[edit | edit source] 	ruiz, don miguel (november , ). the four agreements: a practical guide to personal freedom (a toltec wisdom book). amber-allen publishing. p.  . isbn  - . 	ekman, paul (january , ). telling lies: clues to deceit in the marketplace, politics, and marriage. w. w. norton & company. p.  . isbn  - . 	cloud, henry (june , ). integrity: the courage to meet the demands of reality. harperbusiness. p.  . isbn  - . 	covey, stephen m .r. (february , ). the speed of trust: the one thing that changes everything. free press. p.  . isbn  - . 	frankfurt, harry g. (january , ). on bullshit. princeton university press. p.  . isbn  - . 	frankfurt, harry g. (october , ). on truth. knopf. p.  . isbn  - . 	reich, robert b. (february , ). the common good. knopf. p.  . isbn  - . 	the neurobiology of trust, paul j. zak, scientific american, june, . 	roberts, monty (december , ). the man who listens to horses: the story of a real-life horse whisperer. ballantine books. p.  . isbn  - . references[edit | edit source] 	↑ crosby, sam (november , ). the trust deficit. melbourne university publishing. p.  . isbn  - . 	↑ speed of trust website. 		v 	t 	e emotional competency 	 	studying emotional competency 	dignity 	recognizing emotions 	resolving anger 	overcoming hate 	appraising emotional responses 	what you can change and what you cannot 	attributing blame 	coping with ego 	apologizing 	forgiving 	communicating power 	earning trust 	practicing dialogue 	candor 	understanding fairness 	transcending conflict 	true self retrieved from "https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=earning_trust&oldid= " 		categories: 	completed resources 	resources with an attribution 	life skills 	applied wisdom 	philosophy 	peace studies 	humanities courses 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			resource 	discuss 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	edit source 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	browse 	recent changes 	guided tours 	random 	help 	donate 		 	 	 	 		community 	 	 			portal 	colloquium 	news 	projects 	sandbox 	help desk 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 		 	 	 		wikimedia projects 	 	 			commons 	wikibooks 	wikipedia 	wiktionary 	wikiquote 	wikisource 	wikinews 	wikispecies 	wikivoyage 	meta-wiki 	outreach 	mediawiki 	wikimania 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			create a book 	download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		in other languages 	 	 		 		add links 	 		 this page was last edited on october , at : . 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. 		privacy policy 	about wikiversity 	disclaimers 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 אמון – ויקיפדיה 	לדלג לתוכן 	 	 		שינוי מצב סרגל צד 	 	 		 		 			 			 		 	 	 	 		חיפוש 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 	 	 		כלים אישיים 	 	 			לא בחשבון 	שיחה 	תרומות 	יצירת חשבון 	כניסה לחשבון 		 	 	 	 	 		ניווט 	 	 			עמוד ראשי 	ברוכים הבאים 	שינויים אחרונים 	ערכים מומלצים 	פורטלים 	ערך אקראי 	תרומה לוויקיפדיה 		 	 	 	 		קהילה 	 	 			שער הקהילה 	עזרה 	ייעוץ 	מזנון 	כיכר העיר 	חדשות 	לוח מודעות 	יצירת קשר 	ספר אורחים 		 	 	 		כלים 	 	 			דפים המקושרים לכאן 	שינויים בדפים המקושרים 	דפים מיוחדים 	קישור קבוע 	מידע על הדף 	ציטוט דף זה 	פריט ויקינתונים 		 	 	 		הדפסה/ייצוא 	 	 			יצירת ספר 	הורדה כ־pdf 	גרסה להדפסה 		 	 	 		במיזמים אחרים 	 	 			ויקישיתוף 	ויקיציטוט 		 	 	 	 		דף זה בשפות אחרות 	 	 			english 	العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	galego 	hrvatski 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	日本語 	Қазақша 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		עריכת הקישורים 	 	 		תפריט ניווט 		 			 				 					 	 		מרחבי שם 	 	 			ערך 	שיחה 		 	 					 	 	 		גרסאות שפה 	 	 		 		 	 				 				 					 	 		צפיות 	 	 			קריאה 	עריכת קוד מקור 	עריכה 	גרסאות קודמות 		 	 					 	 	 		עוד 	 	 		 		 	 				 			 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 	אמון 	 		מתוך ויקיפדיה, האנציקלופדיה החופשית 		 		 		 		 ערך זה עוסק במונח פסיכולוגי. אם התכוונתם למשמעות אחרת, ראו אמון (פירושונים). הנחה של נותן האמון היא כי האדם בו ניתן האמון מסוגל ליכולת מסוימת ויתנהג בצורה מסוימת בעתיד אמון הוא תודעה, המבטאת יחס כלפי המציאות, בו מאמין נותן האמון כי הגורם בו ניתן האמון, יכיל תכונה מוגדרת אחת או יותר בעתיד. לדוגמה, לרוב נוטים להעניק בני אדם, ויצורים חיים אחרים, אמון בכוח המשיכה, כלומר, מניחים כי תכונת החפצים ליפול באין משען, תתקיים בעתיד. אמון בין בני אדם, הוא הנחה של נותן האמון כי האדם בו ניתן האמון מסוגל ליכולת מסוימת, יתנהג בצורה מסוימת בעתיד, או יחוש יחס מסוים כלפי המציאות. לדוגמה, אדם יכול לתת אמון ברעהו, כי הוא מסוגל לבצע מטלה מסוימת (יכולת), יסכים לבצעה (התנהגות מסוימת), וישמח לבצעה (יחוש יחס כלפי המציאות). סוגי אמון[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] באופן כללי, מניחים את קיומם של שני סוגי אמון: אמון נרכש הוא אמון, אותו מניח נותן האמון עקב צפייה במציאות שהוכיחה תכונה מסוימת על דרך האינדוקציה. לדוגמה, אדם עשוי לתת אמון נרכש בחברו, כי חבר זה יבוא לעזרתו בעת צרה, אילו חווה חוויות קודמות בהן נכון היה חברו לבוא לעזרתו. אמון נרכש ניתן לצמצום או לביטול אם המציאות תפעל על פי חוקיות שונה (לדוגמה, החבר יכזיב). אמון מקדמי הוא אמון הנתון להחלטה של האדם, מודעת או לא-מודעת, בתכונות כלליות התקפות לגבי כל בני האדם. לדוגמה, אדם עשוי לתת אמון בכך שקיימת אהבה, כלומר, להאמין כי כל אדם מסוגל לאהבה, אם יתרחשו התנאים הנכונים. עבור האמון המקדמי, יש הרואים באמון זה אמון נרכש, המוכל על כללים מקיפי כול, לדוגמה, האמונה כי אמון מקדמי באהבת בני אדם, מקורה באהבת אם לתינוק, שלא הכזיבה. על פי תפיסה זו, האמון המקדמי מושפע מאירועים מכוננים, כדוגמת יחס האם לתינוק בשנותיו הראשונות, או בגידה של בן זוג קרוב במיוחד. מנגד, יש הרואים באמון המקדמי תוצר של הכרעה ערכית של האדם, כנובע אך ורק מיחסו לעצמו. בדוגמה הקודמת, האמון באהבה נובע מהערכת בן האדם כי אהבה היא ערך בו הוא מאמין, על מנת להגדיר את מצבו הנפשי כמצב הומני. על פי תפיסה זו, כל שינוי באמון כרוך בשינוי בערכיו של האדם, והם מחייבים זה את זה. התפיסות השונות כלפי אמון מקדמי אינן סותרות בהכרח, אך מייצגות זוויות בחינה שונות. ראו גם[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] 	אמינות קישורים חיצוניים[עריכת קוד מקור | עריכה] 	מיזמי קרן ויקימדיה 	 ערך מילוני בוויקימילון: אמון 	 ציטוטים בוויקיציטוט: אמון 	 תמונות ומדיה בוויקישיתוף: אמון 	אמון, באתר אנציקלופדיה בריטניקה (באנגלית) 	what we don't understand about trust – הרצאה באנגלית של onora o’neill מאתר ted עם כתוביות בעברית 	רגשות 	 	אדישות • אהבה • אומץ • אושר • אימה • אכזבה • אכזריות • אמון • אמפתיה • אנטיפתיה • אקסטזה • אשמה • בדידות • בהלה • בוז • בושה • ביטחון • בלבול • גאווה • גועל • געגוע • דאגה • דו-ערכיות • דחייה • דכדוך • הודיה • היקשרות • הערצה • הפתעה • הקלה • השפלה • התאהבות • חוסר אונים • חיבה • חמדנות • חמלה • חרדה • חרטה • חשש • טינה • ייאוש • יראה • כאב • כמיהה • כעס • מבוכה • מועקה • מצוקה • מרירות • ניכור • נקמה • סבל • סיפוק • ספק • סקרנות • עדנה • עוינות • עונג • עלבון • עניין • עצב • עצבנות • פחד • פליאה • ציפייה • קבלה • קנאה • קתרזיס • רוגע • רחמים • ריקנות • שכול • שלווה • שמחה • שמחה לאיד • שנאה • שעמום • תבוסתנות • תסכול • תקווה • תשוקה 	מצב רוח • אפקט אוחזר מתוך "https://he.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=אמון&oldid= " 		קטגוריה: 	רגשות 	 	 	 	 		 		 דף זה נערך לאחרונה ב־ : , באוקטובר . 	הטקסט מוגש בכפוף לרישיון creative commons ייחוס-שיתוף זהה . ; ייתכן שישנם תנאים נוספים. ר' את תנאי השימוש לפרטים. 		מדיניות הפרטיות 	אודות ויקיפדיה 	הבהרות משפטיות 	תצוגת מכשירים ניידים 	מפתחים 	סטטיסטיקות 	הצהרה על עוגיות 		 	 	 	 	 usaldus – vikipeedia 	 	 	 	 	usaldus 	 		allikas: vikipeedia 		 		 		 		 		mine navigeerimisribale 		mine otsikasti 		 	osa artiklitest teemal 	emotsioonid 	 	 	ahastus 	alandus 	apaatia 	armastus 	armukadedus 	aukartus 	ekstaas 	empaatia 	enesekindlus 	entusiasm 	erutus 	eufooria 	frustratsioon 	haletsus 	himu 	hirm 	huvi 	häbelikkus 	häbi 	igavus 	iha 	imestus 	julgus 	kadedus 	kannatus 	kahetsusvalu 	kirg 	kahetsus 	kibestumus 	kindlameelsus 	kurbus 	kiindumus 	lein 	lootus 	masendus 	meeleheide 	muretsus 	nauding 	ootusärevus 	pettumus 	paanika 	piinlikkus 	põlgus 	raev 	rahulolu 	rõõm 	süütunne 	saudade 	schadenfreude 	Šokk 	tänulikkus 	tüütus 	uhkus 	usaldus 	usaldamatus 	uudishimu 	vaenulikkus 	vastikus 	viha 	vihkamine 	Õudus 	Õnnelikkus 	Äng 	Ärevus 	Üksindus 	Üllatus 	v · r 		see artikkel vajab toimetamist. palun aita artiklit toimetada. (kuidas ja millal see märkus eemaldada?) usaldus on olukord, kus üks inimene on valmis lootma teise isiku tulevikule suunatud tegudele. lisaks lootmisele loobub inimene kas vabatahtlikult või mitte kontrollist selle tegevuse üle, mida teine teeb. ta on ebakindel tegevuse tulemuse suhtes, ta saab ainut loota parimat. ebakindlus tuleneb riskist milleski ebaõnnestuda ja saada kahju, juhul kui usaldusisik ei käitu nii nagu soovitud. vladimir lenin väljendas seda ideed lausega: "usalda, aga kontrolli".[ ] kontseptuaalselt saab usaldus olla nii kahe inimese kui ka sotsiaalsete rühmade siseselt (ajalugu, perekonnad, sõbrad, ühendused, organisatsioonid, ettevõtted, rahvad jne). see on populaarne sotsiaalteaduslik lähenemisviis, et näidata grupisisest ja väljapoole toimiva suhtluse dünaamikat.[ ] sotsiaalteadustes uuritakse usalduse erinevaid nüansse. sotsioloogias ja psühholoogias mõõdetakse selle tasemega, kus üks pool usaldab teist, kui ühe poole usku teise poole aususse, õiglusse või heasoovlikkusse. sõna "kindlustunne" sobib paremini kirjeldamaks teise poole pädevust. usalduse kaotus andestatakse kergemini, kui seda saab tõlgendada probleeme pädevusega, kui pahatahtlikkust ja valetamist. ettevõtluses mõistetakse usalduse all tehingute usaldusväärsust. kõigil juhtudel usaldus on heuristiline otsuse tegemise reegel, mis võimaldab inimesel hakkama saada ratsionaalsete põhjendustega keerulistes olukordades. sisukord 	 psühholoogia 	 . sotsiaalse identiteedi vaatenurk 	 viited 	 kirjandus psühholoogia[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] psühholoogias on usaldus inimese usk, et tehakse seda, mida on oodatud. see algab perekonnast ja hiljem laieneb teistele. vastavalt psühhoanalüütik erik eriksonile on usaldus psühhosotsiaalse arengu esimeses etapis ja see peaks toimuma esimesel kahel eluaastal. positiivne tulemus annab inimesele julgeoleku, usalduse ja optimismi, negatiivne tulemus muudab inimese ebakindlaks ja usaldamatuks[ ] ja võib tekitada probleeme siduvussuhetega.[ ] inimese kalduvust teisi usaldada saab lugeda isiksuse tunnuseks ja on üheks tugevamaks subjektiivse heaolu ennustajaks.[ ] on väidetud, et usaldus suurendab subjektiivset heaolu, sest see suurendab inimestevaheliste suhete kvaliteeti ja õnnelikud inimesed oskavad edendada häid suhteid.[ ] usaldus on lahutamatult seotud ideega sotsiaalsest mõjutamisest: on lihtsam mõjutada või veenda kedagi, kes on usaldav. usalduse mõistet kasutatakse, et ennustada kuidas käituvad erinevad institutsioonid (nt valitsusasutused) ja erinevaid objektid nagu masinad. kuid mõisted ausus, kompetentsus ja väärtushinnangud on olulised. on kolm eri vormi usaldust. usaldus on võime olla haavatav isegi siis, kui teine on usaldusväärne; usaldusväärsus on ühe inimese omadus või käitumisjoon, et inspireerida teisel positiivseid ootusi ja usaldus kui võimalus tugineda teisele inimesele.[ ] kui usaldus on kadunud, see on rikutud, siis on väga raske taastada neid nimetatud kolme tegurit. seega on selge asümmeetria usalduse kasvatamise ja hävitamise vahel. usaldusväärne olemine ja nii tegutsemine peaks olema kindel viis, kuidas säilitada oma usaldatavuse taset. sotsiaalse identiteedi vaatenurk[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] sotsiaalse identiteedi vaatenurk selgitab usaldust võõraste vahel kui grupipõhiste stereotüüpide ja grupisisese meeldivuse säilitamise funktsiooni, mis põhineb vaikival grupi liikmelisusel. seoses grupisisese soosingutega, inimesed üldiselt arvavad võõrastest hästi, kuid ootavad paremat kohtlemist grupisiseselt võrreldes grupiväliste inimestega. mida suurem on nende usaldus grupisiseselt, seda vähem nad usaldavad inimesi grupist väljaspool.  viited[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] 	↑ seligman, adam b. ( ). "on the limits of confidence and role expectations". american journal of economics and sociology.  	↑ hardin, r. (eds.) ( ). 	↑ child development institute parenting today. "stages of social-emotional development in children and teenagers". childdevelopmentinfo.com. originaali arhiivikoopia seisuga . . . vaadatud . . .  	↑ fonagy, peter. 	↑ deneve, kristina m.; cooper, harris ( ). "the happy personality: a meta-analysis of personality traits and subjective well-being". psychological bulletin ( ): – . pmid  . doi: . / - . . . .  	↑ deneve, kristina m. ( ). "happy as an extraverted clam? the role of personality for subjective well-being". current directions in psychological science ( ): – . doi: . / - . .  	↑ relationship and risk taking kirjandus[muuda | muuda lähteteksti] 	kim atkins. friendship, trust and forgiveness. – philosophia, , lk – . vt kim atkins#sõprus, usaldus ja andestus. pärit leheküljelt "https://et.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=usaldus&oldid= " 		kategooriad: 	emotsioon 	käitumine peidetud kategooria: 	toimetamist ootavad 	 	 	navigeerimismenüü 	 		 	 		personaalsed tööriistad 	 	 			sisse logimata 	arutelu 	kaastöö 	loo konto 	logi sisse 		 	 		 			 	 		nimeruumid 	 	 			artikkel 	arutelu 		 	 			 	 	 		variandid 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		vaatamisi 	 	 			vaata 	muuda 	muuda lähteteksti 	näita ajalugu 		 	 			 	 	 		veel 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		otsing 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigeerimine 	 	 			esileht 	Üldine arutelu 	sündmused maailmas 	viimased muudatused 	juhuslik lehekülg 	juhend 	annetused 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	mobiilivaade 	arendajad 	arvandmed 	küpsiste avaldus 		 	 	 causal attributions of married couples: when do they search for causes? what do they conclude when they do? - pubmed this site needs javascript to work properly. please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! clipboard, search history, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. skip to main page content covid- is an emerging, rapidly evolving situation. get the latest public health information from cdc: https://www.coronavirus.gov get the latest research information from nih: https://www.nih.gov/coronavirus find ncbi sars-cov- literature, sequence, and clinical content: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sars-cov- /   	 		 			 				national institutes of health 				national library of medicine 				national center for biotechnology information 				ncbi homepage 			 			 				log in 				 					 					 					show account info 				 			 			 				 					 						close 						account 					 					 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& authors 	 abstract 	 similar articles 	 cited by 	 publication types 	 mesh terms 	 related information 	 grant support 	 linkout - more resources title & authors abstract similar articles cited by publication types mesh terms related information grant support linkout - more resources j pers soc psychol actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in nlm catalog 	 add to search . jun; ( ): - . doi: . // - . . . . causal attributions of married couples: when do they search for causes? what do they conclude when they do? a holtzworth-munroe, n s jacobson 	 pmid: 	 doi: . // - . . . item in clipboard causal attributions of married couples: when do they search for causes? what do they conclude when they do? a holtzworth-munroe et al. j pers soc psychol. jun. show details display options display options format abstract pubmed pmid j pers soc psychol actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in nlm catalog 	 add to search . jun; ( ): - . doi: . // - . . . . authors a holtzworth-munroe, n s jacobson 	 pmid: 	 doi: . // - . . . item in clipboard full-text links citedisplay options display options format abstract pubmed pmid abstract in this study, we examined when and whether married people engage in attributional activity or form causal attributions to explain their partners' behavior. we used an indirect probe to better approximate naturally occurring cognitive activity. we also examined the content of spouses' causal attributions, using both direct and indirect probes. spouses were asked about frequent as well as infrequent relationship events, and about partner behaviors that had positive or negative impacts on the recipient. husbands in unsatisfying relationships reported more attributional thoughts than did happily married husbands, whereas wives in the two groups did not differ. behaviors having negative impacts elicited more attributional activity than did positive behaviors. behavioral frequency and impact interacted in ways contrary to predictions. finally, distressed couples were particularly likely to report distress-maintaining attributions and were particularly unlikely to report relationship-enhancing attributions, compared with their nondistressed counterparts. similar articles 	 attribution processes in distressed and nondistressed couples: . self-partner attribution differences. fincham fd, beach sr, baucom dh. fincham fd, et al. j pers soc psychol. apr; ( ): - . doi: . // - . . . . j pers soc psychol. . pmid: 	 attributions and behavior in marital interaction. bradbury tn, fincham fd. bradbury tn, et al. j pers soc psychol. oct; ( ): - . doi: . // - . . . . j pers soc psychol. . pmid: 	 attributions and behavior in functional and dysfunctional marriages. bradbury tn, beach sr, fincham fd, nelson gm. bradbury tn, et al. j consult clin psychol. jun; ( ): - . doi: . // - x. . . . j consult clin psychol. . pmid: 	 attributions in marriage: review and critique. bradbury tn, fincham fd. bradbury tn, et al. psychol bull. jan; ( ): - . doi: . / - . . . . psychol bull. . pmid: review. 	 causal attributions in physical illness. sensky t. sensky t. j psychosom res. dec; ( ): - . doi: . /s - ( ) - . j psychosom res. . pmid: review. no abstract available. see all similar articles cited by articles 	 beyond positive psychology? toward a contextual view of psychological processes and well-being. mcnulty jk, fincham fd. mcnulty jk, et al. am psychol. feb-mar; ( ): - . doi: . /a . epub jul . am psychol. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 relationship satisfaction in couples confronted with colorectal cancer: the interplay of past and current spousal support. hagedoorn m, dagan m, puterman e, hoff c, meijerink wj, delongis a, sanderman r. hagedoorn m, et al. j behav med. aug; ( ): - . doi: . /s - - - . epub jan . j behav med. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 supportive and negative responses in the partner relationship: their association with psychological adjustment among individuals with cancer. manne sl, taylor kl, dougherty j, kemeny n. manne sl, 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(bangladesh)	bangla 		welsh bibliographical information these links produce citations in various referencing styles. 	bibliographical information on ottobib (mla) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (apa) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (chicago) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (wikipedia) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (bibtex) find other editions you can look up isbns for different editions of the same book, hardback or paperback, first print or a reprint, even re-editions where the title has changed using xisbn. xisbn's linkages are determined algorithmically, based on the concepts of the functional requirements for bibliographic records. 	results in xml 	results in html you can also convert between and digit isbn numbers with these tools: 	isbn converter at isbn.org 	isbn converter (with optional hyphenation after conversion) at the library of congress find on wikipedia 	find articles on wikipedia which cite this isbn. see also 	wikipedia:book sources – "wikipedia:book sources" will be clickable in the non-editable version of this page, and will take one to the editable version of this page. 	wikipedia talk:book sources – for questions and discussion about this page. 	wikipedia:isbn – explanation of mediawiki software treatment of isbn numbers. 	list of academic databases and search engines 	list of digital library projects 	list of online encyclopedias 	list of online databases 	wikipedia:list of bibliographies 		the wikipedia library (talk | e) apply for free access to research! research tools and services 	resource exchange 	reference desk 	research desk 	discover open access 	free resource guides 	book sources 	journal sources 	bibliographies 	free newspaper sources 	online archives 	find your local library tips 	find your source tips 	how to find sources 	citation tools guide outreach 	the wikipedia library bookshelf (meta) 	universities and libraries 	archivists 	publishers 	wikipedia loves libraries 	wikidata source metadata get involved 	get free access to sources 	read the books & bytes newsletter 	help disambiguate authors of scholarly papers 	be a wikipedia visiting scholar 	teach library interns 	become a coordinator 	learn about twl ...support open access... retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:booksources/ - - - " 		categories: 	wikipedia resources for researchers hidden categories: 	pages with short description 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			special page 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			upload file 	special pages 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 Поверење — Википедија 	 	 	 	 	Поверење 	 		С Википедије, слободне енциклопедије 		 		 		 		 		Пређи на навигацију 		Пређи на претрагу 			 	Овај чланак не наводи ниједан извор. Побољшајте га додавањем референци ка поузданим изворима. Садржај непоткрепљен изворима може бити доведен у питање, а потом и избрисан. (детаљније о уклањању овог шаблона обавештења) Поверење је сложена веза. У глобалу, када одлучујемо да ли да верујемо особи, на нас утичу многобројни фактори, као што су: 	личне предиспозиције да верујемо, што је повезано са нашом психом, која је, сама по себи, подређена многим животним догађајима (они могу бити потпуно неповезани са особом којој одлучујемо да верујемо или не); 	односи и прошсла искуства са особом и њеним пријатељима, укључујући и гласине и оговарање; 	мишљења о делима и одлукама које је особа учинила у прошлости. Садржај[уреди | уреди извор] 	Имати поверење у некога значи веровати у његову доследност и добронамерност у активностима и нашу могућност да исте предвидимо на основу претходних заједничких искустава. Чињеница да верујемо у то да ће се особа понашати у складу са нашим очекивањима даје нам могућност да са њом остваримо стабилан однос, испуњен поверењем. Са оваквим ставом, ми се у односима осећамо сигурније и ослобођено ризика да будемо преварени, док без оваквог почетног става нема ни правог интимног односа. 	У расправама о поверењу није увек јасно истакнуто да би о поверењу пре требало говорити као о способности индивидуе, односно њеном капацитету за стварање односа у којем постоји поверење, а тек онда као о карактеристици односа између више људи који осећају константно незадовољство односима које успостављају, а самим тимe и недостатак интимности и усамљеност, погрешно трагају за решењем у самим односима, не схватајући да је проблем заправо у њима самима, то јест њиховој неспособности да успоставе однос поверења. 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(bangladesh)	bangla 		welsh bibliographical information these links produce citations in various referencing styles. 	bibliographical information on ottobib (mla) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (apa) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (chicago) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (wikipedia) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (bibtex) find other editions you can look up isbns for different editions of the same book, hardback or paperback, first print or a reprint, even re-editions where the title has changed using xisbn. xisbn's linkages are determined algorithmically, based on the concepts of the functional requirements for bibliographic records. 	results in xml 	results in html you can also convert between and digit isbn numbers with these tools: 	isbn converter at isbn.org 	isbn converter (with optional hyphenation after conversion) at the library of congress find on wikipedia 	find articles on wikipedia which cite this isbn. see also 	wikipedia:book sources – "wikipedia:book sources" will be clickable in the non-editable version of this page, and will take one to the editable version of this page. 	wikipedia talk:book sources – for questions and discussion about this page. 	wikipedia:isbn – explanation of mediawiki software treatment of isbn numbers. 	list of academic databases and search engines 	list of digital library projects 	list of online encyclopedias 	list of online databases 	wikipedia:list of bibliographies 		the wikipedia library (talk | e) apply for free access to research! research tools and services 	resource exchange 	reference desk 	research desk 	discover open access 	free resource guides 	book sources 	journal sources 	bibliographies 	free newspaper sources 	online archives 	find your local library tips 	find your source tips 	how to find sources 	citation tools guide outreach 	the wikipedia library bookshelf (meta) 	universities and libraries 	archivists 	publishers 	wikipedia loves libraries 	wikidata source metadata get involved 	get free access to sources 	read the books & bytes newsletter 	help disambiguate authors of scholarly papers 	be a wikipedia visiting scholar 	teach library interns 	become a coordinator 	learn about twl ...support open access... retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:booksources/ " 		categories: 	wikipedia resources for researchers hidden categories: 	pages with short description 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			special page 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			upload file 	special pages 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 book sources - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	book sources 	 		 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 this page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the - or -digit isbn number. spaces and dashes in the isbn number do not matter. search for book sourcesisbn: search wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources for assistance, see help:isbn. this page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its international standard book number (isbn). 	if you arrived at this page by clicking an isbn link in a wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. to search for a different book, type that book's individual isbn into this isbn search box. 	spaces and dashes in the isbn do not matter. also, the number starts after the colon for "isbn- :" and "isbn- :" numbers.  	an isbn identifies a specific edition of a book. any given title may therefore have a number of different isbns. see xisbn below for finding other editions. 	an isbn registration, even one corresponding to a book page on a major book distributor database, is not definite proof that such a book actually exists. a title may have been cancelled or postponed after the isbn was assigned. check to see if the book exists or not. 	the master copy of this page is located at wikipedia:book sources. contents 	 online text 	 online databases 	 subscription ebook databases 	 libraries 	 . worldwide 	 . africa 	 . . nigeria 	 . . south africa 	 . . zimbabwe 	 . central america and the caribbean 	 . . barbados 	 . . guatemala 	 . . jamaica 	 . . mexico 	 . . trinidad and tobago 	 . canada 	 . . public libraries 	 . . universities and 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(bangladesh)	bangla 		welsh bibliographical information these links produce citations in various referencing styles. 	bibliographical information on ottobib (mla) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (apa) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (chicago) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (wikipedia) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (bibtex) find other editions you can look up isbns for different editions of the same book, hardback or paperback, first print or a reprint, even re-editions where the title has changed using xisbn. xisbn's linkages are determined algorithmically, based on the concepts of the functional requirements for bibliographic records. 	results in xml 	results in html you can also convert between and digit isbn numbers with these tools: 	isbn converter at isbn.org 	isbn converter (with optional hyphenation after conversion) at the library of congress find on wikipedia 	find articles on wikipedia which cite this isbn. see also 	wikipedia:book sources – "wikipedia:book sources" will be clickable in the non-editable version of this page, and will take one to the editable version of this page. 	wikipedia talk:book sources – for questions and discussion about this page. 	wikipedia:isbn – explanation of mediawiki software treatment of isbn numbers. 	list of academic databases and search engines 	list of digital library projects 	list of online encyclopedias 	list of online databases 	wikipedia:list of bibliographies 		the wikipedia library (talk | e) apply for free access to research! research tools and services 	resource exchange 	reference desk 	research desk 	discover open access 	free resource guides 	book sources 	journal sources 	bibliographies 	free newspaper sources 	online archives 	find your local library tips 	find your source tips 	how to find sources 	citation tools guide outreach 	the wikipedia library bookshelf (meta) 	universities and libraries 	archivists 	publishers 	wikipedia loves libraries 	wikidata source metadata 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version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 book sources - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	book sources 	 		 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 this page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the - or -digit isbn number. spaces and dashes in the isbn number do not matter. search for book sourcesisbn: search wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources for assistance, see help:isbn. this page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its international standard book number (isbn). 	if you arrived at this page by clicking an isbn link in a wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. to search for a different book, type that 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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:specialpages" 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			special page 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			upload file 	special pages 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 confiança – wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre 	 	 	 	 	confiança 	 		origem: wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre. 		 		 		 		 		saltar para a navegação 		saltar para a pesquisa 		 nota: para outros significados, veja confiança (desambiguação). confiança é menor nos países mais desiguais. wilkinson e pickett ( ). em psicologia, confiança pode ser entendida como "um estado psicológico que se caracteriza pela intenção de aceitar a vulnerabilidade, com base em crenças otimistas a respeito das intenções (ou do comportamento) do outro".[ ] pode também ser entendida como a crença na probidade moral, na sinceridade de alguém. em sociologia e psicologia social, confiança refere-se à expectativa de que um indivíduo, grupo ou instituição atue da maneira esperada, em uma dada situação. trata-se de uma suspensão temporal da situação básica de incerteza acerca de eventos ou ações individuais, grupais ou institucionais, mediante a suposição de que exista um certo grau de regularidade e previsibilidade desses eventos ou ações. a confiança será mais ou menos reforçada, em função de atos ou fatos. Índice 	 surgimento 	 . exemplo 	 confiança em administração 	 confiança em sentido jurídico 	 referências 	 ver também surgimento[editar | editar código-fonte] o grau de confiança entre duas pessoas ou mais, é determinado pela capacidade que elas têm de prever o comportamento uma da outra, dentro de uma nação. tem como base experiências passadas que corroboram um padrão esperado, valores compartilhados percebidos como compatíveis. também é "a expectativa que nasce no seio de uma comunidade de comportamento estável, honesto e cooperativo, baseado em normas compartilhadas pelos membros dessa comunidade". quando isso ocorre, tenho condições de prever o comportamento do outro em uma dada circunstância. confiança é previsibilidade do comportamento e bem - estar de um país - nação. ao observar o comportamento de alguém, somos capazes de identificar os valores que determinam por que as pessoas se comportam de uma determinada maneira, que seria a cultura. portanto, quando digo que confio em alguém, estou querendo dizer que: a) pertencemos à mesma comunidade de valores ou cultura, e b) sei que ele estará tão orientado para atender a meus/nossos interesses quanto eu próprio estaria se estivesse no lugar dele. quando isso acontece, as pessoas não negociam: elas são capazes de entregar um cheque em branco e assinado. assim, a quantidade e a frequência das negociações podem ser indicadores de que nem tudo vai bem no país segundo sun tzu. se a oportunidade de negociar pode ser um indício de relações democráticas e igualitárias, o excesso de negociações é um indicador seguro de falta de confiança porque, no limite, quando eu confio totalmente, não negocio. assim, quanto maior o número de negociações, menor a abertura entre os interlocutores. exemplo[editar | editar código-fonte] mesmo quando duas pessoas possuem fortes vínculos afetivos - marido e mulher, comandantes e subordinados, rei e súditos, por exemplo -, existem situações em que eles têm de negociar, porque um não confia na decisão do outro e isso não tem, em princípio, nada a ver com honestidade, mas sim com a incapacidade de prever o comportamento do outro. um exemplo: numa sexta-feira à noite, voltando para casa, o marido está planejando ir ao cinema, pois há um filme a que ele quer muito assistir. ao mesmo tempo, a mulher deseja ir ao teatro. se um deles deixar a decisão nas mãos do outro - em confiança -, o desfecho será ganha/perde. se decidirem negociar, deverão explorar os reais interesses em jogo, nos outros comportamentos entra o que se costuma chamar de corrupção. se o que eles desejam realmente, o mesmo objetivo e/ou objetivos contrários, possivelmente cada um irá para seu lado provocando a desunião entre os casais e o caos da nação, segundo sun tzu kong fu sen. tecnicamente, pode-se dizer que, nesse caso, eles não confiam uns nos outros, ainda que em outras dimensões importantes do casamento/estado a confiança seja total e irrestrita. a rapidez na solução do impasse dependerá do grau de abertura existente entre os dois no casamento ou no caos da nação. imagine que o marido/políticos temem abrir seus reais interesses para a mulher/povobrasileiro, com medo de magoá-la no caso da esposa e/ou escandalizar o povo brasileiro, no caso do político. como resolver o impasse? com abertura. ou seja, quanto mais rápida e francamente eles revelarem o que desejam, mais facilmente poderão resolver esse problema particular e de estado. confiança em administração[editar | editar código-fonte] a confiança, em administração, pode estar relacionada com a confiança entre as pessoas (confiança interpessoal), entre pessoas e uma organização (confiança organizacional) ou entre organizações (confiança interorganizacional). confiança interpessoal é a aceitação de uma parte em ser vulnerável às ações de outra pessoa, com base na expectativa de que a outra pessoa terá um comportamento favorável aos objetivos e expectativas da parte, mesmo que não tenha nenhuma forma de assegurar isso. significa expor-se a uma situação de risco, esperando um resultado benéfico.[ ] confiança em sentido jurídico[editar | editar código-fonte] a palavra confiança tem significado especial para o direito. na literatura jurídica fala-se de um "princípio da confiança", desenvolvido em portugal na obra de carneiro da frada[ ] e, no brasil, por patrícia cândido alves ferreira.[ ] haveria sentidos para a confiança no direito: uma ponte entre a boa-fé objetiva e a boa-fé subjetiva ou uma forma de proteção das expectativas legítimas de quem contrata.[ ] referências 	↑ denise m. rousseau, sim b. sitkin, ronald s. burt et colin camerer, not so different after all: a cross-discipline view of trust, academy of management review, vol. , no ,‎ , p. - 	↑ lanz, l. q,; tomei, p. a. confiança nas organizações. elsevier / puc-rio, rio de janeiro, rj, . 	↑ carneiro da frada, manuel ( ). teoria da confiança e responsabilidade civil. coimbra: almedina  	↑ a b cÂndido alves ferreira, patrícia (jan–mar ). «o princípio da confiança: proteção e tópica jurisprudencial dos contratos de saúde suplementar». são paulo: revista dos tribunais-thomsonreuters. revista de direito civil contemporâneo - rdcc. v. . 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equivalent pages on other wikipedias, linked below – they are more likely to have sources appropriate for that language. special:booksources in other language wikipedias 	isbn prefix ranges 	wikipedia 	 	english (this page) 	 - 	french 	 	german 	 (japan)	japanese 	 (russia, former ussr)	russian 	 (china, pr) / (taiwan, roc) / (hong kong, sar) (singapore) (macau, sar) 	chinese 	 (czech republic)	czech 	 (poland)	polish 	 (spain) (argentina) (chile) (colombia) (cuba) / (mexico) (venezuela) / (ecuador)	spanish 	 (brasil) (portugal)	portuguese 	 (serbia, montenegro)	serbian 	 (former yugoslavia) (croatia)	croatian 	 (former yugoslavia) (slovenia)	slovenian 	 	danish 	 	italian 	 	korean 	 	dutch 	 	swedish 	 	international organizations (multilingual) 	 (india)	hindi 	 (india) (sri lanka)	tamil 	 / (finland)	finnish 	 	bulgarian 	 (sri lanka)	sinhalese 	 	greek 	 	hungarian 	 / (iran)	persian 	 (israel)	hebrew 	 (ukraine)	ukrainian 	 (malaysia)	malay 	 (pakistan)	pashto 	 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(bangladesh)	bangla 		welsh bibliographical information these links produce citations in various referencing styles. 	bibliographical information on ottobib (mla) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (apa) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (chicago) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (wikipedia) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (bibtex) find other editions you can look up isbns for different editions of the same book, hardback or paperback, first print or a reprint, even re-editions where the title has changed using xisbn. xisbn's linkages are determined algorithmically, based on the concepts of the functional requirements for bibliographic records. 	results in xml 	results in html you can also convert between and digit isbn numbers with these tools: 	isbn converter at isbn.org 	isbn converter (with optional hyphenation after conversion) at the library of congress find on wikipedia 	find articles on wikipedia which cite this isbn. see also 	wikipedia:book sources – "wikipedia:book sources" will be clickable in the non-editable version of this page, and will take one to the editable version of this page. 	wikipedia talk:book sources – for questions and discussion about this page. 	wikipedia:isbn – explanation of mediawiki software treatment of isbn numbers. 	list of academic databases and search engines 	list of digital library projects 	list of online encyclopedias 	list of online databases 	wikipedia:list of bibliographies 		the wikipedia library (talk | e) apply for free access to research! research tools and services 	resource exchange 	reference desk 	research desk 	discover open access 	free resource guides 	book sources 	journal sources 	bibliographies 	free newspaper sources 	online archives 	find your local library tips 	find your source tips 	how to find sources 	citation tools guide outreach 	the wikipedia library bookshelf (meta) 	universities and libraries 	archivists 	publishers 	wikipedia loves libraries 	wikidata source metadata 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version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 book sources - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	book sources 	 		 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 this page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the - or -digit isbn number. spaces and dashes in the isbn number do not matter. search for book sourcesisbn: search wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources for assistance, see help:isbn. this page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its international standard book number (isbn). 	if you arrived at this page by clicking an isbn link in a wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. to search for a different book, type that 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(bangladesh)	bangla 		welsh bibliographical information these links produce citations in various referencing styles. 	bibliographical information on ottobib (mla) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (apa) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (chicago) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (wikipedia) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (bibtex) find other editions you can look up isbns for different editions of the same book, hardback or paperback, first print or a reprint, even re-editions where the title has changed using xisbn. xisbn's linkages are determined algorithmically, based on the concepts of the functional requirements for bibliographic records. 	results in xml 	results in html you can also convert between and digit isbn numbers with these tools: 	isbn converter at isbn.org 	isbn converter (with optional hyphenation after conversion) at the library of congress find on wikipedia 	find articles on wikipedia which cite this isbn. see also 	wikipedia:book sources – "wikipedia:book sources" will be clickable in the non-editable version of this page, and will take one to the editable version of this page. 	wikipedia talk:book sources – for questions and discussion about this page. 	wikipedia:isbn – explanation of mediawiki software treatment of isbn numbers. 	list of academic databases and search engines 	list of digital library projects 	list of online encyclopedias 	list of online databases 	wikipedia:list of bibliographies 		the wikipedia library (talk | e) apply for free access to research! research tools and services 	resource exchange 	reference desk 	research desk 	discover open access 	free resource guides 	book sources 	journal sources 	bibliographies 	free newspaper sources 	online archives 	find your local library tips 	find your source tips 	how to find sources 	citation tools guide outreach 	the wikipedia library bookshelf (meta) 	universities and libraries 	archivists 	publishers 	wikipedia loves libraries 	wikidata source metadata 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isbn number. spaces and dashes in the isbn number do not matter. search for book sourcesisbn: search wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources for assistance, see help:isbn. this page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its international standard book number (isbn). 	if you arrived at this page by clicking an isbn link in a wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. to search for a different book, type that book's individual isbn into this isbn search box. 	spaces and dashes in the isbn do not matter. also, the number starts after the colon for "isbn- :" and "isbn- :" numbers.  	an isbn identifies a specific edition of a book. any given title may therefore have a number of different isbns. see xisbn below for finding other editions. 	an isbn registration, even one 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durum geleceğe yöneliktir. buna ek olarak, güvenen kişi (gönüllü olarak veya zorla) güvenilen tarafından gerçekleştirilen eylemler üzerindeki kontrolü terk eder. sonuç olarak, güvenen, ötekinin eylemlerinin sonucu hakkında emin değildi. güvenilen umulduğu ve kendisinden beklenildiği gibi davranmazsa, bu belirsizlik durumu başarısızlık veya güvenene zarar verme riskini içerir. 		sosyoloji ile ilgili bu madde taslak seviyesindedir. madde içeriğini genişleterek vikipedi'ye katkı sağlayabilirsiniz. 		g 	t 	d etik 	kavramlar	 	adalet 	ahlaksızlık 	ahlak 	aksiyoloji 	azap ya da acı 	değer 	dünya görüşü 	erdem 	eşitlik 	güven 	İdeal 	İlke 	İnanç 	İyi ve kötü 	İyi 	kötü (Şer) 	mutluluk 	norm 	Özerklik 	Özgür irade 	Özgürlük 	teslimiyet 	sempati 	siyasi özgürlük 	vicdan 	teoriler	 	bakım/özen etiği 	biyosentrizm 	deontoloji 	erdem etiği 	meta-etik 	partikülarizm 	pragmatik etik 	rol etiği 	sonuççuluk 	varoluşçu etik 	filozoflar	 	laozi 	sokrates 	platon 	aristoteles 	diyojen 	valluvar 	cicero 	konfüçyüs 	augustinus 	mensiyüs 	mozi 	xun kuang 	thomas aquinas 	baruch spinoza 	david hume 	immanuel kant 	hegel 	arthur schopenhauer 	jeremy bentham 	john stuart mill 	søren kierkegaard 	henry sidgwick 	friedrich nietzsche 	g. e. moore 	karl barth 	paul tillich 	dietrich bonhoeffer 	philippa foot 	john rawls 	john dewey 	bernard williams 	j. l. mackie 	elizabeth anscombe 	william frankena 	alasdair macintyre 	richard mervyn hare 	peter singer 	derek parfit 	thomas nagel 	robert merrihew adams 	charles taylor 	joxe azurmendi 	christine korsgaard 	martha nussbaum 	uygulamalı etik	 	biyoetik 	İş etiği 	söylem etiği 	mühendislik etiği 	Çevre etiği 	hukuk etiği 	yapay zekâ etiği 	medya etiği 	tıp etiği 	hemşirelik etiği 	meslek etiği 	cinsel etik 	et yememe etiği 	teknoloji etiği 	meta-etik	 	bilişselcilik 	etik öznellik 	evrensel ahlakçılık 	göreceli ahlak 	ahlaki nihilizm 	deneycilik 	akılcı ahlak 	etik sezgicilik 	ahlaki kuşkuculuk 	İlgili maddeler	 	dinde etik 	tanımlayıcı etik 	evrimsel etik 	feminist etik 	İdeoloji 	ahlak psikolojisi 	normatif etik 	hukuk felsefesi 	siyaset felsefesi 	toplum felsefesi 	listeler	 	ahlâkî konular listesi 	ahlâkçılar listesi 	 	kategori "https://tr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=güven_(sosyoloji)&oldid= " adresinden alınmıştır. 		kategori: 	sosyoloji taslakları 	sorumluluk 	etik kavramları 	duygular 	kişilerarası ilişkiler 	İnşacılık 	sosyoloji terimleri gizli kategori: 	tüm taslak maddeler 	 	 	gezinti menüsü 	 		 	 		kişisel araçlar 	 	 			oturum açık değil 	mesaj 	katkılar 	hesap oluştur 	oturum aç 		 	 		 			 	 		ad alanları 	 	 			madde 	tartışma 		 	 			 	 	 		türevler 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		görünüm 	 	 			oku 	değiştir 	kaynağı değiştir 	geçmişi gör 		 	 			 	 	 		daha fazla 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		ara 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		gezinti 	 	 			anasayfa 	hakkımızda 	İçindekiler 	rastgele madde 	seçkin içerik 	yakınımdakiler 		 	 	 	 		katılım 	 	 			bağış yapın 	deneme tahtası 	İş birliği projesi 	köy çeşmesi 	son değişiklikler 	topluluk portali 	wikimedia dükkânı 	yardım 		 	 	 		araçlar 	 	 			sayfaya bağlantılar 	İlgili değişiklikler 	Özel sayfalar 	kalıcı bağlantı 	sayfa bilgisi 	bu sayfaya kaynak göster 	vikiveri öğesi 		 	 	 		yazdır/dışa aktar 	 	 			bir kitap oluştur 	pdf olarak indir 	basılmaya uygun görünüm 		 	 	 		diğer projelerde 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		diğer diller 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	galego 	עברית 	hrvatski 	Հայերեն 	İtaliano 	日本語 	Қазақша 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	Українська 	中文 		bağlantıları değiştir 	 		 bu sayfa son olarak haziran tarihinde ve . saatinde değiştirilmiştir. 	metin creative commons atıf-benzerpaylaşım lisansı altındadır; ek koşullar uygulanabilir. bu siteyi kullanarak, kullanım Şartlarını ve gizlilik politikasını kabul etmiş olursunuz. vikipedi® (ve wikipedia®) kâr amacı gütmeyen kuruluş olan wikimedia foundation, inc. tescilli markasıdır. 		gizlilik politikası 	vikipedi hakkında 	sorumluluk reddi 	mobil görünüm 	geliştiriciler 	İstatistikler 	tanımlama bilgisi bildirgesi 		 	 	 a social identity approach to trust: interpersonal perception, group membership and trusting behaviour european journal of social psychology eur. j. soc. psychol. , – ( ) published online in wiley interscience (www.interscience.wiley.com). doi: . /ejsp. short communication a social identity approach to trust: interpersonal perception, group membership and trusting behaviour martin tanis * and tom postmes free university, amsterdam, the netherlands university of exeter, uk abstract trusting behaviour involves relinquishing control over outcomes valuable to the self. previous research suggests that interpersonal perceptions of trustworthiness are closely related to this behaviour. the present research suggests that the more proximal determinant of trusting behaviour is the expectation that the other will reciprocate. based on the social identity model of deindivi- duation effects (side) model, reciprocity expectations may be created by interpersonal perceptions of trustworthiness or a shared group membership. to investigate this, group membership and individual identifiability were experimentally manipulated (n¼ ): when individuals were not identifiable, trusting behaviour was based on expectations of reciprocity inferred from group membership, not on perceived trustworthiness. in contrast, personal identifiability fostered percep- tions of trustworthiness for both in- and out-group members. in this case interpersonal trustworthiness enhanced expectations of reciprocity, which in turn increased trusting behaviour. copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. there has been considerable debate about what trust is, and how it is influenced (for an overview, see cook, ). trust has been treated as a more or less static interpersonal difference construct (granovetter, ; rotter, ). another perspective emphasizes the influence of contextual factors, in which trust is seen as a cognitive process associated with the confidence in another’s goals or purposes, or the perceived sincerity of another’s word (hosmer, ; lewicki & bunker, ; mellinger, ). in this view, the level of trust is specific to the relationship and to the contextual factors which enhance or inhibit the development and maintenance of trust (lewicki & bunker, ). in these approaches, definitions of trust are operationally if not conceptually confined to perceptions of one regarding the other: that is, trust is defined as perceived trustworthiness. this, we argue, is a rather restrictive conceptualization, and does not clearly differentiate trust from other received july copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. accepted january *correspondence to: martin tanis, free university, de boelelaan , hv, amsterdam, the netherlands. e-mail: ma.tanis@fsw.vu.nl contract/grant sponsor: esrc; contract/grant number: res- - - . ‘relational goods’, such as respect, attraction, support, or endorsement. trust of this kind is undoubtedly valuable in interpersonal relations, and would appear to be closely bound up with the positivity of the relationship between two or more individuals. however, there is a rather different aspect of trust which is not quite captured by this perceptual or relational conceptualization. this feature has to do with the behavioural consequences of trust, in that trust also entails relinquishing some degree of control or power to the other. for example one could trust another to complete a particular task, or give them the keys to one’s house and trust them to put the rubbish out for you. there is a subtle difference between perceptions of trustworthiness and trusting behaviour. unlike perceptions of trustworthiness, trusting behaviour involves relinquishing power over outcomes valuable to the self (cf. messick & kramer, ). one key difference between the two, then, is that one is a passive and potentially inconsequential interpersonal evaluation, whereas the other requires an active investment of self-relevant outcomes. moreover, whereas the perception of trustworthiness is an assessment of someone’s character, trusting behaviour involves expectations about the other’s actions. it could be argued that this distinction is one of degree. indeed, the perception of trustworthiness is likely to affect trusting behaviour to a certain extent. however, we argue that the interpersonal evaluation of someone as ‘trustworthy’ is not a necessary condition for trusting behaviour to follow, and that there is a qualitative difference between perceiving someone as trustworthy and expecting him or her to reciprocate. indeed, we believe that perceivers are well aware that a target’s behaviour is (sometimes) dictated by factors other than their personality. of course, the two are likely to correspond to each other in most cases, but exceptions exist. for example we might rely on an untrustworthy person to do something for the community (i.e. to reciprocate) because it is in their self-interest to do so (a case where people’s actions are for the greater good but not motivated by their personality). also, we might expect reciprocity simply because rules or laws oblige people to behave in a certain way (a case where compliance is assumed). these examples illustrate two things. one is that trusting behaviour and perceptions of trustworthi- ness do not always coincide. another is that the expectation of reciprocity appears to determine whether people will behave in trusting ways. although reciprocity expectations can be created by interpersonal perceptions of trustworthiness (and indeed many have treated them as synonymous), we know from research that they can also be created by higher order perceptions of similarity and interchangeability, such as those induced by shared social group membership (brewer, ; yamagishi & kiyonari, ). shared group memberships (when salient) reduce the relevance of interpersonal distinctions (turner, hogg, oakes, reicher, & wetherell, ) and produce the possibility for individuals to engage in co-action and collective action (reicher, ). so, in certain group contexts, trust is not so much based on the economic calculation of what happens if the other individual preserves or violates the trust (so called calculus-based trust) but is based on common membership of a salient social group—i.e. identification-based trust (kramer & wei, ; lewicki & bunker, ). individual identifiability, group membership and trust in order to examine what affects trusting behaviour, the present study examines the two factors underlying reciprocity expectations based on predictions derived from the social identity model of deindividuation effects (side, reicher, spears, & postmes, ; spears & lea, ). more specifically we manipulate information about the target by providing so-called cues to identity. it is important here to differentiate between cues that make salient aspects of personal identity and cues to martin tanis and tom postmes copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. eur. j. soc. psychol. , – ( ) social identity (or group membership, see tanis & postmes, ). both kinds of information are believed to play an important role in the perception people form of each other. in contexts in which cues are informative about personal identity, even relatively minimal cues such as portrait pictures and first names have been shown to reduce ambiguity and to result in more positive interpersonal impressions (tanis & postmes, ). not ‘knowing’ one’s interaction partner might increase uncertainty or even apprehensions about the other, and provide a less firm basis for trusting the other. this idea resonates with the general assumption that ‘trust needs touch’ (handy, ), i.e. that interpersonal contact is important (if not vital) in order to trust someone. therefore, our first hypothesis would be that cues to personal identity increase perceived trustworthiness, but that group membership does not. however, people may also engage in trusting behaviour simply because they expect reciprocity from ingroupers. past research on the side model has demonstrated that when cues to shared social identity are available (and when this identity is salient), the inability to tell group members apart may accentuate the perceptual unity of the group, and thereby enhance group members’ feelings of attraction and identification to the group (e.g. lea, spears, & de groot, ; t. postmes, r. spears, t. lee, & r. j. novak, in press; postmes, spears, sakhel, & de groot, ; sassenberg & postmes, ). indeed, sassenberg and postmes ( ) showed that an inability to individuate ingroup others reduces interpersonal attraction, but at the same time increases a sense of shared identity. conversely, information about idiosyncratic characteristics of group members stresses the unique individuality of each of them, thereby drawing attention away form the person’s identity as an ingroup or outgroup member. extending this to the realm of trust, our second hypothesis would be that a person’s group membership would only affect expectations of reciprocity and trusting behaviour when individuation is not possible: in the absence of cues to personal identity, there may be an accentuated expectation of reciprocity based on shared ingroup membership. this leads us to our third hypothesis which is that trusting behaviour is mediated by the expectancy of reciprocity. as mentioned, the expression of trust in behaviour means that one invests trust in that person by giving the other power over outcomes valuable to the self. therefore, trusting behaviour will only be displayed when people think that others will not take advantage of the situation and when reciprocity is expected. reciprocity can be expected either on the basis of group membership, or on the basis of individuating cues to personal identity. when the other is an ingroup member, reciprocity would be expected from the other irrespective of whether they are individuated or not (i.e. irrespective of whether there is a basis for interpersonal trustworthiness or not). but when the other is an outgroup member, reciprocity can only be based on an interpersonal evaluation of the other’s trustworthiness— in other words an evaluation that depends on one’s capacity to individuate the other. therefore, our fourth hypothesis is that when one’s partner is from the outgroup, expected reciprocity and trusting behaviour will be based on perceived interpersonal trustworthiness, when cues to personal identity are available. overview in order to examine the effects of cues to personal identity and group membership on trust, a so-called investment game was designed in which participants were confronted with a dilemma (see berg, dickhaut, & mccabe, ). participants could invest the reward they received for participating in the research. they were told that their investment would be tripled by the experimenter, and then transferred to a randomly selected counterpart. participants were led to believe that the counterpart could choose how much (if any) of this sum was to be returned to the participant. in other words, if the participant decided to invest money, the counterpart would have the power to decide the size of the social identity approach to trust copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. eur. j. soc. psychol. , – ( ) reward which the participant would receive. the alleged counterpart was either a member of a salient ingroup or outgroup, and cues to the personal identity of this person were either presented or not. the key dependent variables were perceived trustworthiness, expected reciprocity, and trusting behaviour (measured by whether or not money was invested). based on findings that cues to personal identity reduce ambiguity (see tanis & postmes, ), and consistent with approaches stressing the importance of social presence for personalized interactions (culnan & markus, ; rutter, ; short, williams, & christie, ), the presence of cues to personal identity was expected to increase perceived trustworthiness of the other, regardless of whether the counterpart was a member of the ingroup or the outgroup. the reason why group membership should not moderate this effect is twofold: (a) cues to personal identity individuate the counterpart and decrease salience of social identity (e.g. lea et al., ; sassenberg & postmes, ) and (b) perceived trustworthiness is operationalized as an interpersonal judgment, making it less susceptible to influences by group stereotypes when (as in the present case) the stereotypes of groups do not speak to trustworthiness. method university of amsterdam freshmen students (n¼ ; male) participated in return for a financial reward in a study with a (partner’s group membership: ingroup vs. outgroup)� (cues to personal identity: no cues vs. cues) between-participants factorial design. the experiment was conducted in a laboratory with eight networked pcs. participants were guided to an isolated cubicle with a pc, and received brief instructions for its use. all subsequent instructions were provided via the computer. the experiment began by asking participants some demographic questions (age, sex) and ingroup identification, measured with a three-item scale: ‘i identify myself with students from the uva’, ‘i see myself as a member of the group of students from the uva’, ‘i feel connected to the group of students from the uva’; �¼ . (doosje, ellemers, & spears, ). the outgroup was another university located in the same city with whom mild rivalry existed. identification with the outgroup was measured using the same scale, substituting ‘uva’ with ‘vu’ (�¼ . ). participants were then told that they would be given the opportunity to invest their reward for participating (s ). they could either keep the money all to themselves or transfer (a part of) their earnings to another person. the computer would randomly team them up with a counterpart who would come to the laboratory later in the day (subtly conveying to participants that they would not meet the other in person, and they were therefore not interdependent or under any implicit pressure from the other). participants were told that—if they decided to transfer money—the experimenter would triple the amount of money they transferred. it was then for the alleged counterpart to choose how much (if any) of the money to send back. participants were told that they would see the picture and name of the alleged counterpart if this was available (cues to personal identity) and information regarding their university (cues to social identity identifying the other as an in- or out-group member). portrait pictures and first names were randomly drawn from a database of student pictures that were pre-tested for neutrality of expression and attractiveness. in this way, any risk of bias due to visual appearance of stimulus others was expected to be minimal. cues to social identity were manipulated by presenting the logo of the particular university of the target other. participants’ understanding of the procedure was tested through a multiple-choice question and when answered incorrectly, instructions were repeated. subsequently, participants were led to believe that the computer randomly chose a counterpart. this was done by simultaneously portraying two targets (each on one side of the computer screen) by means of the logo of the accompanying university (one of each university). this initial joint martin tanis and tom postmes copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. eur. j. soc. psychol. , – ( ) presentation of an in- and out-group counterpart ensured that the intergroup context was made salient for all participants. the counterparts were identified with randomly selected portrait pictures and names in the cues to personal identity condition, or not personally identified, with just a grey square instead of a picture in the condition without cues to personal identity. after s, one of the persons presented faded away and an arrow pointed to the remaining person, who allegedly would be the counterpart, capable of increasing their reward. after this, the participant was asked whether or not (s)he was willing to transfer money, followed by a number of questions measuring dependent variables, followed by a manipulation check. in the debriefing, participants were explained that there would be no counterpart, as we were only interested in their decision to transfer money or not. dependent variables trusting behaviour was coded dichotomously ( ¼ not willing to transfer any money, ¼willing). following the choice of transferring money or not, the amount of money that participants were willing to transfer was also measured. however, because of the severe skewness of the distribution (with % of the participants transferring nothing and the remaining % transferring s . on average, sd¼ . ) nonparametric tests were deemed more appropriate. in addition to this, participants responded to two statements on -point scales ( ¼ i strongly disagree, ¼ i strongly agree) assessing the degree of perceived trustworthiness (‘i had faith in the person that was linked to me’, ‘i think that the other person can be trusted’, �¼ . ), and a one-item measure of the expected reciprocity (‘i believe that the person that is linked to me will reward me’). data analysis eight participants were excluded from analysis because participants did not recall correctly the counterpart’s group membership, as measured by the manipulation check. the rest of the data were scanned for outliers using the method of estimating mahalanobis distances on the key dependent variables (tabachnick & fidell, ). six participants were identified as outliers using this method (with p< . ), and these cases were excluded from further analysis. this resulted in a total sample size of ( male, female), with participants approximately evenly distributed across conditions. the treatment of trusting behaviour, perceived trustworthiness, and expected reciprocity as separate factors was justified with a confirmatory factor analysis which hypothesized the three factors to be correlated but separate factors. this model had excellent fit, � ( )¼ . , p¼ . , cfi¼ . , rmsea¼ . , which was significantly better than the model predicting that all variables loaded on one factor, �� ( )¼ . , p< . . results as predicted, ingroup identification (m¼ . , sd¼ . ) was higher than outgroup identification (m¼ . , sd¼ . ), f( , )¼ . , p< . . a series of (partner’s group membership: ingroup vs. outgroup)� (cues to personal identity: no cues vs. cues) analyses of variance were conducted. results are presented in table . gender was not considered to be a theoretically relevant variable here. indeed, there were no significant main effects or interactions involving gender on any of the dependent variables. social identity approach to trust copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. eur. j. soc. psychol. , – ( ) perceived trustworthiness as predicted, cues to personal identity had a positive effect on the level of perceived trustworthiness, f( , )¼ . , p< . . when cues were provided, participants indicated that the counterpart was more trustworthy (m¼ . , sd¼ . ), compared to when no cues were provided (m¼ . , sd¼ . ). partner’s group membership had no statistically significant effect on trustworthiness, f( , )¼ . , ns, and the interaction was not reliable either, f( , )¼ . , ns. these findings confirm our first hypothesis. expected reciprocity a main effect of cues to personal identity was found on participants’ expectations that their donations would be reciprocated, f( , )¼ . , p< . . when cues were present, participants reported a higher level of expected reciprocity (m¼ . , sd¼ . ) than when no cues were given (m¼ . , sd¼ . ). the partner’s group membership had no statistically significant effect on expectancy, f( , )¼ . , ns. these effects were qualified by a statistically significant interaction, f( , )¼ . , p< . . in order to test whether the pattern of results was as expected, a planned comparison analysis was conducted (rosenthal, rosnow, & rubin, ). a contrast specified that the expectation of reciprocity in the outgroup-no cues condition would differ statistically significant from all other conditions. this was confirmed by a highly statistically significant effect, f( , )¼ . , p< . . participants least expected reciprocity from an anonymous outgroup member (m¼ . , sd¼ . ) compared to other conditions (m¼ . , sd¼ . ; see table ). these findings confirm our second hypothesis in that reciprocity expectations are only affected by group membership when cues to personal identity are absent. trusting behaviour this was measured dichotomously: participants chose to donate money or not. in order to examine the relation between the conditions and trusting behaviour, a chi-square test of independence was performed. the overall between-cell differences in trusting behaviour were not significantly different, � ( , n¼ )¼ . , p¼ . . however, the focused comparison revealed that the table . mean scores of perceived trustworthiness, perceived reciprocity, and trusting behaviour by partner’s group membership and cues to personal identity no cues to personal identity cues to personal identity ingroup outgroup ingroup outgroup perceived trustworthiness . a . a . b . b sd . . . . expected reciprocity . b . a . b . b sd . . . . trusting behaviour* . b . a . b . b note: means in the same row with a different subscript differ significantly from each other at p< . . *percentage of respondents showing trusting behaviour. martin tanis and tom postmes copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. eur. j. soc. psychol. , – ( ) outgroup-no cues condition differed statistically significant from the other conditions, as predicted, � ( , n¼ )¼ . , p¼ . . there was less trusting behaviour when the counterpart was not personally identified and a member of the outgroup, a finding that confirms the second hypothesis for trusting behaviour (see table for percentages). expected reciprocity as mediator results showed that the availability of cues to personal identity interacted with group membership (in which the outgroup-no cues condition differed from the other conditions) in influencing trusting behaviour. a mediation analysis tested whether this effect was mediated by expected reciprocity (baron & kenny, ). results are displayed in figure . logistic regression analysis showed that the interaction of cues to personal identity and partner’s group membership had a statistically significant impact on trusting behaviour (b¼ . , wald¼ . , p< . ). subsequent regression analyses showed that the interaction of cues and group membership was also significantly related to expected reciprocity (linear �¼ . , t¼ . , p< . ), and that expected reciprocity had a statistically significant effect on trusting behaviour (logistic b¼ . , wald¼ . , p< . ). with expected reciprocity entered in the regression equation, the interaction effect of cues and group membership was no longer statistically significant (b¼ . , ns). the sobel test (baron & kenny, ) showed that the mediator significantly reduced the direct effect (z¼ . , p< . ). this confirms our third hypothesis, in that trusting behaviour is mediated by reciprocity expectations. separate regression analyses for each group provided further support for hypothesis . when counterparts were ingroup members, cues to personal identity did not affect trusting behaviour (b¼� . , ns) or expected reciprocity (�¼� . , ns). however, when counterparts were outgroup members, cues to personal identity did affect trusting behaviour (b¼ . , wald¼ . , p< . ) as well as expected reciprocity (�¼ . , t¼ . , p< . ). the effect of expected reciprocity on trusting behaviour (b¼ . , wald¼ . , p< . ) reduced the direct effect of cues to personal identity (b¼ . , ns). so, when the counterpart was an outgroup member, more behavioural trust was figure . path model for the effect of the interaction of cues to personal and social identity and expected reciprocity on trusting behaviour. a the interaction as specified by the contrast (i.e. contrasting the no cues- outgroup condition with all other conditions). **p< . ; *p< . social identity approach to trust copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. eur. j. soc. psychol. , – ( ) shown when cues to personal identity were present, because these cues increased expectations of reciprocity. trust in outgroup members when looking at the pattern of results as displayed in table , it is clear that for those whose counterpart was a member of the ingroup, cues had no marked effect on perceived reciprocity or trusting behaviour, only on the perception of trustworthiness. for those participants whose counterpart was a member of the outgroup, however, cues did affect all three variables: perceived trustworthiness, expected reciprocity, and trusting behaviour. when the counterpart was an outgrouper, expectations of reciprocity can (obviously) not be based on positive stereotypes that may exist of the ingroup, or on grounds of being part of the same social group. rather, it seems likely that for an outgroup member, any expectation of reciprocal behaviour stems from a feeling of interpersonal trustworthiness which is induced by cues to personal identity. in other words, if it is the case that cues to identity had the effect of making salient the personal identity of outgroup members, then the difference between conditions should be accounted for by differences in interpersonal perceptions of trustworthiness. in order to test this, a structural equation model was tested in structural equation modeling software eqs . a, which predicted that the cues to personal identity condition would affect perceived trustworthiness, which in turn would give rise to expected reciprocity, which in turn predicted trusting behaviour (see figure ). all variables were sufficiently normally distributed with kurtosis values that met assumptions for structural equation. the predicted model had excellent fit, � ( )¼ . , p¼ . , cfi¼ . , rmsea¼ . . all expected parameters were statistically significant and the direction of the relations matched the expectations, confirming our fourth hypothesis. in order to test the direction of causality, we tested a reverse causality model in which the expectancy of reward influences perceived trustworthiness. this reverse causality model did not predict well: all fit indices suggest it failed to account for the pattern of covariation among variables, � ( )¼ . , p< . , cfi¼ . , rmsea¼ . . thus, cues to personal identity significantly affected perceived trustworthiness (�¼ . , p< . ), which significantly predicted reciprocity expectations (�¼ . , p< . ), which determined trusting behaviour (�¼ . , p> . ). we also tested a fully saturated model, including all the direct paths. figure . structural equation model for trusting behaviour in members of the outgroup. this model includes only those participants who were assigned to the outgroup partner conditions. *p< . martin tanis and tom postmes copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. eur. j. soc. psychol. , – ( ) the direct path of the presence of cues to personal identity to reciprocity expectation proved statistically insignificant (�¼ . , ns), as did the path of cues to personal identity to trusting behaviour (�¼ . , ns). in this model, perceived trustworthiness also did not directly affect trusting behaviour (�¼ . , ns). in other words, the pattern is one of full mediation by perceived trustworthiness and reciprocity. discussion results confirm predictions that cues to personal identity such as portrait pictures and first names affect how others are perceived as individuals. these results mirror the finding that individuating information affects impressions people form of strangers through reducing ambiguity (hancock & dunham, ; tanis & postmes, ; walther, slovacek, & tidwell, ). our assumptions are consistent with notions that the presence of cues to personal identity affects the interpersonal relationships of people and leads to feelings of ‘intimacy’ and ‘immediacy’ (cf. kiesler, siegel, & mcguire, ; rutter, ; spears & lea, ; sproull & kiesler, ). indeed, results show that people are perceived as more trustworthy in the presence of cues to personal identity. this is in line with the general belief that ‘trust needs touch’ (handy, ), suggesting that in order to achieve perceived trustworthiness, personal contact (even if this is not physical, but virtual in the form of pictorial or textual information) is beneficial, if not necessary. it should be emphasized that the portrait pictures that were used in this study did not portray particularly distinctive targets, which makes unlikely any alternative explanation in terms of attractiveness. however, results also showed that perceived trustworthiness is not the only factor which leads to the behavioural trust. group membership was an independent and strong predictor of trusting behaviour. in particular, whether or not cues to personal identity (and the perceived trustworthiness accompany- ing it) mattered for the behavioural trust was largely determined by the target’s social identity—for ingroup members such cues to personal identity made no difference. we believe this is because the shared social identity compensates for any loss of individuating information (and the perceived trustworthiness associated with it). when, a decreased possibility to distinguish between the individual and the group, group members’ ‘individuality’ is de-emphasized, perceptions are more likely to be based on group membership and social identity (postmes, spears, & lea, ; reicher et al., ). for members of the ingroup this means that the emphasis lies on the shared social identity, while for outgroup members such a shared identity is obviously not available. when these individuating cues are not available, social identity has a strong influence in guiding co-action and, in this case, trusting behaviour. as was shown by the mediation analyses, trusting behaviour was largely determined by expected reciprocity. so, participants were most willing to transfer their money when they expected that their counterpart would reward them. reciprocity was not expected from an anonymous outgroup member and, as a consequence, less trusting behaviour was demonstrated under those conditions. however, when cues to personal identity were present, participants expected more reciprocity even from an outgrouper, and proved to be more willing to transfer their money as a result. the outcome was entirely different for ingroupers: here cues to identity had no influence on trusting behaviour. this is despite the fact that, according to side, trustful behaviour towards ingroup members is under influence of the same process, in which cues to personal identity individuate one’s counterpart, automatically drawing away the attention from the social identity of that person. however, when an ingroup member is not individuated by the presence of such cues, and hence remains anonymous, there still is the same level of expected reciprocity and concomitant trusting social identity approach to trust copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. eur. j. soc. psychol. , – ( ) behaviour, for the simple reason that a shared group membership provides a sufficient basis for the expectation of benevolence of the other. it could be argued that the opposite effect could also have occurred: cues to personal identity drawing away attention from the shared social identity, consequently decreasing reciprocity expecta- tions, and thereby decreasing trusting behaviour. indeed, this would be to some extent what research on side has shown regularly: that social influence within the group is reduced when attention is drawn to personal characteristics (e.g. lea et al., ; postmes et al., ). due to the presence of cues to personal identity, interpersonal differences become salient. this de-emphasizes the unity of the group, diminishing the influences exerted by shared social identity (spears & lea, ). the reason for this reverse pattern not occurring in the present experiment, we believe, is that the dependent variable of trusting behaviour is one that is influenced both by interpersonal perceptions of attraction, liking (and particularly trustworthiness), as well as by common ingroup membership. traditional side research has been concerned with social norms that are specific to social groups, and which are to some degree independent of intra-group relations. in the present case, however, an increased emphasis on interpersonal relationships would not be inconsistent with reciprocity if the ingroup reciprocity norm is, itself, proscribing a particular interpersonal relational style within the group. the effects of group membership on trust are most clearly illustrated in the comparison between the two no-cues conditions, where more trusting behaviour was displayed towards ingroupers than outgroupers, but importantly where there were no differences in perceived trustworthiness. it seems that this difference in trusting behaviour and expected reciprocity across groups is related to norms of reciprocity being stronger in intra-group interactions, and weaker or absent across group boundaries. in addition to these positive expectations of ingroup members in general, interpersonal perceptions of trustworthiness are very strongly related to the behavioural outcomes of trust. moreover, cues to personal identity fostered perceived trustworthiness of ingroupers as well as outgroupers. in sum, our findings suggest that in interactions with members of the ingroup, two different processes are taking place which can be held responsible for trusting behaviour. on the one hand, expectations of reciprocity are greater for ingroup members than for outgroup members when social identity is salient. when cues to personal identity are present, participants view both ingroup and outgroup members as interpersonally trustworthy, and therefore expect greater reciprocity regardless of their partner’s group membership. in other words, trust between persons is not a unitary construct, but can be beneficially distinguished between perceptions of trustworthiness and trusting behaviour. trusting behaviour is predicted first and foremost by expected reciprocity. reciprocity, in turn, is differentially predicted by factors at individual and group levels, by perceptions of trustworthiness and by group membership. acknowledgements we are very grateful to heather smith and three anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on drafts of this paper. the research was supported by an economic and social research council (esrc) fellowship (res- - - ) to the second author. references baron, r. m., & kenny, d. a. 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( ). social cues and impression formation in cmc. journal of communication, ( ), – . turner, j. c., hogg, m. a., oakes, p. j., reicher, s. d., & wetherell, m. s. ( ). rediscovering the social group: a self-categorization theory. oxford: basil blackwell. walther, j. b., slovacek, c. l., & tidwell, l. c. ( ). is a picture worth a thousand words? photographic images in long-term and short-term computer-mediated communication. communication research, ( ), – . yamagishi, t., & kiyonari, t. 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"wikipedia:book sources" will be clickable in the non-editable version of this page, and will take one to the editable version of this page. 	wikipedia talk:book sources – for questions and discussion about this page. 	wikipedia:isbn – explanation of mediawiki software treatment of isbn numbers. 	list of academic databases and search engines 	list of digital library projects 	list of online encyclopedias 	list of online databases 	wikipedia:list of bibliographies 		the wikipedia library (talk | e) apply for free access to research! research tools and services 	resource exchange 	reference desk 	research desk 	discover open access 	free resource guides 	book sources 	journal sources 	bibliographies 	free newspaper sources 	online archives 	find your local library tips 	find your source tips 	how to find sources 	citation tools guide outreach 	the wikipedia library bookshelf (meta) 	universities and libraries 	archivists 	publishers 	wikipedia loves libraries 	wikidata source metadata get involved 	get free access to sources 	read the books & bytes newsletter 	help disambiguate authors of scholarly papers 	be a wikipedia visiting scholar 	teach library interns 	become a coordinator 	learn about twl ...support open access... retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:booksources/ - - - - " 		categories: 	wikipedia resources for researchers hidden categories: 	pages with short description 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			special page 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			upload file 	special pages 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 zaufanie – wikipedia, wolna encyklopedia 	 	 	 	 	zaufanie 	 		z wikipedii, wolnej encyklopedii 		 		 		 		 		przejdź do nawigacji 		przejdź do wyszukiwania 		zaufanie wobec jakiegoś obiektu jest to wiedza lub wiara, że jego działania, przyszły stan lub własności okażą się zgodne z naszym życzeniem. jeśli takiej pewności nie mamy, to zaufaniu towarzyszy także nadzieja. obiekt zaufania może być dowolny, np. człowiek, zwierzę, przedmiot, substancja, instytucja, społeczeństwo, bóstwo. w przypadku relacji międzyludzkich zaufanie dotyczy najczęściej uczciwości drugiej strony wobec nas, co niekoniecznie oznacza uczciwość wobec innych, np. w grupie przestępczej. zaufanie może, ale nie musi być odwzajemnione; jest jedną z podstawowych więzi międzyludzkich, zarówno w rodzinie jak i grupach społecznych, i bywa szczególnie cenne w sytuacjach kryzysowych. zaufaniem obdarowuje się osobę, której się wierzy. jest to pojęcie analizowane w ramach wielu dyscyplin takich jak psychologia czy socjologia. zaufanie jest podstawą więzi międzyludzkich. ma ono również ogromne znaczenie podczas budowania stałego związku, gdyż staje się ono fundamentem udanego wspólnego pożycia. gdy w związku lub małżeństwie pojawi się jego brak, grozi to rozstaniem, gdyż ciągłe podejrzenia mogą zaszkodzić dobrej komunikacji między partnerami. wzbudzanie zaufania jest też częstą metodą działania przestępców, zwłaszcza oszustów. emocja zaufania jest doznawana także przez bardziej inteligentne zwierzęta. zobacz też[edytuj | edytuj kod] 	 	zobacz w wikicytatach kolekcję cytatów o zaufaniu 	 	zobacz hasło zaufanie w wikisłowniku 	zarządzanie przez zaufanie bibliografia[edytuj | edytuj kod] 	piotr sztompka zaufanie: fundament społeczeństwa, kraków: znak, , ​isbn  - - - - ​ 	wiesław m. grudzewski, irena k. hejduk, anna sankowska, monika wańtuchowicz trust management in virtual work environments: a human factors perspective, crc press taylor & francis group, , ​isbn  - - - - ​ 	wiesław m. grudzewski, irena k. hejduk, anna sankowska, monika wańtuchowicz zarządzanie zaufaniem w organizacjach wirtualnych, warszawa: "difin", , ​isbn  - - - - ​ 	wiesław m. grudzewski, irena k. hejduk, anna sankowska, monika wańtuchowicz zarządzanie zaufaniem w przedsiębiorstwie. koncepcja, narzędzia, zastosowania, kraków: wolters kluwer polska - oficyna, , ​isbn  - - - - ​ linki zewnętrzne[edytuj | edytuj kod] 	dlaczego polacy sobie nie ufają? marcin milczarski 	carolync. mcleod carolync., trust, [w:] stanford encyclopedia of philosophy [online], csli, stanford university, sierpnia , issn - [dostęp - - ]  (ang.). kontrola autorytatywna (pozytywna emocja):	lccn: sh 	gnd:  - 	bncf:  Źródło: „https://pl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=zaufanie&oldid= ” 		kategoria: 	emocje i motywacja 	 	 	menu nawigacyjne 	 		 	 		narzędzia osobiste 	 	 			nie jesteś 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the - or -digit isbn number. spaces and dashes in the isbn number do not matter. search for book sourcesisbn: search wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources for assistance, see help:isbn. this page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its international standard book number (isbn). 	if you arrived at this page by clicking an isbn link in a wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. to search for a different book, type that book's individual isbn into this isbn search box. 	spaces and dashes in the isbn do not matter. also, the number starts after the colon for "isbn- :" and "isbn- :" numbers.  	an isbn identifies a specific edition of a book. any given title may therefore have a number of different isbns. see xisbn below for finding other editions. 	an isbn 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(bangladesh)	bangla 		welsh bibliographical information these links produce citations in various referencing styles. 	bibliographical information on ottobib (mla) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (apa) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (chicago) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (wikipedia) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (bibtex) find other editions you can look up isbns for different editions of the same book, hardback or paperback, first print or a reprint, even re-editions where the title has changed using xisbn. xisbn's linkages are determined algorithmically, based on the concepts of the functional requirements for bibliographic records. 	results in xml 	results in html you can also convert between and digit isbn numbers with these tools: 	isbn converter at isbn.org 	isbn converter (with optional hyphenation after conversion) at the library of congress find on wikipedia 	find articles on wikipedia which cite this isbn. see also 	wikipedia:book sources – "wikipedia:book sources" will be clickable in the non-editable version of this page, and will take one to the editable version of this page. 	wikipedia talk:book sources – for questions and discussion about this page. 	wikipedia:isbn – explanation of mediawiki software treatment of isbn numbers. 	list of academic databases and search engines 	list of digital library projects 	list of online encyclopedias 	list of online databases 	wikipedia:list of bibliographies 		the wikipedia library (talk | e) apply for free access to research! research tools and services 	resource exchange 	reference desk 	research desk 	discover open access 	free resource guides 	book sources 	journal sources 	bibliographies 	free newspaper sources 	online archives 	find your local library tips 	find your source tips 	how to find sources 	citation tools guide outreach 	the wikipedia library bookshelf (meta) 	universities and libraries 	archivists 	publishers 	wikipedia loves libraries 	wikidata source metadata get involved 	get free access to sources 	read the books & bytes newsletter 	help disambiguate authors of scholarly papers 	be a wikipedia visiting scholar 	teach library interns 	become a coordinator 	learn about twl ...support open access... retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:booksources/ " 		categories: 	wikipedia resources for researchers hidden categories: 	pages with short description 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			special page 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			upload file 	special pages 	printable version 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		kategórie: 	psychológia 	sociológia 	 	 	navigačné menu 	 		 	 		osobné nástroje 	 	 			neprihlásený/á 	diskusia 	príspevky 	vytvoriť účet 	prihlásiť sa 		 	 		 			 	 		menné priestory 	 	 			stránka 	diskusia 		 	 			 	 	 		varianty 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		zobrazenia 	 	 			Čítať 	upraviť 	upraviť kód 	zobraziť históriu 		 	 			 	 	 		více 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		hľadať 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigácia 	 	 			hlavná stránka 	portál komunity 	kaviareň 	posledné úpravy 	náhodná stránka 	pomoc 	prispieť 		 	 	 	 		nástroje 	 	 			odkazy na túto stránku 	súvisiace úpravy 	nahrať súbor 	Špeciálne stránky 	trvalý odkaz 	informácie o stránke 	citovať túto stránku 	dátová položka 		 	 	 		tlačiť/exportovať 	 	 			vytvoriť knihu 	stiahnuť ako pdf 	verzia na tlač 		 	 	 		v iných projektoch 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikicitáty 		 	 	 	 		v iných jazykoch 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 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očekivanje od osobe od povjerenja ili organizacije da će svoje buduće akcije oblikovati u okviru zajedničkih vrijednosti. osnove povjerenja čine kredibilitet, pouzdanost i autentičnost, koje se odnose kako na sadašnjost, tako i na buduće događaje. upotreba pojma u znanosti je različita, tako da je čak i unutar jedne discipline često kontroverzna. 		v • r • u osjećaji 	 	temeljni	ljubav • ljutnja • mržnja • sreća • strah • tuga 	 	ostali	agresija • apatija • bijes • depresivnost • dosada • entuzijazam • euforija • frustracija • gađenje • krivnja • ljubomora • melankolija • nada • naklonost • netrpeljivost • panika • pohota • pokajanje • ponos • poštovanje • povjerenje • prihvaćanje • prijezir • privrženost • prkos • samilost • smirenost • sram • srdžba • sumnja • tjeskoba • usamljenost • zadovoljstvo • zahvalnost • zaljubljenost • zbunjenost • zavist • Žalost dobavljeno iz "https://hr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=povjerenje&oldid= " 		kategorije: 	etika 	osjećaji 	 	 	navigacijski 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	italiano 	日本語 	Қазақша 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		uredi međuwikije 	 		 ova stranica posljednji je put uređivana . srpnja . u : . 	tekst je dostupan pod licencijom creative commons imenovanje/dijeli pod istim uvjetima; dodatni uvjeti mogu se primjenjivati. pogledajte uvjete upotrebe za detalje. 		zaštita privatnosti 	impresum 	odricanje od odgovornosti 	prikaz za mobilne uređaje 	razvojni programeri 	statistika 	izjava o kolačićima 		 	 	 book sources - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	book sources 	 		 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 this page allows users to search for multiple sources for a book given the - or -digit isbn number. spaces and dashes in the isbn number do not matter. search for book sourcesisbn: search wikimedia page containing links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources for assistance, see help:isbn. this page links to catalogs of libraries, booksellers, and other book sources where you will be able to search for the book by its international standard book number (isbn). 	if you arrived at this page by clicking an isbn link in a wikipedia page, you will find the full range of relevant search links for that specific book by scrolling to the find links below. to search for a different book, type that book's individual isbn into this isbn search box. 	spaces and dashes in the isbn do not matter. also, the number starts after the colon for "isbn- :" and "isbn- :" numbers.  	an isbn identifies a specific edition of a book. any given title may therefore have a number of different isbns. see xisbn below for finding other editions. 	an isbn registration, even one corresponding to a book page on a major book distributor database, is not definite proof that such a book actually exists. a title may have been cancelled or postponed after the isbn was assigned. check to see if the book exists 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page) 	 - 	french 	 	german 	 (japan)	japanese 	 (russia, former ussr)	russian 	 (china, pr) / (taiwan, roc) / (hong kong, sar) (singapore) (macau, sar) 	chinese 	 (czech republic)	czech 	 (poland)	polish 	 (spain) (argentina) (chile) (colombia) (cuba) / (mexico) (venezuela) / (ecuador)	spanish 	 (brasil) (portugal)	portuguese 	 (serbia, montenegro)	serbian 	 (former yugoslavia) (croatia)	croatian 	 (former yugoslavia) (slovenia)	slovenian 	 	danish 	 	italian 	 	korean 	 	dutch 	 	swedish 	 	international organizations (multilingual) 	 (india)	hindi 	 (india) (sri lanka)	tamil 	 / (finland)	finnish 	 	bulgarian 	 (sri lanka)	sinhalese 	 	greek 	 	hungarian 	 / (iran)	persian 	 (israel)	hebrew 	 (ukraine)	ukrainian 	 (malaysia)	malay 	 (pakistan)	pashto 	 (philippines)	tagalog 	 (romania)	romanian 	 (thailand)	thai 	 / / (turkey)	turkish 	 (caribbean community)	see english, spanish... 	 (egypt) (nigeria) / (saudi arabia) / / (algeria)	arabic 	 (indonesia)	indonesian 	 (south pacific)	see english, french, ... 	 (bangladesh)	bangla 		welsh bibliographical information these links produce citations in various referencing styles. 	bibliographical information on ottobib (mla) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (apa) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (chicago) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (wikipedia) 	bibliographical information on ottobib (bibtex) find other editions you can look up isbns for different editions of the same book, hardback or paperback, first print or a reprint, even re-editions where the title has changed using xisbn. xisbn's linkages are determined algorithmically, based on the concepts of the functional requirements for bibliographic records. 	results in xml 	results in html you can also convert between and digit isbn numbers with these tools: 	isbn converter at isbn.org 	isbn converter (with optional hyphenation after conversion) at the library of congress find on wikipedia 	find articles on wikipedia which cite this isbn. see also 	wikipedia:book sources – "wikipedia:book sources" will be clickable in the non-editable version of this page, and will take one to the editable version of this page. 	wikipedia talk:book sources – for questions and discussion about this page. 	wikipedia:isbn – explanation of mediawiki software treatment of isbn numbers. 	list of academic databases and search engines 	list of digital library projects 	list of online encyclopedias 	list of online databases 	wikipedia:list of bibliographies 		the wikipedia library (talk | e) apply for free access to research! research tools and services 	resource exchange 	reference desk 	research desk 	discover open access 	free resource guides 	book sources 	journal sources 	bibliographies 	free newspaper sources 	online archives 	find your local library tips 	find your source tips 	how to find sources 	citation tools guide outreach 	the wikipedia library bookshelf (meta) 	universities and libraries 	archivists 	publishers 	wikipedia loves libraries 	wikidata source metadata get involved 	get free access to sources 	read the books & bytes newsletter 	help disambiguate authors of scholarly papers 	be a wikipedia visiting scholar 	teach library interns 	become a coordinator 	learn about twl ...support open access... retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:booksources/ - - - - " 		categories: 	wikipedia resources for researchers hidden categories: 	pages with short description 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			special page 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			upload file 	special pages 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 none wikistats - statistics for wikimedia projects terms of use - wikimedia foundation governance wiki 	 	 	 	 	terms of use 	 		from the wikimedia foundation governance wiki 		< terms of use(redirected from terms of use) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 			 in other languages	english  · العربية · asturianu · български · বাংলা · català · čeština · deutsch · english · español · suomi · français · galego · עברית · bahasa indonesia · italiano · 日本語 · 한국어 · македонски · മലയാളം · nederlands · polski · português do brasil · русский · ไทย · українська · tiếng việt this is a summary of the terms of use. to read the full terms, scroll down or click here. 		 terms of use this is a human-readable summary of the terms of use. disclaimer: this summary is not a part of the terms of use and is not a legal document. it is simply a handy reference for understanding the full terms. think of it as the user-friendly interface to the legal language of our terms of use. part of our mission is to: 	empower and engage people around the world to collect and develop educational content and either publish it under a free license or dedicate it to the public domain. 	disseminate this content effectively and globally, free of charge. you are free to: 	read and print our articles and other media free of charge. 	share and reuse our articles and other media under free and open licenses. 	contribute to and edit our various sites or projects. under the following conditions: 	responsibility – you take responsibility for your edits (since we only host your content). 	civility – you support a civil environment and do not harass other users. 	lawful behavior – you do not violate copyright or other laws. 	no harm – you do not harm our technology infrastructure. 	terms of use and policies – you adhere to the below terms of use and to the applicable community policies when you visit our sites or participate in our communities. with the understanding that: 	you license freely your contributions – you generally must license your contributions and edits to our sites or projects under a free and open license (unless your contribution is in the public domain). 	no professional advice – the content of articles and other projects is for informational purposes only and does not constitute professional advice. our terms of use imagine a world in which every single human being can freely share in the sum of all knowledge. that's our commitment. – our vision statement welcome to wikimedia! 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accións. a confianza é unha hipótese sobre a conduta futura do outro. É unha actitude que concirne o futuro, na medida en que este futuro depende da acción dun outro. É unha especie de aposta que consiste en non inquietarse do non-control do outro e do tempo. laurence cornu, a confianza nas relacións pedagóxicascor de acordo á maioría das teorías que a abordan, trátase dunha suspensión temporal da situación básica de incerteza acerca das accións dos semellantes; grazas a ela, é posible supor un certo grao de regularidade e predecibilidade nas accións sociais, simplificando o funcionamento da sociedade. esta explicación, tipicamente funcionalista, corresponde á orientación teórica da maioría dos autores que abordaron o tema; na teoría estrutural-funcionalista, a confianza considérase polo xeral a base de todas as institucións, e funciona como correlato e contraste do poder, consistente na capacidade de influír na acción allea para forzala a axustarse ás propias expectativas. cando se perde a confianza, é por esgotamento emocional. ben o medio ou a mala intención da persoa, fomenta a incapacidade de cumprir co prometido de forma continuada no tempo. 	control de autoridades	 	: q 	bncf: 	ebid: id 	gnd: - 	lccn: sh 	identificadores	 	mesh: d traído desde "https://gl.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=confianza&oldid= " 		categoría: 	socioloxía 	 	 	menú de navegación 	 		 	 		ferramentas persoais 	 	 			non accedeu ao sistema 	conversa 	contribucións 	crear unha conta 	acceder ao sistema 		 	 		 			 	 		espazos de nomes 	 	 			artigo 	conversa 		 	 			 	 	 		variantes 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		vistas 	 	 			ler 	editar 	editar a fonte 	ver o historial 		 	 			 	 	 		mais 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		procura 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navegación 	 	 			portada 	portal da comunidade 	a taberna 	actualidade 	cambios recentes 	artigos de calidade 	páxina aleatoria 	axuda 	doazóns 		 	 	 	 		ferramentas 	 	 			páxinas que ligan con esta 	cambios relacionados 	páxinas especiais 	ligazón permanente 	información da páxina 	citar esta páxina 	elemento de wikidata 		 	 	 		imprimir/exportar 	 	 			crear un libro 	descargar como pdf 	versión para imprimir 		 	 	 		noutros proxectos 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		outras linguas 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	עברית 	hrvatski 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	日本語 	Қазақша 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		editar as ligazóns 	 		 a última edición desta páxina foi o de xullo de ás : . 	todo o texto está dispoñible baixo a licenza creative commons recoñecemento compartir igual . ; pódense aplicar termos adicionais. consulte os termos de uso para obter máis información. wikipedia® é unha marca rexistrada da wikimedia foundation, inc., unha organización sen fins lucrativos. 		política de protección de datos 	acerca de wikipedia 	advertencias 	vista móbil 	desenvolvedores 	estatísticas 	declaración de cookies 		 	 	 ruvimbo - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	ruvimbo 	 		from wikipedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		ruvimbo, chigonda (trust) kureva moyo unotenda mune munhu kana boka revanhu kuti vakavimbika pane zvavanoita kana kutaura. mamwe mazwi[chinja | edit source] 	kuvimbika (trust worthy) kureva kutendeka kana kuva paidi mukutaura nokuita. 	chivimbiso 	chitendeso 	kutembeka 	kudzvanhuka kana kurasisa (let someone down who trusts. be unworthy of trust placed in one). 	gonda (hope, trust). 	kugondeka (to be faithful). kurerutsa mutauro[chinja | edit source] 	gonda chako chin'wango, chokukumbira hachina ndima: put your trust in your own tools, an old hoe you borrow from someone is recalled by its owner before you can finish weeding a part of the field. 	kugondeka kuna mwari: to be faithful to god. 	mbimba kana manyemwe (exaggerated self-confidence) ane mbimba: he is self-assured. kunozoita inonzi mbimbindoga uyu ari munhu anozvitemba iye pachake. 	psalm : , unomuchena uwo kudetswa kwake ndimwari wajakobe, uwo gonda rake riri muna mambo mwari, mwari wake: blessed are those whose help is the god of jacob, whose hope is in the lord their god. (kubva mubhaibheri rechindau. 	ndakagonda munamambo mwari: i have trusted in the lord. (nduyo : , bhaibheri rechindau. mitauro yebantu[chinja | edit source] 	vamambwe vanoti -palila (to hope, rely upon, trust, hope, expectation) kureva kuvimba kana tariro. 	vafwe vanoti kusepisa (to promise) kureva kuvimbisa. vafwe vanoti kusepa kana nsepo (trust, hope) kureva tariro.. 	valozi vanoti sepa (v.t. to trust, to be confident in, to rely on) vachireva kuvimba nanhingi. valozi vanoti -sepahala (to be trustworthy) kureva kuvimbika. 	valenje vanoti chisepo (edible wild plants, roots, fruits) vachireva michero yesango inodyiwa. retrieved from "https://sn.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ruvimbo&oldid= " 		category: 	chitendero 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			hauna kugamuchirwa 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			gani 	hurukuro 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	edit source 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		tsvaga 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		banguranyika 	 	 			peji rekutanga 	mukova wegutse 	zvaba kuchinjwa 	peji nhemwa 	rubatsiro 	zvipo 		 	 	 	 		maturuzi 	 	 			zvakakochekera pano 	zvinoenderana nezvachinjwa 	isa fayera 	mapeji akakosha 	zvikochekero zvisingachinje 	page information 	ita cite nyaya iyi 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			create a book 	download as pdf 	rinoita kuprinta 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		mimwe mitauro 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	galego 	עברית 	hrvatski 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	日本語 	Қазақша 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on chivabvu , at : . 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. see terms of use for details. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	matandanyadzi 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 fiducia - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	fiducia 	 		da wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera. 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 disambiguazione – se stai cercando altri significati, vedi fiducia (disambigua). 	 	 questa voce o sezione sull'argomento sociologia è ritenuta da controllare. motivo: al limite del copyviol da http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/fiducia_(enciclopedia_delle_scienze_sociali)/ partecipa alla discussione e/o correggi la voce. segui i suggerimenti del progetto di riferimento. 	 	 questa voce o sezione sull'argomento sociologia non è ancora formattata secondo gli standard. contribuisci a migliorarla secondo le convenzioni di wikipedia. segui i suggerimenti del progetto di riferimento. la fiducia è un sentimento umano, che consiste nel presupporre un comportamento o un atteggiamento adeguato alla situazione da parte di altri individui o di sè stessi. indice 	 sociologia 	 note 	 voci correlate 	 altri progetti 	 collegamenti esterni sociologia[modifica | modifica wikitesto] in sociologia si suole distinguere all'interno di questo sentimento morale che permea l'ordine sociale almeno tre tipi di fiducia: 	la fiducia sistemica o istituzionale, ossia quella che gli attori sociali ripongono verso l'organizzazione naturale e sociale nel suo insieme; 	la fiducia personale o interpersonale, quella che gli attori rivolgono agli altri attori sociali; 	l'autoreferenza o fiducia in sé stessi. benché quest'ultima attenga piuttosto il profilo psicologico dell'attore, essa ha tuttavia rilevanza sociale specie quando si considera il ruolo delle aspettative in campo economico, nel quale la fiducia in sé stessi funziona come aspettativa di validità delle proprie stime. la fiducia sistemica è stata sondata dai fondatori della sociologia max weber ed Émile durkheim anche se non in maniera nitida come dai successivi scienziati sociali «si tratta (...) di una presenza confusa con quella di legittimità, consenso, cooperazione, solidarietà. il concetto di fiducia interseca indubbiamente tutte queste dimensioni, ma non si confonde con esse; ha diritto, perciò, a uno statuto specifico, come ben traspare dalle brevi ma dense note di simmel, l'unico grande classico del pensiero sociale che ha trattato la fiducia come categoria specifica d'analisi»[ ]. e ancor prima dei padri fondatori della sociologia, l'idea che i soggetti stipulino un contratto sociale tra di loro era a fondamento delle teorie contrattualistiche del giusnaturalismo. la fiducia interpersonale, sempre secondo antonio mutti, viene, allora, prioritariamente definita come «l'aspettativa che alter non manipolerà la comunicazione o, più specificamente, che fornirà una rappresentazione autentica, non parziale né mendace, del proprio comportamento di ruolo e della propria identità. l'aspettativa di ego concerne cioè la sincerità e credibilità di alter, intese come trasparenza e astensione dalla menzogna, dalla frode e dall'inganno».[ ] in sintesi la fiducia, come viene sistematizzata nei suoi lavori dal sociologo italiano antonio mutti, può essere definita «come un'aspettativa di esperienze con valenza positiva per l'attore, maturata sotto condizioni di incertezza, ma in presenza di un carico cognitivo e/o emotivo tale da permettere di superare la soglia della mera speranza»[ ], che tradotto in termini non scientifici significa questo: diamo fiducia perché ci aspettiamo qualcosa di buono da qualcun altro, ma non ne siamo certi, tuttavia le cose che sappiamo (il carico cognitivo) e quelle che sentiamo (carico emotivo) sono qualcosa di più di una mera speranza, quindi dopo aver fatto una sintetica ricognizione dei costi e dei benefici futuri, abbandonando le esitazioni, ci inoltriamo nel rapporto fiduciario. note[modifica | modifica wikitesto] 	^ antonio mutti, capitale sociale e sviluppo - la fiducia come risorsa , il mulino, bologna, , p. 	^ ibidem, p. 	^ antonio mutti, fiducia, in enciclopedia delle scienze sociali, roma, istituto della enciclopedia italiana, , voi. , pp. - voci correlate[modifica | modifica wikitesto] 	world value survey altri progetti[modifica | modifica wikitesto] altri progetti 	wikiquote 	wikimedia commons 	 wikiquote contiene citazioni di o su fiducia 	 wikimedia commons contiene immagini o altri file su fiducia collegamenti esterni[modifica | modifica wikitesto] 	 	(en) fiducia, su enciclopedia britannica, encyclopædia britannica, inc. 	controllo di autorità	thesaurus bncf  · lccn (en) sh  · gnd (de)  - estratto da "https://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=fiducia&oldid= " 		categorie: 	relazioni sociali 	emozioni e sentimenti categorie nascoste: 	controllare - sociologia 	controllare - aprile 	wikificare - sociologia 	wikificare - aprile 	p letta da wikidata 	voci con codice thesaurus bncf 	voci con codice lccn 	voci con codice gnd 	voci non biografiche con codici di controllo di autorità 	 	 	menu di navigazione 	 		 	 		strumenti personali 	 	 			accesso non effettuato 	discussioni 	contributi 	registrati 	entra 		 	 		 			 	 		namespace 	 	 			voce 	discussione 		 	 			 	 	 		varianti 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		visite 	 	 			leggi 	modifica 	modifica wikitesto 	cronologia 		 	 			 	 	 		altro 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		ricerca 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigazione 	 	 			pagina principale 	ultime modifiche 	una voce a caso 	nelle vicinanze 	vetrina 	aiuto 	sportello informazioni 		 	 	 	 		comunità 	 	 			portale comunità 	bar 	il wikipediano 	fai una donazione 	contatti 		 	 	 		strumenti 	 	 			puntano qui 	modifiche correlate 	pagine speciali 	link permanente 	informazioni pagina 	cita questa voce 	elemento wikidata 		 	 	 		stampa/esporta 	 	 			crea un libro 	scarica come pdf 	versione stampabile 		 	 	 		in altri progetti 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		in altre lingue 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	galego 	עברית 	hrvatski 	Հայերեն 	日本語 	Қазақша 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		modifica collegamenti 	 		 questa pagina è stata modificata per l'ultima volta l' nov alle : . 	il testo è disponibile secondo la licenza creative commons attribuzione-condividi allo stesso modo; possono applicarsi condizioni ulteriori. vedi le condizioni d'uso per i dettagli. 		informativa sulla privacy 	informazioni su wikipedia 	avvertenze 	versione mobile 	sviluppatori 	statistiche 	dichiarazione sui cookie 		 	 	 none confianza - wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre 	 	 	 	 	confianza 	 		de wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre 		 		 		 		 		ir a la navegación 		ir a la búsqueda 			 	este artículo o sección tiene referencias, pero necesita más para complementar su verificabilidad. este aviso fue puesto el de julio de . en sociología y psicología social, la confianza es la creencia en que una persona o grupo será capaz y deseará actuar de manera adecuada en una determinada situación y pensamientos. la confianza se verá más o menos reforzada en función de las acciones y de valores. la confianza es una hipótesis sobre la conducta futura del otro. es una actitud que concierne el futuro, en la medida en que este futuro depende de la acción de un otro. es una especie de apuesta que consiste en no inquietarse del no control del otro y del tiempo. laurence cornu, la confianza en las relaciones pedagógicas la confianza es la seguridad hacia una persona firme que alguien tiene hacia otra persona o cosa. “tengo la confianza necesaria para derrotar al rival”. confianza se refiere, por otra parte, a la familiaridad en el trato:“no hace falta que te peines cada vez que voy a tu casa, ya tenemos bastante confianza”, “¿cómo te atreves a hablarme de esa forma? nunca te di semejante confianza”. para la psicología social y la sociología, la confianza es un hipótesis que se realiza sobre la conducta futura del prójimo. se trata de una creencia que estima que una persona será capaz de actuar de una cierta manera frente a una determina situación: “voy a contarle todo a mi padre, tengo confianza en que me entienda y me ayude”. en este sentido, la confianza puede reforzarse o debilitarse de acuerdo a las acciones de la otra persona. en el ejemplo anterior, si el padre ayuda a su hijo, la confianza saldrá fortalecida; pero de lo contrario, la confianza se verá violada y, en el futuro lo más probable es que el hijo no actúe de la misma forma. la confianza supone una suspensión, al menos temporal, de la incertidumbre respecto a las acciones de los demás. cuando alguien confía en el otro, cree que puede predecir sus acciones y comportamientos. la confianza, por lo tanto, simplifica las relaciones sociales. el término confiabilidad es usado generalmente para expresar un cierto grado de seguridad de que un dispositivo o sistema opera exitosamente en un ambiente específico durante un cierto período. la moderna concepción cuantitativa de la confiabilidad tuvo sus orígenes en la tecnología militar y espacial. sin embargo, el incremento en la complejidad de los sistemas, la competitividad en el mercado, y la creciente competencia por presupuesto y recurso han originado la expansión de la disciplina a muchas otras áreas. cuando la confiabilidad se define cuantitativamente puede ser especificada, analizada, y se convierte en un parámetro del diseño de un sistema que compite contra otros parámetros tales como costo y funcionamiento. de acuerdo a la mayoría de las teorías que la abordan, se trata de una suspensión temporal de la situación básica de incertidumbre acerca de las acciones de los semejantes; gracias a ella, es posible suponer un cierto grado de regularidad y predictibilidad en las acciones sociales, simplificando el funcionamiento de la sociedad. esta explicación, típicamente funcionalista, corresponde a la orientación teórica de la mayoría de los autores que han abordado el tema; en la teoría estructural-funcionalista, la confianza se considera por lo general la base de todas las instituciones, y funciona como correlato y contraste del poder, consistente en la capacidad de influir en la acción ajena para forzarla a ajustarse a las propias expectativas. el término se aplica a estadísticas (valores de confianza o índice de confianza) y también a medición y calibración de máquinas destinadas a medir una magnitud (grado de confianza de la medición). el término aplicado a una organización o una empresa se refleja a base de varios factores como la calidad con la que realiza sus productos y por tanto de las evaluaciones de calidad, de códigos éticos y de su cultura o clima laboral, pero por encima de todo ello se refleja mediante el ethos de la empresa (hábitos de su corazón), lo que define su carácter y los rasgos que la distinguen de cualquier otra. bibliografía[editar] 	gambetta, d. can we trust trust? [ ] enlaces externos[editar] 	 wikcionario tiene definiciones y otra información sobre confianza. 	 wikiquote alberga frases célebres de o sobre confianza. 	control de autoridades	 	proyectos wikimedia 	 datos: q 	 multimedia: trust 	 citas célebres: confianza 	identificadores 	gnd: - 	lccn: sh 	diccionarios y enciclopedias 	britannica: url 	identificadores médicos 	mesh: d 	 datos: q 	 multimedia: trust 	 citas célebres: confianza obtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=confianza&oldid= » 		categorías: 	psicología social 	vida personal 	psicología moral 	gestión de la reputación categorías ocultas: 	wikipedia:artículos que necesitan referencias 	wikipedia:referenciar (aún sin clasificar) 	wikipedia:artículos con identificadores gnd 	wikipedia:artículos con identificadores lccn 	 	 	menú de navegación 	 		 	 		herramientas personales 	 	 			no has accedido 	discusión 	contribuciones 	crear una cuenta 	acceder 		 	 		 			 	 		espacios de nombres 	 	 			artículo 	discusión 		 	 			 	 	 		variantes 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		vistas 	 	 			leer 	editar 	ver historial 		 	 			 	 	 		más 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		buscar 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navegación 	 	 			portada 	portal de la comunidad 	actualidad 	cambios recientes 	páginas nuevas 	página aleatoria 	ayuda 	donaciones 	notificar un error 		 	 	 	 		herramientas 	 	 			lo que enlaza aquí 	cambios en enlazadas 	subir archivo 	páginas especiales 	enlace permanente 	información de la página 	citar esta página 	elemento de wikidata 		 	 	 		imprimir/exportar 	 	 			crear un libro 	descargar como pdf 	versión para imprimir 		 	 	 		en otros proyectos 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		en otros idiomas 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	galego 	עברית 	hrvatski 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	日本語 	Қазақша 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		editar enlaces 	 		 esta página se editó por última vez el oct a las : . 	el texto está disponible bajo la licencia creative commons atribución compartir igual  . ; pueden aplicarse cláusulas adicionales. al usar este sitio, usted acepta nuestros términos de uso y nuestra política de privacidad. wikipedia® es una marca registrada de la fundación wikimedia, inc., una organización sin ánimo de lucro. 		política de privacidad 	acerca de wikipedia 	limitación de responsabilidad 	versión para móviles 	desarrolladores 	estadísticas 	declaración de cookies 		 	 	 none trust - wikiquote 	 	 	 	 	trust 	 		from wikiquote 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 if i have put my trust in gold... i would have been unfaithful to god on high. ~ job mankind are not held together by lies. trust is the foundation of society. where there is no truth, there can be no trust, and where there is no trust, there can be no society. where there is society, there is trust, and where there is trust, there is something upon which it is supported. ~ frederick douglass trust is a relationship of reliance. a trusted party is presumed to seek to fulfill policies, ethical codes, law and their previous promises. contents 	 quotes 	 . hoyt's new cyclopedia of practical quotations 	 see also 	 external links quotes[edit] 	a person who trusts no one cannot be trusted. 	jerome blattner, as quoted in microeconomic theory second edition: concepts and connections ( ) by michael e. wetzstein, routledge; and in quotes on trustworthiness at academicintegrity.org 	all doubt is cowardice — all trust is brave. 	edward bulwer-lytton, king arthur ( - ), book xii, chapter xxviii. 	you may be deceived if you trust too much, but you will live in torment if you do not trust enough. 	frank crane, quoted in business education world, vol. ( ) p. 	mankind are not held together by lies. trust is the foundation of society. where there is no truth, there can be no trust, and where there is no trust, there can be no society. where there is society, there is trust, and where there is trust, there is something upon which it is supported. 	frederick douglass, "our composite nationality" ( december ), boston, massachusetts 	whoever is careless with truth in small matters cannot be trusted in important affairs. 	albert einstein posthumously published, as quoted in albert einstein: historical and cultural perspectives by gerald james holton, yehuda elkana p. 	dear, i trusted you as holy men trust god. you could do naught that was not pure and loving—though the deed might pierce me unto death. 	george eliot, the spanish gypsy ( ), book iii. 	all our progress is an unfolding, like the vegetable bud. you have first an instinct, then an opinion, then a knowledge, as the plant has root, bud, and fruit. trust the instinct to the end, though you can render no reason. it is vain to hurry it. by trusting it to the end it shall ripen into truth, and you shall know why you believe. 	ralph waldo emerson, essays (first series, ), essay xi : intellect. 	if i have put my trust in gold or said to pure gold, ‘you are my security,’ if i have rejoiced over my great wealth, the fortune my hands had gained, if i have regarded the sun in its radiance or the moon moving in splendor, so that my heart was secretly enticed and my hand offered them a kiss of homage, then these also would be sins to be judged, for i would have been unfaithful to god on high. 	job : - niv 	in reason, nature, truth, he dares to trust: ye fops, be silent: and ye wits, be just. 	samuel johnson in the tragedy of irene ( ), prologue. 	as it is necessary not to invite robbery by supineness, so it is our duty not to suppress tenderness by suspicion; it is better to suffer wrong than to do it, and happier to be sometimes cheated than not to trust. 	samuel johnson, the rambler, no. ( december ). 	thou know'st how fearless is my trust in thee. 	letitia elizabeth landon the golden violet ( ) title poem, ‘the child of the sea’ 	as our fathers trusted humbly, teach us lord to trust thee still. 	cornelis jacobus langenhoven, "die stem van suid-afrika" ( ) 	[t]ruth is in its usual place, somewhere in the middle between the extremes. 	bernard lewis, "the new antisemitism" ( ), the american scholar journal, volume , no. , pp. - 	to be trusted is a greater compliment than to be loved. 	george macdonald, the marquis of lossie ( ), chapter iv. 	my body aches from mistakes betrayed by lust we lied to each other so much that in nothing we trust 	trust, from the album cryptic writings by megadeth, written by dave mustaine and marty friedman 	that, in tracing the shade, i shall find out the sun, trust to me! 	owen meredith (lord lytton), lucile ( ), part ii, canto vi, stanza . 	preserve me, o god: for in thee do i put my trust. 	psalm : . the stained glass window of the prayer room in the united states capitol contains this verse. 	i will say to jehovah: “you are my refuge and my stronghold, my god in whom i trust.” 	psalm : . 	do not put your trust in princes, 		in human beings, who cannot save. 	when their spirit departs, they return to the ground; 	on that very day their plans come to nothing. 	psalm : - niv. 	i well believe thou wilt not utter what thou dost not know; and so far will i trust thee. 	william shakespeare, henry iv, part i (c. ), act ii, scene , line . 	let every eye negotiate for itself, and trust no agent. 	william shakespeare, much ado about nothing ( - ), act ii, scene , line . 	my life upon her faith! 	william shakespeare, othello (c. ), act i, scene , line . 	i am sorry i must never trust thee more, but count the world a stranger for thy sake: the private wound is deepest. 	william shakespeare, the two gentlemen of verona ( s), act v, scene , line . 	edward snowden: the nsa has the greatest surveillance capabilities that we've ever seen in history; now what they will argue is that they don't use this for nefarious purposes against american citizens, in some ways that's true, but the real problem is that they are using these capabilities to make us vulnerable to them and then saying while i have a gun pointed at your head i'm not gonna pull the trigger, trust me. 	john oliver (comedian) interview with edward snowden last week tonight: government surveillance (april th ) 	to the trustworthy man belongs a divine voice. the barge on the river and the chariot on the road come to him. 	sumerian proverb from urim, text online at the electronic text corpus of sumerian literature, rd millennium bce. 	evidently you do not trust me. this does not predispose me to trust you. 	jack vance, the dirdir ( ), chapter 	we have a saying in the movement that we don't trust anybody over . 	jack weinberg, twenty-four year old leader of the free speech movement at the university of california, berkeley, california, interview with san francisco chronicle reporter, c. . weinberg later said he did not actually believe the statement, but said it as a kind of taunt to a question asking if there were outside adults manipulating the organization. reported in the washington post (march , ), p. a . 	trust in me in all you do have the faith i have in you love will see us through if only you trust in me why don't you, you trust me 	ned wever, milton ager and jean schwartz. trust in me ( ) hoyt's new cyclopedia of practical quotations[edit] 	quotes reported in hoyt's new cyclopedia of practical quotations ( ), p. - . 	the greatest trust between man and man is the trust of giving counsel. 	francis bacon, essays, of counsel. 	build a little fence of trust around to-day; fill the space with loving work, and therein stay; look not through the sheltering bars upon to-morrow; god will help thee bear what comes of joy or sorrow. 	mary frances butts, trust. 	who would not rather trust and be deceived? 	eliza cook, love on. 	trust in god, and keep your powder dry. 	oliver cromwell. see valentine blacker, col. oliver's advice, in ballads of ireland. i. . 	a little trust that when we die we reap our sowing, and so—good-bye. 	george b. dumaurier, trilby, inscribed on his memorial tablet, hampstead churchyard. 	trust men, and they will be true to you; treat them greatly, and they will show themselves great. 	ralph waldo emerson, essays, on prudence. 	i too will cast the spear and leave the rest to jove. 	homer, iliad, book xvii, line . bryant's translation. 	thou trustest in the staff of this broken reed. 	isaiah. xxxvi. . 	o holy trust! o endless sense of rest! like the beloved john to lay his head upon the saviour's breast, and thus to journey on! 	henry wadsworth longfellow, hymn, stanza . 	"eyes to the blind" thou art, o god! earth i no longer see, yet trustfully my spirit looks to thee. 	alice bradley neal, blind, part ii. 	you may trust him in the dark. 	roman proverb cited by cicero. see also[edit] 	honesty external links[edit] wikipedia has an article about: trust look up trust in wiktionary, the free dictionary retrieved from "https://en.wikiquote.org/w/index.php?title=trust&oldid= " 		categories: 	themes 	interpersonal relationships 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			page 	discussion 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	community portal 	village pump 	recent changes 	random page 	help 	donate 	contact wikiquote 		 	 	 	 		wikiquote links 	 	 			people 	literary works 	proverbs 	films 	tv shows 	themes 	categories 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			create a book 	download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 	wikipedia 		 	 	 	 		in other languages 	 	 			Български 	bosanski 	català 	Čeština 	deutsch 	Ελληνικά 	esperanto 	español 	فارسی 	עברית 	hrvatski 	magyar 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	slovenčina 	Українська 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at : . 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. 		privacy policy 	about wikiquote 	disclaimers 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 konfido - vikipedio 	 	 	 	 	konfido 	 		el vikipedio, la libera enciklopedio 		 		 		 		 		salti al navigilo 		salti al serĉilo 		en sociologio kaj socia psikologio, konfido estas la kredo ke persono aŭ homa grupo estos kapabla kaj deziros agadi per ĝusta maniero en precizaj situacio kaj pensoj. la konfido estos pli malpli plifortigita pere de agado kaj de valoroj. laŭ piv konfidi havas tri signifojn: nome arkaika sinonimo de fidi, "plenkrede transdoni ion al ies fidela prizorgo" kaj "lasi al ies diskreteco ion sekrete gardindan".[ ] la konfido povas temi pri la sento de sekureco rilate al alia persono aŭ al si mem: nome memkonfido. la malo de konfido estas malkonfido. notoj[redakti | redakti fonton] 	↑ piv npiv konsultita la an de novembro . bibliografio[redakti | redakti fonton] 	bachmann, reinhard and zaheer, akbar (eds) ( ). handbook of trust research. cheltenham: edward elgar. 	bicchieri, cristina, duffy, john and tolle, gil ( ). "trust among strangers", philosophy of science : - . 	gambetta, diego ( ) ‘can we trust trust?’, en gambetta, diego (l.) trust: making and breaking cooperative relations, electronic edition, department of sociology,university of oxford, chapter , pp. - [ ] 	kelton, kari; fleischmann, kenneth r. & wallace, william a. ( ). trust in digital information. journal of the american society for information science and technology, ( ): – . 	marková, i., linell, p & gillespie, a. ( ). trust and distrust in society. en marková, i. kaj gillespie, a. (eld.) trust and distrust: socio-cultural perspectives. greenwich, ct: information age publishing, inc. 	kategorio konfido en la vikimedia komunejo (multrimedaj datumoj) 	bibliotekoj 	 	peeneo: 	gnd: - 	lccn: sh elŝutita el "https://eo.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=konfido&oldid= " 		kategorioj: 	emocioj 	interpersona rilatado 	etikaj konceptoj 	respondeco 	sociologia terminologio 	 	 	navigada menuo 	 		 	 		personaj iloj 	 	 			ne ensalutinta 	diskuto 	kontribuoj 	krei konton 	ensaluti 		 	 		 			 	 		nomspacoj 	 	 			artikolo 	diskuto 		 	 			 	 	 		variantoj 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		vidoj 	 	 			legi 	redakti 	redakti fonton 	vidi historion 		 	 			 	 	 		pli 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		serĉi 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigado 	 	 			Ĉefpaĝo 	komunuma portalo 	diskutejo 	aktualaĵoj 	lastaj ŝanĝoj 	novaj paĝoj 	hazarda paĝo 	helpo 	donaci 		 	 	 	 		iloj 	 	 			ligiloj ĉi tien 	rilataj ŝanĝoj 	alŝuti dosieron 	specialaj paĝoj 	konstanta ligilo 	informoj pri la paĝo 	citi ĉi tiun artikolon 	vikidatumoj‑ero 		 	 	 		presi/elporti 	 	 			krei libron 	elŝuti kiel pdf 	presebla versio 		 	 	 		en aliaj projektoj 	 	 			vikimedia komunejo 	vikicitaro 		 	 	 	 		en aliaj lingvoj 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	español 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	galego 	עברית 	hrvatski 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	日本語 	Қазақша 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		redakti ligilojn 	 		 Ĉi tiu paĝo estis lastafoje redaktita je : , nov. . 	la teksto disponeblas laŭ la permesilo krea komunaĵo atribuite-samkondiĉe . neadaptita; 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( ): - . trust and communicated attributions in close relationships j k rempel  , m ross, j g holmes affiliations expand affiliation 	 department of psychology, st. jerome's university, waterloo, ontario, canada. jrempel@watarts.uwaterloo.ca 	 pmid: item in clipboard trust and communicated attributions in close relationships j k rempel et al. j pers soc psychol. jul. show details display options display options format abstract pubmed pmid j pers soc psychol actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in nlm catalog 	 add to search . jul; ( ): - . authors j k rempel  , m ross, j g holmes affiliation 	 department of psychology, st. jerome's university, waterloo, ontario, canada. jrempel@watarts.uwaterloo.ca 	 pmid: item in clipboard full-text links citedisplay options display options format abstract pubmed pmid abstract the attributional statements intimate partners communicate to one another were examined as a function of trust. in discussions by married couples, attributions and corresponding events were coded on dimensions of valence, globality, and locus. results of regression and contingency analyses indicate that attributional statements expressed in high-trust relationships emphasized positive aspects of the relationship. medium-trust couples actively engaged issues but focused more on negative events and explanations. low-trust couples expressed more specific, less affectively extreme attributional statements that minimized the potential for increased conflict. results could not be accounted for by relationship satisfaction. these findings also highlight the importance of focusing on features of the events for which attributions are expressed. similar articles 	 trust and partner-enhancing attributions in close relationships. miller pj, rempel jk. miller pj, et al. pers soc psychol bull. jun; ( ): - . doi: . / . pers soc psychol bull. . pmid: 	 positive expectations in the early years of marriage: should couples expect the best or brace for the worst? mcnulty jk, karney br, mcnulty jk. mcnulty jk, et al. j pers soc psychol. may; ( ): - . doi: . / - . . . . j pers soc psychol. . pmid: 	 now why'd he do that? the nature and correlates of mothers' attributions about negative teen behavior. heatherington l, tolejko n, mcdonald m, funk j. heatherington l, et al. j fam psychol. jun; ( ): - . doi: . / - . . . . j fam psychol. . pmid: 	 assessing how much couples work at their relationship: the behavioral self-regulation for effective relationships scale. wilson kl, charker j, lizzio a, halford k, kimlin s. wilson kl, et al. j fam psychol. sep; ( ): - . doi: . / - . . . . j fam psychol. . pmid: 	 self-expansion as a mediator of relationship improvements in a mindfulness intervention. carson jw, carson km, gil km, baucom dh. carson jw, et al. j marital fam ther. oct; ( ): - . doi: . /j. - . . .x. j marital fam ther. . pmid: review. see all similar articles cited by articles 	 exploring the psychological processes that underlie interpersonal forgiveness: replication and extension of the model of motivated interpersonal forgiveness. donovan lan, priester jr. donovan lan, et al. front psychol. oct ; : . doi: . /fpsyg. . . ecollection . front psychol. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 the social-safety system: fortifying relationships in the face of the unforeseeable. murray sl, lamarche v, seery md, jung hy, griffin dw, brinkman c. murray sl, et al. j pers soc psychol. may : . /pspi . doi: . /pspi . online ahead of print. j pers soc psychol. . pmid: 	 first, do no harm: institutional betrayal and trust in health care organizations. smith cp. smith cp. j multidiscip healthc. apr ; : - . doi: . /jmdh.s . ecollection . j multidiscip healthc. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 the collaborative roots of corruption. weisel o, shalvi s. weisel o, et al. proc natl acad sci u s a. aug ; ( ): - . doi: . /pnas. . epub aug . proc natl acad sci u s a. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 regulatory focus and generalized trust: the impact of prevention-focused self-regulation on trusting others. keller j, mayo r, greifeneder r, pfattheicher s. keller j, et al. front psychol. mar ; : . doi: . /fpsyg. . . ecollection . front psychol. . pmid: free pmc article. publication types 	 research support, non-u.s. gov't actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search mesh terms 	 adult actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 attitude* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 female actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 humans actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 interpersonal relations* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 male actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 self disclosure actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 spouses / psychology* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search linkout - more resources 	full text sources 	 american psychological association 	 ovid technologies, inc. 	medical 	 medlineplus health information full-text links [x] american psychological association [x] cite copy download .nbib format: ama apa mla nlm send to 	clipboard 	email 	save 	my bibliography 	collections 	citation manager [x] 		 		connect 			twitter 	facebook 	youtube 	linkedin 	github 			blog 	support center 		 		 national center for biotechnology information 		 rockville pike bethesda, md usa 		 		 	about us 	contact us 	policies 	foia 		 		popular 	pubmed 	pubmed central 	bookshelf 	pubchem 	gene 	blast 	nucleotide 	protein 	geo 			 		 			resources 				literature 	health 	genomes 	genes 	proteins 	chemicals 		 		 actions 	submit 	download 	learn 	develop 	analyze 	research 		 		 		 	 		 			nlm 			 |  			nih 			 |  			hhs 			 |  			usa.gov 		 	 	 	 feedback template:emotion - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	template:emotion 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 template documentation[view] [edit] [history] [purge] 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e 		note: this template is used on main articles about emotion. for secondary articles use the emotion-footer template. usage[edit] place this template at or near the top of an article that is included in the template in the following manner: 	{{emotion}} the above documentation is transcluded from template:emotion/doc. 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( ) the meanings of trust. in: university of minnesota, http:// www.misrc.umn.edu/ wpaper/ wp - .htm. 	↑ mayer, r.c., davis j.h., schoorman f.d. ( ). an integrative model of organizational trust. academy of management review. ( ), - . 	↑ definitie van vertrouwen in thefreedictionary. 	↑ kosfeld, m., heinrichs m., zak, p. j., fischbacher, u., and fehr, e. ( ) oxytocin increases trust in humans. nature , , - . 	↑ searle, j. r. 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Առաջին տիպը մտերիմների նկատմամբ վստահությունն է, որը կոչվում է անհատականացված վստահություն։ Այս տիպի վստահությունը առկա է հաստատված, կայուն հարաբերություններում և ցանցերում։ 	Վստահության երկրորդ տիպը կոչվում է ընդհանրացված վստահություն։ Սա վստահությունն է, որ տարածվում է անծանոթների վրա։ 	Երրորդ տիպը քաղաքացիական կամ ինստիտուցիոնալ վստահությունն է, որը վերաբերվում է ֆորմալ ինստիտուտներին։ Վիքիքաղվածքն ունի քաղվածքների հավաքածու, որոնք վերաբերում են Վստահություն հոդվածին 	 	Սա անավարտ հոդված է։ Դուք կարող եք օգնել Վիքիպեդիային՝ ուղղելով և լրացնելով այն։ Այս նշումը հարկավոր է փոխարինել համապատասխան թեմատիկ նշումով։ Ստացված է «https://hy.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Վստահություն&oldid= » էջից 		Կատեգորիաներ: 	Անավարտ հոդվածներ 	Սոցիալական հոգեբանություն 	Էմոցիաներ 	Բարոյականության հասկացություններ Թաքցված կատեգորիա: 	Անաղբյուր և լրացուցիչ աղբյուրների կարիք ունեցող հոդվածներ 	 	 	Նավարկման ցանկ 	 		 	 		Անձնական գործիքներ 	 	 			Դուք չեք մտել համակարգ 	Քննարկում 	Ներդրումներ 	Ստեղծել 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links 	 		 this page was last edited on october , at : . 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. see terms of use for details. 		privacy policy 	about meta 	disclaimers 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 template talk:emotion - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	template talk:emotion 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 			this is the talk page for discussing improvements to the emotion template. 	 	put new text under old text. click here to start a new topic. 	sign your posts by typing four tildes (~~~~). 	new to wikipedia? welcome! learn to edit; get help. 	 	assume good faith 	be polite and avoid personal attacks 	be welcoming to newcomers 	seek dispute resolution if needed 	wikiproject psychology 	(rated template-class) 	 		 	psychology portal 	v 	t 	e this template is within the scope of wikiproject psychology, a collaborative effort to improve the coverage of psychology on wikipedia. if you would like to participate, please visit the project page, where you can join the discussion and see a list of open tasks.psychologywikipedia:wikiproject psychologytemplate:wikiproject psychologypsychology articles	 	 template 	this template does not require a rating on the project's quality scale. 	  		 	 contents 	 human quality? 	 i object to this template 	 other template 	 about wikipedia 	 lust 	 criteria for inclusion? 	 references??? 	 template change 	 empathy 	 zest 	 add coherence/heirarchy? 	 i suppose that the item "dread" in this template should be removed 	 the use of "hysterical" in this context is offensively sexist. 	 includeonly 	 bold 	 is social connection an emotion? human quality?[edit] isn't empathy a human quality and not an emotion?? =d, categorizing empathy as an emotion is deceptive as empathy is the interpretation of emotion more than an actual "emotion" nrlight : , may (utc) i second that interpretation (inherimage : , september (utc)inherimage : pm sep, ) sarge baldy, why add jealousy? i don't see it listed among the basic emotions, by any scholar's opinion (not just plutchik's)... --shallot : , jun (utc) 	isn't jealousy a combination of anger and fear? agreed, it is not itself a primary emotion. - (inherimage : , september (utc)inherimage) noisy now also added guilt and remorse (also without any mention of it in the log message). same comment as the above. --joy [shallot] : , aug (utc) i was just going by entries in the category:emotion. i can't imagine that guilt and remorse shouldn't be considered emotions: if there are a 'classical' set of emotions, then perhaps there should be separate – more exclusive and prescriptively named – category and template? at some time in the future, i may look at this sight it is very informative and will make you laugh! what links here and add any others i find. 	guilt and remorse are simply fear when considered in specific circumstances (inherimage : , september (utc)inherimage) 	it's okay, but the template started with a canonical short list (emotion theory). i agree that its name is too generic. i just want to make sure we have some plan wrt this whole thing, and not just keep expanding it in a random manner. --joy [shallot] : , aug (utc) 	plan? i leave that to the project manager! :-) noisy : , aug (utc) as to why i forgot to mention their addition when i was rejigging the template, i was just carried away with trying to get it to look pretty, and forgot the original reason for going there. :-) the entries were all run together to try and eliminate the blank lines at the top and bottom of the list. noisy : , aug (utc) 	i never saw those blank lines...? --joy [shallot] 	seems it's browser dependent: the blank lines aren't there under mie, but they are under netscape. noisy : , aug (utc) see also: {{emotion-footer}} for a more extensive list. rfrisbietalk : , april (utc) the excitement link goes to the excited state of an electron article, not the excitement emotion article just as a suggestion: curiosity is not on the list at all. it is a primary emotion, and the opposite of fear (inherimage : , september (utc)inherimage) 	no... i don't think that's exactly true. courage is the opposite of fear - according to "common sense"... --keerllston : , november (utc) having read the discussions above, i would like to offer my thoughts on this template. as i understand the situation, having read a substantial amount of psychological literature (and the emotion article, of course), there is no definitive - or even commonly used or agreed - taxonomy of emotion. i'd venture that in the interests of completeness, it is justifiable to include all of the emotions disputed above (empathy, guilt, remorse, jealousy, curiosity etc.), and any future additions, on that grounds that there are strong, often published and peer-reviewed arguments for each of them being identifiable, discrete emotions, and not reducible to compounds or opposites that some would believe. the 'basic' and 'other' sections, although they bear and show the limits of emotion research, seem a reasonable way of keeping the list both useful to the casual browser, and complete for those seeking a more exhaustive catalogue. the simple, alphabetical format we are using now seems valuable, and certainly acceptable, as a resource. whitespace (talk) : , november (utc) i object to this template[edit] it automatically sticks a whole lot of things into psychology -- emotion. this articles and words have nothing to do with psychology. if you do not change the template so that it does not reference psychology, i will propose that it be deleted. --mattisse : , september (utc) 	the study of the psyche has nothing to do with emotions? what could you mean?--keerllston : , november (utc) other template[edit] is it possible to link the list in this template to the footer template? or do they need to be manually kept in sync? whitespace (talk) : , november (utc) about wikipedia[edit] i am really impressed with the wikipedia crew.its a wonderful coordination which contributes to the fully fledged information page.keep on the spirits.you are already being acclaimed for your exceptional work (deepti,mauritius) —preceding unsigned comment added by . . . (talk) : , december (utc) lust[edit] what about lust? does that fit in there? . . . (talk) : , february (utc) my thought exactly. lust/desire is a distinct emotion, a type of excitement, often with aggressive (or submissive) overtones (undertones). —preceding unsigned comment added by . . . (talk) : , march (utc) 	any reference, otherwise this whole template is original research. arnoutf (talk) : , april (utc) criteria for inclusion?[edit] on the lust topic, it seems to me you want criteria for inclusion. for example, "included in the wordnet english semantic network for 'emotion.'" --which doesn't include "lust," but does include "sex" and the "sexual urge." whether you pick wordnet is another question, but it seems to me you'd want some standard to start with. —preceding unsigned comment added by . . . (talk) : , april (utc) 	preferably a reliable source. arnoutf (talk) : , april (utc) references???[edit] there are no references, not even on this talk page. the classification of psychological states as emotions is far from agreed upon in the literature. this template arrives at a list without any references or argument. these should be provided promptly, otherwise i will propose this template for deletion as original research. arnoutf (talk) : , april (utc) template change[edit] this template is to long, it should be moved to the bottom of the articles using a horizontal table instead of a columnar table. green squares (talk) : , may (utc) 	i cannot agree more. i removed this template in favour of the bottom one in the emotion main article. the discussion which template to use, is one for the articles, not here though. arnoutf (talk) : , may (utc) 	i'm going to merge these two templates, based on this thread and the thread at template talk:emotion-footer#merge from template:emotion. please use that talkpage for any further discussion. thanks. -- quiddity (talk) : , may (utc) empathy[edit] i am having the ambivalent thought about my action of responding to all of the sections you all have added. my section would be about empathy. this is why it is ambivalent. i want to be able to understand what all of you are seeing and feeling, and i am sure it is retroactive. but to make actions based on irrational thought (i.e. jumping to conclusions because you are unable to empathize) i feel is a complete travesty. i want to illuminate this point to the select group of people who will read this. but i have mixed feelings about it. i have selected all of my typed words, deleted them, and retyped them over and over again due to my insecurity about saying what i am saying. everybody has their emotions. and everybody needs to express them. this is something i understand. but when i see these chain reactions, not just on these specific pages but also on facebook, youtube, and whatever else, it just makes me sick. first off, it is not even clear whether or not anybody at all cares remotely about what we have to say. but that is irrelevant because most people are sociopaths when it comes to presumptions. or most people just do whatever they want. granted that people may indeed want to listen to you, there is an almost % chance that anybody reading what you have typed actually understands what you have written to the point where they can make an intelligible reaction. i, in this comment, am not even reacting to what you all have written. i did not even read it. i just saw what the template was, and decided to post this for all to read. i think that in the end of it all, everybody says that they do not care what people think of what they may or may not type on this emotion wikipedia page. but i am not saying this for me. i am saying this for all of you. (this is probably not true, i am just trying very hard to illuminate a point, so i may say whatever my subconscious tricks me into saying.) everybody does this as well. they say that it is not for them. it is out of their hands. well i may be saying this for me. but i do not know. what i do know is that empathy and complete understanding is impossible. the irony of this page makes me very uncomfortable, but i still want to share that with people. so now i have these conflicting thoughts, a sort of constant state of cognitive dissonance. i love it. i hate it. why do we do anything? we are all alone. black is white to somebody else, but what they see as "white", they call "black". everything is a series of coincidences, misplacements, and rash decisions without the input of anybody. i am suffering from a severe case of major depression. so i want more than anybody else to be able to give help and to get help. but as it stands there is no recognition or proof of anything of the sort. am i typing in gibberish? an illiterate person might think so. the idea of knowledge is useless. it is used to deceive ourselves into thinking we are making a difference or that there is a connection. there isn't. . . . (talk) : , may (utc) adam 	talk pages are no blog, or forum and should be used for practical suggestions for improvement of wikipedia. can you give a brief explanation why this is relevant for the improvement of this template? arnoutf (talk) : , may (utc) zest[edit] wouldn't zest be consider as an emotion? to take interest in something seems like an emotion to me. could be wrong, which is why i wanted to talk about it not just edit it. xd —preceding unsigned comment added by [[user:{{{ }}}|{{{ }}}]] ([[user talk:{{{ }}}|talk]] • [[special:contributions/{{{ }}}|contribs]]) 	probably zest is not an emotion. please provide a reference from a scientific journal to support inclusion. arnoutf (talk) : , april (utc) add coherence/heirarchy?[edit] ) not all of the things on this list are emotions according to their pages, for example: depression/despair is a mood/medical condition, which the article on emotion itself says is not the same thing distrust maybe could be but its page isn't about it as an emotion hope is an emotional state (according to the article about it), not an emotion in itself hostility is a response to emotion, not an emotion hurt/pain and shock are physiological responses shyness is a personality trait ) the template is too long to be optimally useful unless it is structured: for example, have a section which just lists the six "basic" emotions for starters, then below that split between positive and negative emotions, then another level of grouping (i.e. worry, terror, panic, anxiety, and angst are all in a "fear" family) making those changes (especially the second) would make all emotion articles more useful, which is important given that "emotion" is a vital c-class article. mynameisntbob (talk) : , august (utc) 	please do, i agree this is an unwieldy mess... however, editors think they can basically dump everything they like into templates, and erroneously consider templates exempted from core wikipedia guidelines like wp:or and wp:rs. i have tried to clean this one up a few years ago, but have abandoned that at that time as for every non-emotions i removed, other editors added three others within days. 	i did manage to keep the (less used) template:emotion-footer somewhat coherent, but even there editors do not care about sourcing, about changing sourced lists to things that are in no way related to source etc etc. efforts to list this template as unsources (using the fact tag) where quickly removed as people felt offended that each and every page that included the (unsourced information of the) template became automatically listed as having unsourced information (although that is of course the case), so apparently red flagging messy templates is (or at least was) a no-go area; making quality management of templates like these a nightmare (to put it mildly). 	perhaps finally the time is here to start bringing some quality to the template wildwest of wikipedia. arnoutf (talk) : , august (utc) i suppose that the item "dread" in this template should be removed[edit] as it is actually redirected to the article "fear".huhu (talk) : , october (utc) the use of "hysterical" in this context is offensively sexist.[edit] as well as duplicative. panic, rage, and fear ought to cover it. it redirects to a very poorly written article that is also duplicative. the history of the psychological theory is covered elsewhere (and it is not an "emotion", it is a crackpot theory from over a century ago.).— preceding unsigned comment added by [[user:{{{ }}}|{{{ }}}]] ([[user talk:{{{ }}}#top|talk]] • [[special:contributions/{{{ }}}|contribs]]) 	thanks. but don't hope too much it will not be re-added. for some reason much of the reliable source discussions seem to bypass template space, and original research in the form of implied synthesis by adding stuff to template lists appears accepted and even actively promoted practice fortemplates. arnoutf (talk) : , november (utc) includeonly[edit] @paine ellsworth: - looking in category:sidebar templates it doesn't seem like its consensus (i.e. "standard fmt"), and i havn't seen any guidelines for that either. <includeonly> is really annoying when you want to compare different versions of the sidebar (or navboxes), and imho it should not be standard at all. template namespace isn't for readers anyway. christian (talk) : , august (utc) 	to christian : i would like to know more about this annoying aspect of using the includeonly tags. for one thing, i haven't noticed any navbars/navboxes where these tags have been used, and for another, (i think i get that you meant that you want to compare the sidebars to similar navbars/navboxes; however i still don't get how includeonlying makes that annoying, nor the following...) i'm not sure i understand to which "different versions" of sidebars that you are comparing them? i remember a discussion many years ago that ended with the suggestion to make sidebars appear only on their /doc pages, which means they should be transcluded to their /doc pages while the templates themselves should be includeonly'd. so i've been working on these sidebars off and on now for or years; however, there are still quite a few of them that need to be updated. you're the first to raise an issue, so i would definitely like to hear more detail.  paine ellsworth  put'r there   : , august (utc) 	ps. some readers are also editors, aren't they? ps left by  paine ellsworth  put'r there   : , august (utc) bold[edit] is there any reasoning for there to be items in bold but not all of them? aisteco (talk) : , august (utc) 	the bold ones appear to be the most generally recognised basic emotions. but since i have given up the quest for getting any kind of reliable sourcing into this template, i do not know following which qualification of emotions. apparently template space is a free for all to create classifications of constructs and redefine whole branches of science; as everyone agrees in words that the claim any of this words is indeed an emotion should be verifiable; but will happily engage in an edit war if you start removing non-emotions. arnoutf (talk) : , august (utc) is social connection an emotion?[edit] is socially connected is an emotion? even if it isn't a canonical emotion, does it deserve a place on this list? i just updated the page on social connection, and define it as the experience of feeling close and connected to others. this might be a range of feelings, but i think it is at least as much an emotion as rejection. would love to hear what you all think! laurisela (talk) : , december (utc) retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=template_talk:emotion&oldid= " 		categories: 	template-class psychology articles 	na-importance psychology articles 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			template 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	new section 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 Доверие — Википедия 	 	 	 	 	Доверие 	 		Материал из Википедии — свободной энциклопедии 		Текущая версия страницы пока не проверялась опытными участниками и может значительно отличаться от версии, проверенной мая ; проверки требуют правок. Текущая версия страницы пока не проверялась опытными участниками и может значительно отличаться от версии, проверенной мая ; проверки требуют правок. 		 		 		 		Перейти к навигации 		Перейти к поиску 		У этого термина существуют и другие значения, см. Доверие (значения). Доверие в социологии и психологии — открытые, положительные взаимоотношения между людьми (человеком и субъектом), содержащие уверенность в порядочности и доброжелательности другого человека (субъекта), с которым доверяющий находится в тех или иных отношениях. Доверие считается основой всех социальных институтов. В таком качестве исследовалось в этнометодологии.[ ] Главным и первым признаком доверия, является наличие такого факта во взаимоотношениях как верность. Это готовность по взаимодействию и обмену конфиденциальной информацией, а также определёнными особыми действиями между субъектами. Доверие зависит от степени соблюдения оговорённых правил, а также от умения правильно действовать, достигая обозначенной цели для субъектов, даже в случаях, когда некоторые правила не оговорены. Доверие может иметь финансовый или личный характер. Финансовое доверие может выражаться в одалживании средств или возложении полномочий по управлению имуществом. Признаком личного доверия служит откровенность, готовность делиться интимной, секретной информацией. В рамках ресурсного подхода Ф. Н. Ильясов предлагает следующее понимание: «Доверие – это совокупность представлений и настроений субъекта: 	отражающих его ожидания того, что объект будет реализовывать некоторые функции, способствующие увеличению или сохранению ресурсов субъекта; 	проявляющихся в готовности субъекта делегировать объекту реализацию этих функций. Соответственно, недоверие – это ожидания выполнения функций, приводящих к уменьшению ресурсов субъекта, приводящие к отказу делегировать объекту выполнение соответствующие функций». Доверие по своей психологической природе является установкой, по отношению к политикам, политическим партиям, маркам производителей, товарам, банками т. д.[ ] Интересный труд по данной тематике представил Фрэнсис Фукуяма. В его книге «Доверие: социальные добродетели и путь к процветанию» взяты отдельные экономические, политические и социальные модели реальных стран, с разным уровнем доверия (Россия, США, Англия, Франция, Германия, Япония, КНР, КНДР и пр.). Автор рассматривает различные модели управления, введенные в этих странах, «линию» правительства, роль внутрисемейных отношений и воспитания, открытых религиозных организаций и закрытых сект и пр. Все аспекты сплетаются в единую систему, основанную на цифрах и логике, при помощи этой системы автор с лёгкостью показывает важность доверия в пост-индустриальную эпоху. Фактически в политологических и этнометодологических рассуждениях доверие выступает в двух ролях. Во-первых, как вера в порядочность, доброжелательность другого человека или, в критических ситуациях как вера обоих агентов принадлежность к одному и тому же сообществу (нации), требующая от них той или иной степени солидарности. Во-вторых, доверие понимается как готовность следовать правилам игры (институтам), принятым в обществе, например, отдавать долги, выполнять должностные обязанности, следовать принятым обычаям. Эти две роли связаны между собой, но не пропорциональны друг другу. Уровни требований к выполнению правил в разных обществах существенно отличаются друг от друга. Согласно[ ] по устойчивости институтов общества делятся на теплые и холодные. Холодные общества — это те общества, где люди договорились о правилах игры (неважно, как они называются — законы, обычаи, традиции, сакральные заповеди и т. д.) и более не нуждаются в налаживании личных отношений для разрешения стандартных ситуаций (наиболее близки к этой дефиниции западные страны и страны Юго-Восточной Азии). В таких обществах основное разнообразие институтов сосредоточено на верхних уровнях их иерархии и предназначено для разрешения сложных ситуаций. Тёплые общества — это те, где люди, наоборот, не сумели договориться об общих правилах, и вынуждены компенсировать их отсутствие (иначе говоря, одновременное существование различных правил) личными взаимоотношениями (в том числе коррупционного характера) или временными драконовскими правилами и виртуальной мистической связью каждого с вождем. Отсутствие действенного права вынуждает перманентно обращаться к его первоисточникам, в том числе представлениям о справедливости, поэтому справедливость, часто понимаемая как всеобщее равенство доходов и даже равное бесправие, занимает высокое место в шкале ценностей. И в то же время отсутствие регулятора справедливости (права, обычая и т. д.) очень часто ведет к большей несправедливости и большему имущественному расслоению, чем в холодных обществах. В настоящее время можно даже указать формальный экономический критерий выделения тёплых обществ — значение коэффициента Джини ≥ , - , . Нетрудно заметить, что к тёплым культурам прежде всего относится Россия и её западные соседи, а также Латинская Америка. Также на доверии основано социальное влияние. Содержание 	 См. также 	 Примечания 	 Литература 	 Ссылки См. также[править | править код] 	 	В Викисловаре есть статья «доверие» В родственных проектах 	Цитаты в Викицитатнике 	Медиафайлы на Викискладе 	Вера 	Верность 	Дилемма заключённого 	Социальный капитал 	Этнометодология 	Гарфинкель, Гарольд Примечания[править | править код] 	↑ Гарфинкель Г. Концепция и экспериментальные исследования «доверия» как условия стабильных согласованных действий / Пер. с англ. А. М. Корбута. — Социологическое обозрение, . — Т.  . — №  . — С.  — . Архивная копия от января на wayback machine 	↑ Ильясов Ф. Н. Типы шкал и анализ распределений в социологии // Мониторинг общественного мнения: экономические и социальные перемены. . № . С. . 	↑ Цирель С. Пути к государственности и демократии: исторический анализ Литература[править | править код] 	Доверие // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в т. ( т. и доп.). — СПб., — . 	jack r. gibb ( ), trust: a new view of personal and organizational development, guild of tutors press.  (англ.) 	Ю.В. Веселов Доверие и справедливость. М.: Аспект-Пресс, . 	farrell, henry. trust, distrust, and power. // distrust ( ): .  (англ.) Ссылки[править | править код] 	А. Б. Купрейченко, С. П. Табхарова «Критерии доверия и недоверия личности другим людям» // Психологический журнал. — . — №  . — С. — . 	 	В другом языковом разделе есть более полная статья trust (social science) (англ.). Вы можете помочь проекту, расширив текущую статью с помощью перевода. При этом, для соблюдения правил атрибуции, следует установить шаблон {{переведённая статья}} на страницу обсуждения, либо указать ссылку на статью-источник в комментарии к правке. 	    Словари и энциклопедии 	Брокгауза и Ефрона · britannica (онлайн) 	Нормативный контроль	gnd:  - · lccn: sh Источник — https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Доверие&oldid= 		Категории: 	Социальная психология 	Понятия этики 	Социальный конструкционизм 	Межличностные отношения 	Эмоции Скрытые категории: 	Статьи со ссылками на Викисловарь 	Статьи со ссылками на Викицитатник 	Википедия:Запросы на перевод с английского 	 	 	Навигация 	 		 	 		Персональные инструменты 	 	 			Вы не представились системе 	Обсуждение 	Вклад 	Создать учётную запись 	Войти 		 	 		 			 	 		Пространства имён 	 	 			Статья 	Обсуждение 		 	 			 	 	 		Варианты 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		Просмотры 	 	 			Читать 	Текущая версия 	Править 	Править код 	История 		 	 			 	 	 		Ещё 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		Поиск 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		Навигация 	 	 			Заглавная страница 	Рубрикация 	Указатель А — Я 	Избранные статьи 	Случайная статья 	Текущие события 		 	 	 	 		Участие 	 	 			Сообщить об ошибке 	Сообщество 	Форум 	Свежие правки 	Новые страницы 	Справка 	Пожертвовать 		 	 	 		Инструменты 	 	 			Ссылки сюда 	Связанные правки 	Служебные страницы 	Постоянная ссылка 	Сведения о странице 	Цитировать страницу 	Элемент Викиданных 		 	 	 		Печать/экспорт 	 	 			Создать книгу 	Скачать как pdf 	Версия для печати 		 	 	 		В других проектах 	 	 			Викисклад 	Викицитатник 		 	 	 	 		На других языках 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	galego 	עברית 	hrvatski 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	日本語 	Қазақша 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		Править ссылки 	 		 Эта страница в последний раз была отредактирована октября в : . 	Текст доступен по лицензии creative commons attribution-sharealike; в отдельных случаях могут действовать дополнительные условия. Подробнее см. Условия использования. wikipedia® — зарегистрированный товарный знак некоммерческой организации wikimedia foundation, inc. 		Политика конфиденциальности 	Описание Википедии 	Отказ от ответственности 	Свяжитесь с нами 	Мобильная версия 	Разработчики 	Статистика 	Заявление о куки 		 	 	 unilateralism - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	unilateralism 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		"unilateral" redirects here. for other uses, see unilateral (disambiguation). "unilateral engagement" and "unilateral disengagement" redirect here. for other uses, see engagement (disambiguation) and disengagement (disambiguation). unilateralism is any doctrine or agenda that supports one-sided action. such action may be in disregard for other parties, or as an expression of a commitment toward a direction which other parties may find disagreeable. as a word, unilateralism is attested from , specifically relating to unilateral disarmament. the current, broader meaning emerges in .[ ] it stands in contrast with multilateralism, the pursuit of foreign policy goals alongside allies. unilateralism and multilateralism represent different policy approaches to international problems. when agreement by multiple parties is absolutely required—for example, in the context of international trade policies—bilateral agreements (involving two participants at a time) are usually preferred by proponents of unilateralism. unilateralism may be preferred in those instances when it is assumed to be the most efficient, i.e., in issues that can be solved without cooperation. however, a government may also have a principal preference for unilateralism or multilateralism, and, for instance, strive to avoid policies that cannot be realized unilaterally or alternatively to champion multilateral solutions to problems that could well have been solved unilaterally. typically, governments may argue that their ultimate or middle-term goals are served by a strengthening of multilateral schemes and institutions, as was many times the case during the period of the concert of europe. references[edit] 	^ "unilateralism (n.)." online etymology dictionary. further reading[edit] 	walter a. mcdougall, promised land, crusader state ( ) 	john lewis gaddis, surprise, security, and the american experience ( ) 	bradley f. podliska, acting alone ( ) 		look up unilateralism in wiktionary, the free dictionary. retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=unilateralism&oldid= " 		categories: 	international relations theory 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			deutsch 	eesti 	فارسی 	bahasa indonesia 	bahasa melayu 	norsk bokmål 	ਪੰਜਾਬੀ 	português 	Русский 	suomi 	svenska 	tagalog 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on october , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 uncertainty - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	uncertainty 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		situation which involves imperfect and/or unknown information, regarding the existing state, environment, a future outcome or more than one possible outcomes for the film of the same name, see uncertainty (film). 	part of a series on 	epistemology 	 	category 	index 	outline 	 core concepts 	belief 	justification 	knowledge 	truth 	 distinctions 	a priori vs. a posteriori 	analytic vs. synthetic 	 schools of thought 	empiricism 	naturalism 	pragmatism 	rationalism 	relativism 	skepticism 	 topics and views 	certainty 	coherentism 	contextualism 	dogmatism 	experience 	fallibilism 	foundationalism 	induction 	infallibilism 	infinitism 	rationality 	reason 	solipsism 	 specialized domains of inquiry 	evolutionary epistemology 	feminist epistemology 	formal epistemology 	metaepistemology 	social epistemology 	 notable epistemologists 	rené descartes 	sextus empiricus 	edmund gettier 	david hume 	immanuel kant 	w. v. o. quine 	more... 	 related fields 	epistemic logic 	philosophy of mind 	philosophy of perception 	philosophy of science 	probability 		v 	t 	e situations often arise wherein a decision must be made when the results of each possible choice are uncertain. uncertainty refers to epistemic situations involving imperfect or unknown information. it applies to predictions of future events, to physical measurements that are already made, or to the unknown. uncertainty arises in partially observable and/or stochastic environments, as well as due to ignorance, indolence, or both.[ ] it arises in any number of fields, including insurance, philosophy, physics, statistics, economics, finance, psychology, sociology, engineering, metrology, meteorology, ecology and information science. contents 	 concepts 	 measurements 	 in the media 	 applications 	 philosophy 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links concepts[edit] 	 	this section may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. please consider splitting content into sub-articles, condensing it, or adding subheadings. (november ) although the terms are used in various ways among the general public, many specialists in decision theory, statistics and other quantitative fields have defined uncertainty, risk, and their measurement as: 	uncertainty 	the lack of certainty, a state of limited knowledge where it is impossible to exactly describe the existing state, a future outcome, or more than one possible outcome.[citation needed] 	measurement of uncertainty 	a set of possible states or outcomes where probabilities are assigned to each possible state or outcome – this also includes the application of a probability density function to continuous variables.[ ] 	second order uncertainty 	in statistics and economics, second-order uncertainty is represented in probability density functions over (first-order) probabilities.[ ][ ]. 	opinions in subjective logic [ ] carry this type of uncertainty. 	risk 	a state of uncertainty where some possible outcomes have an undesired effect or significant loss. 	measurement of risk 	a set of measured uncertainties where some possible outcomes are losses, and the magnitudes of those losses – this also includes loss functions over continuous variables.[ ][ ][ ][ ] 	knightian uncertainty 	in economics, in frank knight distinguished uncertainty from risk with uncertainty being lack of knowledge which is immeasurable and impossible to calculate; this is now referred to as knightian uncertainty: uncertainty must be taken in a sense radically distinct from the familiar notion of risk, from which it has never been properly separated.... the essential fact is that 'risk' means in some cases a quantity susceptible of measurement, while at other times it is something distinctly not of this character; and there are far-reaching and crucial differences in the bearings of the phenomena depending on which of the two is really present and operating.... it will appear that a measurable uncertainty, or 'risk' proper, as we shall use the term, is so far different from an unmeasurable one that it is not in effect an uncertainty at all. — frank knight ( – ), risk, uncertainty, and profit ( ), university of chicago.[ ] you cannot be certain about uncertainty. — frank knight other taxonomies of uncertainties and decisions include a broader sense of uncertainty and how it should be approached from an ethics perspective:[ ] a taxonomy of uncertainty there are some things that you know to be true, and others that you know to be false; yet, despite this extensive knowledge that you have, there remain many things whose truth or falsity is not known to you. we say that you are uncertain about them. you are uncertain, to varying degrees, about everything in the future; much of the past is hidden from you; and there is a lot of the present about which you do not have full information. uncertainty is everywhere and you cannot escape from it. dennis lindley, understanding uncertainty ( ) for example, if it is unknown whether or not it will rain tomorrow, then there is a state of uncertainty. if probabilities are applied to the possible outcomes using weather forecasts or even just a calibrated probability assessment, the uncertainty has been quantified. suppose it is quantified as a % chance of sunshine. if there is a major, costly, outdoor event planned for tomorrow then there is a risk since there is a % chance of rain, and rain would be undesirable. furthermore, if this is a business event and $ , would be lost if it rains, then the risk has been quantified (a % chance of losing $ , ). these situations can be made even more realistic by quantifying light rain vs. heavy rain, the cost of delays vs. outright cancellation, etc.[citation needed] some may represent the risk in this example as the "expected opportunity loss" (eol) or the chance of the loss multiplied by the amount of the loss ( % × $ , = $ , ). that is useful if the organizer of the event is "risk neutral", which most people are not. most would be willing to pay a premium to avoid the loss. an insurance company, for example, would compute an eol as a minimum for any insurance coverage, then add onto that other operating costs and profit. since many people are willing to buy insurance for many reasons, then clearly the eol alone is not the perceived value of avoiding the risk. quantitative uses of the terms uncertainty and risk are fairly consistent from fields such as probability theory, actuarial science, and information theory. some also create new terms without substantially changing the definitions of uncertainty or risk. for example, surprisal is a variation on uncertainty sometimes used in information theory. but outside of the more mathematical uses of the term, usage may vary widely. in cognitive psychology, uncertainty can be real, or just a matter of perception, such as expectations, threats, etc. vagueness is a form of uncertainty where the analyst is unable to clearly differentiate between two different classes, such as 'person of average height.' and 'tall person'. this form of vagueness can be modelled by some variation on zadeh's fuzzy logic or subjective logic. ambiguity is a form of uncertainty where even the possible outcomes have unclear meanings and interpretations. the statement "he returns from the bank" is ambiguous because its interpretation depends on whether the word 'bank' is meant as "the side of a river" or "a financial institution". ambiguity typically arises in situations where multiple analysts or observers have different interpretations of the same statements.[citation needed] uncertainty may be a consequence of a lack of knowledge of obtainable facts. that is, there may be uncertainty about whether a new rocket design will work, but this uncertainty can be removed with further analysis and experimentation. at the subatomic level, uncertainty may be a fundamental and unavoidable property of the universe. in quantum mechanics, the heisenberg uncertainty principle puts limits on how much an observer can ever know about the position and velocity of a particle. this may not just be ignorance of potentially obtainable facts but that there is no fact to be found. there is some controversy in physics as to whether such uncertainty is an irreducible property of nature or if there are "hidden variables" that would describe the state of a particle even more exactly than heisenberg's uncertainty principle allows.[citation needed] measurements[edit] main article: measurement uncertainty see also: uncertainty quantification and uncertainty propagation the most commonly used procedure for calculating measurement uncertainty is described in the "guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement" (gum) published by iso. a derived work is for example the national institute for standards and technology (nist) technical note , "guidelines for evaluating and expressing the uncertainty of nist measurement results", and the eurachem/citac publication "quantifying uncertainty in analytical measurement". the uncertainty of the result of a measurement generally consists of several components. the components are regarded as random variables, and may be grouped into two categories according to the method used to estimate their numerical values: 	type a, those evaluated by statistical methods 	type b, those evaluated by other means, e.g., by assigning a probability distribution by propagating the variances of the components through a function relating the components to the measurement result, the combined measurement uncertainty is given as the square root of the resulting variance. the simplest form is the standard deviation of a repeated observation. in metereology, physics, and engineering, the uncertainty or margin of error of a measurement, when explicitly stated, is given by a range of values likely to enclose the true value. this may be denoted by error bars on a graph, or by the following notations:[citation needed] 	measured value ± uncertainty 	measured value +uncertainty −uncertainty 	measured value (uncertainty) in the last notation, parentheses are the concise notation for the ± notation. for example, applying ​ ⁄ meters in a scientific or engineering application, it could be written .  m or .  m, by convention meaning accurate to within one tenth of a meter, or one hundredth. the precision is symmetric around the last digit. in this case it's half a tenth up and half a tenth down, so . means between . and . . thus it is understood that . means . ± . , and . means . ± . , also written . ( ) and . ( ) respectively. but if the accuracy is within two tenths, the uncertainty is ± one tenth, and it is required to be explicit: . ± . and . ± . or . ( ) and . ( ). the numbers in parentheses apply to the numeral left of themselves, and are not part of that number, but part of a notation of uncertainty. they apply to the least significant digits. for instance, . ( ) stands for . ± . , while . ( ) stands for . ± . .[ ] this concise notation is used for example by iupac in stating the atomic mass of elements. the middle notation is used when the error is not symmetrical about the value – for example . + . − . . this can occur when using a logarithmic scale, for example. uncertainty of a measurement can be determined by repeating a measurement to arrive at an estimate of the standard deviation of the values. then, any single value has an uncertainty equal to the standard deviation. however, if the values are averaged, then the mean measurement value has a much smaller uncertainty, equal to the standard error of the mean, which is the standard deviation divided by the square root of the number of measurements. this procedure neglects systematic errors, however.[citation needed] when the uncertainty represents the standard error of the measurement, then about . % of the time, the true value of the measured quantity falls within the stated uncertainty range. for example, it is likely that for . % of the atomic mass values given on the list of elements by atomic mass, the true value lies outside of the stated range. if the width of the interval is doubled, then probably only . % of the true values lie outside the doubled interval, and if the width is tripled, probably only . % lie outside. these values follow from the properties of the normal distribution, and they apply only if the measurement process produces normally distributed errors. in that case, the quoted standard errors are easily converted to . % ("one sigma"), . % ("two sigma"), or . % ("three sigma") confidence intervals.[citation needed] in this context, uncertainty depends on both the accuracy and precision of the measurement instrument. the lower the accuracy and precision of an instrument, the larger the measurement uncertainty is. precision is often determined as the standard deviation of the repeated measures of a given value, namely using the same method described above to assess measurement uncertainty. however, this method is correct only when the instrument is accurate. when it is inaccurate, the uncertainty is larger than the standard deviation of the repeated measures, and it appears evident that the uncertainty does not depend only on instrumental precision. in the media[edit] uncertainty in science, and science in general, may be interpreted differently in the public sphere than in the scientific community.[ ] this is due in part to the diversity of the public audience, and the tendency for scientists to misunderstand lay audiences and therefore not communicate ideas clearly and effectively.[ ] one example is explained by the information deficit model. also, in the public realm, there are often many scientific voices giving input on a single topic.[ ] for example, depending on how an issue is reported in the public sphere, discrepancies between outcomes of multiple scientific studies due to methodological differences could be interpreted by the public as a lack of consensus in a situation where a consensus does in fact exist.[ ] this interpretation may have even been intentionally promoted, as scientific uncertainty may be managed to reach certain goals. for example, climate change deniers took the advice of frank luntz to frame global warming as an issue of scientific uncertainty, which was a precursor to the conflict frame used by journalists when reporting the issue.[ ] "indeterminacy can be loosely said to apply to situations in which not all the parameters of the system and their interactions are fully known, whereas ignorance refers to situations in which it is not known what is not known."[ ] these unknowns, indeterminacy and ignorance, that exist in science are often "transformed" into uncertainty when reported to the public in order to make issues more manageable, since scientific indeterminacy and ignorance are difficult concepts for scientists to convey without losing credibility.[ ] conversely, uncertainty is often interpreted by the public as ignorance.[ ] the transformation of indeterminacy and ignorance into uncertainty may be related to the public's misinterpretation of uncertainty as ignorance. journalists may inflate uncertainty (making the science seem more uncertain than it really is) or downplay uncertainty (making the science seem more certain than it really is).[ ] one way that journalists inflate uncertainty is by describing new research that contradicts past research without providing context for the change.[ ] journalists may give scientists with minority views equal weight as scientists with majority views, without adequately describing or explaining the state of scientific consensus on the issue.[ ] in the same vein, journalists may give non-scientists the same amount of attention and importance as scientists.[ ] journalists may downplay uncertainty by eliminating "scientists' carefully chosen tentative wording, and by losing these caveats the information is skewed and presented as more certain and conclusive than it really is".[ ] also, stories with a single source or without any context of previous research mean that the subject at hand is presented as more definitive and certain than it is in reality.[ ] there is often a "product over process" approach to science journalism that aids, too, in the downplaying of uncertainty.[ ] finally, and most notably for this investigation, when science is framed by journalists as a triumphant quest, uncertainty is erroneously framed as "reducible and resolvable".[ ] some media routines and organizational factors affect the overstatement of uncertainty; other media routines and organizational factors help inflate the certainty of an issue. because the general public (in the united states) generally trusts scientists, when science stories are covered without alarm-raising cues from special interest organizations (religious groups, environmental organizations, political factions, etc.) they are often covered in a business related sense, in an economic-development frame or a social progress frame.[ ] the nature of these frames is to downplay or eliminate uncertainty, so when economic and scientific promise are focused on early in the issue cycle, as has happened with coverage of plant biotechnology and nanotechnology in the united states, the matter in question seems more definitive and certain.[ ] sometimes, stockholders, owners, or advertising will pressure a media organization to promote the business aspects of a scientific issue, and therefore any uncertainty claims which may compromise the business interests are downplayed or eliminated.[ ] applications[edit] 	uncertainty is designed into games, most notably in gambling, where chance is central to play. 	in scientific modelling, in which the prediction of future events should be understood to have a range of expected values 	in optimization, uncertainty permits one to describe situations where the user does not have full control on the final outcome of the optimization procedure, see scenario optimization and stochastic optimization. 	in weather forecasting, it is now commonplace to include data on the degree of uncertainty in a weather forecast. 	uncertainty or error is used in science and engineering notation. numerical values should only have to be expressed in those digits that are physically meaningful, which are referred to as significant figures. uncertainty is involved in every measurement, such as measuring a distance, a temperature, etc., the degree depending upon the instrument or technique used to make the measurement. similarly, uncertainty is propagated through calculations so that the calculated value has some degree of uncertainty depending upon the uncertainties of the measured values and the equation used in the calculation.[ ] 	in physics, the heisenberg uncertainty principle forms the basis of modern quantum mechanics. 	in metrology, measurement uncertainty is a central concept quantifying the dispersion one may reasonably attribute to a measurement result. such an uncertainty can also be referred to as a measurement error. in daily life, measurement uncertainty is often implicit ("he is feet tall" give or take a few inches), while for any serious use an explicit statement of the measurement uncertainty is necessary. the expected measurement uncertainty of many measuring instruments (scales, oscilloscopes, force gages, rulers, thermometers, etc.) is often stated in the manufacturers' specifications. 	in engineering, uncertainty can be used in the context of validation and verification of material modeling.[ ] 	uncertainty has been a common theme in art, both as a thematic device (see, for example, the indecision of hamlet), and as a quandary for the artist (such as martin creed's difficulty with deciding what artworks to make). 	uncertainty is an important factor in economics. according to economist frank knight, it is different from risk, where there is a specific probability assigned to each outcome (as when flipping a fair coin). knightian uncertainty involves a situation that has unknown probabilities. 	investing in financial markets such as the stock market involves knightian uncertainty when the probability of a rare but catastrophic event is unknown. philosophy[edit] main article: philosophical skepticism in western philosophy the first philosopher to embrace uncertainty was pyrrho[ ] resulting in the hellenistic philosophies of pyrrhonism and academic skepticism, the first schools of philosophical skepticism. aporia and acatalepsy represent key concepts in ancient greek philosophy regarding uncertainty. see also[edit] 	applied information economics 	certainty 	dempster–shafer theory 	further research is needed 	fuzzy set theory 	game theory 	information entropy 	interval finite element 	measurement uncertainty 	morphological analysis (problem-solving) 	propagation of uncertainty 	randomness 	schrödinger's cat 	scientific consensus 	statistical mechanics 	subjective logic 	uncertainty quantification 	uncertainty tolerance 	volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity references[edit] 	^ peter norvig; sebastian thrun. "introduction to artificial intelligence". udacity. 	^ kabir, h. d., khosravi, a., hosen, m. a., & nahavandi, s. ( ). neural network-based uncertainty quantification: a survey of methodologies and applications. ieee access. vol. , pages - , doi: . /access. . 	^ gärdenfors, peter; sahlin, nils-eric ( ). "unreliable probabilities, risk taking, and decision making". synthese. ( ): – . doi: . /bf . s cid  . 	^ david sundgren and alexander karlsson. uncertainty levels of second-order probability. polibits, : – , . 	^ audun jøsang. subjective logic: a formalism for reasoning under uncertainty. springer, heidelberg, . 	^ douglas hubbard ( ). how to measure anything: finding the value of intangibles in business, nd ed. john wiley & sons. description archived - - at the wayback machine, contents archived - - at the wayback machine, and preview. 	^ jean-jacques laffont ( ). the economics of uncertainty and information, mit press. description archived - - at the wayback machine and chapter-preview links. 	^ jean-jacques laffont ( ). essays in the economics of uncertainty, harvard university press. chapter-preview links. 	^ robert g. chambers and john quiggin ( ). uncertainty, production, choice, and agency: the state-contingent approach. cambridge. description and preview. isbn  - - - 	^ knight, f. h. ( ). risk, uncertainty, and profit. boston: hart, schaffner & marx. 	^ tannert c, elvers hd, jandrig b ( ). "the ethics of uncertainty. in the light of possible dangers, research becomes a moral duty". embo rep. ( ): – . doi: . /sj.embor. . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ "standard uncertainty and relative standard uncertainty". codata reference. nist. archived from the original on october . retrieved september . 	^ a b c d e zehr, s. c. ( ). scientists' representations of uncertainty. in friedman, s.m., dunwoody, s., & rogers, c. l. (eds.), communicating uncertainty: media coverage of new and controversial science ( – ). mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates, inc. 	^ nisbet, m.; scheufele, d. a. ( ). "what's next for science communication? promising directions and lingering distractions". american journal of botany. ( ): – . doi: . /ajb. . pmid  . 	^ shackley, s.; wynne, b. ( ). "representing uncertainty in global climate change science and policy: boundary-ordering devices and authority". science, technology, & human values. ( ): – . doi: . / . s cid  . 	^ somerville, r. c.; hassol, s. j. ( ). "communicating the science of climate change". physics today. ( ): – . bibcode: pht.... j.. s. doi: . /pt. . . 	^ a b c d e f g h i stocking, h. ( ). "how journalists deal with scientific uncertainty". in friedman, s. m.; dunwoody, s.; rogers, c. l. (eds.). communicating uncertainty: media coverage of new and controversial science. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum. pp.  – . isbn  - - - - . 	^ a b nisbet, m.; scheufele, d. a. ( ). "the future of public engagement". the scientist. ( ): – . 	^ gregory, kent j.; bibbo, giovanni; pattison, john e. ( ). "a standard approach to measurement uncertainties for scientists and engineers in medicine". australasian physical and engineering sciences in medicine. ( ): – . doi: . /bf . pmid  . s cid  . 	^ "archived copy". archived from the original on - - . retrieved - - .cs maint: archived copy as title (link) 	^ pyrrho, internet encyclopedia of philosophy https://www.iep.utm.edu/pyrrho/ further reading[edit] 	lindley, dennis v. ( - - ). understanding uncertainty. wiley-interscience. isbn  - - - - . 	gilboa, itzhak ( ). theory of decision under uncertainty. cambridge: cambridge university press. isbn  . 	halpern, joseph ( - - ). reasoning about uncertainty. mit press. isbn  . 	smithson, michael ( ). ignorance and uncertainty. new york: springer-verlag. isbn  - - - - . external links[edit] 		look up uncertainty in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: uncertainty 		wikimedia commons has media related to uncertainty. 	measurement uncertainties in science and technology, springer 	proposal for a new error calculus 	estimation of measurement uncertainties — an alternative to the iso guide 	bibliography of papers regarding measurement uncertainty 	guidelines for evaluating and expressing the uncertainty of nist measurement results 	strategic engineering: designing systems and products under uncertainty (mit research group) 	understanding uncertainty site from cambridge's winton programme 	bowley, roger ( ). 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( b be) 	content articles: , , 	total pages: , , 	uploaded files: , 	edits: , , 	registered users: , , , including , active this month and , administrators 	 	data as of : , december (utc). 	update 		v 	t 	e wikipedia is an online free-content encyclopedia project helping to create a world in which everyone can freely share in the sum of all knowledge. it is supported by the wikimedia foundation and based on a model of openly editable content. the name "wikipedia" is a blending of the words wiki (a technology for creating collaborative websites, from the hawaiian word wiki, meaning "quick") and encyclopedia. wikipedia's articles provide links designed to guide the user to related pages with additional information. wikipedia is written collaboratively by largely anonymous volunteers who write without pay. anyone with internet access can write and make changes to wikipedia articles, except in limited cases where editing is restricted to prevent disruption or vandalism. since its creation 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(see wikipedia:researching with wikipedia), and fix the article. contents 	 about wikipedia 	 . history 	 . contributors 	 . trademarks and copyrights 	 . credits 	 uses 	 . exploration 	 . basic navigation 	 . research 	 . versus paper encyclopedias 	 . strengths, weaknesses, and article quality 	 . disclaimers 	 contributing 	 . editorial quality review 	 technical attributes 	 feedback and questions 	 . frequently asked questions (faq) 	 . static help 	 . giving feedback 	 . research help and similar questions 	 . community discussion 	 . contacting individual editors 	 other languages 	 sister projects 	 see also 	 references 	 further reading 	 external links about wikipedia for information on the administrative structure of wikipedia, see wikipedia:administration. see also: wikipedia:purpose further information: wikipedia:essay directory § about wikipedia history further information: history of wikipedia the english edition of wikipedia has grown to , , articles, equivalent to around , print volumes of the encyclopædia britannica. including all language editions, wikipedia has , , articles, equivalent to around , print volumes.[ ] wikipedia was founded as an offshoot of nupedia, a now-abandoned project to produce a free encyclopedia, begun by the online media company bomis. nupedia had an elaborate system of peer review and required highly qualified contributors, but the writing of articles was slow. during , jimmy wales (founder of nupedia and co-founder of bomis), and larry sanger, whom wales had employed to work on the encyclopedia project, discussed ways of supplementing nupedia with a more open, complementary project. multiple sources suggested that a wiki might allow public members to contribute material, and nupedia's first wiki went online on january  , . there was considerable resistance on the part of nupedia's editors and reviewers to the idea of associating nupedia with a website in the wiki format, so the new project was given the name "wikipedia" and launched on its own domain, wikipedia.com, on january  (now called "wikipedia day" by some users). the bandwidth and server (in san diego) were donated by wales. other current and past bomis employees who have worked on the project include tim shell, one of the cofounders of bomis and its current ceo, and programmer jason richey. in may , a large number of non-english wikipedias were launched—in catalan, chinese, dutch, esperanto, french, german, hebrew, italian, japanese, portuguese, russian, spanish, and swedish. these were soon joined by arabic and hungarian. in september,[ ] polish was added, and further commitment to the multilingual provision of wikipedia was made. at the end of the year, afrikaans, norwegian, and serbo-croatian versions were announced. the domain was eventually changed to the present wikipedia.org when the wikimedia foundation was launched, in , as its new parent organization with the ".org" top-level domain denoting its not-for-profit nature. today, there are wikipedias in more than languages. contributors main pages: wikipedia:who writes wikipedia? and wikipedia:wikipedians further information: wikipedia:administration § editors play media wikipedia contributors anyone with web access can edit wikipedia, and this openness encourages the inclusion of a tremendous amount of content. about ,  editors—from expert scholars to casual readers—regularly edit wikipedia, and these experienced editors often help to create a consistent style throughout the encyclopedia, following our manual of style. several mechanisms are in place to help wikipedia members carry out the important work of crafting a high-quality resource while maintaining civility. editors can watch pages, and technically skilled persons can write editing programs to keep track of or rectify bad edits. where there are disagreements on how to display facts, editors often work together to compile an article that fairly represents current expert opinion on the subject. 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(see content disclaimer for more information.) credits text on wikipedia is a collaborative work, and the efforts of individual contributors to a page are recorded in that page's history, which is publicly viewable. information on the authorship of images and other media, such as sound files, can be found by clicking on the image itself or the nearby information icon to display the file page, which includes the author and source, where appropriate, along with other information. uses 	readers' faq 	 	 	about wikipedia 	administration 	faqs 	authority control 	books 	categories 	censorship 	copyright 	disambiguation 	images and multimedia 	isbn 	microformats 	mobile access 	offline access 	navigation 	other languages 	page names 	portals 	searching 	student help 	 	researching with wikipedia 	citing wikipedia 	 	readers' glossary 	readers' index 	reader's guide to wikipedia 	 	v 	t 	e further information: wikipedia:reader's index to wikipedia see also: reader's guide to wikipedia and the guide to using wikipedia in research exploration main page: wikipedia:contents many visitors come to wikipedia to acquire knowledge, while others come to share knowledge. at this very instant, dozens of articles are being improved, and new articles are also being created. changes can be viewed at the recent changes page and a random page at random articles. ,  articles have been designated by the wikipedia community as featured articles, exemplifying the best articles in the encyclopedia. another ,  articles are designated as good articles. some information on wikipedia is organized into lists; the best of these are designated as featured lists. wikipedia also has portals, which organize content around topic areas. articles can be found using the search box on the screen's top-right side. wikipedia is available in languages other than english. wikipedia has more than languages, including a simple english version, and related projects include a dictionary, quotations, books, manuals, and scientific reference sources, and a news service (see sister projects). all these are maintained, updated, and managed by separate communities and often include information and articles that can be hard to find through other common sources. basic navigation main page: help:navigation wikipedia articles are all cross-referenced. highlighted text like this means "click here" for in-depth information. (hovering is probably deep enough.) there are other links towards the ends of most articles, for other articles of interest, relevant external websites and pages, reference material, navigational templates, and organized categories of knowledge which can be searched and traversed in a loose hierarchy for more information. some articles may also have links to dictionary definitions, audio-book readings, quotations, the same article in other languages, and further information on our sister projects. additional links can be easily made if a relevant link is missing—this is one simple way to contribute. research main pages: wikipedia:researching with wikipedia and wikipedia:citing wikipedia play media what's a love dart? wikipedia can help you find out! ( : min) as wiki documents, articles are never considered complete and may be continually edited and improved. over time, this generally results in an upward trend of quality and a growing consensus over a neutral representation of information. users should be aware that not all articles are of encyclopedic quality from the start: they may contain false or debatable information. indeed, many articles start their lives as displaying a single viewpoint; and, after a long process of discussion, debate, and argumentation, they gradually take on a neutral point of view reached through consensus. for a while, others may become caught up in a heavily unbalanced viewpoint that can take some time—months or years perhaps—to achieve better-balanced coverage of their subject. in part, this is because editors often contribute content in which they have a particular interest and do not attempt to make each article they edit comprehensive. however, additional editors eventually expand and contribute to articles and strive to achieve balance and comprehensive coverage. also, wikipedia operates several internal resolution processes that can assist when editors disagree on content and approach. usually, editors eventually reach a consensus on ways to improve the article. 	external video 	 "using wikipedia" with john green, from crash course's navigating digital information series, youtube video the ideal wikipedia article is well written, balanced, neutral, and encyclopedic, containing comprehensive, notable, verifiable knowledge. an increasing number of articles reach this standard over time, and many already have. our best articles are called featured articles (and display a small star in the upper right corner of the article), and our second-best tier of articles are designated good articles. however, this is a process and can take months or years to be achieved through editors' concerted effort. some articles contain statements that have not yet been fully cited. others will later be augmented with new sections. some information will be considered by later contributors to be insufficiently founded and, therefore, may be removed. while the overall trend is toward improvement, it is important to use wikipedia carefully if it is intended to be used as a research source. individual articles will vary in quality and maturity by their nature. guidelines and information pages are available to help users and researchers do this effectively, as is an article that summarizes third-party studies and assessments of the reliability of wikipedia. versus paper encyclopedias like a paper encyclopedia, wikipedia attempts to compile world knowledge but is not bound by the restrictions of a paper encyclopedia. illustration from nuremberg chronicle 	main page: wikipedia is not paper (on wikimedia meta-wiki). wikipedia has advantages over traditional paper encyclopedias. first, it is not limited in space: it can keep growing as fast as people add. second, there are no qualifications required to be able to author its articles. therefore, it has a vast pool of contributors: the whole world. this, and the first advantage mentioned above, have enabled wikipedia to become the most comprehensive encyclopedia on earth. third, a paper encyclopedia remains static (stays the same) and falls out of date until the next edition. but wikipedia is dynamic: you don't have to wait for the next edition to come out (there are no editions), as wikipedia is published on-line as it is written on-line. articles are made available as is, regardless of what stage of development they are in. you can update wikipedia at any instant. people do so continually around the clock, thereby helping each other keep abreast of the most recent events everywhere and the latest facts in every subject. fourth, wikipedia has a meager "publishing" cost for adding or expanding entries, as it is on-line, with no need to buy paper or ink for distribution. this has allowed it to be made available for free, making it more accessible to everyone. this has enabled wikipedia to be independently developed and published in many different languages simultaneously by people literate in each language. of the + different language wikipedias, of them have , or more articles. fifth, wikipedia has a low environmental impact in some respects, since it never needs to be printed. however, computers have their own environmental cost. sixth, wikipedia is extra-linear (more than linear). instead of in-line explanations, wikipedia incorporates hypertext in the form of wikilinks. throughout its content is a robust network of links, providing another dimension of knowledge accessibility. the encyclopedia also has correlated to tables of contents and indexes, with each entry in them hyperlinked to an article on the topic specified. seventh, each wikipedia article provides an introduction summarizing the more extensive detail of its contents. eighth, being open to anyone to edit, articles on wikipedia are subject to additions that might be erroneous or written poorly, which in turn are subject to being corrected or rewritten. it is a community effort, with most people involved helping to improve the work, fixing problems they encounter along the way. see more about wikipedia's strengths and weaknesses below ... strengths, weaknesses, and article quality main pages: wikipedia:why wikipedia is so great and wikipedia:why wikipedia is not so great see also: reliability of wikipedia and wikipedia:researching with wikipedia the wikipedia monument ( ) by mihran hakobyan in slubice, poland, honors the wikipedia community. wikipedia's greatest strengths, weaknesses, and differences arise because it is open to anyone. according to editorial guidelines and policies, it has a large contributor base, and its articles are written by consensus. 	wikipedia is open to a large contributor base, drawing many editors from diverse backgrounds. this allows wikipedia to reduce regional and cultural bias found in many publications significantly and makes it very difficult for any person or group to censor and impose bias. a large, diverse editor base also provides access and breadth on subject matter otherwise inaccessible or poorly documented. many editors contributing at any moment can produce encyclopedic articles and resources covering newsworthy events within hours or days of their occurrence. like any publication, wikipedia may reflect the cultural, age, socio-economic, and other biases of its contributors. there is no systematic process to make sure "obviously important" topics are written about, so wikipedia may suffer unexpected oversights and omissions. while most articles may be altered by anyone, in practice, editing will be performed by a certain demographic (younger rather than older, male rather than female, literate, rich enough to afford a computer, et cetera) and may, therefore, show some bias. some topics may not be covered well, others in great depth. 	allowing anyone to edit wikipedia makes it easily vandalized and susceptible to unverified information, which requires removal. see wikipedia:administrator intervention against vandalism. while blatant vandalism is usually easily spotted and rapidly corrected, wikipedia is more subject to subtle viewpoint promotion than a typical reference work. however, a bias that would be unchallenged in a traditional reference work is likely to be eventually challenged or considered on wikipedia. while wikipedia articles generally attain a good standard after editing, it is important to note that fledgling articles and those monitored less well may be susceptible to vandalism and insertion of false information. wikipedia's radical openness also means any given article may be, at any given moment, in a bad state, such as in the middle of a large edit or a controversial rewrite. many contributors do not yet comply fully with key policies or may add information without citable sources. wikipedia's open approach tremendously increases the chances that any particular factual error or misleading statement will be relatively promptly corrected. numerous editors at any given time are monitoring recent changes and edit articles on their watchlists. 	wikipedia is written by open and transparent consensus—an approach with its pros and cons. censorship or imposing "official" points of view is complicated and usually fails after a time. eventually, all notable views become fairly described for most articles and a neutral point of view reached. in reality, the process of reaching consensus may be long and drawn-out, with articles fluid or changeable for a long time while they find the "neutral approach" all sides can agree on. reaching neutrality is occasionally made harder by extreme-viewpoint contributors. wikipedia operates a full editorial dispute resolution process that allows time for discussion and resolution in-depth. still, it also permits disagreements to last for months before poor-quality or biased edits are removed. a common conclusion is that wikipedia is a valuable resource and provides a good reference point on its subjects. 	that said, articles and subject areas sometimes suffer from significant omissions, and while misinformation and vandalism are usually corrected quickly, this does not always happen. (see for example this incident in which a person inserted a fake biography linking a prominent journalist to the kennedy assassinations and soviet russia as a joke on a co-worker which went undetected for four months, saying afterward he "didn't know wikipedia was used as a serious reference tool.") 	wikipedia is written largely by amateurs. those with expert credentials are given no additional weight. wikipedia is also not subject to any peer review for scientific, medical, or engineering articles. one advantage of having amateurs write in wikipedia is that they have more free time on their hands to make rapid changes in response to current events. the wider the general public interest in a topic, the more likely it is to attract contributions from non-specialists. the mediawiki software that runs wikipedia retains a history of all edits and changes. thus information added to wikipedia never "vanishes" irreversibly. discussion pages are an important resource on contentious topics. therefore, serious researchers can often find a wide range of vigorously or thoughtfully advocated viewpoints not present in the consensus article. as with any source, the information should be checked. a editorial by a bbc technology writer comments that these debates are probably symptomatic of cultural changes that are happening across all sources of information (including search engines and the media), and may lead to "a better sense of how to evaluate information sources." [ ] disclaimers main page: wikipedia:general disclaimer wikipedia disclaimers apply to all pages on wikipedia. however, the consensus in wikipedia is to put all disclaimers only as links and at the end of each article. proposals to have a warning box at the beginning have been rejected. some do not like the way it looks or that it calls attention to possible errors in wikipedia. wikipedia, in common with many websites, has a disclaimer that, at times, has led to commentators citing these to support the view that wikipedia is unreliable. a selection of similar disclaimers from places which are often regarded as reliable (including sources such as encyclopædia britannica, associated press, and the oxford english dictionary) can be read and compared at wikipedia:non-wikipedia disclaimers. contributing main pages: wikipedia:contributing to wikipedia and help:introduction to wikipedia see also: help:your first article and guide to fixing vandalism a downloadable "editing wikipedia guide" in pdf form written by the staff at the wikimedia foundation play media go ahead and be bold—click the edit button! ( : min) anyone can contribute to wikipedia by clicking on the edit tab in an article, and editors are encouraged to be bold. to get started, the intro tutorial has helpful advice. also, creating an account offers many benefits. editors are expected to add only verifiable and factual information rather than personal views and opinions, and to remain civil when discussing issues. vandals will have their edits reverted and be blocked from editing. most articles start as stubs, but after many contributions, they can become featured articles. all editors are unpaid volunteers, including administrators, trusted editors who are given elevated permissions. the ease of editing wikipedia results in many people editing. that makes updating the encyclopedia very quick. every page has an associated talk page tab, where improvements to it are discussed. editorial quality review play media video guided tour # : why does wikipedia work even though anyone can edit it? as well as systems to catch and control substandard and vandalistic edits, wikipedia also has a full style and content manual and various positive systems for continual article review and improvement. examples of the processes include peer review, good article assessment, and the featured article process, a rigorous review of articles that are intended to meet the highest standards and showcase wikipedia's capability to produce high-quality work. besides, specific types of articles or fields often have their own specialized and comprehensive projects, assessment processes (such as biographical article assessment), and expert reviewers within specific subjects. nominated articles are also frequently the subject of specific focus on the neutral point of view noticeboard or in wikiproject cleanup. technical attributes wikipedia uses mediawiki software, the open-source program used not only on wikimedia projects but also on many other third-party websites. the hardware supporting the wikimedia projects is based on several hundred servers in various hosting centers worldwide. full descriptions of these servers and their roles are available on this meta-wiki page. for technical information about wikipedia, check technical faq. wikipedia publishes various types of metadata; and, across its pages, are many thousands of microformats. feedback and questions wikipedia is run as a communal effort. it is a community project whose result is an encyclopedia. feedback about the content should, in the first instance, be raised on the discussion pages of those articles. be bold and edit the pages to add information or correct mistakes. frequently asked questions (faq) main page: wikipedia:faq 	faq index 	category:wikipedia faqs static help the help:contents may be accessed by clicking help displayed under the ► interaction tab at the top left of all pages. 	help:menu—is a menu-style page that will direct you to the right place to find information. 	help:directory—is a descriptive listing of all wikipedia's informative, instructional, and consultation pages. giving feedback there is an established escalation-and-dispute process within wikipedia and pages designed for questions, feedback, suggestions, and comments. for a full listing of the services and assistance that can be requested on wikipedia, see wikipedia:request directory. 	talk pages—the associated discussion page for discussion of an article or policy's contents (usually the first place to go) 	wikipedia:vandalism—a facility for reporting vandalism (but fix vandalism as well as report it) 	dispute resolution—the procedure for handling disputes that remain unresolved within an article's talk space 	village pump—the wikipedia discussion area, part of the community portal 	wikipedia:contact us see also: 	bug tracker—a facility for reporting problems with the wikipedia website or the mediawiki software that runs it 	village pump: proposals page—a place for making non-policy suggestions 	wikipedia:help desk—wikipedia's general help desk, if other pages have not answered the query research help and similar questions facilities to help users researching specific topics can be found at: 	wikipedia:requested articles—to suggest or request new articles. 	wikipedia:reference desk—to ask for help with any questions or find specific facts. 	wikipedia:researching with wikipedia—for information on using wikipedia as a research tool. because of wikipedia's nature, it is encouraged that people looking for information should try to find it themselves in the first instance. if, however, information is found to be missing from wikipedia, please be bold and add it. community discussion for a listing of ongoing discussions and current requests, see the dashboard. for specific discussion not related to article content or editor conduct, see the village pump, which covers such subjects as milestone announcements, policy and technical discussion, and information on other specialized portals such as the help, reference and peer review desks. the community portal is a centralized place to find things to do, collaborations, and general editing to help information and find out what is happening. the signpost, a community-edited newspaper, has recent news regarding wikipedia, its sister projects, and the wikimedia foundation. contacting individual editors to contact individual contributors, leave a message on their talk page. standard places to ask policy and project-related questions are the village pump, online, and the wikipedia mailing lists, over e-mail. reach other wikipedians via irc and e-mail. besides, the wikimedia foundation meta-wiki is a site for coordinating the various wikipedia projects and sister projects (and abstract discussions of policy and direction). also available are places for submitting bug reports and feature requests. for a full list of contact options, see wikipedia:questions. other languages this wikipedia is written in english. started in  ( ), it currently contains , , articles. many other wikipedias are available; some of the largest are listed below. 	more than , , articles: 	العربية 	deutsch 	español 	français 	italiano 	nederlands 	日本語 	polski 	português 	Русский 	svenska 	Українська 	tiếng việt 	中文 	more than , articles: 	bahasa indonesia 	bahasa melayu 	bân-lâm-gú 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	esperanto 	euskara 	فارسی‎ 	עברית 	한국어 	magyar 	norsk bokmål 	română 	srpski 	srpskohrvatski 	suomi 	türkçe 	more than , articles: 	asturianu 	bosanski 	eesti 	Ελληνικά 	simple english 	galego 	hrvatski 	latviešu 	lietuvių 	മലയാളം 	Македонски 	norsk nynorsk 	slovenčina 	slovenščina 	ไทย complete list of wikipedias sister projects wikipedia is hosted by the wikimedia foundation, a non-profit organization that also hosts a range of other projects: commons free media repository mediawiki wiki software development meta-wiki wikimedia project coordination wikibooks free textbooks and manuals wikidata free knowledge base wikinews free-content news wikiquote collection of quotations wikisource free-content library wikispecies directory of species wikiversity free learning resources wikivoyage free travel guide wiktionary dictionary and thesaurus 	please note that while other sites may also use mediawiki software and therefore look like wikipedia [dot org]—"wiki-" or "-pedia" or anything similar—the only projects which are part of the wikimedia foundation are those listed above. see also help desk 	help portal 	internet portal 	for useful directories and indexes, see wikipedia:directories and indexes. 	wikipedia:formal organization 	wikipedia:history of wikipedian processes and people 	wikipedia:quality control 	wikipedia:ten things you may not know about wikipedia 	wikimedia power structure (meta) references 	^ "wikistats - statistics for wikimedia projects". stats.wikimedia.org. wikimedia foundation. retrieved march . 	^ "milestones ". wikipedia, www.wikipedia.org. 	^ bill thompson, "what is it with wikipedia?" bbc, december  ,  . further reading main article: bibliography of wikipedia 	phoebe ayers; charles matthews; ben yates ( ). how wikipedia works. no starch press. isbn  - - - - . 	john broughton ( ). wikipedia reader's guide: the missing manual. o'reilly media, inc. isbn  - - - - . 	john broughton ( ). wikipedia: the missing manual. o'reilly media, inc. isbn  - - - - . 	dan o'sullivan ( september ). wikipedia: a new community of practice?. ashgate publishing, ltd. isbn  - - - - . 	andrew lih ( march ). the wikipedia revolution: how a bunch of nobodies created the world's greatest encyclopedia. hyperion. isbn  - - - - . 	joseph michael reagle, jr.; lawrence lessig ( september ). good faith collaboration: the culture of wikipedia. mit press. isbn  - - - - . external links 	wikipedia on facebook 	wikipedia on twitter 	wikipedia on instagram 	mission statement—the wikimedia foundation 	wikimedia values—the six values of the wikimedia foundation 	frequently asked questions|in a nutshell, what is wikipedia? and what is 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(december ) 	type of site 	archive 	area served	worldwide (except china and russia) 	owner	internet archive 	url	web.archive.org 	registration	optional 	launched	october  , ;  years ago ( - - )[ ][ ] 	current status	active 	written in	java, python the wayback machine is a digital archive of the world wide web, founded by the internet archive, a nonprofit library based in san francisco. it allows the user to go “back in time” and see what websites looked like in the past. its founders, brewster kahle and bruce gilliat, developed the wayback machine with the intention of providing "universal access to all knowledge" by preserving archived copies of defunct webpages. since its launch in , over billion pages have been added to the archive. the service has also sparked controversy over whether creating archived pages without the owner's permission constitutes copyright infringement in certain jurisdictions. contents 	 history 	 technical details 	 . storage capacity and growth 	 . website exclusion policy 	 . . oakland archive policy 	 uses 	 . limitations 	 . in legal evidence 	 . . civil litigation 	 . . . netbula llc v. chordiant software inc. 	 . . . telewizja polska 	 . . patent law 	 . . limitations of utility 	 legal status 	 archived content legal issues 	 . scientology 	 . healthcare advocates, inc. 	 . suzanne shell 	 . daniel davydiuk 	 censorship and other threats 	 see also 	 references 	 external links history[edit] internet archive founders brewster kahle and bruce gilliat launched the wayback machine in to address the problem of website content vanishing whenever it gets changed or shut down.[ ] the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a "three dimensional index".[ ] kahle and gilliat created the machine hoping to archive the entire internet and provide "universal access to all knowledge."[ ] the name wayback machine was chosen as a reference to a fictional time-traveling device, the "wayback machine" (pronounced way-back), used by the characters mister peabody and sherman in the animated cartoon the rocky and bullwinkle show from the s.[ ][ ] in one of the animated cartoon's component segments, peabody's improbable history, the characters routinely used the machine to witness, participate in, and often alter famous events in history. the wayback machine began archiving cached web pages in may ,[ ][ ] with the goal of making the service public five years later.[ ] from to , the information was kept on digital tape, with kahle occasionally allowing researchers and scientists to tap into the clunky database.[ ] when the archive reached its fifth anniversary in , it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the university of california, berkeley.[ ] by the time the wayback machine launched, it already contained over billion archived pages.[ ] today, the data is stored on the internet archive's large cluster of linux nodes.[ ] it revisits and archives new versions of websites on occasion (see technical details below).[ ] sites can also be captured manually by entering a website's url into the search box, provided that the website allows the wayback machine to "crawl" it and save the data.[ ] on october , , the wayback machine began fact checking content.[ ] technical details[edit] software has been developed to "crawl" the web and download all publicly accessible world wide web pages, the gopher hierarchy, the netnews (usenet) bulletin board system, and downloadable software.[ ] the information collected by these "crawlers" does not include all the information available on the internet, since much of the data is restricted by the publisher or stored in databases that are not accessible. to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, archive-it.org was developed in by the internet archive as a means of allowing institutions and content creators to voluntarily harvest and preserve collections of digital content, and create digital archives.[ ] crawls are contributed from various sources, some imported from third parties and others generated internally by the archive.[ ] for example, crawls are contributed by the sloan foundation and alexa, crawls run by ia on behalf of nara and the internet memory foundation, mirrors of common crawl.[ ] the "worldwide web crawls" have been running since and capture the global web.[ ][ ] the frequency of snapshot captures varies per website.[ ] websites in the "worldwide web crawls" are included in a "crawl list", with the site archived once per crawl.[ ] a crawl can take months or even years to complete depending on size.[ ] for example, "wide crawl number " started on january , , and completed on july , .[ ] however, there may be multiple crawls ongoing at any one time, and a site might be included in more than one crawl list, so how often a site is crawled varies widely.[ ] as of october , users are limited to archival requests and retrievals per minute.[why?] storage capacity and growth[edit] as technology has developed over the years, the storage capacity of the wayback machine has grown. in , after only two years of public access, the wayback machine was growing at a rate of terabytes/month. the data is stored on petabox rack systems custom designed by internet archive staff. the first tb rack became fully operational in june , although it soon became clear that they would need much more storage than that.[ ][ ] the internet archive migrated its customized storage architecture to sun open storage in , and hosts a new data center in a sun modular datacenter on sun microsystems' california campus.[ ] as of [update], the wayback machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of terabytes each month.[ ] a new, improved version of the wayback machine, with an updated interface and a fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing in .[ ] in march that year, it was said on the wayback machine forum that "the beta of the new wayback machine has a more complete and up-to-date index of all crawled materials into , and will continue to be updated regularly. the index driving the classic wayback machine only has a little bit of material past , and no further index updates are planned, as it will be phased out this year."[ ] also in , the internet archive installed their sixth pair of petabox racks which increased the wayback machine's storage capacity by terabytes.[ ] in january , the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of billion urls.[ ] in october , the company introduced the "save a page" feature[ ][ ] which allows any internet user to archive the contents of a url, and quickly generates a permanent link unlike the preceding liveweb feature. it became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries.[ ][ ] as of december  [update], the wayback machine contained billion web pages—almost nine petabytes of data, and was growing at about terabytes a week.[ ][ ][ ] as of july  [update], the wayback machine reportedly contained around petabytes of data.[ ] as of september , the wayback machine contained over petabytes of data.[ ][ ] as of december , the wayback machine contained over petabytes of data.[ ] wayback machine growth[ ][ ] 	wayback machine by year 	pages archived (billion) 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 between october and march , the website's global alexa rank changed from [ ] to .[ ] in march the rank was at .[ ] website exclusion policy[edit] historically, wayback machine has respected the robots exclusion standard (robots.txt) in determining if a website would be crawled; or if already crawled, if its archives would be publicly viewable. website owners had the option to opt-out of wayback machine through the use of robots.txt. it applied robots.txt rules retroactively; if a site blocked the internet archive, any previously archived pages from the domain were immediately rendered unavailable as well. in addition, the internet archive stated that "sometimes a website owner will contact us directly and ask us to stop crawling or archiving a site. we comply with these requests."[ ] in addition, the website says: "the internet archive is not interested in preserving or offering access to web sites or other internet documents of persons who do not want their materials in the collection."[ ][ ] on april , , reports surfaced of sites that had gone defunct and became parked domains that were using robots.txt to exclude themselves from search engines, resulting in them being inadvertently excluded from the wayback machine.[ ] the internet archive changed the policy to now require an explicit exclusion request to remove it from the wayback machine.[ ] oakland archive policy[edit] wayback's retroactive exclusion policy is based in part upon recommendations for managing removal requests and preserving archival integrity published by the school of information management and systems at university of california, berkeley in , which gives a website owner the right to block access to the site's archives.[ ] wayback has complied with this policy to help avoid expensive litigation.[ ] the wayback retroactive exclusion policy began to relax in , when it stopped honoring robots.txt on u.s. government and military web sites for both crawling and displaying web pages. as of april , wayback is ignoring robots.txt more broadly, not just for u.s. government websites.[ ][ ][ ][ ] uses[edit] from its public launch in , the wayback machine has been studied by scholars both for the ways it stores and collects data as well as for the actual pages contained in its archive. as of , scholars had written about articles on the wayback machine, mostly from the information technology, library science, and social science fields. social science scholars have used the wayback machine to analyze how the development of websites from the mid- s to the present has affected the company's growth.[ ] when the wayback machine archives a page, it usually includes most of the hyperlinks, keeping those links active when they just as easily could have been broken by the internet's instability. researchers in india studied the effectiveness of the wayback machine's ability to save hyperlinks in online scholarly publications and found that it saved slightly more than half of them.[ ] "journalists use the wayback machine to view dead websites, dated news reports, and changes to website contents. its content has been used to hold politicians accountable and expose battlefield lies."[ ] in , an archived social media page of igor girkin, a separatist rebel leader in ukraine, showed him boasting about his troops having shot down a suspected ukrainian military airplane before it became known that the plane actually was a civilian malaysian airlines jet (malaysia airlines flight ), after which he deleted the post and blamed ukraine's military for downing the plane.[ ][ ] in , the march for science originated from a discussion on reddit that indicated someone had visited archive.org and discovered that all references to climate change had been deleted from the white house website. in response, a user commented, "there needs to be a scientists' march on washington".[ ][ ][ ] furthermore, the site is used heavily for verification, providing access to references and content creation by wikipedia editors.[ ] in september , a partnership was announced with cloudflare to automatically archive websites served via its "always online" service, which will also allow it to direct users to its copy of the site if it cannot reach the original host.[ ] limitations[edit] in there was a six-month lag time between when a website was crawled and when it became available for viewing in the wayback machine.[ ] currently, the lag time is to hours.[ ] the wayback machine offers only limited search facilities. its "site search" feature allows users to find a site based on words describing the site, rather than words found on the web pages themselves.[ ] the wayback machine does not include every web page ever made due to the limitations of its web crawler. the wayback machine cannot completely archive web pages that contain interactive features such as flash platforms and forms written in javascript and progressive web applications, because those functions require interaction with the host website. this means that, since june , the wayback machine has been unable to display youtube comments when saving youtube pages, as, according to the archive team, comments are no longer "loaded within the page itself."[ ] the wayback machine's web crawler has difficulty extracting anything not coded in html or one of its variants, which can often result in broken hyperlinks and missing images. due to this, the web crawler cannot archive "orphan pages" that contain no links to other pages.[ ][ ] the wayback machine's crawler only follows a predetermined number of hyperlinks based on a preset depth limit, so it cannot archive every hyperlink on every page.[ ] starting in april , administrative staff members of the wayback machine's archive team have enforced the quarter month rule, by occasionally deleting time intervals of days or days ( / and / of a month, respectively), in order to reduce the queue size.[citation needed] in legal evidence[edit] civil litigation[edit] netbula llc v. chordiant software inc.[edit] in a case, netbula, llc v. chordiant software inc., defendant chordiant filed a motion to compel netbula to disable the robots.txt file on its website that was causing the wayback machine to retroactively remove access to previous versions of pages it had archived from netbula's site, pages that chordiant believed would support its case.[ ] netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter netbula's website and that they should have subpoenaed internet archive for the pages directly.[ ] an employee of internet archive filed a sworn statement supporting chordiant's motion, however, stating that it could not produce the web pages by any other means "without considerable burden, expense and disruption to its operations."[ ] magistrate judge howard lloyd in the northern district of california, san jose division, rejected netbula's arguments and ordered them to disable the robots.txt blockage temporarily in order to allow chordiant to retrieve the archived pages that they sought.[ ] telewizja polska[edit] in an october case, telewizja polska usa, inc. v. echostar satellite, no. c , fed. r. evid. serv. (n.d. ill. october , ), a litigant attempted to use the wayback machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, perhaps for the first time. telewizja polska is the provider of tvp polonia and echostar operates the dish network. prior to the trial proceedings, echostar indicated that it intended to offer wayback machine snapshots as proof of the past content of telewizja polska's website. telewizja polska brought a motion in limine to suppress the snapshots on the grounds of hearsay and unauthenticated source, but magistrate judge arlander keys rejected telewizja polska's assertion of hearsay and denied tvp's motion in limine to exclude the evidence at trial.[ ][ ] at the trial, however, district court judge ronald guzman, the trial judge, overruled magistrate keys' findings, and held that neither the affidavit of the internet archive employee nor the underlying pages (i.e., the telewizja polska website) were admissible as evidence. judge guzman reasoned that the employee's affidavit contained both hearsay and inconclusive supporting statements, and the purported web page, printouts were not self-authenticating.[ ][ ] patent law[edit] main article: internet as a source of prior art provided some additional requirements are met (e.g., providing an authoritative statement of the archivist), the united states patent office and the european patent office will accept date stamps from the internet archive as evidence of when a given web page was accessible to the public. these dates are used to determine if a web page is available as prior art for instance in examining a patent application.[ ] limitations of utility[edit] there are technical limitations to archiving a website, and as a consequence, it is possible for opposing parties in litigation to misuse the results provided by website archives. this problem can be exacerbated by the practice of submitting screenshots of web pages in complaints, answers, or expert witness reports when the underlying links are not exposed and therefore, can contain errors. for example, archives such as the wayback machine do not fill out forms and therefore, do not include the contents of non-restful e-commerce databases in their archives.[ ] legal status[edit] in europe, the wayback machine could be interpreted as violating copyright laws. only the content creator can decide where their content is published or duplicated, so the archive would have to delete pages from its system upon request of the creator.[ ] the exclusion policies for the wayback machine may be found in the faq section of the site.[ ] archived content legal issues[edit] a number of cases have been brought against the internet archive specifically for its wayback machine archiving efforts. scientology[edit] see also: scientology and the internet in late , the internet archive removed various sites that were critical of scientology from the wayback machine.[ ] an error message stated that this was in response to a "request by the site owner".[ ] later, it was clarified that lawyers from the church of scientology had demanded the removal and that the site owners did not want their material removed.[ ] healthcare advocates, inc.[edit] in , harding earley follmer & frailey defended a client from a trademark dispute using the archive's wayback machine. the attorneys were able to demonstrate that the claims made by the plaintiff were invalid, based on the content of their website from several years prior. the plaintiff, healthcare advocates, then amended their complaint to include the internet archive, accusing the organization of copyright infringement as well as violations of the dmca and the computer fraud and abuse act. healthcare advocates claimed that, since they had installed a robots.txt file on their website, even if after the initial lawsuit was filed, the archive should have removed all previous copies of the plaintiff website from the wayback machine, however, some material continued to be publicly visible on wayback.[ ] the lawsuit was settled out of court, after wayback fixed the problem.[ ] suzanne shell[edit] activist suzanne shell filed suit in december , demanding internet archive pay her us$ , for archiving her website profane-justice.org between and .[ ][ ] internet archive filed a declaratory judgment action in the united states district court for the northern district of california on january , , seeking a judicial determination that internet archive did not violate shell's copyright. shell responded and brought a countersuit against internet archive for archiving her site, which she alleges is in violation of her terms of service.[ ] on february , , a judge for the united states district court for the district of colorado dismissed all counterclaims except breach of contract.[ ] the internet archive did not move to dismiss copyright infringement claims shell asserted arising out of its copying activities, which would also go forward.[ ] on april , , internet archive and suzanne shell jointly announced the settlement of their lawsuit.[ ] the internet archive said it "...has no interest in including materials in the wayback machine of persons who do not wish to have their web content archived. we recognize that ms shell has a valid and enforceable copyright in her web site and we regret that the inclusion of her web site in the wayback machine resulted in this litigation." shell said, "i respect the historical value of internet archive's goal. i never intended to interfere with that goal nor cause it any harm."[ ] daniel davydiuk[edit] between and , a pornographic actor named daniel davydiuk tried to remove archived images of himself from the wayback machine's archive, first by sending multiple dmca requests to the archive, and then by appealing to the federal court of canada.[ ][ ][ ] censorship and other threats[edit] archive.org is currently blocked in china.[ ][ ] after the islamic state terrorist organization was banned, the internet archive had been blocked in its entirety in russia as a host of an outreach video from that organization, for a short time in – .[ ][ ][ ][needs update] since the website has been back, available in its entirety, although local commercial lobbyists are suing the internet archive in a local court to ban it on copyright grounds.[ ] alison macrina, director of the library freedom project, notes that "while librarians deeply value individual privacy, we also strongly oppose censorship".[ ] there are known rare cases where online access to content which "for nothing" has put people in danger was disabled by the website.[ ] other threats include natural disasters,[ ] destruction (remote or physical),[ ] manipulation of the archive's contents (see also: cyberattack, backup), problematic copyright laws[ ] and surveillance of the site's users.[ ] kevin vaughan suspects that in the long-term of multiple generations "next to nothing" will survive in a useful way, stating, "if we have continuity in our technological civilization" by which "a lot of the bare data will remain findable and searchable".[ ] in an article reflecting on the preservation of human knowledge, the atlantic has commented that the internet archive, which describes itself to be built for the long-term,[ ] "is working furiously to capture data before it disappears without any long-term infrastructure to speak of."[ ] see also[edit] 	list of web archiving initiatives 	heritrix 	library genesis 	web archiving 	time machine references[edit] 	^ "waybackmachine.org whois, dns, & domain info – domaintools". whois. retrieved march , . 	^ "internetarchive.org whois, dns, & domain info – domaintools". whois. retrieved march , . 	^ notess, greg r. (march–april ). "the wayback machine: the web's archive". online. : – – via ebscohost. 	^ "the wayback machine", frequently asked questions, archived from the original on september , , retrieved september , 	^ a b " , hard drives on a mission | internet archive blogs". blog.archive.org. october , . archived from the original on october , . retrieved october , . 	^ green, heather (february , ). "a library as big as the world". businessweek. archived from the original on december , . 	^ tong, judy (september , ). 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"colorado woman sues to hold web crawlers to contracts". new york, ny, us: informationweek, ubm tech, ubm llc. archived from the original on september , . retrieved march , . computers can enter into contracts on behalf of people. the uniform electronic transactions act (ueta) says that a 'contract may be formed by the interaction of electronic agents of the parties, even if no individual was aware of or reviewed the electronic agents' actions or the resulting terms and agreements.' 	^ samson, martin h., phillips nizer llp ( ). "internet archive v. suzanne shell". internetlibrary.com. internet library of law and court decisions. archived from the original on august , . retrieved march , . more importantly, held the court, internet archive's mere copying of shell's site, and display thereof in its database, did not constitute the requisite exercise of dominion and control over defendant's property. importantly, noted the court, the defendant at all times owned and operated her own site. said the court: 'shell has failed to allege facts showing that internet archive exercised dominion or control over her website, since shell's complaint states explicitly that she continued to own and operate the website while it was archived on the wayback machine. shell identifies no authority supporting the notion that copying documents is by itself enough of a deprivation of use to support conversion. conversely, numerous circuits have determined that it is not.' 	^ brewster (april , ). "internet archive and suzanne shell settle lawsuit". archive.org. denver, co, usa: internet archive. archived from the original on december , . retrieved march , . both parties sincerely regret any turmoil that the lawsuit may have caused for the other. neither internet archive nor ms shell condones any conduct which may have caused harm to either party arising out of the public attention to this lawsuit. the parties have not engaged in such conduct and request that the public response to the amicable resolution of this litigation be consistent with their wishes that no further harm or turmoil be caused to either party. 	^ stobbe, richard (december , ). "copyright implications of a "right to be forgotten"? or how to take-down the internet archive". mondaq. retrieved march , . 	^ mcveigh, glennys (october , ). philpott, james; weissman, adam; bucholz, ren; kettles, brent; pearl, aaron (eds.). "davydiuk v. internet archive canada, fc ". canlii. federation of law societies of canada. retrieved march , . 	^ southcott, richard f. (november , ). philpott, john; alton, alex; bucholz, ren (eds.). "davydiuk v. internet archive canada and internet archive, fc (canlii)". canlii. ottawa, ontario: federation of law societies of canada. retrieved march , . 	^ conger, kate. "backing up the history of the internet in canada to save it from trump". techcrunch. archived from the original on december , . retrieved may , . 	^ "where to find what's disappeared online, and a whole lot more: the internet archive". public radio international. archived from the original on march , . retrieved may , . 	^ chirgwin, richard. "there's no wayback in russia: putin blocks archive.org". archived from the original on october , . retrieved may , . 	^ "russia won't go wayback, blocks the internet archive". digital trends. june , . archived from the original on april , . retrieved may , . 	^ "В России разблокирован крупнейший интернет-архив". Российская газета (in russian). retrieved october , . 	^ "help us keep the archive free, accessible, and reader private | internet archive blogs". november , . archived from the original on may , . retrieved may , . 	^ https://www.engadget.com/ - - -wayback-machine-internet-archive-fire.html 	^ "internet archive: proposed changes to dmca would make us "censor the web"". consumerist. june , . archived from the original on november , . retrieved may , . 	^ herb, ulrich. "die trump-angst grassiert" (in german). heise online. archived from the original on december , . retrieved may , . 	^ lafrance, adrienne. "the internet's dark ages". the atlantic. archived from the original on may , . retrieved may , . 	^ "the entire internet will be archived in canada to protect it from trump". motherboard. november , . archived from the original on may , . retrieved may , . 	^ lafrance, adrienne (june , ). "the human fear of total knowledge". the atlantic. archived from the original on december , . retrieved may , . external links[edit] 	official website 	internet history is fragile. this archive is making sure it doesn’t disappear. san francisco: pbs newshour. retrieved september , . 		v 	t 	e digital preservation 	concepts	 	artifactual value 	curation 	dark age 	obsolescence 	open archival information system 	techniques	 	forensics 	emulation 	by type	 	artworks 	email 	websites 	organizations	 	computer museums 	digital curation centre 	national digital information infrastructure and preservation program (usa) 	lists	 	preservation initiatives 	timeline 	timeline of audio formats 	web archiving initiatives 	years in home video 	 category 	 	v 	t 	e internet archive 	universal access to all knowledge 	projects	 	wayback machine 	petabox 	open library 	nasa images 	open content alliance 	archive-it 	sflan 	 	partners & collaborators	 	bibliotheca alexandrina 	library of congress 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in a manner that can be implemented on computers, making them of interest for the study and engineering of virtual communities, such as friendster and livejournal. trust escapes a simple measurement because its meaning is too subjective for universally reliable metrics, and the fact that it is a mental process, unavailable to instruments. there is a strong argument[ ] against the use of simplistic metrics to measure trust due to the complexity of the process and the 'embeddedness' of trust that makes it impossible to isolate trust from related factors. there is no generally agreed set of properties that make a particular trust metric better than others, as each metric is designed to serve different purposes, e.g.[ ] provides certain classification scheme for trust metrics. two groups of trust metrics can be identified: 	empirical metrics focusing on supporting the capture of values of trust in a reliable and standardized way; 	formal metrics that focus on formalization leading to the ease of manipulation, processing and reasoning about trust. formal metrics can be further classified depending on their properties. trust metrics enable trust modelling[ ] and reasoning about trust. they are closely related to reputation systems. simple forms of binary trust metrics can be found e.g. in pgp.[ ] the first commercial forms of trust metrics in computer software were in applications like ebay's feedback rating. slashdot introduced its notion of karma, earned for activities perceived to promote group effectiveness, an approach that has been very influential in later virtual communities.[citation needed] contents 	 empirical metrics 	 . surveys 	 . games 	 formal metrics 	 . representation 	 . subjective probability 	 . uncertain probabilities (subjective logic) 	 . fuzzy logic 	 properties of trust metrics 	 . transitivity 	 . operations 	 . scalability 	 . attack resistance 	 see also 	 references 	 sources 	 external links empirical metrics[edit] empirical metrics capture the value of trust by exploring the behavior or introspection of people, to determine the perceived or expressed level of trust. those methods combine theoretical background (determining what it is that they measure) with defined set of questions and statistical processing of results. the willingness to cooperate, as well as actual cooperation, are commonly used to both demonstrate and measure trust. the actual value (level of trust and/or trustworthiness) is assessed from the difference between observed and hypothetical behaviors i.e. those that would have been anticipated in the absence of cooperation. surveys[edit] surveys capture the level of trust by means of both observations or introspection, but without engaging into any experiments. respondents are usually providing answers to a set of questions or statements and responses are e.g. structured according to a likert scale. differentiating factors are the underlying theoretical background and contextual relevance. one of the earliest surveys are mccroskey's scales [ ] that have been used to determine authoritativeness (competence) and character (trustworthiness) of speakers. rempel's trust scale [ ] and rotter's scale [ ] are quite popular in determining the level of interpersonal trust in different settings. the organizational trust inventory (oti) [ ] is an example of an exhaustive, theory-driven survey that can be used to determine the level of trust within the organisation. for a particular research area a more specific survey can be developed. for example, the interdisciplinary model of trust,[ ] has been verified using a survey while [ ] uses a survey to establish the relationship between design elements of the web site and perceived trustworthiness of it. games[edit] another empirical method to measure trust is to engage participants in experiments, treating the outcome of such experiments as estimates of trust. several games and game-like scenarios have been tried, some of which estimate trust or confidence in monetary terms (see [ ] for an interesting overview). games of trust are designed in a way that their nash equilibrium differ from pareto optimum so that no player alone can maximize his own utility by altering his selfish strategy without cooperation, while cooperating partners can benefit. trust can be therefore estimated on the basis of monetary gain attributable to cooperation. the original 'game of trust' has been described in [ ] as an abstracted investment game between an investor and his broker. the game can be played once or several times, between randomly chosen players or in pairs that know each other, yielding different results. several variants of the game exist, focusing on different aspects of trust as the observable behaviour. for example, rules of the game can be reversed into what can be called a game of distrust,[ ] declaratory phase can be introduced [ ] or rules can be presented in a variety of ways, altering the perception of participants. other interesting games are e.g. binary-choice trust games,[ ] the gift-exchange game,[ ] cooperative trust games,[citation needed] and various other forms of social games. specifically the prisoners dilemma [ ] are popularly used to link trust with economic utility and demonstrate the rationality behind reciprocity. for multi-player games, different forms of close market simulations exist [ ] formal metrics[edit] formal metrics focus on facilitating trust modelling, specifically for large scale models that represent trust as an abstract system (e.g. social network or web of trust). consequently, they may provide weaker insight into the psychology of trust, or in particulars of empirical data collection. formal metrics tend to have a strong foundations in algebra, probability or logic. representation[edit] there is no widely recognised way to attribute value to the level of trust, with each representation of a 'trust value' claiming certain advantages and disadvantages. there are systems that assume only binary values,[ ] that use fixed scale,[ ] where confidence range from - to + (while excluding zero),[ ] from to [ ][ ] or from [− to + );[ ] where confidence is discrete or continuous, one-dimensional or have many dimensions.[ ] some metrics use ordered set of values without attempting to convert them to any particular numerical range (e.g.[ ] see [ ] for a detailed overview). there is also a disagreement about the semantics of some values. the disagreement regarding the attribution of values to levels of trust is specifically visible when it comes to the meaning of zero and to negative values. for example, zero may indicate either the lack of trust (but not distrust), or lack of information, or a deep distrust. negative values, if allowed, usually indicate distrust, but there is a doubt [ ] whether distrust is simply trust with a negative sign, or a phenomenon of its own. subjective probability[edit] subjective probability [ ] focuses on trustor's self-assessment about his trust in the trustee. such an assessment can be framed as an anticipation regarding future behaviour of the trustee, and expressed in terms of probability. such a probability is subjective as it is specific to the given trustor, their assessment of the situation, information available to him etc. in the same situation other trustors may have a different level of a subjective probability. subjective probability creates a valuable link between formalisation and empirical experimentation. formally, subjective probability can benefit from available tools of probability and statistics. empirically, subjective probability can be measured through one-side bets. assuming that the potential gain is fixed, the amount that a person bets can be used to estimate his subjective probability of a transaction. uncertain probabilities (subjective logic)[edit] the logic for uncertain probabilities (subjective logic) has been introduced by josang [ ][ ], where uncertain probabilities are called subjective opinions. this elegant concept combines probability distribution with uncertainty, so that each opinion about trust can be viewed as a distribution of probability distributions where each distribution is qualified by associated uncertainty. the foundation of the trust representation is that an opinion (an evidence or a confidence) about trust can be represented as a four-tuple (trust, distrust, uncertainty, base rate), where trust, distrust and uncertainty must add up to one, and hence are dependent through additivity. subjective logic is an example of computational trust where uncertainty is inherently embedded in the calculation process and is visible at the output. it is not the only one, it is e.g. possible to use a similar quadruplet (trust, distrust, unknown, ignorance) to express the value of confidence,[ ] as long as the appropriate operations are defined. despite the sophistication of the subjective opinion representation, the particular value of a four-tuple related to trust can be easily derived from a series of binary opinions about a particular actor or event, thus providing a strong link between this formal metric and empirically observable behaviour. finally, there are certaintrust [ ] and certainlogic.[ ] both share a common representation, which is equivalent to subjective opinions, but based on three independent parameters named 'average rating', 'certainty', and 'initial expectation'. hence, there is a bijective mapping between the certaintrust-triplet and the four-tuple of subjective opinions. fuzzy logic[edit] fuzzy systems ( [ ] ), as a trust metrics can link natural language expressions with a meaningful numerical analysis. application of fuzzy logic to trust has been studied in the context of peer to peer networks [ ] to improve peer rating. also for grid computing [ ] it has been demonstrated that fuzzy logic allows to solve security issues in reliable and efficient manner. properties of trust metrics[edit] the set of properties that should be satisfied by a trust metric vary, depending on the application area. following is a list of typical properties. transitivity[edit] transitivity is a highly desired property of a trust metric.[ ] in situations where a trusts b and b trusts c, transitivity concerns the extent to which a trusts c. without transitivity, trust metrics are unlikely to be used to reason about trust in more complex relationships. the intuition behind transitivity follows everyday experience of 'friends of a friend' (foaf), the foundation of social networks. however, the attempt to attribute exact formal semantics to transitivity reveals problems, related to the notion of a trust scope or context. for example,[ ] defines conditions for the limited transitivity of trust, distinguishing between direct trust and referral trust. similarly,[ ] shows that simple trust transitivity does not always hold, based on information on the advogato model and, consequently, have proposed new trust metrics. the simple, holistic approach to transitivity is characteristic to social networks (foaf, advogato). it follows everyday intuition and assumes that trust and trustworthiness apply to the whole person, regardless of the particular trust scope or context. if one can be trusted as a friend, one can be also trusted to recommend or endorse another friend. therefore, transitivity is semantically valid without any constraints, and is a natural consequence of this approach. the more thorough approach distinguishes between different scopes/contexts of trust, and does not allow for transitivity between contexts that are semantically incompatible or inappropriate. a contextual approach may, for instance, distinguish between trust in a particular competence, trust in honesty, trust in the ability to formulate a valid opinion, or trust in the ability to provide reliable advice about other sources of information. a contextual approach is often used in trust-based service composition.[ ] the understanding that trust is contextual (has a scope) is a foundation of a collaborative filtering. operations[edit] for a formal trust metric to be useful, it should define a set of operations over values of trust in such way that the result of those operations produce values of trust. usually at least two elementary operators are considered: 	fusion that provides a quasi-additive functionality, allowing to consolidate trust values coming from several sources; 	discounting that provides a quasi-multiplicative functionality, allowing the advice/trust opinion provided by a source to be discounted as a function of the trust in the source, which is the principle for transitive trust computation. the exact semantics of both operators are specific to the metric. even within one representation, there is still a possibility for a variety of semantic interpretations. for example, for the representation as the logic for uncertain probabilities, trust fusion operations can be interpreted by applying different rules (cumulative fusion, averaging fusion, constraint fusion (dempster's rule), yager's modified dempster's rule, inagaki's unified combination rule, zhang's centre combination rule, dubois and prade's disjunctive consensus rule etc.). each interpretations leads to different results, depending on the assumptions for trust fusion in the particular situatation to be modelled. see [ ][ ] for detailed discussions. scalability[edit] the growing size of networks of trust make scalability another desired property, meaning that it is computationally feasible to calculate the metric for large networks. scalability usually puts two requirements of the metric: 	the elementary operation (e.g. fusion or discount) is computationally feasible, e.g. that relationships between context of trust can be quickly established. 	the number of elementary operations scale slowly with the growth of the network. attack resistance[edit] attack resistance is an important non-functional property of trust metrics which reflects their ability not to be overly influenced by agents who try to manipulate the trust metric and who participate in bad faith (i.e. who aim to abuse the presumption of trust). the free software developer resource advogato is based on a novel approach to attack-resistant trust metrics of raph levien. levien observed that google's pagerank algorithm can be understood to be an attack resistant trust metric rather similar to that behind advogato. see also[edit] 	like button 	trustworthiness 	web of trust 	subjective logic 	moderation system references[edit] 	^ castelfranchi, c. and falcone, r. 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( ) a fuzzy approach to a belief-based trust computation. in: r. falcone at al. (eds.): aamas ws trust, reputation, lnai pp. – 	^ damiani, e. et al. ( ) fuzzy logic techniques for reputation management in anonymous peer-to-peer systems. in proc. of the third int. conf. in fuzzy logic and technology, zittau, germany. 	^ song, s., hwang, k., and macwan, m. ( ) fuzzy trust integration for security enforcement in grid computing. proc. in: proc. of ifip int. symposium on network and parallel computing (npc- ). lncs . pp. – . 	^ richters, o., peixoto. t.p. ( ) trust transitivity in social networks. plos one ( ): e . doi: . /journal.pone. 	^ josang, a., and pope, s. ( ) semantic constraints for trust transitivity second asia-pacific conference on conceptual modelling (apccm ). 	^ d. quercia, s. hailes, l. capra. lightweight distributed trust propagation. icdm' . 	^ chang, e., dillion, t., and hussain, f. k. ( ) trust and reputation for service-oriented environments: technologies for building business intelligence and consumer confidence. john wiley & sons, ltd. 	^ sentz, k. ( ) combination of evidence in dempster–shafer theory archived - - at the wayback machine. phd thesis. 	^ jøsang, a. ( ) sources[edit] 	dencheva, s.; prause, c. r.; prinz, w. (september ). dynamic self-moderation in a corporate wiki to improve participation and contribution quality (pdf). proceedings of the th european conference on computer supported cooperative work (ecscw ). aarhus, denmark. archived from the original (pdf) on - - . 	jøsang, a. ( ), subjective logic; a formalism for reasoning under uncertainty springer, cham, isbn  - - - - 	vavilis, s.; petković, m.; zannone, n. ( ). "a reference model for reputation systems" (pdf). decision support systems. : – . doi: . /j.dss. . . . external links[edit] 	http://trustyourplace.com assessment online and mobile of the basel institute of commons and economics were you can score the trust among the people at any place. 	trust metrics evaluation project of paolo massa ] is a wiki whose goal is to review, understand, code and compare on same data all the trust metrics proposed so far.. the analyzed trust metrics page provides an extensive bibliography of work on the theory and implementation of trust metrics. 	trustcomp.org is an online community of more than academic and industrial members who research computational trust management and online reputation. there is also a mailing list. 	online demonstrations of subjective logic. 	raph levien, . advogato's trust metric. electronic manuscript. 	raph levien, . attack resistant trust metric metadata howto. electronic manuscript. 	trust metrics – by p p foundation 	rummble – recommendations engine based on trust networking, including a trust network api for rd parties retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=trust_metric&oldid= " 		categories: 	reputation management 	technology in society 	sociological terminology 	computational trust hidden categories: 	webarchive template wayback links 	all articles with unsourced statements 	articles with unsourced statements from may 	articles with unsourced statements from december 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			español 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 wikipedia:citing sources - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	 	wikipedia:citing sources 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		guideline on how to cite sources for information on referencing citations in wikipedia articles, see help:footnotes, wikipedia:inline citation, and help:referencing for beginners. "wp:cite" redirects here. for the citation needed information page, see wp:citeneed. "wp:ref" redirects here. for the reference desk, see wp:refd. for information about citing wikipedia articles for use in work outside of wikipedia, see wikipedia:citing wikipedia. 		this page documents an english wikipedia content guideline. it is a generally accepted standard that editors should attempt to follow, though it is best treated with common sense, and occasional exceptions may apply. any substantive edit to this page should reflect consensus. when in doubt, discuss first on the talk page. 	shortcuts 	wp:cs 	wp:cite 	wp:ref 		this page in a nutshell: cite reliable sources. you can add a citation by selecting from the drop-down menu at the top of the editing box. in markup, you can add a citation manually using ref tags. more elaborate and useful ways to cite sources are detailed below. a citation, also called a reference,[note ] uniquely identifies a source of information, e.g.: ritter, r. m. ( ). the oxford style manual. oxford university press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space. a citation or reference in an article usually has two parts. in the first part, each section of text that is either based on, or quoted from, an outside source is marked as such with an inline citation. the inline citation may be a superscript footnote number, or an abbreviated version of the citation called a short citation. the second necessary part of the citation or reference is the list of full references, which provides complete, formatted detail about the source, so that anyone reading the article can find it and verify it. this page explains how to place and format both parts of the citation. each article should use one citation method or style throughout. if an article already has citations, preserve consistency by using that method or seek consensus on the talk page before changing it (the principle is reviewed at § variation in citation methods). while you should try to write citations correctly, what matters most is that you provide enough information to identify the source. others will improve the formatting if needed. see: "help:referencing for beginners", for a brief introduction on how to put references in wikipedia articles; and cite templates in visual editor, about a graphical way for citation, included in wikipedia. 	wikipedia guidelines 	 	guidelines list 	policies list 	 behavioral 	 	 	assume good faith 	conflict of interest 	courtesy vanishing 	disruptive editing 	don't bite the newcomers 	don't edit to make a point 	etiquette 	don't game the system 	user pages 	other behavioral guidelines 	wmf friendly space policy 	 discussions 	 	talk page guidelines 	signatures 	 content 	 	citing sources 	external links 	reliable sources 	medicine 	fringe theories 	non-free content 	offensive material 	don't copy long texts 	don't create hoaxes 	patent nonsense 	other content guidelines 	 editing 	 	 	article size 	be bold 	edit summary 	understandability 	other editing guidelines 	 organization 	 	categories, lists, templates 	categorization 	disambiguation 	 style 	 	manual of style 	contents 	lists 	tables 	 deletion 	 	deletion process 	speedy keep 	deletion guidelines for administrators 	 project content 	 	project pages 	wikiprojects 	templates 	user pages 	user boxes 	shortcuts 	subpages 	 other 	 	naming conventions 	notability 		v 	t 	e contents 	 types of citation 	 when and why to cite sources 	 . multimedia 	 . when not to cite 	 what information to include 	 . examples 	 . . books 	 . . journal articles 	 . . newspaper articles 	 . . web pages 	 . . sound recordings 	 . . film, television, or video recordings 	 . . other 	 . identifying parts of a source 	 . . books and print articles 	 . . audio and video sources 	 . links and id numbers 	 . . linking to pages in pdf files 	 . . linking to google books pages 	 . say where you read it 	 . dates and reprints of older publications 	 . seasonal publication dates and differing calendar systems 	 . additional annotation 	 inline citations 	 . footnotes 	 . . how to create the list of citations 	 . . how to place an inline citation using ref tags 	 . . separating citations from explanatory footnotes 	 . . avoiding clutter 	 . . repeated citations 	 . . citing multiple pages of the same source 	 . . duplicate citations 	 . . short citations 	 . parenthetical referencing 	 citation style 	 . variation in citation methods 	 . . to be avoided 	 . . generally considered helpful 	 handling links in citations 	 . avoid embedded links 	 . convenience links 	 . indicating availability 	 . links to sources 	 . preventing and repairing dead links 	 text–source integrity 	 . keeping citations close 	 . bundling citations 	 in-text attribution 	 general references 	 dealing with unsourced material 	 citation templates and tools 	 . metadata 	 . citation generation tools 	 . programming tools 	 . citation export tools 	 . reference management software 	 see also 	 notes 	 further reading 	 external links types of citation shortcut 	wp:citetype 	a full citation fully identifies a reliable source and, where applicable, the place in that source (such as a page number) where the information in question can be found. for example: rawls, john. a theory of justice. harvard university press, , p. . this type of citation is usually given as a footnote, and is the most commonly used citation method in wikipedia articles. 	an inline citation means any citation added close to the material it supports, for example after the sentence or paragraph, normally in the form of a footnote. 	a short citation is an inline citation that identifies the place in a source where specific information can be found, but without giving full details of the source – these will have been provided in a full bibliographic citation either in an earlier footnote, or in a separate section. for example: rawls , p. . this system is used in some articles. 	in-text attribution involves adding the source of a statement to the article text, such as rawls argues that x.[ ] this is done whenever a writer or speaker should be credited, such as with quotations, close paraphrasing, or statements of opinion or uncertain fact. the in-text attribution does not give full details of the source – this is done in a footnote in the normal way. see in-text attribution below. 	a general reference is a citation that supports content, but is not linked to any particular piece of material in the article through an inline citation. general references are usually listed at the end of the article in a references section. they are usually found in underdeveloped articles, especially when all article content is supported by a single source. they may also be listed in more developed articles as a supplement to inline citations. when and why to cite sources shortcut 	wp:whycite by citing sources for wikipedia content, you enable users to verify that the information given is supported by reliable sources, thus improving the credibility of wikipedia while showing that the content is not original research. you also help users find additional information on the subject; and by giving attribution you avoid plagiarising the source of your words or ideas. in particular, sources are required for material that is challenged or likely to be challenged – if reliable sources cannot be found for challenged material, it is likely to be removed from the article. sources are also required when quoting someone, with or without quotation marks, or closely paraphrasing a source. however, the citing of sources is not limited to those situations – editors are always encouraged to add or improve citations for any information contained in an article. citations are especially desirable for statements about living persons, particularly when the statements are contentious or potentially defamatory. in accordance with the biography of living persons policy, unsourced information of this type is likely to be removed on sight. multimedia for an image or other media file, details of its origin and copyright status should appear on its file page. image captions should be referenced as appropriate just like any other part of the article. a citation is not needed for descriptions such as alt text that are verifiable directly from the image itself, or for text that merely identifies a source (e.g., the caption "belshazzar's feast ( )" for file:rembrandt-belsazar.jpg). when not to cite shortcut 	wp:whennotcite citations are not used on disambiguation pages (sourcing for the information given there should be done in the target articles). citations are often omitted from the lead section of an article, insofar as the lead summarizes information for which sources are given later in the article, although quotations and controversial statements, particularly if about living persons, should be supported by citations even in the lead. see wp:leadcite for more information. what information to include shortcuts 	wp:citehow 	wp:howcite listed below is the information that a typical inline citation or general reference will provide, though other details may be added as necessary. this information is included in order to identify the source, assist readers in finding it, and (in the case of inline citations) indicate the place in the source where the information is to be found. (if an article uses short citations, then the inline citations will refer to this information in abbreviated form, as described in the relevant sections above.) use details in citing. good citations are on the left, while citations on the right should be improved. examples books see also the template {{cite book}}. citations for books typically include: 	name of author(s) 	title of book 	volume when appropriate 	name of publisher 	place of publication 	date of publication of the edition 	chapter or page numbers cited, if appropriate 	edition, if not the first edition 	isbn (optional) citations for individually authored chapters in books typically include: 	name of author(s) 	title of the chapter 	name of book's editor 	name of book and other details as above 	chapter number or page numbers for the chapter (optional) in some instances, the verso of a book's title page may record, "reprinted with corrections xxxx" or similar, where 'xxxx' is a year. this is a different version of a book in the same way that different editions are different versions. in such a case, record: the year of the particular reprint, the edition immediately prior to this particular reprint (if not the first edition) and a note to say "reprint with corrections". if {{cite}} (or similar) is being used, the notation, "reprint with corrections", can be added immediately following the template. § dates and reprints of older publications gives an example of appending a similar textual note. journal articles see also the template {{cite journal}}. citations for journal articles typically include: 	name of the author(s) 	year and sometimes month of publication 	title of the article 	name of the journal 	volume number, issue number, and page numbers (article numbers in some electronic journals) 	doi and/or other identifiers are optional newspaper articles see also the template {{cite news}}. citations for newspaper articles typically include: 	byline (author's name), if any 	title of the article 	name of the newspaper in italics 	city of publication (if not included in name of newspaper) 	date of publication 	page number(s) are optional web pages shortcut 	wp:citeweb see also the template {{cite web}}. citations for world wide web pages typically include: 	url of the specific web page where the referenced content can be found 	name of the author(s) 	title of the article 	title or domain name of the website 	publisher, if known 	date of publication 	page number(s) (if applicable) 	the date you retrieved (or accessed) the web page (required if the publication date is unknown) sound recordings further information: help:references and page numbers § other in-source locations citations for sound recordings typically include: 	name of the composer(s), songwriter(s), script writer(s) or the like 	name of the performer(s) 	title of the song or individual track 	title of the album (if applicable) 	name of the record label 	year of release 	medium (for example: lp, audio cassette, cd, mp file) 	approximate time at which event or point of interest occurs, where appropriate do not cite an entire body of work by one performer. instead, make one citation for each work your text relies on. film, television, or video recordings see also the template {{cite av media}}. citations for films, tv episodes, or video recordings typically include: 	name of the director 	name of the producer, if relevant 	names of major performers 	the title of a tv episode 	title of the film or tv series 	name of the studio 	year of release 	medium (for example: film, videocassette, dvd) 	approximate time at which event or point of interest occurs, where appropriate other see also: 	{{cite album notes}} 	{{cite comic}} 	{{comic strip reference}} 	{{cite conference}} for conference reports or papers 	{{cite court}} for court cases or legal decisions 	{{cite act}} for a law or legal act 	{{cite encyclopedia}} 	{{cite episode}} for tv or radio series 	{{cite mailing list}} 	{{cite map}} 	{{cite newsgroup}} 	{{cite patent}} for patents 	{{cite press release}} 	{{cite thesis}} 	{{cite video game}} identifying parts of a source shortcut 	wp:pagenum further information: help:references and page numbers when citing lengthy sources, you should identify which part of a source is being cited. books and print articles specify the page number or range of page numbers. page numbers are not required for a reference to the book or article as a whole. when you specify a page number, it is helpful to specify the version (date and edition for books) of the source because the layout, pagination, length, etc. can change between editions. if there are no page numbers, whether in ebooks or print materials, then you can use other means of identifying the relevant section of a lengthy work, such as the chapter number or the section title. in some works, such as plays and ancient works, there are standard methods of referring to sections, such as "act , scene " for plays and bekker numbers for aristotle's works. use these methods whenever appropriate. audio and video sources specify the time at which the event or other point of interest occurs. be as precise as possible about the version of the source that you are citing; for example, movies are often released in different editions or "cuts". due to variations between formats and playback equipment, precision may not be accurate in some cases. however, many government agencies do not publish minutes and transcripts but do post video of official meetings online; generally the subcontractors who handle audio-visual are quite precise. links and id numbers a citation ideally includes a link or id number to help editors locate the source. if you have a url (web page) link, you can add it to the title part of the citation, so that when you add the citation to wikipedia the url becomes hidden and the title becomes clickable. to do this, enclose the url and the title in square brackets—the url first, then a space, then the title. for example: ''[http://monographs.iarc.fr/eng/monographs/vol /mono - .pdf iarc monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans – doxefazepam]''. international agency for research on cancer (iarc). : – . – february . for web-only sources with no publication date, the "retrieved" date (or the date you accessed the web page) should be included, in case the web page changes in the future. for example: retrieved july or you can use the access-date parameter in the automatic wikipedia:reftoolbar . editing window feature. you can also add an id number to the end of a citation. the id number might be an isbn for a book, a doi (digital object identifier) for an article or some e-books, or any of several id numbers that are specific to particular article databases, such as a pmid number for articles on pubmed. it may be possible to format these so that they are automatically activated and become clickable when added to wikipedia, for example by typing isbn (or pmid) followed by a space and the id number. if your source is not available online, it should be available in reputable libraries, archives, or collections. if a citation without an external link is challenged as unavailable, any of the following is sufficient to show the material to be reasonably available (though not necessarily reliable): providing an isbn or oclc number; linking to an established wikipedia article about the source (the work, its author, or its publisher); or directly quoting the material on the talk page, briefly and in context. linking to pages in pdf files shortcuts 	wp:pagelinks 	wp:booklinks links to long pdf documents can be made more convenient by taking readers to a specific page with the addition of #page=n to the document url, where n is the page number. for example, using http://www.domain.com/document.pdf#page= as the citation url displays page five of the document in any pdf viewer that supports this feature. if the viewer or browser does not support it, it will display the first page instead. linking to google books pages shortcut 	wp:gbooks further information: wikipedia:google books and wikipedia and wikipedia talk:citing sources/archive § linking to google books pages google books sometimes allows numbered book pages to be linked to directly. page links should only be added when the book is available for preview; they will not work with snippet view. keep in mind that availability varies by location. no editor is required to add page links, but if another editor adds them, they should not be removed without cause; see the october rfc for further information. these can be added in several ways (with and without citation templates): 	rawls, john. a theory of justice. harvard university press, , p. . 	or with a template: rawls, john ( ). a theory of justice. harvard university press. p.  . 	rawls , p. . 	rawls , p. . 	rawls , p. . 	rawls , . in edit mode, the url for p. of a theory of justice can be entered like this using the {{cite book}} template: {{cite book |last=rawls |first=john |title=a theory of justice |publisher=harvard university press |date= |page= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=kvpby htae c&pg=pa }} or like this, in the first of the above examples, formatted manually: rawls, john. [https://books.google.com/books?id=kvpby htae c&pg=pa ''a theory of justice'']. harvard university press, , p. . when the page number is a roman numeral, commonly seen at the beginning of books, the url looks like this for page xvii (roman numeral ) of the same book:      https://books.google.com/books?id=kvpby htae c&pg=pr the &pg=pr indicates "page, roman, ", in contrast to the &pg=pa , "page, arabic, " the url given earlier. you can also link to a tipped-in page, such as an unnumbered page of images between two regular pages. (if the page contains an image that is protected by copyright, it will be replaced by a tiny notice saying "copyrighted image".) the url for eleventh tipped-in page inserted after page of the selected papers of elizabeth cady stanton and susan b. anthony, looks like this:      https://books.google.com/books?id=dbs co dsf c&pg=pa -ia the &pg=pa -ia can be interpreted as "page, arabic, ; inserted after: ". 	note that the citation style , citation style and citation style vancouver templates properly support links only in the |url= and |archive-url= parameters. placing links in the |page= or |pages= parameters may not link properly and will cause mangled coins metadata output. there is a wikipedia citation tool for google books that may be helpful. users may also link the quotation on google books to individual titles, via a short permalink which ends with their related isbn, oclc or lccn numerical code, e.g.: http://books.google.com/books?vid=isbn , a permalink to the google book with the isbn code . for further details, you may see how-to explanation on support.google.com. say where you read it shortcuts 	wp:saywhereyoureadit 	wp:saywhereyougotit 	wp:swyrt 	wp:swygt 	wp:saywhere "say where you read it" follows the practice in academic writing of citing sources directly only if you have read the source yourself. if your knowledge of the source is secondhand—that is, if you have read jones ( ), who cited smith ( ), and you want to use what smith ( ) said—make clear that your knowledge of smith is based on your reading of jones. when citing the source, write the following (this formatting is just an example): john smith ( ). name of book i haven't seen, cambridge university press, p. , cited in paul jones ( ). name of encyclopedia i have seen, oxford university press, p. . or if you are using short citations: smith ( ), p. , cited in jones ( ), p. . note: the advice to "say where you read it" does not mean that you have to give credit to any search engines, websites, libraries, library catalogs, archives, subscription services, bibliographies, or other sources that led you to smith's book. if you have read a book or article yourself, that's all you have to cite. you do not have to specify how you obtained and read it. so long as you are confident that you read a true and accurate copy, it does not matter whether you read the material using an online service like google books; using preview options at a bookseller's website like amazon; through your library; via online paid databases of scanned publications, such as jstor; using reading machines; on an e-reader (except to the extent that this affects page numbering); or any other method. dates and reprints of older publications editors should be aware that older sources (especially those in the public domain) are sometimes reprinted with modern publication dates. when this occurs and the citation style being used requires it, cite both the original publication date, as well as the date of the re-publication, e.g.: 	darwin, charles ( ) [ ]. on the origin of species (facsimile of st ed.). harvard university press. this is done automatically in the {{citation}} and {{cite book}} templates when you use the |orig-year= parameter. alternately, information about the reprint can be appended as a textual note: 	boole, george ( ). an investigation of the laws of thought on which are founded the mathematical theories of logic and probabilities. macmillan. reprinted with corrections, dover publications, new york, ny, . seasonal publication dates and differing calendar systems publication dates, for both older and recent sources, should be written with the goal of helping the reader find the publication and, once found, confirm that the correct publication has been located. for example, if the publication date bears a date in the julian calendar, it should not be converted to the gregorian calendar. if the publication date was given as a season or holiday, such as "winter" or "christmas" of a particular year or two-year span, it should not be converted to a month or date, such as july–august or december . if a publication provided both seasonal and specific dates, prefer the specific one. additional annotation shortcuts 	wp:annotation 	wp:footquote 	wp:fq in most cases it is sufficient for a citation footnote simply to identify the source (as described in the sections above); readers can then consult the source to see how it supports the information in the article. sometimes, however, it is useful to include additional annotation in the footnote, for example to indicate precisely which information the source is supporting (particularly when a single footnote lists more than one source – see § bundling citations and § text–source integrity, below). a footnote may also contain a relevant exact quotation from the source. this is especially helpful when the cited text is long or dense. a quotation allows readers to immediately identify the applicable portion of the reference. quotes are also useful if the source is not easily accessible. in the case of non-english sources, it may be helpful to quote from the original text and then give an english translation. if the article itself contains a translation of a quote from such a source (without the original), then the original should be included in the footnote. (see the wp:verifiability § non-english sources policy for more information.) inline citations shortcuts 	wp:incite 	wp:inlinecite further information: wikipedia:inline citation inline citations allow the reader to associate a given bit of material in an article with the specific reliable source(s) that support it. inline citations are added using either footnotes (long or short) or parenthetical references. this section describes how to add either type, and also describes how to create a list of full bibliography citations to support shortened footnotes. the first editor to add footnotes to an article must create a section where those citations are to appear. footnotes see also: help:footnotes how to create the list of citations shortcut 	wp:reflist this section, if needed, is usually titled "notes" or "references", and is placed at or near the bottom of the article. for more about the order and titles of sections at the end of an article (which may also include "further reading" and "external links" sections), see wikipedia:footers. with some exceptions discussed below, citations appear in a single section containing only the <references /> tag or the {{reflist}} template. for example: == references == {{reflist}} the footnotes will then automatically be listed under that section heading. each numbered footnote marker in the text is a clickable link to the corresponding footnote, and each footnote contains a caret that links back to the corresponding point in the text. shortcut 	wp:asl scrolling lists, or lists of citations appearing within a scroll box, should never be used. this is because of issues with readability, browser compatibility, accessibility, printing, and site mirroring.[note ] if an article contains a list of general references, this is usually placed in a separate section, titled (for example) "references". this usually comes immediately after the section(s) listing footnotes, if any. (if the general references section is called "references", then the citations section is usually called "notes".) how to place an inline citation using ref tags shortcut 	wp:citefoot further information: footnotes: the basics to create a footnote, use the <ref>...</ref> syntax at the appropriate place in the article text, for example: 	justice is a human invention.<ref>rawls, john. ''a theory of justice''. harvard university press, , p. .</ref> it... which will be displayed as something like: 	justice is a human invention.[ ] it... it will also be necessary to generate the list of footnotes (where the citation text is actually displayed); for this, see the previous section. as in the above example, citation markers are normally placed after adjacent punctuation such as periods (full stops) and commas. for exceptions, see the wp:manual of style § punctuation and footnotes. note also that no space is added before the citation marker. citations should not be placed within, or on the same line as, section headings. the citation should be added close to the material it supports, offering text–source integrity. if a word or phrase is particularly contentious, an inline citation may be added next to that word or phrase within the sentence, but it is usually sufficient to add the citation to the end of the clause, sentence, or paragraph, so long as it's clear which source supports which part of the text. separating citations from explanatory footnotes see also: help:explanatory notes shortcut 	wp:explnotesect if an article contains both footnoted citations and other (explanatory) footnotes, then it is possible (but not necessary) to divide them into two separate lists using footnotes groups. the explanatory footnotes and the citations are then placed in separate sections, called (for example) "notes" and "references" respectively. another method of separating explanatory footnotes from footnoted references is using {{efn}} for the explanatory footnotes. the advantage of this system is that the content of an explanatory footnote can in this case be referenced with a footnoted citation. when explanatory footnotes and footnoted references are not in separate lists, {{refn}} can be used for explanatory footnotes containing footnoted citations. avoiding clutter shortcuts 	wp:ilclutter 	wp:inlineclutter 	wp:inlineciteclutter inline references can significantly bloat the wikitext in the edit window and can become difficult to manage and confusing. there are two main methods to avoid clutter in the edit window: 	using list-defined references by collecting the full citation code within the reference list template {{reflist}}, and then inserting them in the text with a shortened reference tag, for example <ref name="smith , p " />. 	inserting short citations (see below) that then refer to a full list of source texts as with other citation formats, articles should not undergo large-scale conversion between formats without consensus to do so. note, however, that references defined in the reference list template can no longer be edited with the visualeditor. repeated citations further information: footnotes: using a source more than once for multiple use of the same inline citation or footnote, you can use the named references feature, choosing a name to identify the inline citation, and typing <ref name="name">text of the citation</ref>. thereafter, the same named reference may be reused any number of times either before or after the defining use by typing the previous reference name, like this: <ref name="name" />. the use of the slash before the > means that the tag is self-closing, and the </ref> used to close other references must not be used in addition. the text of the name can be almost anything‍—‌apart from being completely numeric. if spaces are used in the text of the name, the text must be placed within double quotes. placing all named references within double quotes may be helpful to future editors who do not know that rule. to help with page maintenance, it is recommended that the text of the name have a connection to the inline citation or footnote, for example "author year page": <ref name="smith p ">text of the citation</ref>. use straight quotation marks " to enclose the reference name. do not use curly quotation marks “”. curly marks are treated as another character, not as delimiters. the page will display an error if one style of quotation marks is used when first naming the reference, and the other style is used in a repeated reference, or if a mix of styles is used in the repeated references. citing multiple pages of the same source shortcut 	wp:ibid further information: help:references and page numbers when an article cites many different pages from the same source, to avoid the redundancy of many big, nearly identical full citations, most wikipedia editors use one of these options: 	named references in conjunction with a combined list of page numbers using the |pages= parameter of the {{cite}} templates (most commonly used, but can become confusing for large number of pages) 	named references in conjunction with the {{rp}} or {{r}} templates to specify the page 	short citations the use of ibid., id., or similar abbreviations is discouraged, as they may become broken as new references are added (op. cit. is less problematic in that it should refer explicitly to a citation contained in the article; however, not all readers are familiar with the meaning of the terms). if the use of ibid is extensive, tag the article using the {{ibid}} template. duplicate citations shortcuts 	wp:dupcites 	wp:dupref combine precisely duplicated full citations, in keeping with the existing citation style (if any). in this context "precisely duplicated" means having the same content, not necessarily identical strings ("the new york times" is the same as "ny times"; different access-dates are not significant). do not discourage editors, particularly inexperienced ones, from adding duplicate citations when the use of the source is appropriate, because a duplicate is better than no citation. but any editor should feel free to combine them, and doing so is the best practice on wikipedia. citations to different pages or parts of the same source can also be combined (preserving the distinct parts of the citations), as described in the previous section. any method that is consistent with the existing citation style (if any) may be used, or consensus can be sought to change the existing style. finding duplicate citations by examining reference lists is difficult. there are some tools that can help: 	autowikibrowser (awb) will identify and (usually) correct exact duplicates between <ref>...</ref> tags. see the documentation. 	url extractor for web pages and text can help identify web citations with the exact same url but not necessarily exact duplicates. 	step : enter the url of the wikipedia article and click "load", 	step : tick "only display duplicate url addresses" (which unticks "remove duplicate addresses") 	step : click extract. 	then the duplicates (possibly with false positives) must be manually merged. short citations shortcuts 	wp:citeshort 	wp:sfn main page: help:shortened footnotes some wikipedia articles use short citations, giving summary information about the source together with a page number, as in <ref>smith , p. .</ref>. these are used together with full citations, which give full details of the sources, but without page numbers, and are listed in a separate "references" section. forms of short citations used include author-date referencing (apa style, harvard style, or chicago style), and author-title or author-page referencing (mla style or chicago style). as before, the list of footnotes is automatically generated in a "notes" or "footnotes" section, which immediately precedes the "references" section containing the full citations to the source. short citations can be written manually, or by using the {{sfn}} or {{harvnb}} templates. (note that templates should not be added without consensus to an article that already uses a consistent referencing style.) the short citations and full citations may be linked so that the reader can click on the short note to find full information about the source. see the template documentation for details and solutions to common problems. for variations with and without templates, see wikilinks to full references. for a set of realistic examples, see these. this is how short citations look in the edit box: the sun is pretty big,<ref>miller , p. .</ref> but the moon is not so big.<ref>brown , p. .</ref> the sun is also quite hot.<ref>miller , p. .</ref> == notes == {{reflist}} == references == *brown, rebecca ( ). "size of the moon", ''scientific american'', ( ). *miller, edward ( ). ''the sun''. academic press. this is how they look in the article: the sun is pretty big,[ ] but the moon is not so big.[ ] the sun is also quite hot.[ ] notes 	^ miller , p. . 	^ brown , p. . 	^ miller , p. . references 	brown, rebecca ( ). "size of the moon", scientific american, ( ). 	miller, edward ( ). the sun. academic press. shortened notes using titles rather than publication dates would look like this in the article: notes 	^ miller, the sun, p. . 	^ brown, "size of the moon", p. . 	^ miller, the sun, p. . when using manual links it is easy to introduce errors such as duplicate anchors and unused references. the script user:ucucha/harverrors will show many related errors. duplicate anchors may be found by using the w c markup validation service. parenthetical referencing 		parts of this wikipedia page (those related to this section) need to be updated. the reason given is: parenthetical referencing on wikipedia was deprecated in september , and this section needs to be revised accordingly. please update this wikipedia page to reflect recent events or newly available information. relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. (september ) while most articles use footnote citations as described in the above sections, some articles use a parenthetical referencing style. here, short citations in parentheses, such as (smith , p. ), are placed within the article text itself. full details of each source used are given in a full citation, e.g., smith, john. name of book. cambridge university press, . the full citations are listed in alphabetical order, according to the authors' surnames, at the end of the article in a "references" section. short citations that use <ref> tags are not parenthetical references; see the section on short citations above for that method. the inline citation and full citation may be linked using a template; as with other citation templates, these should not be added to articles without consensus. this is how it looks in the edit box: the sun is pretty big (miller , p. ), but the moon is not so big (brown , p. ). the sun is also quite hot (miller , p. ). == references == *brown, r ( ). "size of the moon", ''scientific american'', ( ). *miller, e ( ). ''the sun'', academic press. this is how it looks in the article: the sun is pretty big (miller , p. ), but the moon is not so big (brown , p. ). the sun is also quite hot (miller , p. ). references 	brown, r ( ). "size of the moon", scientific american, ( ). 	miller, e ( ). the sun, academic press. notice that, unlike footnotes, parenthetical references are placed before adjacent punctuation such as commas and periods. citation style 		this section is the subject of a current discussion. please feel free to join in. this doesn't mean that you may not be bold in editing this section, but that it would be a good idea to check the discussion first. shortcut 	wp:citestyle while citations should aim to provide the information listed above, wikipedia does not have a single house style, though citations within any given article should follow a consistent style. a number of citation styles exist including those described in the wikipedia articles for citation, apa style, asa style, mla style, the chicago manual of style, author-date referencing, the vancouver system and bluebook. although nearly any consistent style may be used, avoid all-numeric date formats other than yyyy-mm-dd, because of the ambiguity concerning which number is the month and which the day. for example, - - may be used, but not / / . the yyyy-mm-dd format should in any case be limited to gregorian calendar dates where the year is after . because it could easily be confused with a range of years, the format yyyy-mm is not used. for more information on the capitalization of cited works, see wikipedia:manual of style/capital letters § all caps and small caps. variation in citation methods 		as of september , inline parenthetical referencing is deprecated – this is not yet reflected in the text below. shortcuts 	wp:citevar 	wp:wheninrome editors should not attempt to change an article's established citation style merely on the grounds of personal preference, to make it match other articles, or without first seeking consensus for the change. the arbitration committee ruled in : wikipedia does not mandate styles in many different areas; these include (but are not limited to) american vs. british spelling, date formats, and citation style. where wikipedia does not mandate a specific style, editors should not attempt to convert wikipedia to their own preferred style, nor should they edit articles for the sole purpose of converting them to their preferred style, or removing examples of, or references to, styles which they dislike. as with spelling differences, it is normal practice to defer to the style used by the first major contributor or adopted by the consensus of editors already working on the page, unless a change in consensus has been achieved. if the article you are editing is already using a particular citation style, you should follow it; if you believe it is inappropriate for the needs of the article, seek consensus for a change on the talk page. if you are the first contributor to add citations to an article, you may choose whichever style you think best for the article. if all or most of the citations in an article consist of bare urls, or otherwise fail to provide needed bibliographic data – such as the name of the source, the title of the article or web page consulted, the author (if known), the publication date (if known), and the page numbers (where relevant) – then that would not count as a "consistent citation style" and can be changed freely to insert such data. the data provided should be sufficient to uniquely identify the source, allow readers to find it, and allow readers to initially evaluate it without retrieving it. to be avoided when an article is already consistent, avoid: 	switching between major citation styles, e.g., parenthetical and <ref> tags, or replacing the preferred style of one academic discipline with another's; 	adding citation templates to an article that already uses a consistent system without templates, or removing citation templates from an article that uses them consistently; 	changing where the references are defined, e.g., moving reference definitions in the reflist to the prose, or moving reference definitions from the prose into the reflist. generally considered helpful the following are standard practice: 	improving existing citations by adding missing information, such as by replacing bare urls with full bibliographic citations: an improvement because it aids verifiability, and fights link rot; 	replacing some or all general references with inline citations: an improvement because it provides more verifiable information to the reader, and helps maintain text–source integrity; 	imposing one style on an article with inconsistent citation styles (e.g., some of the citations in footnotes and others as parenthetical references): an improvement because it makes the citations easier to understand and edit; 	fixing errors in citation coding, including incorrectly used template parameters, and <ref> markup problems: an improvement because it helps the citations to be parsed correctly; 	combining duplicate citations (see § duplicate citations, above). handling links in citations as noted above under "what information to include", it is helpful to include hyperlinks to source material, when available. here we note some issues concerning these links. avoid embedded links shortcut 	wp:cs:embed embedded links to external websites should not be used as a form of inline citation, because they are highly susceptible to linkrot. wikipedia allowed this in its early years—for example by adding a link after a sentence, like this: [http://media.guardian.co.uk/site/story/ , , , .html], which is rendered as: [ ]. this is no longer recommended. raw links are not recommended in lieu of properly written out citations, even if placed between ref tags, like this <ref>[http://media.guardian.co.uk/site/story/ , , , .html]</ref>. since any citation that accurately identifies the source is better than none, do not revert the good-faith addition of partial citations. they should be considered temporary, and replaced with more complete, properly formatted citations as soon as possible. embedded links should never be used to place external links in the content of an article, like this: "apple, inc. announced their latest product ...". convenience links further information: wikipedia:copyrights § linking to copyrighted works, and help:citation style § online sources a convenience link is a link to a copy of your source on a web page provided by someone other than the original publisher or author. for example, a copy of a newspaper article no longer available on the newspaper's website may be hosted elsewhere. when offering convenience links, it is important to be reasonably certain that the convenience copy is a true copy of the original, without any changes or inappropriate commentary, and that it does not infringe the original publisher's copyright. accuracy can be assumed when the hosting website appears reliable. for academic sources, the convenience link is typically a reprint provided by an open-access repository, such as the author's university's library or institutional repository. such green open access links are generally preferable to paywalled or otherwise commercial and unfree sources. where several sites host a copy of the material, the site selected as the convenience link should be the one whose general content appears most in line with wikipedia:neutral point of view and wikipedia:verifiability. indicating availability shortcut 	wp:indicateavail if your source is not available online, it should be available in reputable libraries, archives, or collections. if a citation without an external link is challenged as unavailable, any of the following is sufficient to show the material to be reasonably available (though not necessarily reliable): providing an isbn or oclc number; linking to an established wikipedia article about the source (the work, its author, or its publisher); or directly quoting the material on the talk page, briefly and in context. links to sources shortcut 	wp:sourcelinks for a source available in hardcopy, microform, and/or online, omit, in most cases, which one you read. while it is useful to cite author, title, edition ( st, nd, etc.), and similar information, it generally is not important to cite a database such as proquest, ebscohost, or jstor (see the list of academic databases and search engines) or to link to such a database requiring a subscription or a third party's login. the basic bibliographic information you provide should be enough to search for the source in any of these databases that have the source. don't add a url that has a part of a password embedded in the url. however, you may provide the doi, isbn, or another uniform identifier, if available. if the publisher offers a link to the source or its abstract that does not require a payment or a third party's login for access, you may provide the url for that link. if the source only exists online, give the link even if access is restricted (see wp:paywall). preventing and repairing dead links see also: wikipedia:link rot and help:archiving a source shortcut 	wp:deadref to help prevent dead links, persistent identifiers are available for some sources. some journal articles have a digital object identifier (doi); some online newspapers and blogs, and also wikipedia, have permalinks that are stable. when permanent links aren't available, consider archiving the referenced document when writing the article; on-demand web archiving services such as the wayback machine (https://web.archive.org/save) or archive.today (https://archive.today) are fairly easy to use (see pre-emptive archiving). do not delete a citation merely because the url is not working. dead links should be repaired or replaced if possible. if you encounter a dead url being used as a reliable source to support article content, follow these steps prior to deleting it: 	confirm status: first, check the link to confirm that it is dead and not temporarily down. search the website to see whether it has been rearranged. the online service "is it down right now?" can help to determine if a site is down, and any information known. 	check for a changed url on the same web site: pages are frequently moved to different location on the same site as they become archive content rather than news. the site's error page may have a "search" box; alternatively, in the popular google search engine the keyterm "site:" is used, as in ⟨site:en.wikipedia.org "new zealand police vehicle markings and livery"⟩. 	check for web archives: many web archiving services exist (for a full list, see: wikipedia:list of web archives on wikipedia); link to their archive of the url's content, if available. examples: 	internet archive has billions of archived web pages. see wikipedia:using the wayback machine. 	archive.today see wikipedia:using archive.today 	webcite has billions of archived web pages. see wikipedia:using webcite. 	the uk government web archive (https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/webarchive/) preserves uk central government websites. 	the mementos interface allows you to search multiple archiving services with a single request using the memento protocol. unfortunately, the mementos web page interface removes any parameters which are passed with the url. if the url contains a "?" it is unlikely to work properly. when entering the url into the mementos interface manually, the most common change needed is to change "?" to "% f". while making only this change will not be sufficient in all cases, it will work most of the time. the bookmarklet in the table below will properly encode urls such that searches will work. 		if multiple archive dates are available, try to use one that is most likely to be the contents of the page seen by the editor who entered the reference on the |access-date=. if that parameter is not specified, a search of the article's revision history can be performed to determine when the link was added to the article. 	for most citation templates, archive locations are entered using the |archive-url=, |archive-date= and |url-status= parameters. the primary link is switched to the archive link when |url-status=dead. this retains the original link location for reference. 	if the web page now leads to a completely different website, set |url-status=usurped to hide the original website link in the citation. 	note: some archives currently operate with a delay of ~ months before a link is made public. as a result, editors should wait ~ months after the link is first tagged as dead before declaring that no web archive exists. dead urls to reliable sources should normally be tagged with {{dead link|date=december }}, so that you can estimate how long the link has been dead. 	bookmarklets to check common archive sites for archives of the current page: 	archive.org 	javascript:void(window.open('https://web.archive.org/web/*/'+location.href)) 	archive.today / archive.is 	javascript:void(window.open('https://archive.today/?run= &url='+location.href)) 	mementos interface 	javascript:void(window.open('http://www.webarchive.org.uk/mementos/search/'+encodeuricomponent(location.href)+'?referrer='+encodeuricomponent(document.referrer))) 	 	remove convenience links: if the material was published on paper (e.g., academic journal, newspaper article, magazine, book), then the dead url is not necessary. simply remove the dead url, leaving the remainder of the reference intact. 	find a replacement source: search the web for quoted text, the article title, and parts of the url. consider contacting the website/person that originally published the reference and asking them to republish it. ask other editors for help finding the reference somewhere else, including the user who added the reference. find a different source that says essentially the same thing as the reference in question. 	remove hopelessly-lost web-only sources: if the source material does not exist offline, and if there is no archived version of the web page (be sure to wait ~ months), and if you cannot find another copy of the material, then the dead citation should be removed and the material it supports should be regarded as unverified if there is no other supporting citation. if it is material that is specifically required by policy to have an inline citation, then please consider tagging it with {{citation needed}}. it may be appropriate for you to move the citation to the talk page with an explanation, and notify the editor who added the now-dead link. text–source integrity shortcut 	wp:integrity "wp:integrity" redirects here. for wikiproject integrity, see wp:wpintegrity. when using inline citations, it is important to maintain text–source integrity. the point of an inline citation is to allow readers and other editors to check that the material is sourced; that point is lost if the citation is not clearly placed. the distance between material and its source is a matter of editorial judgment, but adding text without clearly placing its source may lead to allegations of original research, of violations of the sourcing policy, and even of plagiarism. keeping citations close editors should exercise caution when rearranging or inserting material to ensure that text–source relationships are maintained. references need not be moved solely to maintain the chronological order of footnotes as they appear in the article, and should not be moved if doing so might break the text–source relationship. if a sentence or paragraph is footnoted with a source, adding new material that is not supported by the existing source to the sentence/paragraph, without a source for the new text, is highly misleading if placed to appear that the cited source supports it. when new text is inserted into a paragraph, make sure it is supported by the existing or a new source. for example, when editing text originally reading the sun is pretty big.[ ] notes 	^ miller, edward. the sun. academic press, , p. . an edit that does not imply that the new material is sourced by the same reference is the sun is pretty big.[ ] the sun is also quite hot.[ ] notes 	^ miller, edward. the sun. academic press, , p. . 	^ smith, john. the sun's heat. academic press, , p. . do not add other facts or assertions into a fully cited paragraph or sentence: n the sun is pretty big, but the moon is not so big.[ ] the sun is also quite hot.[ ] notes 	^ miller, edward. the sun. academic press, , p. . 	^ smith, john. the sun's heat. academic press, , p. . include a source to support the new information. there are several ways to write this, including: y the sun is pretty big,[ ] but the moon is not so big.[ ] the sun is also quite hot.[ ] notes 	^ miller, edward. the sun. academic press, , p. . 	^ brown, rebecca. "size of the moon", scientific american, ( ): . 	^ smith, john. the sun's heat. academic press, , p. . bundling citations shortcuts 	wp:citebundle 	wp:bundling main page: help:citation merging further information: wikipedia:citation overkill sometimes the article is more readable if multiple citations are bundled into a single footnote. for example, when there are multiple sources for a given sentence, and each source applies to the entire sentence, the sources can be placed at the end of the sentence, like this.[ ][ ][ ][ ] or they can be bundled into one footnote at the end of the sentence or paragraph, like this.[ ] bundling is also useful if the sources each support a different portion of the preceding text, or if the sources all support the same text. bundling has several advantages: 		it helps readers and other editors see at a glance which source supports which point, maintaining text–source integrity; 	it avoids the visual clutter of multiple clickable footnotes inside a sentence or paragraph; 	it avoids the confusion of having multiple sources listed separately after sentences, with no indication of which source to check for each part of the text, such as this.[ ][ ][ ][ ] 	it makes it less likely that inline citations will be moved inadvertently when text is re-arranged, because the footnote states clearly which source supports which point. to concatenate multiple citations for the same content, semicolons (or another character appropriate to the article's style) can be used. alternatively, the template {{multiref}} may be used. the sun is pretty big, bright and hot.[ ] notes semicolons 	 ^ miller, edward. the sun. academic press, , p. ; brown, rebecca. "the solar system", scientific american, ( ): ; smith, john. the earth's star. academic press, , p. for multiple citations in a single footnote, each in reference to specific statements, there are several layouts available, as illustrated below. within a given article only a single layout should be used. the sun is pretty big, but the moon is not so big. the sun is also quite hot.[ ] notes bullets 	 ^ for the sun's size, see miller, edward. the sun. academic press, , p. . 	for the moon's size, see brown, rebecca. "size of the moon", scientific american, ( ): . 	for the sun's heat, see smith, john. the sun's heat. academic press, , p. . line breaks 	 ^ for the sun's size, see miller, edward. the sun. academic press, , p. . for the moon's size, see brown, rebecca. "size of the moon", scientific american, ( ): . for the sun's heat, see smith, john. the sun's heat. academic press, , p. . paragraph 	 ^ for the sun's size, see miller, edward. the sun. academic press, , p. . for the moon's size, see brown, rebecca. "size of the moon", scientific american, ( ): . for the sun's heat, see smith, john. the sun's heat. academic press, , p. . however, using line breaks to separate list items breaches wp:accessibility § nobreaks: "do not separate list items with line breaks (<br>). use {{plainlist}} / {{unbulleted list}} ...". in-text attribution shortcut 	wp:intext further information: wikipedia:neutral point of view § attributing and specifying biased statements, and wikipedia:manual of style § point of view in-text attribution is the attribution inside a sentence of material to its source, in addition to an inline citation after the sentence. in-text attribution should be used with direct speech (a source's words between quotation marks or as a block quotation); indirect speech (a source's words modified without quotation marks); and close paraphrasing. it can also be used when loosely summarizing a source's position in your own words. it avoids inadvertent plagiarism and helps the reader see where a position is coming from. an inline citation should follow the attribution, usually at the end of the sentence or paragraph in question. for example: n to reach fair decisions, parties must consider matters as if behind a veil of ignorance.[ ] y john rawls argues that, to reach fair decisions, parties must consider matters as if behind a veil of ignorance.[ ] y john rawls argues that, to reach fair decisions, parties must consider matters as if "situated behind a veil of ignorance".[ ] when using in-text attribution, make sure it doesn't lead to an inadvertent neutrality violation. for example, the following implies parity between the sources, without making clear that the position of darwin is the majority view: n charles darwin says that human beings evolved through natural selection, but john smith writes that we arrived here in pods from mars. y humans evolved through natural selection, as first explained in charles darwin's the descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. neutrality issues apart, there are other ways in-text attribution can mislead. the sentence below suggests the new york times has alone made this important discovery: n according to the new york times, the sun will set in the west this evening. y the sun sets in the west each evening. it is preferable not to clutter articles with information best left to the references. interested readers can click on the ref to find out the publishing journal: n in an article published in the lancet in , researchers announced the discovery of the new tissue type.[ ] y the discovery of the new tissue type was first published by researchers in .[ ] simple facts such as this can have inline citations to reliable sources as an aid to the reader, but normally the text itself is best left as a plain statement without in-text attribution: y by mass, oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe after hydrogen and helium.[ ] general references shortcut 	wp:genref a general reference is a citation to a reliable source that supports content, but is not linked to any particular text in the article through an inline citation. general references are usually listed at the end of the article in a "references" section, and are usually sorted by the last name of the author or the editor. general reference sections are most likely to be found in underdeveloped articles, especially when all article content is supported by a single source. the disadvantage of general references is that text–source integrity is lost, unless the article is very short. they are frequently reworked by later editors into inline citations. the appearance of a general references section is the same as those given above in the sections on short citations and parenthetical references. if both cited and uncited references exist, their distinction can be highlighted with separate section names, e.g., "references" and "general references". dealing with unsourced material shortcuts 	wp:nocite 	wp:blpcite if an article has no references at all, then: 	if the entire article is "patent nonsense", tag it for speedy deletion using criterion g . 	if the article is a biography of a living person, it can be tagged with {{subst:prod blp}} to propose deletion. if it's a biography of a living person and is an attack page, then it should be tagged for speedy deletion using criterion g , which will blank the page. 	if the article doesn't fit into the above two categories, then consider finding references yourself, or commenting on the article talk page or the talk page of the article creator. you may also tag the article with the {{unreferenced}} template and consider nominating it for deletion. for individual unreferenced claims in an article: 	if the article is a biography of a living person, then any contentious material must be removed immediately: see biographies of living persons. if the unreferenced material is seriously inappropriate, it may need to be hidden from general view, in which case request admin assistance. 	if the material added appears to be false or an expression of opinion, remove it and inform the editor who added the unsourced material. the {{uw-unsourced }} template may be placed on their talk page. 	in any other case consider finding references yourself, or commenting on the article talk page or the talk page of the editor who added the unsourced material. you may place a {{citation needed}} or {{dubious}} tag against the added text. citation templates and tools shortcut 	wp:citeconsensus further information: wikipedia:citation templates and help:citation tools for a comparison of citations using templates with citations written freehand, see wikipedia:citing sources/example edits for different methods § footnotes. citation templates can be used to format citations in a consistent way. the use of citation templates is neither encouraged nor discouraged: an article should not be switched between templated and non-templated citations without good reason and consensus – see "variation in citation methods", above. if citation templates are used in an article, the parameters should be accurate. it is inappropriate to set parameters to false values to cause the template to render as if it were written in some style other than the style normally produced by the template (e.g., mla style). metadata citations may be accompanied by metadata, though it is not mandatory. most citation templates on wikipedia use the coins standard. metadata such as this allow browser plugins and other automated software to make citation data accessible to the user, for instance by providing links to their library's online copies of the cited works. in articles that format citations manually, metadata may be added manually in a span, according to the coins specification. citation generation tools 	user:ark /refscript, a javascript bookmarklet – creates references in one click, works for many newspapers 	user:v p/js/webref, a script or bookmarklet automating the filling of the {{cite web}} template. you use the script on the page you want to cite. 	user:badgettrg, biomedical citation maker. uses pubmed id (pmid) or doi or pmcid or nct. adds links to acp journal club and evidence-based medicine comments if present. 	user:zhaofeng li/refill – adds titles to bare url references and other cleanup 	template:ref info, which can aid evaluating what kind of citation style was used to write the article 	based on citoid: 	cite templates in visual editor 	user:salix alba/citoid a client for the mw:citoid server which generates citation style templates from urls. 	reftag: 	reftag for google books – converts bare google book links into {{cite book}} format. 	reftag for doi 	reftag for new york times 	hosted on tools.wmflabs.org: 	wikipedia:reftoolbar . , used in the source editor 	citation bot 	yadkard: a web-based tool for generating shortened footnotes and citation using google books urls, doi or isbn. also supports some news websites. 	wikipedia template filling – generates vancouver style citations from pmids (pubmed ids). programming tools see also: help:citation tools § tools 	wikicite is a free program that helps editors to create citations for their wikipedia contributions using citation templates. it is written in visual basic .net, making it suitable only for users with the .net framework installed on windows, or, for other platforms, the mono alternative framework. wikicite and its source code is freely available; see the developer's page for further details. 	user:richiez has tools to automatically handle citations for a whole article at a time. converts occurrences of {{pmid xxxx}} or {{isbn xxxx}} to properly formatted footnote or harvard-style references. written in ruby and requires a working installation with basic libraries. 	pubmed wikipedia.xsl an xsl stylesheet transforming the xml output of pubmed to wikipedia refs. citation export tools you can insert a link beside each citation in wikipedia, allowing you to export the citation to a reference manager such as endnote. to install the script just add the following line to special:mypage/skin.js (applies to the currently selected skin) or special:mypage/common.js (applies to all skins)" importscript("user:smith /endnote.js"); then "publish changes" and follow the instructions at the top of that page to bypass your browser's cache. reference management software reference management software can output formatted citations in several styles, including bibtex, ris, or wikipedia citation template styles. 	comparison of reference management software – side-by-side comparison of various reference management software 	wikipedia:citing sources with zotero – essay on using zotero to quickly add citations to articles. zotero (by roy rosenzweig center for history and new media; license: affero gpl) is open-source software with local reference database which can be synchronized between several computers over the online database (up to mb without payment). 	endnote (by thomson reuters; license: proprietary) 	mendeley (by elsevier; license: proprietary) 	paperpile (by paperpile, llc; license: proprietary) 	papers (by springer; license: proprietary) see also how to cite 	wikipedia:references dos and don'ts – a concise summary of some of the most important guidance on this page 	help:referencing for beginners – a simple practical guide to getting started 	help:how to mine a source – how-to guide on getting maximum information from cited material 	wikipedia:verification methods – listing examples of the most common ways that citations are used in wikipedia articles 	wikipedia:improving referencing efforts – essay on why references are important 	wikipedia:citation templates – a full listing of various styles for citing all sorts of materials 	wikipedia:citing sources/example edits for different methods – showing comparative edit mode representations for different citation methods and techniques 	wikipedia:citing sources/further considerations – additional considerations for citing sources 	wikipedia:inline citation – more information on inline citations 	wikipedia:nesting footnotes – how-to guide on "nesting" footnotes 	wikipedia:manual of style/layout § further reading – for information about the "further reading" section 	wikipedia:external links – for information about the "external links" section 	wikipedia:plagiarism § public-domain sources – guideline covering the inclusion of material in the public domain 	wikipedia:scientific citation guidelines – guidelines for dealing with scientific and mathematical articles 	wikipedia:wikiproject resource exchange/shared resources – project guide on finding resources 	mw:extension:cite – details of the software which support the <ref> parser hooks citation problems 	template:irrelevant citation – inline template to note source simply is not relevant to the material 	template:more citations needed – template to add to article (or section) where citations are insufficient 	template:text-source – template to add to article (or section) where text–source integrity is questioned 	wikipedia:citation needed – explanation of template to tag statements that need a citation 	wikipedia:citation overkill – why too many citations on one fact can be a bad thing 	wikipedia:copyright problems – in case of text that has been copied verbatim inappropriately 	wikipedia:link rot – guide to preventing link rot 	wikipedia:you don't need to cite that the sky is blue – an essay advising: do not cite already obvious information 	wikipedia:you do need to cite that the sky is blue – an essay advising: just because something appears obvious to you does not mean it is obvious to everyone 	wikipedia:video links – an essay discussing the use of citations linking to youtube and other user-submitted video sites 	wikipedia:wikiproject citation cleanup – a group of people devoted to cleaning up citations 	wikipedia:reference database – essay/proposal changing citation style formats 	wp:citevar notes 	^ words like citation and reference are used interchangeably on the english wikipedia. on talk pages, where the language can be more informal, or in edit summaries or templates where space is a consideration, reference is often abbreviated ref, with the plural refs. footnote may refer specifically to citations using ref tag formatting or to explanatory text; endnotes specifically refers to citations placed at the end of the page. see also: wikipedia:glossary. 	^ see this july discussion for more detail on why scrolling reference lists should not be used. further reading 	"online style guide". new oxford style manual. oxford, uk: oxford university press. . isbn  - . 	the chicago manual of style ( th ed.). chicago: university of chicago press. . isbn  - . 	"academic writing: citing sources". writers workshop. university of illinois. 	"citation style guides & management tools". library guides. liu post. 	"citing: help & how-to". concordia university library. 	"citation help". subject guides. university of iowa. 	"guide to citation style guides". journalism resources. university of iowa. 	"library: citing sources & citation generators". capital community college. 	"research and citation resources". online writing lab. purdue university. 	"the writer's handbook: documentation". writing center. university of wisconsin–madison. 	"acs style guide". research guides. university of wisconsin–madison. 	"samples of formatted references for authors of journal articles". medline and pubmed: the resources guide. united states national library of medicine. april . external links 		wikimedia commons has media related to citation needed. 	"refill". toolforge. user:zhaofeng li/refill. – tool that expands bare references semi-automatically 	wikipedia editing basics: citing sources (part ) (youtube). wikimedia foundation. 	wikipedia editing basics: citing sources (part ) (youtube). wikimedia foundation. 	 	v 	t 	e wikipedia key policies and guidelines (?) 	 	five pillars 	ignore all rules 	content (?)	 	p	 	verifiability 	no original research 	neutral point of view 	what wikipedia is not 	biographies of living persons 	copyright (copyright violations) 	image use 	article titles 	g	 	notability 	autobiography 	citing sources 	reliable sources 	medicine 	do not include copies of lengthy primary sources 	plagiarism 	don't create hoaxes 	fringe theories 	patent nonsense 	external links 	conduct (?)	 	p	 	civility 	consensus 	harassment 	vandalism 	ignore all rules 	no personal attacks 	ownership of content 	edit warring 	dispute resolution 	sockpuppetry 	no legal threats 	child protection 	paid-contribution disclosure 	g	 	assume good faith 	conflict of interest 	disruptive editing 	do not disrupt wikipedia to illustrate a point 	etiquette 	gaming the system 	please do not bite the newcomers 	courtesy vanishing 	responding to threats of harm 	talk page guidelines 	signatures 	deletion (?)	 	p	 	deletion policy 	proposed deletion 	biographies 	books 	criteria for speedy deletion 	attack page 	oversight 	revision deletion 	enforcement (?)	 	p	 	administrators 	banning 	blocking 	page protection 	editing (?)	 	p	 	editing policy 	g	 	 	article size 	be bold 	disambiguation 	hatnotes 	broad-concept article 	understandability 	style	 	manual of style 	contents 	accessibility 	dates and numbers 	images 	layout 	lead section 	linking 	lists 	classification	 	categories, lists, and navigation templates 	categorization 	template namespace 	project content (?)	 	g	 	project namespace 	wikiprojects 	user pages 	user boxes 	shortcuts 	subpages 	wmf (?)	 	p	 	terms of use 	list of policies 	friendly space policy 	licensing and copyright 	privacy policy 	 	list of all policies and guidelines 	p: list of policies 	g: list of guidelines 	summaries of values and principles 	 	v 	t 	e wikipedia referencing 	policies and guidelines	 	verifiability 	no original research 	biographies of living persons 	reliable sources 	medicine 	citing sources 	scientific citations 	general advice	 	citation needed 	find sources 	combining sources 	offline sources 	referencing styles 	citing sources	 	citation style 	citation style 	citation style vancouver 	lsa 	comics 	citation templates 	reflist template 	inline citations	 	footnotes 	punctuation and footnotes 	shortened footnotes 	nesting footnotes 	help for beginners	 	reference-tags 	citations quick reference 	introduction to referencing 	referencing with citation templates 	referencing without using templates 	referencing dos and don'ts 	citing wikipedia 	advanced help	 	cite link labels 	citation tools 	cite errors 	cite messages 	converting between references formats 	reference display customization 	references and page numbers 	guidance on source reviewing at fac 	template documentation	 	{{edit refs}} 	{{refref}} 	{{refref }} 	{{refstart}} 	tools	 	wikipedia library 	deprecated	 	parenthetical referencing 	 	v 	t 	e citation style 	general templates	 	{{cite book}} 	books 	{{cite conference}} 	conference papers 	{{cite encyclopedia}} 	edited collections 	{{cite interview}} 	interviews 	{{cite journal}} 	academic journals and papers 	{{cite magazine}} 	magazines 	{{cite mailing list}} 	public mailing lists 	{{cite map}} 	maps 	{{cite news}} 	news articles 	{{cite newsgroup}} 	online newsgroups 	{{cite press release}} 	press releases 	{{cite report}} 	unpublished reports 	{{cite sign}} 	signs, plaques 	{{cite speech}} 	speeches 	{{cite techreport}} 	technical reports 	{{cite thesis}} 	theses 	{{cite web}} 	web sources 	preprint templates	 	{{cite arxiv}} 	{{cite biorxiv}} 	{{cite citeseerx}} 	{{cite ssrn}} 	audiovisual-related	 	{{cite av media}} 	{{cite av media notes}} 	{{cite episode}} 	{{cite podcast}} 	{{cite serial}} 	categories	 	citation style templates 	citation style specific-source templates 	documentation	 	{{citation style documentation}} 	citation style noticeboard retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=wikipedia:citing_sources&oldid= " 		categories: 	wikipedia content guidelines 	wikipedia how-to 	wikipedia style guidelines 	wikipedia verifiability hidden categories: 	project pages with short description 	wikipedia semi-protected project pages 	wikipedia move-protected project pages 	wikipedia citation administration 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			project page 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	view source 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 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	Тәрбиедегі сенім 	 		Уикипедия — ашық энциклопедиясынан алынған мәлімет 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		Тәрбиедегі сенім - Тәрбиешінің балаларға деген терең сыйластығы мен өзінің әр тәрбиеленушісінің ақыл-ой мен ізгіліктік дамуының мүмкіндігі зор деген сенімге негізделген қарым-қатынасы.[ ] Тәрбиедегі сенім — тәрбиеші мен тәрбиеленушінің кәміл сыйластыққа, шын сенімге негізделген қарым-қатынасы. Өз тәрбиеленушілерінде жағымды белгі болғанда тәрбиеші сенім білдірсе, олар сенімді ақтауға тырысып, өзін-өзі тәрбиелеуге ұмтылады. Тәрбиелей оқыту — ) оқушының білімі, білігі және дағдысымен бірге оның дүниеге көзқарасын, мінез-құлқын, еркін, таным қабілеттерін және басқа да қасиеттерін қалыптастыру; ) оқушылардың қоршаған ортаға, бір-біріне деген эмоциялық қатынастарын қалыптастыру. Оқыту принциптерінің бірі. Бұл терминді педагогикаға неміс философы, психологі және педагогі И. Ф. Гербарт ( - ) енгізді.[ ] Дереккөздер[өңдеу] 	↑ Орысша-қазақша түсіндірме сөздік: Педагогика / О Жалпы редакциясын басқарған э.ғ.д., профессор Е. Арын - Павлодар: "ЭКО" ҒӨФ. . - б. isbn - - - 	↑ Жантану атауларының түсіндірме сөздігі. — Алматы: "Сөздік-Словарь", . - бет. isbn - - - 	 	Бұл мақаланы Уикипедия сапа талаптарына лайықты болуы үшін уикилендіру қажет. 	 	Бұл мақалада еш сурет жоқ. Мақаланы жетілдіру үшін қажетті суретті енгізіп көмек беріңіз. Суретті қосқаннан кейін бұл үлгіні мақаладан аластаңыз. Суретті мыннан табуға болады: 	осы мақаланың тақырыбына байланысты сурет Ортақ қорда табылуы мүмкін; 	мақаланың өзге тіл уикилеріндегі нұсқаларын қарап көріңіз; 	өзіңіз жасаған суретті жүктеңіз (авторлық құқықпен қорғалған сурет қоспаңыз!). 	 	Бұл — мақаланың бастамасы. Бұл мақаланы толықтырып, дамыту арқылы, Уикипедияға көмектесе аласыз. Бұл ескертуді дәлдеп ауыстыру қажет. «https://kk.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Тәрбиедегі_сенім&oldid= » бетінен алынған 		Санат: 	Педагогика 	Терминология Жасырын санат: 	isbn сиқырлы сілтемелері қолданылған беттер 	Уикилендіруі қажет мақалалар 	Еш медиа файлы жоқ мақалалар 	Аяқталмаған мақалалар 	Үлгісін дәлдеу қажет аяқталмаған мақалалар 	 	 	Бағыттау мәзірі 	 		 	 		Жеке құралдар 	 	 			Кірмегенсіз 	Талқылау 	Үлесім 	Тіркелу 	Кіру 		 	 		 			 	 		Есім кеңістіктері 	 	 			Мақала 	Талқылау 		 	 			 	 	 		disable 	 	 			disable 	Кирил 	latın 	توتە 	disable 	disable 	disable 		 	 		 		 			 	 		Көрініс 	 	 			Оқу 	Өңдеу 	Өңделу тарихы 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		Іздеу 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		Шарлау 	 	 			Басты бет 	Қауым порталы 	Жуықтағы өзгерістер 	Ең жаңа беттер 	Кездейсоқ бет 	А —  Я тізімдеуі 	Анықтама 	Форум 	Талқылау легі 	Қателер туралы хабарлау 	Демеу беру 		 	 	 	 		Құралдар 	 	 			Мұнда сілтейтін беттер 	Қатысты өзгерістер 	Арнайы беттер 	Тұрақты сілтеме 	Мәлімет 	Беттен дәйексөз алу 	Уикидерек данасы 		 	 	 		Баспа/экспорт 	 	 			pdf ретінде жүктеп алу 	Басып шығару 		 	 	 		Басқа жобаларда 	 	 			Ортаққор 		 	 	 	 		Басқа тілдерде 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 	euskara 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	galego 	עברית 	hrvatski 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	日本語 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		Сілтемелерді өңдеу 	 		 Бұл беттің соңғы өзгертілген кезі: : , ж. қыркүйектің . 	Мәтін creative commons attribution-sharealike лицензиясы аясында қолжетімді; қосымша шарттар қолданылуы мүмкін. Бұл сайтты қолдану арқылы Қолдану шарты және Құпиялық саясатымен келісесіз. wikipedia® wikimedia foundation, inc. коммерциялық емес ұйымының тіркелген сауда маркасы. 		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"the market for lemons: quality uncertainty and the market mechanism" is a well-known[ ][ ] paper by economist george akerlof which examines how the quality of goods traded in a market can degrade in the presence of information asymmetry between buyers and sellers, leaving only "lemons" behind. in american slang, a lemon is a car that is found to be defective after it has been bought. suppose buyers cannot distinguish between a high-quality car (a "peach") and a "lemon". then they are only willing to pay a fixed price for a car that averages the value of a "peach" and "lemon" together (pavg). but sellers know whether they hold a peach or a lemon. given the fixed price at which buyers will buy, sellers will sell only when they hold "lemons" (since plemon < pavg) and they will leave the market when they hold "peaches" (since ppeach > pavg). eventually, as enough sellers of "peaches" leave the market, the average willingness-to-pay of buyers will decrease (since the average quality of cars on the market decreased), leading to even more sellers of high-quality cars to leave the market through a positive feedback loop. thus the uninformed buyer's price creates an adverse selection problem that drives the high-quality cars from the market. adverse selection is a market mechanism that can lead to a market collapse. akerlof's paper shows how prices can determine the quality of goods traded on the market. low prices drive away sellers of high-quality goods, leaving only lemons behind. in , akerlof, along with michael spence, and joseph stiglitz, jointly received the nobel memorial prize in economic sciences, for their research on issues related to asymmetric information. contents 	 the paper 	 . thesis 	 . statistical abstract of the problem 	 . asymmetric information 	 . impact on markets 	 critical reception 	 . criticism 	 conditions for a lemon market 	 . a more general mathematical model of market collapse 	 laws in the united states 	 see also 	 references the paper[edit] thesis[edit] ernie kovacs in a comedic used car skit akerlof's paper uses the market for used cars as an example of the problem of quality uncertainty. a used car is one in which ownership is transferred from one person to another, after a period of use by its first owner and its inevitable wear and tear. there are good used cars ("peaches") and defective used cars ("lemons"), normally as a consequence of several not-always-traceable variables, such as the owner's driving style, quality and frequency of maintenance, and accident history. because many important mechanical parts and other elements are hidden from view and not easily accessible for inspection, the buyer of a car does not know beforehand whether it is a peach or a lemon. so the buyer's best guess for a given car is that the car is of average quality; accordingly, the buyer will be willing to pay the price of a car of known average quality. this means that the owner of a carefully maintained, never-abused, good used car will be unable to get a high enough price to make selling that car worthwhile. therefore, owners of good cars will not place their cars on the used car market. the withdrawal of good cars reduces the average quality of cars on the market, causing buyers to revise downward their expectations for any given car. this, in turn, motivates the owners of moderately good cars not to sell, and so on. the result is that a market in which there is asymmetric information with respect to quality shows characteristics similar to those described by gresham's law: the bad drives out the good. (although gresham's principle applies more specifically to exchange rates, modified analogies can be drawn.) [ ] statistical abstract of the problem[edit] akerlof considers a situation in which demand d for used cars depends on the cars price p and quality µ = µ(p) and the supply depends on price alone.[ ] economic equilibrium is given by s(p) = d(p,µ) and there are two groups of traders with utilities given by: 	 u = m + ∑ i = n x i {\displaystyle u_{ }=m+\sum _{i= }^{n}x_{i}} 	 u = m + ∑ i = n x i {\displaystyle u_{ }=m+\sum _{i= }^{n}{\frac { }{ }}x_{i}} where m is the consumption of goods other than automobiles, x the car's quality and n the number of automobiles. let yi, di and si be income, demand and supply for group i. assuming that utilities are linear, that the traders are von neumann–morgenstern utility maximizers and that the price of other m goods is unitary, the demand d for cars is y /p if μ/p >  , otherwise null. the demand d is y /p if μ/  > p, otherwise null. market demand is given by: 	 d ( p , μ ) = { ( y + y ) / p p < μ , y / p μ < p < μ / , p > μ / , {\displaystyle d(p,\mu )={\begin{cases}\left(y_{ }+y_{ }\right)/p&p<\mu ,\\y_{ }/p&\mu <p< \mu / ,\\ &p> \mu / ,\end{cases}}} group has n cars to sell with quality between and and group has no cars to sell, therefore s = pn/ and s  =  . for a given price p, average quality is p/ , and therefore d =  . the market for used cars collapses when there is asymmetric information. asymmetric information[edit] the paper by akerlof describes how the interaction between quality heterogeneity and asymmetric information can lead to the disappearance of a market where guarantees are indefinite. in this model, as quality is indistinguishable beforehand by the buyer (due to the asymmetry of information), incentives exist for the seller to pass off low-quality goods as higher-quality ones. the buyer, however, takes this incentive into consideration, and takes the quality of the goods to be uncertain. only the average quality of the goods will be considered, which in turn will have the side effect that goods that are above average in terms of quality will be driven out of the market. this mechanism is repeated until a no-trade equilibrium is reached. as a consequence of the mechanism described in this paper, markets may fail to exist altogether in certain situations involving quality uncertainty. examples given in akerlof's paper include the market for used cars, the dearth of formal credit markets in developing countries, and the difficulties that the elderly encounter in buying health insurance. however, not all players in a given market will follow the same rules or have the same aptitude of assessing quality. so there will always be a distinct advantage for some vendors to offer low-quality goods to the less-informed segment of a market that, on the whole, appears to be of reasonable quality and have reasonable guarantees of certainty. this is part of the basis for the idiom buyer beware. this is likely the basis for the idiom that an informed consumer is a better consumer. an example of this might be the subjective quality of fine food and wine. individual consumers know best what they prefer to eat, and quality is almost always assessed in fine establishments by smell and taste before they pay. that is, if a customer in a fine establishment orders a lobster and the meat is not fresh, he can send the lobster back to the kitchen and refuse to pay for it. however, a definition of 'highest quality' for food eludes providers. thus, a large variety of better-quality and higher-priced restaurants are supported. impact on markets[edit] the article draws some conclusions about the cost of dishonesty in markets in general: the cost of dishonesty, therefore, lies not only in the amount by which the purchaser is cheated; the cost also must include the loss incurred from driving legitimate business out of existence. critical reception[edit] george e. hoffer and michael d. pratt state that the “economic literature is divided on whether a lemons market actually exists in used vehicles”. the authors’ research supports the hypothesis that “known defects provisions”, used by us states (e.g., wisconsin) to regulate used car sales, have been ineffectual, because the quality of used vehicles sold in these states is not significantly better than the vehicles in neighboring states without such consumer protection legislation.[ ] both the american economic review and the review of economic studies rejected the paper for "triviality", while the reviewers for journal of political economy rejected it as incorrect, arguing that, if this paper were correct, then no goods could be traded.[ ] only on the fourth attempt did the paper get published in quarterly journal of economics.[ ] today, the paper is one of the most-cited papers in modern economic theory and most downloaded economic journal paper of all time in repec (more than , citations in academic papers as of may ).[ ] it has profoundly influenced virtually every field of economics, from industrial organisation and public finance to macroeconomics and contract theory. criticism[edit] libertarians, like william l. anderson, oppose the regulatory approach proposed by the authors of the paper, observing that some used-car markets haven't broken down even without lemon legislation and that the lemon problem creates entrepreneurial opportunities for alternative marketplaces or customers' knowledgeable friends.[ ] conditions for a lemon market[edit] a lemon market will be produced by the following: 	asymmetry of information, in which no buyers can accurately assess the value of a product through examination before sale is made and all sellers can more accurately assess the value of a product prior to sale 	an incentive exists for the seller to pass off a low-quality product as a higher-quality one 	sellers have no credible disclosure technology (sellers with a great car have no way to disclose this credibly to buyers) 	either a continuum of seller qualities exists or the average seller type is sufficiently low (buyers are sufficiently pessimistic about the seller's quality) 	deficiency of effective public quality assurances (by reputation or regulation and/or of effective guarantees/warranties) a more general mathematical model of market collapse[edit] it is possible to generalize the reasoning in akerlof's paper.[ ] suppose that there are two populations of cars: the peaches p {\displaystyle {\mathcal {p}}} and the lemons l {\displaystyle {\mathcal {l}}} , where we assume that the quality μ ( ⋅ ) {\displaystyle \mu (\cdot )} of peaches is always greater than the quality of lemons: μ ( ρ ) > μ ( ℓ ) , ∀ ρ ∈ p , ℓ ∈ l {\displaystyle \mu (\rho )>\mu (\ell ),\quad \forall \rho \in {\mathcal {p}},\;\ell \in {\mathcal {l}}} accordingly, the utility u ( ⋅ ) {\displaystyle u(\cdot )} and the price p {\displaystyle p} of the peaches will also always be greater than that of the lemons. let η {\displaystyle \eta } be the probability of a buyer encountering a peach in the used car market. then the expected utility for the buyer u e {\displaystyle u_{e}} from purchasing a used car is: u e = η u ( ρ ¯ ) + ( − η ) u ( ℓ ¯ ) , u ′ ( ⋅ ) > , u ″ ( ⋅ ) < {\displaystyle u_{e}=\eta u\left({\overline {\rho }}\right)+( -\eta )u\left({\overline {\ell }}\right),\quad u'(\cdot )> ,\;u''(\cdot )< } where ρ ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {\rho }}} and ℓ ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {\ell }}} represent the mean peach and lemon respectively. the expected utility for the buyer will always increase - for a monotonic, positive utility function - as the probability of encountering a peach increases. ∂ u e ∂ η = u ( ρ ¯ ) − u ( ℓ ¯ ) > {\displaystyle {\partial u_{e} \over {\partial \eta }}=u\left({\overline {\rho }}\right)-u\left({\overline {\ell }}\right)> } furthermore, the equation for a buyer's expected utility implies that the equilibrium price in an informationally symmetric market is: p sym ∗ = η u ( ρ ¯ ) + ( − η ) u ( ℓ ¯ ) {\displaystyle p_{\text{sym}}^{*}=\eta u\left({\overline {\rho }}\right)+( -\eta )u\left({\overline {\ell }}\right)} however, the used car market is not a symmetric market: the sellers know which cars are peaches and lemons, while the buyers cannot distinguish between the two. depending on the type of car he owns, the seller has a differing decision rule based on the offer price o {\displaystyle o} : sell ⟹ { o ≥ p ρ , ( peach ) o ≥ p ℓ , ( lemon ) {\displaystyle {\text{sell}}\implies {\begin{cases}o\geq p_{\rho },\quad &({\text{peach}})\\o\geq p_{\ell },\quad &({\text{lemon}})\end{cases}}} with p ρ > p ℓ {\displaystyle p_{\rho }>p_{\ell }} by definition. it is also assumed that, for both peaches and lemons, sellers are willing to accept a price lower than the full value of the car: p ℓ < u ( ℓ ¯ ) < p ρ < u ( ρ ¯ ) {\displaystyle p_{\ell }<u\left({\overline {\ell }}\right)<p_{\rho }<u\left({\overline {\rho }}\right)} however, if p sym ∗ < p ρ {\displaystyle p_{\text{sym}}^{*}<p_{\rho }} , then the sellers possessing peaches will not put them on the market and the equilibrium price will drop. this occurs when: η < p ρ − u ( ℓ ¯ ) u ( ρ ¯ ) − u ( ℓ ¯ ) {\displaystyle \eta <{p_{\rho }-u\left({\overline {\ell }}\right) \over {u\left({\overline {\rho }}\right)-u\left({\overline {\ell }}\right)}}} with the associated asymmetric information price equilibrium: p asym ∗ = η [ u ( ρ ¯ ) − u ( ℓ ¯ ) ] i ( p sym ∗ ≥ p ρ ) + u ( ℓ ¯ ) {\displaystyle p_{\text{asym}}^{*}=\eta \left[u\left({\overline {\rho }}\right)-u\left({\overline {\ell }}\right)\right]\mathbb {i} (p_{\text{sym}}^{*}\geq p_{\rho })+u\left({\overline {\ell }}\right)} where i ( ⋅ ) {\displaystyle \mathbb {i} (\cdot )} is the indicator function. once lemons saturate the market, the peaches are driven out of the market because their sellers cannot be matched with buyers to meet their selling price in equilibrium. the beauty of this example is that it illustrates how product quality can collapse in a market with asymmetric information. laws in the united states[edit] five years after akerlof's paper was published, the united states enacted a federal "lemon law" (the magnuson–moss warranty act) that protects citizens of all states. there are also state laws regarding "lemons" which vary by state and may not necessarily cover used or leased vehicles. the rights afforded to consumers by "lemon laws" may exceed the warranties expressed in purchase contracts. these state laws provide remedies to consumers for automobiles that repeatedly fail to meet certain standards of quality and performance. "lemon law" is the common nickname for these laws, but each state has different names for the laws and acts, which may also cover more than just automobiles. in california and federal law, "lemon laws" cover anything mechanical. the federal "lemon law" also provides that the warrantor may be obligated to pay the attorney fees of the party prevailing in a lemon law suit, as do most state lemon laws. if a car has to be repaired for the same defect four or more times and the problem is still occurring, the car may be deemed to be a "lemon". the defect must substantially hinder the vehicle's use, value, or safety. dealers and manufacturers are required by branding the title as "lemon law buyback" of such vehicles after their reacquiring them due to any defect, malfunctioning or failure under the federal statute or typically nonconformities under state "lemon laws"; dealers may not withhold the lemon branding of such vehicles and an "as is" or "with all defects" labeling does not protect a dealer from legal recourse should they not disclose the "lemon law buyback" status of such vehicles. see also[edit] 	adverse selection 	confusopoly 	death spiral (insurance) 	highest quality is lowest cost 	tragedy of the commons 	transaction cost 	transparency (market) 	open data references[edit] 	^ https://www.ft.com/content/fddde - - e -b e-cc a d a 	^ "google scholar". scholar.google.com. retrieved - - . 	^ phlips, louis (june , ). the economics of price discrimination. cambridge university press. p.  . isbn  . 	^ akerlof, george a. ( ). "the market for 'lemons': quality uncertainty and the market mechanism". quarterly journal of economics. the mit press. ( ): – . doi: . / . jstor  . 	^ hoffer, george e.; pratt, michael d. ( ). "used vehicles, lemons markets, and used car rules: some empirical evidence". journal of consumer policy. ( ): – . doi: . /bf . 	^ gans, joshua s.; shepherd, george b. ( ). "how are the mighty fallen: rejected classic articles by leading economists". journal of economic perspectives. ( ): – . doi: . /jep. . . . 	^ writing the “the market for ‘lemons’”: a personal and interpretive essay by george a. akerlof 	^ "citations of akerlof: the market for lemons: quality uncertainty and the market mechanism". google scholar. retrieved - - . 	^ lemons and the nobel prize http://mises.org/library/lemons-and-nobel-prize 	^ autor, david h. ( ). 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	 trust sociology or also economics / social psychology 	 ranking scale 	 wikiproject class rating 	 trust 	 grammatical error 	 economics section 	 . use on non-econ-specific footnote citations in economics section 	 wikipedia is propaganda 	 merger proposal: trustworthiness to trust (social sciences) 	 external links modified 	 adding content and sources to the sociology part 	 update, march , 	 external links modified 	 emotion?????? 	 addition of top of page template "divine mercy" "the trustor (voluntarily or forcedly) abandons control . . ."[edit] earlier, the article said that the trustor was 'willing to rely on the actions' of another. the phrase above, in the use of "forcedly" abandoning control, seems to contradict that. can the original author clarify this paradox between willingness and force in relinquishing control? danafr (talk) : , may (utc) 		there aren't any paradoxes. it's the limitations of language that make it seem so. 	let's say my girlfriend and i are dealing with someone, there's a dispute, and my girlfriend had a really bad day and starts getting very emotionally hostile and it's obviously escalating. i would assertively say "stop, i'll handle this" and she'd chill out while i take care of the situation. she didn't "willfully" stop, it was emotional force that did it plus the trust that she could rely on my actions to result in a favorable outcome. in other words, without trust she would have gone right back into battle with the person. 		this could happen on a physical level of force as well. let's say my girlfriend and i are dealing with her house bursting into flames and she's freaking out and going in a mad rush for the house to rescue her cat. i could grab ahold of her and say that i'm going to take care of rescuing the cat and she's going to call . 		in both cases i used force to interrupt her and take control of the situation. 		-- that guy, from that show! : , may (utc) still growing[edit] i am still growing and learning as a human being. this week i learned that trust is not earned. no. it is a gift. what the recipient chooses to do with it determines the relationship's destiny. of course, even if "betrayed," the giver can continue to give. i also learned that when devious minds are at work, nothing can possibly be what it seems and only trust and faith can bring you through a trying situation. stay calm, take deep breaths...and think it through. —preceding unsigned comment added by . . . (talk) : , october (utc) arguement against trust[edit] i feel that there must be information put into the main page about the arguements agianst using trust. it is on the basis that everyone has the slightest potential at least to abuse other people's trust. though we can allow people to have some responsibilities, we can do without ever trusting them for sure. so many times we have our trust abused and the least likily trust abuse cases still come true. this life keeps showing us that we should highten our gaurd further still. —preceding unsigned comment added by . . . (talk) : , may (utc) the article as it is isn't an argument for trust, it's a description of what trust is. it's a psychological phenomenon, not a value. —preceding unsigned comment added by . . . (talk) : , november (utc) is the caudate nucleus the brain's "trust center"?[edit] something for an enterprising wikipedian to research and include: [ ] deeceevoice : , apr (utc) trust sociology or also economics / social psychology[edit] in this page trust is introduced as a sociological construct. however, about as much attention is given to trust in social psychology and economics. is the title 'trust (social sciences)' not a better reflection. this may also assist developing this from a stub as then we can add economics and pscyhology stub tags. also we can then include description from those fields in more detail e.g. in social psych / soc cognition trust is considered a shortcut/heuristic to reduce information processing (i.e. take up advies of trusted source), furthermore much research as been conducted determinants of trust. one is to be trusted if the source of information is competent, has the same values as you etc. in psychology siegrist, slovic, pidgeon, trumob, frewer and many others have ventured into trust. i think from sociology a reference to luhman is lacking. i might reserve some time for adding such stuff, but anyone beating me to it is welcome arnoutf : , february (utc) ranking scale[edit] probably shouldnt be top priority - : , may (utc) wikiproject class rating[edit] this article was automatically assessed because at least one wikiproject had rated the article as start, and the rating on other projects was brought up to start class. betacommandbot : , november (utc) trust[edit] never trust anyone, not even yourself. —preceding unsigned comment added by . . . (talk) : , december (utc) 	let's not be getting all emotional, flaky, and existential, now. . . . (talk) : , july (utc) this reference is wrong ( ): however, rational reflection leads to the rejection of an ability to trust technological artefacts.[ ] ( ) has nothing to do with this. correct reference should be [ ] or [ ] with luhmann. also, "artifact" may be a more conventional spelling. — preceding unsigned comment added by . . . (talk) : , november (utc) grammatical error[edit] grammatical error regarding trustworthhiness inverts the context. quote from article: "there are three different forms of trust. trust is being vulnerable to someone even though they are trustworthy; trustworthiness is the ability to trust, and trust propensity being able to rely on them relationship and risk taking." 'trustworthiness is the ability to trust' - implies trustworthiness is a property of the person who is trusting, it should instead be phrased as: grammatical correction required: 'trustworthiness is the ability to be trusted' - shifting the subject to the trusted party, except that this isn't what trustworthiness means, instead try this: correction of definition suggested: 'trustworthiness is the reliability of the person to be trusted' . . . (talk) : , august (utc) gharveyn, aka greg.gourdian@gmail.com economics section[edit] hi all, i think recent additions have balanced the article towards the main disciplines investigating trust (economics, sociology, psychology). i think the economics section currently is not very reader friendly and uses jargon like the abbreviations and sentence construction below: 	formed randomly into dyads and assigned the role of decision-maker (dm ) or decision-maker (dm ). dm is asked to decide what amount of money to transfer to dm . this money is removed from dm 's account and, typically, tripled in dm 's account. the dm to dm transfer is thought to measure trust. dm is then told of the transfer and is given the opportunity to return some, all, or none of the largess to dm . the dm to dm transfer measured trustworthiness while apparently interesting this is not very easy to read. i notice this kind of abstraction in many scientific publications by economists so it is probably scientifically sensical to talk like this, but since wikipedia is aimed at the larger interested public we should try to make it more accessible. can someone who knows what this is about try to make a first go, otherwise i might have a try and mix up the subtleties (me being a psychologist, not an economist). arnoutf (talk) : , december (utc) 		i have added banners for you.--penbat (talk) : , december (utc) use on non-econ-specific footnote citations in economics section[edit] i believe that the use of citations from non-economics journals (like computational intelligence), game-theory publications (as distinct from econ & game theory), and writers (even the estimable sociologist anthony giddens) might be good enough if nothing else is available. but there are plenty of references by economists and in economics journals that could & arguably should be used in the econ section (preferably with links allowing readers to follow up on their own). such references would add credibility to the section. may future editors be wp:bold (and of course careful) in continuing to improve this aspect of the section. --thomasmeeks (talk) : , november (utc) wikipedia is propaganda[edit] wikipedia is completely biased, one-sided propaganda, yet many useful edits are removed. — preceding unsigned comment added by . . . (talk) : , july (utc) 	i sense a lack of trust in wikipedia here, is that the reason you used this specific talk page? arnoutf (talk) : , july (utc) much of the section about psychological research on trust is extremely poor. out of the four bullet points in the section, only one of them is a reference to a peer reviewed journal (the fourth bullet point). the information theory book (bullet point ) referenced might be somewhat valid, but it looks like, from the other link to an online article by the author, that it's really more about information security. the top bullet pointed book mentioned might be based on research, but is not really a valid reference since it's not peer reviewed. the second bullet point mentions a self-help book! the writing for much of the entire section is poor, as awkward sentences like "interestingly much research has been performed on trust" abound. paragraphs with solid peer-reviewed references are interspersed with single-line, one-off comments referencing pop business books. the single sentence on sexual victimization references pop psychology, and is then followed with two loosely related sentences that do at least contain a valid reference (reference # , but who's counting!) yet someone saw fit to throw in the "citation needed" editing term on the first sentence, despite it being an obvious lead-in to the second one. there does not seem to be any sort of organization to the section at all, really. there are some seemingly useful, well-referenced paragraphs, but the content is so uneven that it's sometimes hard to find them, or separate the good from the bad. i won't even start on the economics section, since it seems to assume that readers have a degree in the field, with statements like, "trust can provide an explanation of a difference between nash equilibrium and pareto optimum." for such a broad, yet important, concept, this page really needs some serious editing. my comment will probably be deleted by the oh-so-helpful admins, but whatever. i just wanted to speak my piece. with content like this, it's no wonder that experts don't take this site seriously. — preceding unsigned comment added by . . . (talk) : , march (utc) merger proposal: trustworthiness to trust (social sciences)[edit] i propose that trustworthiness be merged into trust (social sciences). the content of the much shorter trustworthiness article can easily be merged into this article without losing any content; the two concepts overlap significantly in that trustworthiness is simply to be deserving of trust. seeing as the trustworthiness article has not been significantly expanded upon since its creation in , it may be that it can't be, especially without considerable overlap with the trust article. discantx (talk) : , december (utc) 	support - i agree with the above. that being said, it may be that in years to come we see a 'trust (ethics)' article branch off in much the same way as we now have a separate article for altruism (ethics). cheers andrew (talk) : , december (utc) i support the relationship between trust and being trustworthy is a key one — preceding unsigned comment added by stevetmcds (talk • contribs) : , january (utc) 	comment: it's probably safe to merge at this point but i've posted notices at the related wikiprojects in case anyone else is intersted.  discantx : , february (utc) external links modified[edit] hello fellow wikipedians, i have just added archive links to one external link on trust (social sciences). please take a moment to review my edit. if necessary, add {{cbignore}} after the link to keep me from modifying it. alternatively, you can add {{nobots|deny=internetarchivebot}} to keep me off the page altogether. i made the following changes: 	added archive https://web.archive.org/ /http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/erickson.shtml to http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/erickson.shtml when you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know. adding content and sources to the sociology part[edit] i just post my ideas but i am not going to write it exaclty like that, it is just the first draft. 	outlet as said if the article trust is a social phenomenon. because it does not exist outside of our vision of the other. this image can be real or imaginary but it is this one which permits the creation of the trust. this trust is possible because of our expectations. these expectations are created thanks to the legitimacy to trust people in the society ( it is a norm that the individual needs to trust the others in his quotidian) and also because the social position of the other help to trust him if he follows the social norm of the society is correspondence with his position in the society. so, the trust is in perpetual construction. this construction of the trust permits to establish and develop the relationships between the individuals. these new relationships develop until the self discolure if they two individuals stay in this relationship of mutual trust. the trust as four major component that i want to detail more in the article : the orientation, the act of power, the temporal and a direct connection with the two part of the self ( me/ you). - experiment of garfinkel: exp ( ask student to do whatever they want at home + reaction family) ; exp (systematicly students say that they do not trust their friends when they say something or act + their reaction, they are made, hangry and hate their friends after that). it shows the difficulty to perpetrate an absence of trust in the moral social order. - necessary for economic transaction ( fred hirsch: "public good") and essential for stable relationships (peter blau). - trust = expectation of regularity, order in the routine, the moral world, every life. - trust permits a social control, for example for the power. - trust is not established in the same way and does not have the same boundaries in function of the relationship : friends, family, business, public and politic. trust is based on a system of limits because there are boundaries to the things and people we can trust. - it is difficult to obtain trust because of the lack in the memory, the confidentiality, the knowledge and the importance of the time. - vladimir ilych lenine expresses this idea of uncertainity of trust with the sentence “trust is good, control is better”, “vertraun ist gust, kontrol noch besser”. - trust is based on the self-regulating and the individual responsibility to make the effort to assume the duty that we have by being trusted. - there is a crisis of trust because of the omnipresence of the social network in our society. in fact, there are a lot of low-quality information and even false or rumors. it creates a lack of confidence in our close social environment. the world connection creates a cascading failure dynamic which raise the probability for the other users to also have bad information and start to be concern by this lack of trust. allerlesverts (talk) : , march (utc) — preceding unsigned comment added by allerlesverts (talk • contribs) : , march (utc) 	sources bernard barber, the logic and limits of trust, ( rutgers university press, new jersy, ) linda r. weber, allison i. carter, the social construction of trust ( kluwer academic/ plenum publishers, new york, ) toshio yamagishi, trust: the evolutionary game of mind and society, (university of tokyo press, ) allerlesverts (talk) : , february (utc) as of february , "external links modified" talk page sections are no longer generated or monitored by internetarchivebot. no special action is required regarding these talk page notices, other than regular verification using the archive tool instructions below. editors have permission to delete these "external links modified" talk page sections if they want to de-clutter talk pages, but see the rfc before doing mass systematic removals. this message is updated dynamically through the template {{sourcecheck}} (last update: july ). 	if you have discovered urls which were erroneously considered dead by the bot, you can report them with this tool. 	if you found an error with any archives or the urls themselves, you can fix them with this tool. - karen s. cook, trust in society, russell sage foundation, new york . - sinclair, development and validation of the emotional intimacy scale, issn : - , vol . - mcallister, shelece, thornock, carly, hammond, jeffrey, holmes, errin, hill: the influence of couple emotional intimacy on job perceptions and work-family conflicts, family and consumer sciences research journal june , vol . - jurkane-hobein, iveta; imagining the absent partner: intimacy and imagination in long-distance relationships, journal: innovative issues and appraoches in social sciences, vol . - adam b. seligman, american journal of economics and sociology, trust and sociability: on the limits of confidence and role expectations, . - chengqi yi, yuanyuan bao, elsevier (journal), modeling cascading failures with the crisis of trust in social networks, . allerlesverts (talk) : , march (utc) cheers.—cyberbot iitalk to my owner:online : , january (utc) update, march , [edit] you've done a great job here as well, alexis. the previous comments about style still hold for this page as well. you do not have to have subordinate clauses like "when it comes to trust, sociology..." or "so-and-so says..." you can just state the fact and make sure to cite the source. in addition to all of the previous comments that i placed on the emotional intimacy page, you must make sure that some of the words that you used in your text will link back to the wikipedia articles that go with them. so make sure, for instance, that if you do talk about giddens, link his name to his wikipedia article. you've done an amazing job. @allerlesverts: alfgarciamora (talk) : , march (utc) external links modified[edit] hello fellow wikipedians, i have just modified external links on trust (emotion). please take a moment to review my edit. if you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple faq for additional information. i made the following changes: 	added archive https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.misrc.umn.edu/wpaper/wp - .htm to http://www.misrc.umn.edu/wpaper/wp - .htm 	added archive https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.sociology.ox.ac.uk/papers/trustbook.html to http://www.sociology.ox.ac.uk/papers/trustbook.html 	added archive https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://web.missouri.edu/~jamesha/trust/index.htm to http://web.missouri.edu/~jamesha/trust/index.htm when you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the urls. as of february , "external links modified" talk page sections are no longer generated or monitored by internetarchivebot. no special action is required regarding these talk page notices, other than regular verification using the archive tool instructions below. editors have permission to delete these "external links modified" talk page sections if they want to de-clutter talk pages, but see the rfc before doing mass systematic removals. this message is updated dynamically through the template {{sourcecheck}} (last update: july ). 	if you have discovered urls which were erroneously considered dead by the bot, you can report them with this tool. 	if you found an error with any archives or the urls themselves, you can fix them with this tool. cheers.—internetarchivebot (report bug) : , december (utc) emotion??????[edit] how is trust an emotion. it seems much more a cognitive heuristic than an emotional experience? who ever agreed on naming this article trust (emotion). this should be changed. arnoutf (talk) : , august (utc) 	since nobody objected, and since the word emotion only appeared in the title and emotion sidebar (and in the reference list) but nowhere else in the entire article, the naming was evidently wrong. i moved it to trust (social science) as that captures the psychology, sociology, economics and philosophy. hope everybody agrees. arnoutf (talk) : , march (utc) addition of top of page template "divine mercy"[edit] recently a template identifying this article as part of a series on divine mercy was placed near the top of the article. i removed this for multiple reasons ( ) it put undue emphasis on the religious connotations around trust, while from the body text of the article it is clear the religious use is very minor (in fact it is only mentioned in a single, unsourced line in the lead and nowhere in the body text ( ) even within religion, the concept of divine mercy is a rather minor part of catholicism, it seems completely unbalanced to add a prominent template about a minor devotion, within only one part of the christian church (roman catholic), which is only one of many religions in this comprehensive top level article. if we would do that with every topic we would need to add hundreds, if not thousands of such templates to recreate balance. the argument for adding that trust is essential to religion in addition is fallacious. being a bird is essential for being a penguin, but that does not mean that the main article on bird should include the template:penguins (even though that template is a much more modest bottom of page template). for much the same reason, divine mercy simply has no place here. arnoutf (talk) : , october (utc) retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=talk:trust_(social_science)&oldid= " 		categories: 	wikipedia level- vital articles in society 	wikipedia start-class vital articles in society 	wikipedia start-class level- vital articles 	c-class sociology articles 	mid-importance sociology articles 	c-class psychology articles 	mid-importance psychology articles 	c-class philosophy articles 	high-importance philosophy articles 	c-class ethics articles 	high-importance ethics articles 	ethics task force articles 	c-class social and political philosophy articles 	high-importance social and political philosophy articles 	social and political philosophy task 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privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 trust - wikidata 	 	 	 	 	 trust (q ) 	 		from wikidata 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 assumption of and reliance on the honesty of another party 	faith edit 	language	label	description	also known as 	english	 trust 	 assumption of and reliance on the honesty of another party 	 	faith statements instance of positive emotion references basic emotion references core concept statement is subject of religion references subclass of belief of honesty good capability references part of psychology terminology references studied by theory of emotion references pronunciation audio ll-q (deu)-sebastian wallroth-vertrauen.wav . s; kb language of work or name german references opposite of distrust references used by confidence trick references described by source brockhaus and efron encyclopedic dictionary statement is subject of q references lean logic: a dictionary for the future and how to survive it described at url https://leanlogic.online/glossary/trust references different from vertrauen references conviction references commons category trust reference imported from wikimedia project english wikipedia wordlift url http://data.thenextweb.com/tnw/entity/trust reference reference url https://thenextweb.com/vocabulary/trust/ identifiers gnd id - references library of congress authority id sh references mesh descriptor id d references australian educational vocabulary id scot/ references bncf thesaurus id reference stated in nuovo soggettario encyclopædia britannica online id topic/trust-religious-philosophy references freebase id /m/ h p reference stated in freebase data dumps publication date october quora topic id trust’-english-word references french vikidia id confiance references yso id reference stated in yso-wikidata linking   sitelinks wikipedia( entries) edit 	 arwiki ثقة (علم الاجتماع) 	 astwiki enfotu 	 bewiki Давер 	 bgwiki Доверие 	 cawiki confiança 	 cswiki důvěra 	 dawiki tillid 	 dewiki vertrauen 	 enwiki trust (social science) 	 eowiki konfido 	 eswiki confianza 	 etwiki usaldus 	 euwiki konfiantza 	 fiwiki luottamus 	 frwiki confiance 	 fywiki fertrouwen 	 glwiki confianza 	 hewiki אמון 	 hrwiki povjerenje 	 hywiki Վստահություն 	 itwiki fiducia 	 jawiki 信頼 	 kkwiki Тәрбиедегі сенім 	 knwiki ನಂಬಿಕೆ 	 kowiki 신뢰 	 nlwiki vertrouwen 	 plwiki zaufanie 	 ptwiki confiança 	 ruwiki Доверие 	 shwiki povjerenje 	 simplewiki trust (social sciences) 	 skwiki dôvera 	 snwiki ruvimbo 	 srwiki Поверење 	 trwiki güven (sosyoloji) 	 ukwiki Довіра 	 zhwiki 信任 wikibooks( entries) edit wikinews( entries) edit wikiquote( entries) edit 	 bgwikiquote Доверие — Недоверие 	 bswikiquote povjerenje 	 cawikiquote confiança 	 cswikiquote důvěra 	 dewikiquote vertrauen 	 elwikiquote Εμπιστοσύνη 	 enwikiquote trust 	 eowikiquote konfido 	 eswikiquote confianza 	 fawikiquote اعتماد 	 hewikiquote אמון 	 hrwikiquote povjerenje 	 huwikiquote bizalom 	 hywikiquote Վստահություն 	 itwikiquote fiducia 	 nlwikiquote vertrouwen 	 plwikiquote zaufanie 	 ptwikiquote confiança 	 ruwikiquote Доверие 	 skwikiquote dôvera 	 ukwikiquote Довіра wikisource( entries) edit wikiversity( entries) edit wikivoyage( entries) edit wiktionary( entries) edit other sites( entry) edit 	 commonswiki category:trust retrieved from "https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=q &oldid= " 		 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			english 	not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			item 	discussion 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	community portal 	project chat 	create a new item 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link to trust (social science) external tool: transclusion count displayed items. view (previous | next ) ( | | | | )	aristotle ‎ (links | edit) 	altruism ‎ (links | edit) 	arthur schopenhauer ‎ (links | edit) 	angst ‎ (links | edit) 	anxiety ‎ (links | edit) 	applied ethics ‎ (links | edit) 	augustine of hippo ‎ (links | edit) 	affection ‎ (links | edit) 	baruch spinoza ‎ (links | edit) 	business ethics ‎ (links | edit) 	consequentialism ‎ (links | edit) 	confucius ‎ (links | edit) 	casuistry ‎ (links | edit) 	cicero ‎ (links | edit) 	david hume ‎ (links | edit) 	ethics ‎ (links | edit) 	ethical naturalism ‎ (links | edit) 	ethical non-naturalism ‎ (links | edit) 	existentialism ‎ (links | edit) 	evil ‎ (links | edit) 	emotion ‎ (links | edit) 	friedrich nietzsche ‎ (links | edit) 	fear ‎ (links | edit) 	g. e. moore ‎ (links | edit) 	guilt (emotion) ‎ (links | edit) 	georg wilhelm friedrich hegel ‎ (links | edit) 	hubris ‎ (links | edit) 	immanuel kant ‎ (links | edit) 	john stuart 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			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			upload file 	special pages 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 ghuraba (islam) - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	ghuraba (islam) 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		islamic eschatological epithet "al-ghurabaa" redirects here. for the muslim organization, see al ghurabaa. ghuraba or al-ghurabaa (arabic: الغرباء‎‏‎ al-ghurabā’) is an islamic eschatological epithet mentioned in the hadith that vicariously describes the manner in which upright muslims are perceived by the wider society. the term ghuraba literally means strange or weird. contents 	 overview 	 demographics 	 scripture 	 subsets 	 references overview[edit] the most authentic hadith collection that discusses the ghuraba in detail is sahih muslim. in it, the term ghuraba is used as both a countable noun, to refer to the people, and as a non-countable noun, to refer to the concept:[ ] narrated abdullaah ibn mas’ood: “indeed, islam began as something strange, and it will return to being strange just as it began, so glad tidings of paradise be for the strangers.” in another hadith: abu huraira reported: the messenger of allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “islam began as a something strange and it will return to being strange, so blessed are the strangers.” source: sahih muslim sahih bukhari also alludes being a stranger as the correct conduct and etiquette in the narration "live in this world as though you are a stranger or a traveler".[ ] saudi cleric al-ouda described ghuraba as meaning solitary people or loners.[ ] an arabic journal described the term ghuraba as meaning foreigner.[ ] demographics[edit] there are other hadiths wherein the term ghuraba alludes to its sobriquets being a minority within wider society. in a response to the question of who the ghuraba are, prophet muhammad answers as follows:[ ] narrated amr ibn al-aas: “they are righteous people amongst many people who are evil, and those who obey them are few as compared to those who disobey them.” other hadiths similarly describes them as those who correct the misguided and their dissenters as being the majority and also describes them as nihilistic, and as such, prone to evil.[ ] scripture[edit] the quran similarly ordains that the most pious stance is signified by an archetype which is eccentric, peculiar, and nonconformist rather than one which is conventional, customary, prevailing or orthodox: وَإِن تُطِعْ أَكْثَرَ مَن فِي الْأَرْضِ يُضِلُّوكَ عَن سَبِيلِ اللَّهِ إِن يَتَّبِعُونَ إِلَّا الظَّنَّ وَإِنْ هُمْ إِلَّا يَخْرُصُونَ‎ wa-in tut'i akthara man fīl arḍi yuḍillūka ʿan sabīli l-lahi in yattabiʿūna illā ldhana wa-in hum illā yakhruṣūna	n “and if you obey most of those in the earth, they will lead you astray from allah's way; they follow but conjecture and they only lie..”[ ] subsets[edit] contemporary and medieval explications on the ghuraba hadiths have given various archetypes on the whom constitutes a member of the ghuraba. one analyst has described muslim converts or reverts as being ghuraba if they are amongst people who were born into muslim families.[ ] ibn al-qayyim referred to ghuraba as eccentric and noncomformist individuals, claiming that they are considered strange or weird even among fellow muslims. his archetype of the ghuraba followed a pedigree chart whereby the most untenable ghuraba were muslims among non-muslims, followed by steadfast muslims among ordinary muslims, and then islamic scholars among steadfast muslims.[ ][ ] references[edit] 	^ a b c https://www.abukhadeejah.com/who-are-the-true-ghuraba-the-strangers-in-these-times-islam-began-as-something-strange-and-it-will-return-to-being-strange-just-as-it-began/ 	^ a b c https://www.newmuslims.com/lessons/ /islam-began-as-something-strange/ 	^ alshamsi, mansoor ( ). islam and political reform in saudi arabia:. p.  . 	^ the criterion - volume - page , k. siddique; 	^ quran : 	^ basiron, noor fazilah mohd. "rujukan al-quran dan al-hadith dalam penelitian fenomena gempa bumi." jurnal usuluddin ( ): - . retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ghuraba_(islam)&oldid= " 		categories: 	islamic terminology hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description matches wikidata 	articles containing arabic-language text 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		add links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 user talk: . . . - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	user talk: . . . 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		this user is currently blocked. the latest block log entry is provided below for reference: 	 : , june sql talk contribs blocked . . . / talk with an expiration time of years, minutes and seconds (account creation blocked) ({{colocationwebhost}} <!-- microsoft azure-->) view full log 	no messages have been posted for this user yet. 	 post a message to . . . . other reasons this message may be displayed: 	if a page was recently created here, it may not be visible yet because of a delay in updating the database; wait a few minutes or try the purge function. 	titles on wikipedia are case sensitive except for the first character; please check alternative capitalizations and consider adding a redirect here to the correct title. 	if the page has been deleted, check the deletion log, and see why was the page i created deleted?. retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/user_talk: . . . " 		 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			user page 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			create 	new section 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	user contributions 	user logs 	upload file 	special pages 	printable version 	page information 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 		 		 	 	 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 system - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	system 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		  (redirected from systems) 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		for other uses, see system (disambiguation). for the set of rules that govern structure or behavior of people, see social system. group of interacting or interrelated entities that form a unified whole 	 	this article's lead section may be too short and does not adequately summarize key points of its contents. please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (october ) a system is a group of interacting or interrelated entities that form a unified whole.[ ] a system, surrounded and influenced by its environment, is described by its boundaries, structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning. systems are the subjects of study of systems theory. contents 	 etymology 	 history 	 concepts 	 . subsystem 	 analysis 	 . cultural system 	 . economic system 	 application of the system concept 	 . in information and computer science 	 . in engineering and physics 	 . in social and cognitive sciences and management research 	 . pure logical systems 	 . applied to strategic thinking 	 see also 	 references 	 bibliography 	 external links etymology[edit] the term "system" comes from the latin word systēma, in turn from greek σύστημα systēma: "whole concept made of several parts or members, system", literary "composition".[ ] history[edit] according to marshall mcluhan, "system" means "something to look at". you must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. but in philosophy, prior to descartes, there was no "system". plato had no "system". aristotle had no "system".[ ][ ] in the th century the french physicist nicolas léonard sadi carnot, who studied thermodynamics, pioneered the development of the concept of a "system" in the natural sciences. in he studied the system which he called the working substance (typically a body of water vapor) in steam engines, in regards to the system's ability to do work when heat is applied to it. the working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (on which the working body could do work by pushing on it). in , the german physicist rudolf clausius generalized this picture to include the concept of the surroundings and began to use the term "working body" when referring to the system. the biologist ludwig von bertalanffy became one of the pioneers of the general systems theory. in he introduced models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relation or 'forces' between them.[ ] norbert wiener and ross ashby, who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems, carried out significant development in the concept of a system.[ ][ ] in the s john henry holland, murray gell-mann and others coined the term "complex adaptive system" at the interdisciplinary santa fe institute. concepts[edit] 	environment and boundaries 	systems theory views the world as a complex system of interconnected parts. one scopes a system by defining its boundary; this means choosing which entities are inside the system and which are outside—part of the environment. one can make simplified representations (models) of the system in order to understand it and to predict or impact its future behavior. these models may define the structure and behavior of the system. 	natural and human-made systems 	there are natural and human-made (designed) systems. natural systems may not have an apparent objective but their behavior can be interpreted as purposeful by an observer. human-made systems are made with variable purposes that are achieved by some action performed by or with the system. the parts of a system must be related; they must be "designed to work as a coherent entity" — otherwise they would be two or more distinct systems. open systems have input and output flows, representing exchanges of matter, energy or information with their surroundings. 	theoretical framework 	most systems are open systems, exchanging matter and energy with its surroundings; like a car, a coffeemaker, or earth. a closed system exchanges energy, but not matter, with its environment; like a computer or the project biosphere . an isolated system exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment. a theoretical example of such system is the universe. 	process and transformation process 	an open system can also be viewed as a bounded transformation process, that is, a black box that is a process or collection of processes that transforms inputs into outputs. inputs are consumed; outputs are produced. the concept of input and output here is very broad. for example, an output of a passenger ship is the movement of people from departure to destination. 	system model 	a system comprises multiple views. man-made systems may have such views as concept, analysis, design, implementation, deployment, structure, behavior, input data, and output data views. a system model is required to describe and represent all these views. 	systems architecture 	a systems architecture, using one single integrated model for the description of multiple views, is a kind of system model. subsystem[edit] a subsystem is a set of elements, which is a system itself, and a component of a larger system. the ibm mainframe job entry subsystem family (jes , jes , jes , and their hasp/asp predecessors) are examples. the main elements they have in common are the components that handle input, scheduling, spooling and output; they also have the ability to interact with local and remote operators. a subsystem description is a system object that contains information defining the characteristics of an operating environment controlled by the system.[ ] the data tests are performed to verify the correctness of the individual subsystem configuration data (e.g. ma length, static speed profile, …) and they are related to a single subsystem in order to test its specific application (sa).[ ] analysis[edit] there are many kinds of systems that can be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. for example, in an analysis of urban systems dynamics, a .w. steiss[ ] defined five intersecting systems, including the physical subsystem and behavioral system. for sociological models influenced by systems theory, kenneth d. bailey[ ] defined systems in terms of conceptual, concrete, and abstract systems, either isolated, closed, or open. walter f. buckley[ ] defined systems in sociology in terms of mechanical, organic, and process models. bela h. banathy[ ] cautioned that for any inquiry into a system understanding its kind is crucial, and defined "natural" and "designed", i. e. artificial, systems. it is important not to confuse these abstract definitions. for example, natural systems include subatomic systems, living systems, the solar system, galaxies, and the universe, while artificial systems include man-made physical structures, hybrids of natural and artificial systems, and conceptual knowledge. the human elements of organization and functions are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations. a cardinal consideration in making distinctions among systems is to determine how much freedom the system has to select its purpose, goals, methods, tools, etc. and how free it is to select itself as distributed or concentrated.[clarification needed] artificial systems inherently have a major defect: they must be premised on one or more fundamental assumptions upon which additional knowledge is built.[clarification needed][citation needed] these fundamental assumptions are not inherently deleterious, but they must by definition be assumed as true, and if they are actually false then the system is not as structurally integral as is assumed. for example, in geometry this is very evident in the postulation of theorems and extrapolation of proofs from them. george j. klir[ ] maintained that no "classification is complete and perfect for all purposes", and defined systems as abstract, real, and conceptual physical systems, bounded and unbounded systems, discrete to continuous, pulse to hybrid systems, etc. the interactions between systems and their environments are categorized as relatively closed and open systems. it seems most unlikely that an absolutely closed system can exist or, if it did, that it could be known by man. important distinctions have also been made[ ] between hard systems – technical in nature and amenable to methods such as systems engineering, operations research, and quantitative systems analysis – and soft systems that involve people and organisations, commonly associated with concepts developed by peter checkland and brian wilson through soft systems methodology (ssm) involving methods such as action research and emphasis of participatory designs. where hard systems might be identified as more "scientific", the distinction between them is often elusive. cultural system[edit] a cultural system may be defined as the interaction of different elements of culture. while a cultural system is quite different from a social system, sometimes both together are referred to as a "sociocultural system". a major concern of the social sciences is the problem of order. economic system[edit] main article: economic system an economic system is a mechanism (social institution) which deals with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in a particular society. the economic system is composed of people, institutions and their relationships to resources, such as the convention of property. it addresses the problems of economics, like the allocation and scarcity of resources. the international sphere of interacting states is described and analysed in systems terms by several international relations scholars, most notably in the neorealist school. this systems mode of international analysis has however been challenged by other schools of international relations thought, most notably the constructivist school, which argues that an over-large focus on systems and structures can obscure the role of individual agency in social interactions. systems-based models of international relations also underlies the vision of the international sphere held by the liberal institutionalist school of thought, which places more emphasis on systems generated by rules and interaction governance, particularly economic governance. application of the system concept[edit] systems modeling is generally a basic principle in engineering and in social sciences. the system is the representation of the entities under concern. hence inclusion to or exclusion from system context is dependent on the intention of the modeler. no model of a system will include all features of the real system of concern, and no model of a system must include all entities belonging to a real system of concern. in information and computer science[edit] in computer science and information science, system is a hardware system, software system, or combination, which has components as its structure and observable inter-process communications as its behavior. again, an example will illustrate: there are systems of counting, as with roman numerals, and various systems for filing papers, or catalogues, and various library systems, of which the dewey decimal classification is an example. this still fits with the definition of components which are connected together (in this case to facilitate the flow of information). system can also refer to a framework, aka platform, be it software or hardware, designed to allow software programs to run. a flaw in a component or system can cause the component itself or an entire system to fail to perform its required function, e.g., an incorrect statement or data definition [ ] in engineering and physics[edit] in engineering and physics, a physical system is the portion of the universe that is being studied (of which a thermodynamic system is one major example). engineering also has the concept of a system referring to all of the parts and interactions between parts of a complex project. systems engineering is the branch of engineering that studies how this type of system should be planned, designed, implemented, built, and maintained. expected result is the behavior predicted by the specification, or another source, of the component or system under specified conditions.[ ] in social and cognitive sciences and management research[edit] social and cognitive sciences recognize systems in human person models and in human societies. they include human brain functions and mental processes as well as normative ethics systems and social/cultural behavioral patterns. in management science, operations research and organizational development (od), human organizations are viewed as systems (conceptual systems) of interacting components such as subsystems or system aggregates, which are carriers of numerous complex business processes (organizational behaviors) and organizational structures. organizational development theorist peter senge developed the notion of organizations as systems in his book the fifth discipline. systems thinking is a style of thinking/reasoning and problem solving. it starts from the recognition of system properties in a given problem. it can be a leadership competency. some people can think globally while acting locally. such people consider the potential consequences of their decisions on other parts of larger systems. this is also a basis of systemic coaching in psychology. organizational theorists such as margaret wheatley have also described the workings of organizational systems in new metaphoric contexts, such as quantum physics, chaos theory, and the self-organization of systems. pure logical systems[edit] there is also such a thing as a logical system. the most obvious example is the calculus developed simultaneously by leibniz and isaac newton. another example is george boole's boolean operators. other examples have related specifically to philosophy, biology, or cognitive science. maslow's hierarchy of needs applies psychology to biology by using pure logic. numerous psychologists, including carl jung and sigmund freud have developed systems which logically organize psychological domains, such as personalities, motivations, or intellect and desire. often these domains consist of general categories following a corollary such as a theorem. logic has been applied to categories such as taxonomy, ontology, assessment, and hierarchies. applied to strategic thinking[edit] in , military strategist, john a. warden iii introduced the five ring system model in his book, the air campaign, contending that any complex system could be broken down into five concentric rings. each ring—leadership, processes, infrastructure, population and action units—could be used to isolate key elements of any system that needed change. the model was used effectively by air force planners in the first gulf war.[ ][ ][ ] in the late s, warden applied his model to business strategy.[ ] see also[edit] 	 	examples of systems 	physical system 	conceptual system 	complex system 	formal system 	 	information system 	meta-system 	solar system 	systems in human anatomy 	market 	thermodynamic systems 	 	systems science portal 	related topics 	glossary of systems theory 	complexity theory and organizations 	black box 	system of systems (engineering) 	systems art references[edit] 	^ "definition of system". merriam-webster. springfield, ma, usa. retrieved - - . 	^ "σύστημα", henry george liddell, robert scott, a greek–english lexicon, on perseus digits library. 	^ marshall mcluhan in: mcluhan: hot & cool. ed. by gerald emanuel stearn. a signet book published by the new american library, new york, , p. . 	^ mcluhan, marshall ( ). " : the hot and cool interview". in moos, michel″ (ed.). media research: technology, art and communication: critical voices in art, theory and culture. critical voices in art, theory and culture. routledge. p.  . isbn  . retrieved - - . 'system' means 'something to look at'. you must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. in philosophy, before descartes, there was no 'system.' plato had no 'system.' aristotle had no 'system.' 	^ , zu einer allgemeinen systemlehre, blätter für deutsche philosophie, / . (extract in: biologia generalis, ( ), – . 	^ , cybernetics: or the control and communication in the animal and the machine. paris, france: librairie hermann & cie, and cambridge, ma: mit press.cambridge, ma: mit press. 	^ . an introduction to cybernetics, chapman & hall. 	^ ibm's definition @ http://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/ssw_i _ /rzaks/rzakssbsd.htm 	^ european committee for electrotechnical standardization (cenelec) - en . brussels, belgium: cenelec. . pp. table a. – data préparation techniques ( . ). 	^ steiss, , pp. – . 	^ bailey, . 	^ buckley, . 	^ banathy, . 	^ klir, , pp. – 	^ checkland, ; flood, . 	^ a b "istqb standard glossary of terms used in software testing". retrieved march . 	^ warden, john a. iii ( ). the air campaign: planning for combat. washington, d.c.: national defense university press. isbn  - - - - . 	^ warden, john a. iii (september ). "chapter : air theory for the st century" (in air and space power journal). battlefield of the future: st century warfare issues. united states air force. retrieved december , . 	^ warden, john a. iii ( ). "enemy as a system". airpower journal. spring ( ): – . retrieved - - . 	^ russell, leland a.; warden, john a. ( ). winning in fasttime: harness the competitive advantage of prometheus in business and in life. newport beach, ca: geo group press. isbn  - - - . bibliography[edit] 	alexander backlund ( ). "the definition of system". in: kybernetes vol. nr. , pp.  – . 	kenneth d. bailey ( ). sociology and the new systems theory: toward a theoretical synthesis. new york: state of new york press. 	bela h. banathy ( ). "a taste of systemics", isss the primer project. 	walter f. buckley ( ). sociology and modern systems theory, new jersey: englewood cliffs. 	peter checkland ( ). systems thinking, systems practice. chichester: john wiley & sons, ltd. 	michel crozier, erhard friedberg ( ). actors and systems, chicago university press. 	robert l. flood ( ). rethinking the fifth discipline: learning within the unknowable. london: routledge. 	george j. klir ( ). approach to general systems theory, . 	brian wilson ( ). systems: concepts, methodologies and applications, john wiley 	brian wilson ( ). soft systems methodology—conceptual model building and its contribution, j.h.wiley. 	beynon-davies p. ( ). business information + systems. palgrave, basingstoke. isbn  - - - - external links[edit] 		look up system in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: system 	definitions of systems and models by michael pidwirny, – . 	publications with the title "system" ( – ) by roland müller. 	definitionen von "system" ( – ) by roland müller, (most in german). 		v 	t 	e systems engineering 	subfields	 	aerospace engineering 	biological systems engineering 	configuration management 	earth systems engineering and management 	electrical engineering 	enterprise systems engineering 	performance engineering 	reliability engineering 	safety engineering 	processes	 	requirements engineering 	functional specification 	system integration 	verification and validation 	design review 	concepts	 	business process 	system 	system lifecycle 	v-model 	systems development life cycle 	tools	 	decision-making 	function modelling 	idef 	optimization 	quality function deployment 	system dynamics 	systems modeling language 	systems analysis 	systems modeling 	work breakdown structure 	people	 	james s. albus 	ruzena bajcsy 	benjamin s. blanchard 	wernher von braun 	kathleen carley 	harold chestnut 	wolt fabrycky 	barbara grosz 	arthur david hall iii 	derek hitchins 	robert e. machol 	radhika nagpal 	simon ramo 	joseph francis shea 	katia sycara 	manuela m. veloso 	john n. warfield 	related fields	 	control engineering 	computer engineering 	industrial engineering 	operations research 	project management 	quality management 	risk management 	software engineering 	 	category 	 	v 	t 	e systems science 	system types	 	anatomical 	art 	biological 	complex 	complex adaptive 	conceptual 	coupled human–environment 	database 	dynamical 	ecological 	economic 	energy 	formal 	holarchic 	information 	legal 	measurement 	metric 	multi-agent 	nervous 	nonlinear 	operating 	planetary 	political 	sensory 	social 	star 	writing 	concepts	 	doubling time 	leverage points 	limiting factor 	negative feedback 	positive feedback 	theoretical fields	 	 	chaos theory 	complex systems 	control theory 	cybernetics 	earth system science 	living systems 	sociotechnical system 	systemics 	urban metabolism 	world-systems theory 	 	analysis 	biology 	dynamics 	ecology 	engineering 	neuroscience 	pharmacology 	psychology 	theory 	thinking 	scientists	 	alexander bogdanov 	russell l. ackoff 	william ross ashby 	ruzena bajcsy 	béla h. bánáthy 	gregory bateson 	anthony stafford beer 	richard e. bellman 	ludwig von bertalanffy 	margaret boden 	kenneth e. boulding 	murray bowen 	kathleen carley 	mary cartwright 	c. west churchman 	manfred clynes 	george dantzig 	edsger w. dijkstra 	fred emery 	heinz von foerster 	stephanie forrest 	jay wright forrester 	barbara grosz 	charles a. s. hall 	mike jackson 	lydia kavraki 	james j. kay 	faina m. kirillova 	george klir 	allenna leonard 	edward norton lorenz 	niklas luhmann 	humberto maturana 	margaret mead 	donella meadows 	mihajlo d. mesarovic 	james grier miller 	radhika nagpal 	howard t. odum 	talcott parsons 	ilya prigogine 	qian xuesen 	anatol rapoport 	john seddon 	peter senge 	claude shannon 	katia sycara 	eric trist 	francisco varela 	manuela m. veloso 	kevin warwick 	norbert wiener 	jennifer wilby 	anthony wilden 	applications	 	systems theory in anthropology 	systems theory in archaeology 	systems theory in political science 	organizations	 	list 	principia cybernetica 	 	 category 	 portal 	 commons 	authority control 	 	gnd: - 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commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. by using this site, you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy. wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation, inc., a non-profit organization. 		privacy policy 	about wikipedia 	disclaimers 	contact wikipedia 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 trusted system - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	trusted system 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		in the security engineering subspecialty of computer science, a trusted system is a system that is relied upon to a specified extent to enforce a specified security policy. this is equivalent to saying that a trusted system is one whose failure would break a security policy (if a policy exists that the trusted system is trusted to enforce). the meaning of the word "trust" is critical, as it does not carry the meaning that might be expected in everyday usage. a system trusted by a user, is one that the user feels safe to use, and trusts to do tasks without secretly executing harmful or unauthorised programs; while trusted computing refers to whether programs can trust the platform to be unmodified from that expected, whether or not those programs are innocent, malicious or execute tasks that are undesired by the user. trusted system can also be seen as level base security system where protection is provided and handled according to different levels. this is commonly found in military, where information is categorized as unclassified(u), confidential(c), secret(s), top secret(ts) and beyond. these also enforces the policies of no-read up and no-write down. contents 	 trusted systems in classified information 	 trusted systems in trusted computing 	 trusted systems in policy analysis 	 trusted systems in information theory 	 see also 	 references 	 external links trusted systems in classified information[edit] a subset of trusted systems ("division b" and "division a") implement mandatory access control (mac) labels; as such, it is often assumed that they can be used for processing classified information. however, this is generally untrue. there are four modes in which one can operate a multilevel secure system: multilevel mode, compartmented mode, dedicated mode, and system-high mode. the national computer security center's "yellow book" specifies that b and a systems can only be used for processing a strict subset of security labels, and only when operated according to a particularly strict configuration. central to the concept of u.s. department of defense-style "trusted systems" is the notion of a "reference monitor", which is an entity that occupies the logical heart of the system and is responsible for all access control decisions. ideally, the reference monitor is (a) tamper-proof, (b) always invoked, and (c) small enough to be subject to independent testing, the completeness of which can be assured. per the u.s. national security agency's trusted computer system evaluation criteria (tcsec), or "orange book", a set of "evaluation classes" were defined that described the features and assurances that the user could expect from a trusted system. key to the provision of the highest levels of assurance (b and a ) is the dedication of significant system engineering toward minimization of the complexity (not size, as often cited) of the trusted computing base (tcb), defined as that combination of hardware, software, and firmware that is responsible for enforcing the system's security policy. an inherent engineering conflict would appear to arise in higher-assurance systems in that, the smaller the tcb, the larger the set of hardware, software, and firmware that lies outside the tcb and is, therefore, untrusted. although this may lead the more technically naive to sophists' arguments about the nature of trust, the argument confuses the issue of "correctness" with that of "trustworthiness". in contrast to the tcsec's precisely defined hierarchy of six evaluation classes—the highest of which, a , is featurally identical to b , differing only in documentation standards—the more recently introduced common criteria (cc)—which derive from a blend of more or less technically mature standards from various nato countries—provide a more tenuous spectrum of seven "evaluation classes" that intermix features and assurances in an arguably non-hierarchical manner and lack the philosophic precision and mathematical stricture of the tcsec. in particular, the cc tolerate very loose identification of the "target of evaluation" (toe) and support—even encourage—an inter-mixture of security requirements culled from a variety of predefined "protection profiles." while a strong case can be made that even the more seemingly arbitrary components of the tcsec contribute to a "chain of evidence" that a fielded system properly enforces its advertised security policy, not even the highest (e ) level of the cc can truly provide analogous consistency and stricture of evidentiary reasoning.[citation needed] the mathematical notions of trusted systems for the protection of classified information derive from two independent but interrelated corpora of work. in , david bell and leonard lapadula of mitre, working under the close technical guidance and economic sponsorship of maj. roger schell, ph.d., of the u.s. army electronic systems command (ft. hanscom, ma), devised what is known as the bell-lapadula model, in which a more or less trustworthy computer system is modeled in terms of objects (passive repositories or destinations for data, such as files, disks, printers) and subjects (active entities—perhaps users, or system processes or threads operating on behalf of those users—that cause information to flow among objects). the entire operation of a computer system can indeed be regarded a "history" (in the serializability-theoretic sense) of pieces of information flowing from object to object in response to subjects' requests for such flows. at the same time, dorothy denning at purdue university was publishing her ph.d. dissertation, which dealt with "lattice-based information flows" in computer systems. (a mathematical "lattice" is a partially ordered set, characterizable as a directed acyclic graph, in which the relationship between any two vertices is either "dominates," "is dominated by," or neither.) she defined a generalized notion of "labels"—corresponding more or less to the full security markings one encounters on classified military documents, e.g., top secret wnintel tk dumbo—that are attached to entities. bell and lapadula integrated denning's concept into their landmark mitre technical report—entitled, secure computer system: unified exposition and multics interpretation—whereby labels attached to objects represented the sensitivity of data contained within the object (though there can be, and often is, a subtle semantic difference between the sensitivity of the data within the object and the sensitivity of the object itself), while labels attached to subjects represented the trustworthiness of the user executing the subject. the concepts are unified with two properties, the "simple security property" (a subject can only read from an object that it dominates [is greater than is a close enough—albeit mathematically imprecise—interpretation]) and the "confinement property," or "*-property" (a subject can only write to an object that dominates it). (these properties are loosely referred to as "no-read-up" and "no-write-down," respectively.) jointly enforced, these properties ensure that information cannot flow "downhill" to a repository whence insufficiently trustworthy recipients may discover it. by extension, assuming that the labels assigned to subjects are truly representative of their trustworthiness, then the no-read-up and no-write-down rules rigidly enforced by the reference monitor are provably sufficient to constrain trojan horses, one of the most general classes of attack (sciz., the popularly reported worms and viruses are specializations of the trojan horse concept). the bell-lapadula model technically only enforces "confidentiality," or "secrecy," controls, i.e., they address the problem of the sensitivity of objects and attendant trustworthiness of subjects to not inappropriately disclose it. the dual problem of "integrity"(i.e., the problem of accuracy, or even provenance of objects) and attendant trustworthiness of subjects to not inappropriately modify or destroy it, is addressed by mathematically affine models; the most important of which is named for its creator, k. j. biba. other integrity models include the clark-wilson model and shockley and schell's program integrity model, "the seaview model"[ ] an important feature of macs, is that they are entirely beyond the control of any user. the tcb automatically attaches labels to any subjects executed on behalf of users and files they access or modify. in contrast, an additional class of controls, termed discretionary access controls(dacs), are under the direct control of the system users. familiar protection mechanisms such as permission bits (supported by unix since the late s and—in a more flexible and powerful form – by multics since earlier still) and access control list (acls) are familiar examples of dacs. the behavior of a trusted system is often characterized in terms of a mathematical model—which may be more or less rigorous depending upon applicable operational and administrative constraints that takes the form of a finite state machine (fsm) with state criteria, state transition constraints, a set of "operations" that correspond to state transitions (usually, but not necessarily, one), and a descriptive top-level specification (dtls) which entails a user-perceptible interface (e.g., an api, a set of system calls [in unix parlance] or system exits [in mainframe parlance]); each element of which engenders one or more model operations. trusted systems in trusted computing[edit] the trusted computing group creates specifications that are meant to address particular requirements of trusted systems, including attestation of configuration and safe storage of sensitive information. trusted systems in policy analysis[edit] trusted systems in the context of national or homeland security, law enforcement, or social control policy are systems in which some conditional prediction about the behavior of people or objects within the system has been determined prior to authorizing access to system resources.[ ] for example, trusted systems include the use of "security envelopes" in national security and counterterrorism applications, "trusted computing" initiatives in technical systems security, and the use of credit or identity scoring systems in financial and anti-fraud applications; in general, they include any system (i) in which probabilistic threat or risk analysis is used to assess "trust" for decision-making before authorizing access or for allocating resources against likely threats (including their use in the design of systems constraints to control behavior within the system), or (ii) in which deviation analysis or systems surveillance is used to ensure that behavior within systems complies with expected or authorized parameters. the widespread adoption of these authorization-based security strategies (where the default state is default=deny) for counterterrorism, anti-fraud, and other purposes is helping accelerate the ongoing transformation of modern societies from a notional beccarian model of criminal justice based on accountability for deviant actions after they occur – see cesare beccaria, on crimes and punishment ( ) – to a foucauldian model based on authorization, preemption, and general social compliance through ubiquitous preventative surveillance and control through system constraints – see michel foucault, discipline and punish ( , alan sheridan, tr., , ). in this emergent model, "security" is geared not towards policing but to risk management through surveillance, exchange of information, auditing, communication, and classification. these developments have led to general concerns about individual privacy and civil liberty and to a broader philosophical debate about the appropriate forms of social governance methodologies. trusted systems in information theory[edit] trusted systems in the context of information theory is based on the definition of trust as "trust is that which is essential to a communication channel but cannot be transferred from a source to a destination using that channel" by ed gerck.[ ] in information theory, information has nothing to do with knowledge or meaning. in the context of information theory, information is simply that which is transferred from a source to a destination, using a communication channel. if, before transmission, the information is available at the destination then the transfer is zero. information received by a party is that which the party does not expect—as measured by the uncertainty of the party as to what the message will be. likewise, trust as defined by gerck has nothing to do with friendship, acquaintances, employee-employer relationships, loyalty, betrayal and other overly-variable concepts. trust is not taken in the purely subjective sense either, nor as a feeling or something purely personal or psychological—trust is understood as something potentially communicable. further, this definition of trust is abstract, allowing different instances and observers in a trusted system to communicate based on a common idea of trust (otherwise communication would be isolated in domains), where all necessarily different subjective and intersubjective realizations of trust in each subsystem (man and machines) may coexist.[ ] taken together in the model of information theory, "information is what you do not expect" and "trust is what you know". linking both concepts, trust is seen as "qualified reliance on received information". in terms of trusted systems, an assertion of trust cannot be based on the record itself, but on information from other information channels.[ ] the deepening of these questions leads to complex conceptions of trust which have been thoroughly studied in the context of business relationships.[ ] it also leads to conceptions of information where the "quality" of information integrates trust or trustworthiness in the structure of the information itself and of the information system(s) in which it is conceived: higher quality in terms of particular definitions of accuracy and precision means higher trustworthiness.[ ] an example of the calculus of trust is "if i connect two trusted systems, are they more or less trusted when taken together?".[ ] the ibm federal software group [ ] has suggested that [ ] provides the most useful definition of trust for application in an information technology environment, because it is related to other information theory concepts and provides a basis for measuring trust. in a network centric enterprise services environment, such notion of trust is considered [ ] to be requisite for achieving the desired collaborative, service-oriented architecture vision. see also[edit] 	accuracy and precision 	computer security 	data quality 	information quality 	trusted computing references[edit] 	^ lunt, teresa & denning, dorothy & r. schell, roger & heckman, mark & r. shockley, william. ( ). the seaview security model.. ieee trans. software eng.. . - . . /secpri. . . (source) 	^ the concept of trusted systems described here is discussed in taipale, k.a. ( ). the trusted systems problem: security envelopes, statistical threat analysis, and the presumption of innocence, homeland security - trends and controversies, ieee intelligent systems, vol. no. , pp. - (sept./oct. ). 	^ a b feghhi, j. and p. williams ( ) trust points, in digital certificates: applied internet security. addison-wesley, isbn  - - - ; toward real-world models of trust: reliance on received information 	^ a b trust as qualified reliance on information, part i, the cook report on internet, volume x, no. , january , issn  - . 	^ gregory, john d. ( ). john d. electronic legal records: pretty good authentication? 	^ huemer, l. ( ). trust in business relations: economic logic or social interaction? umeå: boréa. isbn  - - - . 	^ ivanov, k. ( ). quality-control of information: on the concept of accuracy of information in data banks and in management information systems.the university of stockholm and the royal institute of technology. 	^ a b daly, christopher. ( ). a trust framework for the dod network-centric enterprise services (nces) environment, ibm corp., . 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	sviatoslav the brave 	grand prince of kiev 	sviatoslav i by eugene lanceray ( ) 	reign	 – 	coronation	 	predecessor	saint olga 	successor	yaropolk i 	born	 ad kyiv 	died	 march ad [aged ~ ] the island of khortytsia dnieper 	wives		predslava 	malusha 	issue	with unknown woman: yaropolk i oleg with malusha: vladimir the great 		full name 	sviatoslav igorevich sviatoslav ingvarsen 	dynasty	rurik 	father	igor 	mother	saint olga (regent – ) sviatoslav i igorevich (old east slavic: Ст҃ославъ / Свѧтославъ[ ] Игорєвичь, svętoslavŭ igorevičǐ; russian: Святослав Игоревич; ukrainian: Святослав Ігорович; – march ), also spelled svyatoslav, was a grand prince of kiev[ ][ ] famous for his persistent campaigns in the east and south, which precipitated the collapse of two great powers of eastern europe, khazaria and the first bulgarian empire. he also conquered numerous east slavic tribes, defeated the alans and attacked the volga bulgars,[ ][ ] and at times was allied with the pechenegs and magyars. his decade-long reign over the kievan rus' was marked by rapid expansion into the volga river valley, the pontic steppe, and the balkans. by the end of his short life, sviatoslav carved out for himself the largest state in europe, eventually moving his capital in from kyiv (modern-day ukraine) to pereyaslavets (identified as the modern village of nufăru, romania)[ ] on the danube. in contrast with his mother's conversion to christianity, sviatoslav remained a staunch pagan all of his life. due to his abrupt death in ambush, his conquests, for the most part, were not consolidated into a functioning empire, while his failure to establish a stable succession led to a fratricidal feud among his three sons, resulting in two of them being killed. contents 	 name 	 early life and personality 	 religious beliefs 	 family 	 eastern campaigns 	 campaigns in the balkans 	 death and aftermath 	 art and literature 	 see also 	 notes 	 references name[edit] olga of kiev, who served as regent during her son's youth the primary chronicle records sviatoslav as the first ruler of the kievan rus' with a name of slavic origin (as opposed to his predecessors, whose names had old norse forms). some scholars see the name of sviatoslav, composed of the slavic roots for "holy" and "glory", as an artificial derivation combining the names of his predecessors oleg and rurik (whose names mean "holy" and "glorious" in old norse, respectively).[ ] early life and personality[edit] virtually nothing is known about sviatoslav's childhood and youth, which he spent reigning in novgorod. sviatoslav's father, igor, was killed by the drevlians around , and his mother, olga, ruled as regent in kyiv until sviatoslav reached maturity (ca. ).[ ] sviatoslav was tutored by a varangian named asmud.[ ] the tradition of employing varangian tutors for the sons of ruling princes survived well into the th century. sviatoslav appears to have had little patience for administration. his life was spent with his druzhina (roughly, "company") in permanent warfare against neighboring states. according to the primary chronicle, he carried neither wagons nor kettles on his expeditions, and he boiled no meat, rather cutting off small strips of horseflesh, game, or beef to eat after roasting it on the coals. nor did he have a tent, rather spreading out a horse-blanket under him and setting his saddle under his head, and all his retinue did likewise.[ ] illustration of sviatoslav wearing a vyshyvanka, by fedor solntsev sviatoslav's appearance has been described very clearly by leo the deacon, who himself attended the meeting of sviatoslav with john i tzimiskes. following deacon's memories, sviatoslav was a bright-eyed man of average height but of stalwart build, much more sturdy than tzimiskes. he had a bald head and a wispy beard and wore a bushy mustache and a sidelock as a sign of his nobility.[ ] he preferred to dress in white, and it was noted that his garments were much cleaner than those of his men, although he had a lot in common with his warriors. he wore a single large gold earring bearing a carbuncle and two pearls.[ ] religious beliefs[edit] sviatoslav's mother, olga, converted to orthodox christianity at the court of byzantine emperor constantine porphyrogenitus in ,[ ] at the approximate age of . however, sviatoslav remained a pagan all of his life. in the treaty of between sviatoslav and the byzantine emperor john i tzimiskes, the rus' swore by the gods perun and veles.[ ] according to the primary chronicle, he believed that his warriors (druzhina) would lose respect for him and mock him if he became a christian.[ ] the allegiance of his warriors was of paramount importance in his conquest of an empire that stretched from the volga to the danube. family[edit] sviatoslav's mother, olga, with her escort in constantinople, a miniature from the late th century chronicle of john skylitzes. very little is known of sviatoslav's family life. it is possible that he was not the only (or the eldest) son of his parents. the russo-byzantine treaty of mentions a certain predslava, volodislav's wife, as the noblest of the rus' women after olga. the fact that predslava was oleg's mother is presented by vasily tatishchev. he also speculated that predslava came from the hungarian nobility. george vernadsky was among many historians to speculate that volodislav was igor's eldest son and heir who died at some point during olga's regency. another chronicle told that oleg (? - ?) was the eldest son of igor. at the time of igor's death, sviatoslav was still a child, and he was raised by his mother or under her instructions. her influence, however, did not extend to his religious observance. sviatoslav i in the tsarsky titulyarnik, sviatoslav had several children, but the origin of his wives is not specified in the chronicle. by his wives, he had yaropolk and oleg.[ ] by malusha, a woman of indeterminate origins,[ ] sviatoslav had vladimir, who would ultimately break with his father's paganism and convert rus' to christianity. john skylitzes reported that vladimir had a brother named sfengus; whether this sfengus was a son of sviatoslav, a son of malusha by a prior or subsequent husband, or an unrelated rus' nobleman is unclear.[ ] children predslava 	oleg of drelinia (died ?) 	yaropolk i of kiev ( - ) malusha 	vladimir the great (c. - ) 	sfengus? eastern campaigns[edit] shortly after his accession to the throne, sviatoslav began campaigning to expand rus' control over the volga valley and the pontic steppe region. his greatest success was the conquest of khazaria, which for centuries had been one of the strongest states of eastern europe. the sources are not clear about the roots of the conflict between khazaria and rus', so several possibilities have been suggested. the rus' had an interest in removing the khazar hold on the volga trade route because the khazars collected duties from the goods transported by the volga. historians have suggested that the byzantine empire may have incited the rus' against the khazars, who fell out with the byzantines after the persecutions of the jews in the reign of romanus i lecapenus.[ ] the kievan rus' at the beginning of sviatoslav's reign (in red), showing his sphere of influence to (in orange) sviatoslav began by rallying the east slavic vassal tribes of the khazars to his cause. those who would not join him, such as the vyatichs, were attacked and forced to pay tribute to the kievan rus' rather than to the khazars.[ ] according to a legend recorded in the primary chronicle, sviatoslav sent a message to the vyatich rulers, consisting of a single phrase: "i want to come at you!" (old east slavic: "хочю на вы ити")[ ] this phrase is used in modern russian (usually misquoted as "Иду на вы") and in modern ukrainian ("Іду на ви") to denote an unequivocal declaration of one's intentions. proceeding by the oka and volga rivers, he attacked volga bulgaria. he employed oghuz and pecheneg mercenaries in this campaign, perhaps to counter the superior cavalry of the khazars and bulgars.[ ] sviatoslav destroyed the khazar city of sarkel around , possibly sacking (but not occupying) the khazar city of kerch on the crimea as well.[ ] at sarkel he established a rus' settlement called belaya vyezha ("the white tower" or "the white fortress", the east slavic translation for "sarkel").[ ] he subsequently destroyed the khazar capital of atil.[ ] a visitor to atil wrote soon after sviatoslav's campaign: "the rus' attacked, and no grape or raisin remained, not a leaf on a branch."[ ] the exact chronology of his khazar campaign is uncertain and disputed; for example, mikhail artamonov and david christian proposed that the sack of sarkel came after the destruction of atil.[ ] sviatoslav's council of war by boris chorikov although ibn haukal reports the sack of samandar by sviatoslav, the rus' leader did not bother to occupy the khazar heartlands north of the caucasus mountains permanently. on his way back to kyiv, sviatoslav chose to strike against the ossetians and force them into subservience.[ ] therefore, khazar successor statelets continued their precarious existence in the region.[ ] the destruction of khazar imperial power paved the way for kievan rus' to dominate north-south trade routes through the steppe and across the black sea, routes that formerly had been a major source of revenue for the khazars. moreover, sviatoslav's campaigns led to increased slavic settlement in the region of the saltovo-mayaki culture, greatly changing the demographics and culture of the transitional area between the forest and the steppe.[ ] campaigns in the balkans[edit] main article: sviatoslav's invasion of bulgaria sviatoslav invading bulgaria, manasses chronicle the annihilation of khazaria was undertaken against the background of the rus'-byzantine alliance, concluded in the wake of igor's byzantine campaign in .[ ] close military ties between the rus' and byzantium are illustrated by the fact, reported by john skylitzes, that a rus' detachment accompanied byzantine emperor nikephoros phokas in his victorious naval expedition to crete. in or ,[ ] nikephoros sent his agent, kalokyros, to persuade sviatoslav to assist the byzantines in a war against bulgaria.[ ] sviatoslav was paid , pounds of gold and set sail with an army of , men, including thousands of pecheneg mercenaries.[ ][ ] sviatoslav defeated the bulgarian ruler boris ii[ ] and proceeded to occupy the whole of northern bulgaria. meanwhile, the byzantines bribed the pechenegs to attack and besiege kiev, where olga stayed with sviatoslav's son vladimir. the siege was relieved by the druzhina of pretich, and immediately following the pecheneg retreat, olga sent a reproachful letter to sviatoslav. he promptly returned and defeated the pechenegs, who continued to threaten kyiv. 		v 	t 	e rus'–byzantine wars 	 	paphlagonia ( s) 	constantinople ( ) 	constantinople ( ) 	bosporus & bithynia ( ) 	thrace & bulgaria ( – ) 	lemnos ( ) 	constantinople & aegean sea ( ) pursuit of sviatoslav's warriors by the byzantine army, a miniature from th century chronicles of john skylitzes. sviatoslav refused to turn his balkan conquests over to the byzantines, and the parties fell out as a result. to the chagrin of his boyars and his mother (who died within three days after learning about his decision), sviatoslav decided to move his capital to pereyaslavets in the mouth of the danube due to the great potential of that location as a commercial hub. in the primary chronicle record for , sviatoslav explains that it is to pereyaslavets, the centre of his lands, "all the riches flow: gold, silks, wine, and various fruits from greece, silver and horses from hungary and bohemia, and from rus' furs, wax, honey, and slaves". madrid skylitzes, meeting between john tzimiskes and sviatoslav. in summer , sviatoslav left rus' again, dividing his dominion into three parts, each under a nominal rule of one of his sons. at the head of an army that included pecheneg and magyar auxiliary troops, he invaded bulgaria again, devastating thrace, capturing the city of philippopolis, and massacring its inhabitants. nikephoros responded by repairing the defenses of constantinople and raising new squadrons of armored cavalry. in the midst of his preparations, nikephoros was overthrown and killed by john tzimiskes, who thus became the new byzantine emperor.[ ] john tzimiskes first attempted to persuade sviatoslav to leave bulgaria, but he was unsuccessful. challenging byzantine authority, sviatoslav crossed the danube and laid siege to adrianople, causing panic in the streets of constantinople in summer .[ ] later that year, the byzantines launched a counteroffensive. being occupied with suppressing a revolt brought by bardas phokas in asia minor, john tzimiskes sent his commander-in-chief, bardas skleros, who defeated the coalition of rus', pechenegs, magyars, and bulgarians in the battle of arcadiopolis.[ ] meanwhile, john, having quelled the revolt of bardas phokas, came to the balkans with a large army and promoting himself as the liberator of bulgaria from sviatoslav, penetrated the impracticable mountain passes and shortly thereafter captured marcianopolis, where the rus' were holding a number of bulgar princes hostage. siege of durostorum in manasses chronicle sviatoslav retreated to dorostolon, which the byzantine armies besieged for sixty-five days. cut off and surrounded, sviatoslav came to terms with john and agreed to abandon the balkans, renounce his claims to the southern crimea, and return west of the dnieper river. in return, the byzantine emperor supplied the rus' with food and safe passage home. sviatoslav and his men set sail and landed on berezan island at the mouth of the dnieper, where they made camp for the winter. several months later, according to the primary chronicle, their camp was devastated by famine, so that even a horse's head could not be bought for less than a half-grivna.[ ] while sviatoslav's campaign brought no tangible results for the rus', it weakened the bulgarian state and left it vulnerable to the attacks of basil the bulgar-slayer four decades later. death and aftermath[edit] 	 	v 	t 	e rurikids (ix—xi century) 	 	rurik 	 igor (co-ruler: oleg) 	 sviatoslav (co-ruler: st. olga) 	 yaropolk 	 sviatopolk the accursed 	oleg of drelinia 	 st. vladimir 	vysheslav of novgorod [ru] 	izyaslav of polotsk 	(polotsk branch) 	 yaroslav the wise 	vsevolod vladimirovich [ru] 	mstislav the brave 	evstafy mstislavich [ru] 	sviatoslav of drelinia [ru] 	st. boris 	st. gleb 	stanislav vladimirovich [ru] 	pozvizd [ru] 	sudislav of pskov 	 — grand prince of kiev fearing that the peace with sviatoslav would not endure, the byzantine emperor induced the pecheneg khan kurya to kill sviatoslav before he reached kyiv. this was in line with the policy outlined by constantine vii porphyrogenitus in de administrando imperio of fomenting strife between the rus' and the pechenegs.[ ] according to the slavic chronicle, sveneld attempted to warn sviatoslav to avoid the dnieper rapids, but the prince slighted his wise advice and was ambushed and slain by the pechenegs when he tried to cross the cataracts near khortytsia early in . the primary chronicle reports that his skull was made into a chalice by the pecheneg khan.[ ] the death of sviatoslav by boris chorikov following sviatoslav's death, tensions among his sons grew. a war broke out between his legitimate sons, oleg and yaropolk, in , at the conclusion of which oleg was killed. in vladimir fled novgorod to escape oleg's fate and went to scandinavia, where he raised an army of varangians and returned in . yaropolk was killed, and vladimir became the sole ruler of kievan rus'. art and literature[edit] sviatoslav has long been a hero of belarusian, russian, and ukrainian patriots due to his great military successes. his figure first attracted attention of russian artists and poets during the russo-turkish war ( – ), which provided obvious parallels with sviatoslav's push towards constantinople. russia's southward expansion and the imperialistic ventures of catherine ii in the balkans seemed to have been legitimized by sviatoslav's campaigns eight centuries earlier. ivan akimov. sviatoslav's return from the danube to his family in kyiv ( ) among the works created during the war was yakov knyazhnin's tragedy olga ( ). the russian playwright chose to introduce sviatoslav as his protagonist, although his active participation in the events following igor's death is out of sync with the traditional chronology. knyazhnin's rival nikolai nikolev ( – ) also wrote a play on the subject of sviatoslav's life. ivan akimov's painting sviatoslav's return from the danube to kiev ( ) explores the conflict between military honour and family attachment. it is a vivid example of poussinesque rendering of early medieval subject matter. monument to sviatoslav i in kyiv, ukraine. the authors are boris krylov and oles sydoruk. interest in sviatoslav's career increased in the th century. klavdiy lebedev depicted an episode of sviatoslav's meeting with emperor john in his well-known painting, while eugene lanceray sculpted an equestrian statue of sviatoslav in the early th century.[ ] sviatoslav appears in the poem of velimir khlebnikov written before the war (# . Написанное до войны)[ ] as an epitome of militant slavdom: 	Знаменитый сок Дуная,	pouring the famed juice of the danube 	Наливая в глубь главы,	into the depth of my head, 	Стану пить я, вспоминая	i shall drink and remember 	Светлых клич: "Иду на вы!".	the cry of the bright ones: "i come at you!"[ ] sviatoslav is the villain of the novel the lost kingdom, or the passing of the khazars, by samuel gordon,[ ] a fictionalised account of the destruction of khazaria by the rus'. the slavic warrior figures in a more positive context in the story "chernye strely vyaticha" by vadim viktorovich kargalov; the story is included in his book istoricheskie povesti.[ ] in , reports circulated that a village in the belgorod region had erected a monument to sviatoslav's victory over the khazars by the russian sculptor vyacheslav klykov. the reports described the -meter tall statue as depicting a rus' cavalryman trampling a supine khazar bearing a star of david and kolovrat. this created an outcry within the jewish community of russia. the controversy was further exacerbated by klykov's connections with pamyat and other anti-semitic organizations, as well as by his involvement in the "letter of ", a controversial appeal to the prosecutor general to review all jewish organizations in russia for extremism.[ ] the press centre of the belgorod regional administration responded by stating that a planned monument to sviatoslav had not yet been constructed but would show "respect towards representatives of all nationalities and religions."[ ] when the statue was unveiled, the shield bore a twelve-pointed star. sviatoslav is the main character of the books "knyaz" ("Князь") and "the hero" ("Герой"), written by russian writer alexander mazin. sviatoslav plays a major role in the soviet historical anthology film the legend of princess olga, which tells the story of his mother, olga. sviatoslav appears in various segments, both as a child as an adult. the adult prince sviatoslav is played by les serdyuk. on november , a ukrainian fisherman found a one metre long sword in the waters of the dnieper on khortytsia near where sviatoslav is believed to have been killed in . the handle is made out of four different metals including gold and silver, and could possibly have belonged to svyatoslav himself, but this is speculation--the sword could have belonged to any nobleman from that period.[ ] see also[edit] 	list of russian rulers 	list of ukrainian rulers notes[edit] 	^ "e.g. in the primary chronicle under year ". litopys.org.ua. retrieved july . 	^ "svyatoslav i - prince of kiev". online encyclopædia britannica. britannica.com. retrieved november . 	^ "vladimir i - grand prince of kiev". online encyclopædia britannica. britannica.com. retrieved november . 	^ a history of russia: since , walter moss, pg 	^ khazarian state and its role in the history of eastern europe and the caucasus a.p. novoseltsev, moscow, nauka, . (in russian) 	^ stephenson, paul ( ). byzantium's balkan frontier: a political study of the northern balkans, - . cambridge university press. p.  . isbn  - - - - . retrieved november . 	^ see А.М. Членов. К вопросу об имени Святослава, in Личные имена в прошлом, настоящем и будущем: проблемы антропонимики (moscow, ). 	^ if olga was indeed born in , as the primary chronicle seems to imply, she should have been about at the time of sviatoslav's birth. there are clearly some problems with chronology. 	^ primary chronicle entry for 	^ cross and sherbowitz-wetzor, primary chronicle, p. . 	^ for the alternative translations of the same passage of the greek original that say that sviatoslav may have not shaven but wispy beard and not one but two sidelocks on each side of his head, see e.g. ian heath "the vikings (elite )", osprey publishing ; isbn  - - - - , p. or david nicolle "armies of medieval russia – (men-at-arms )" osprey publishing ; isbn  - - - - , p. 	^ vernadsky – . the sidelock is reminiscent of turkic hairstyles and practices and was later mimicked by cossacks. 	^ based on his analysis of de ceremoniis, alexander nazarenko hypothesizes that olga hoped to orchestrate a marriage between sviatoslav and a byzantine princess. if her proposal was peremptorily declined (as it most certainly would have been), it is hardly surprising that sviatoslav would look at the byzantine empire and her christian culture with suspicion. nazarenko . 	^ froianov, i. ia.; a. iu. dvornichenko; iu. v. krivosheev ( ). "the introduction of christianity in russia and the pagan traditions". in marjorie mandelstam balzer (ed.). russian traditional culture: religion, gender, and customary law. m.e. sharpe. p.  . isbn  - - - - . retrieved february . 	^ primary chronicle _____. 	^ shared maternal paternity of yaropolk and oleg is a matter of debate by historians. 	^ she is traditionally identified in russian historiography as dobrynya's sister; for other theories on her identity, see here. 	^ indeed, franklin and shepard advanced the hypothesis that sfengus was identical with mstislav of tmutarakan. franklin and shepard - . 	^ "rus", encyclopaedia of islam 	^ christian . it is disputed whether sviatoslav invaded the land of vyatichs that year. the only campaign against the vyatichs explicitly mentioned in the primary chronicle is dated to . 	^ russian primary chronicle (ПСРЛ. — Т. . Ипатьевская летопись. — СПб., ) for year . the chronicler may have wished to contrast sviatoslav's open declaration of war to stealthy tactics employed by many other early medieval conquerors. 	^ for sviatoslav's reliance on nomad cavalry, see, e.g., franklin and shepard ; christian ; pletneva . 	^ christian . the primary chronicle is very succinct about the whole campaign against the khazars, saying only that sviatoslav "took their city and belaya vezha". 	^ the town was an important trade center located near the portage between the volga and don rivers. by the early th century, however, it had been destroyed by the kipchaks. 	^ see, generally christian – ; dunlop passim. 	^ logan ( ), p. 	^ artamonov ; christian . 	^ the campaign against the ossetians is attested in the primary chronicle. the novgorod first chronicle specifies that sviatoslav resettled the ossetians near kyiv, but sakharov finds this claim dubitable. 	^ the mandgelis document refers to a khazar potentate in the taman peninsula around , long after sviatoslav's death. kedrenos reported that the byzantines and rus' collaborated in the conquest of a khazar kingdom in the crimea in , and still later, ibn al-athir reported an unsuccessful attack by al-fadl ibn muhammad against the khazars in the caucasus in . for more information on these and other references, see khazars#late references to the khazars. 	^ christian . 	^ most historians believe the greeks were interested in the destruction of khazaria. another school of thought essentializes the report of yahya of antioch that, prior to the danube campaign, the byzantines and the rus' were at war. see sakharov, chapter i. 	^ the exact date of sviatoslav's bulgarian campaign, which likely did not commence until the conclusion of his khazar campaign, is unknown. 	^ mikhail tikhomirov and vladimir pashuto, among others, assume that the emperor was interested primarily in diverting sviatoslav's attention from chersonesos, a byzantine possession in the crimea. indeed, leo the deacon three times mentions that sviatoslav and his father igor controlled cimmerian bosporus. if so, a conflict of interests in the crimea was inevitable. the suzdal chronicle, though a rather late source, also mentions sviatoslav's war against chersonesos. in the peace treaty of , sviatoslav promised not to wage wars against either constantinople or chersonesos. byzantine sources also report that kalokyros attempted to persuade sviatoslav to support kalokyros in a coup against the reigning byzantine emperor. as remuneration for his help, sviatoslav was supposed to retain a permanent hold on bulgaria. modern historians, however, assign little historical importance to this story. kendrick . 	^ all figures in this article, including the numbers of sviatoslav's troops, are based on the reports of byzantine sources, which may differ from those of the slavonic chronicles. greek sources report khazars and "turks" in sviatoslav's army as well as pechenegs. as used in such byzantine writings as de administrando imperio by constantine porphyrogenitus, "turks" refers to magyars. the rus'-magyar alliance resulted in the hungarian expedition against the second largest city of the empire, thessalonica, in . 	^ w. treadgold, a history of the byzantine state and society, 	^ boris ii was captured by the byzantines in and carried off to constantinople as a prisoner. 	^ kendrick 	^ simultaneously, otto i attacked byzantine possessions in the south of italy. this remarkable coincidence may be interpreted as an evidence of the anti-byzantine german-russian alliance. see: manteuffel . 	^ grekov – . the byzantine sources report the enemy casualties to be as high as , , a figure modern historians find to be highly improbable. 	^ franklin and shepard – 	^ constantine vii pointed out that, by virtue of their controlling the dnieper cataracts, the pechenegs may easily attack and destroy the rus' vessels sailing along the river. 	^ the use of a defeated enemy's skull as a drinking vessel is reported by numerous authors through history among various steppe peoples, such as the scythians. kurya likely intended this as a compliment to sviatoslav; sources report that kurya and his wife drank from the skull and prayed for a son as brave as the deceased rus' warlord. christian ; pletneva ; cross and sherbowitz-wetzor . 	^ e. a lanceray. "sviatoslav on the way to tsargrad. archived march at the wayback machine ", the russian history in the mirror of the fine arts archived november at the wayback machine (in russian) 	^ "Велимир Хлебников Творения". lib.rus.ec. retrieved june . 	^ cooke, raymond cooke. velimir khlebnikov: a critical study. cambridge university press, . pages – 	^ london: shapiro, vallentine, 	^ (moscow: det. lit., ). 	^ "alexander verkhovsky. anti-semitism in russia: . key developments and new trends". archived from the original on august . retrieved november . 	^ "the federation of jewish communities protests against the presence of a star of david in a new sculpture in belgorod", interfax, november ; kozhevnikova, galina, "radical nationalism and efforts to oppose it in russia in " archived january at the wayback machine ; "fjc russia appeal clarifies situation over potentially anti-semitic monument" archived september at the wayback machine (federation of jewish communities of the cis press release), november ; dahan, david, "jews protest trampled star of david statue", european jewish press, november 	^ "on khortitsa found the sword of prince svyatoslav". rest in ukraine. september . retrieved november . references[edit] 		wikimedia commons has media related to sviatoslav i of kiev. 	artamonov, mikhail istoriya khazar. leningrad, . 	barthold, w.. "khazar". encyclopaedia of islam (brill online). eds.: p. bearman, th. bianquis, c. e. bosworth, e. van donzel and w.p. heinrichs. brill, . 	chertkov a. d. opisanie voin velikago kniazya svyatoslava igorevicha. moscow, . 	chlenov, a. m. (А. М. Членов.) "k voprosu ob imeni sviatoslava." lichnye imena v proshlom, nastoyaschem i buduschem antroponomiki ("К вопросу об имени Святослава." Личные имена в прошлом, настоящем и будущем: проблемы антропонимики) (moscow, ). 	christian, david. a history of russia, mongolia and central asia. blackwell, . 	cross, s. h., and o. p. sherbowitz-wetzor. the russian primary chronicle: laurentian text. cambridge, mass.: medieval academy of america, . 	dunlop, d. m. history of the jewish khazars. princeton univ. press, . 	franklin, simon and jonathan shepard. the emergence of rus - . london: longman, . isbn  - - -x. 	golden, p. b. "rus." encyclopaedia of islam (brill online). eds.: p. bearman, th. bianquis, c. e. bosworth, e. van donzel and w. p. heinrichs. brill, . 	grekov, boris. kiev rus. tr. sdobnikov, y., ed. ogden, denis. moscow: foreign languages publishing house, 	hanak, walter k. ( ), "the infamous svjatoslav: master of duplicity in war and peace?", in miller, timothy s.; nesbitt, john (eds.), peace and war in byzantium: essays in honor of george t. dennis, s.j., the catholic university of america press, isbn  - - - - , archived from the original on june 	kendrick, thomas d. a history of the vikings. courier dover publications, . isbn  - - -x 	logan, donald f. the vikings in history nd ed. routledge, . isbn  - - - 	manteuffel th. "les tentatives d'entrainement de la russie de kiev dans la sphere d'influence latin". acta poloniae historica. warsaw, t. , . issn  - 	nazarenko, a. n. (А.Н. Назаренко). drevniaya rus' na mezhdunarodnykh putiakh (Древняя Русь на международных путях). moscow, russian academy of sciences, world history institute, . isbn  - - - . 	pletneva, svetlana. polovtsy moscow: nauka, . isbn  - - - . 	sakharov, andrey. the diplomacy of svyatoslav. moscow: nauka, . (online) 	subtelny, orest. ukraine: a history. toronto: university of toronto press, . isbn  - - - 	vernadsky, g. v. the origins of russia. oxford: clarendon press, . 	sviatoslav i of kiev rurikovich born:  died: 	regnal titles 	preceded by olga (regent) 	 prince of kiev s– 	succeeded by yaropolk i sviatoslavich 	titles in pretence 	preceded by igor 	 prince of kiev – s 	succeeded by yaropolk i 	preceded by olga 	 rulers of kievan rus' – 	succeeded by yaropolk 	authority control 	 	gnd: 	isni: x 	lccn: n 	lnb: 	nkc: jx 	selibr: 	viaf: 	 worldcat identities: lccn-n retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=sviatoslav_i&oldid= " 		categories: 	rurikids 	medieval child rulers 	murdered russian monarchs 	grand princes of kiev 	rurik dynasty 	 s births 	 deaths 	 th-century conflicts 	 th-century princes in kievan rus' 	 th-century murdered monarchs 	slavic pagans hidden categories: 	articles with russian-language sources (ru) 	articles containing russian-language text 	webarchive template wayback links 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	engvarb from november 	use dmy dates from november 	articles containing ukrainian-language text 	commons category link from wikidata 	articles containing french-language text 	articles containing latin-language text 	featured articles 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	wikipedia articles with isni identifiers 	wikipedia articles with lccn identifiers 	wikipedia articles with lnb identifiers 	wikipedia articles with nkc identifiers 	wikipedia articles with selibr identifiers 	wikipedia articles with viaf identifiers 	wikipedia articles with worldcatid identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related changes 	upload file 	special pages 	permanent link 	page information 	cite this page 	wikidata item 		 	 	 		print/export 	 	 			download as pdf 	printable version 		 	 	 		in other projects 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		languages 	 	 			afrikaans 	العربية 	asturianu 	azərbaycanca 	تۆرکجه 	Беларуская 	Български 	bosanski 	català 	Čeština 	cymraeg 	deutsch 	eesti 	Ελληνικά 	español 	esperanto 	euskara 	فارسی 	français 	galego 	한국어 	Հայերեն 	hrvatski 	bahasa indonesia 	Ирон 	italiano 	עברית 	ქართული 	Қазақша 	latina 	latviešu 	lietuvių 	magyar 	malagasy 	مصرى 	مازِرونی 	nederlands 	日本語 	norsk bokmål 	oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча 	polski 	português 	română 	Русиньскый 	Русский 	Саха тыла 	simple english 	slovenčina 	slovenščina 	Српски / srpski 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	suomi 	svenska 	Татарча/tatarça 	türkçe 	Українська 	tiếng việt 	吴语 	中文 		edit links 	 		 this page was last edited on december , at :  (utc). 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; 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seconds to upgrade your browser. 	log in 	sign up 	log in 	sign up 	more  		job board 	about 	press 	blog 	people 	papers 	terms 	privacy 	copyright 	 we're hiring! 	 help center 	less  download free pdf download free pdf the intersubjective dynamics of trust, distrust and manipulation trust and distrust: sociocultural perspectives, alex gillespie download pdfdownload full pdf packagethis paper a short summary of this paper full pdfs related to this paper the intersubjective dynamics of trust, distrust and manipulation download the intersubjective dynamics of trust, distrust and manipulation alex gillespie loading preview sorry, preview is currently unavailable. you can download the paper by clicking the button above. related papers trust and distrust: sociocultural perspectives by alex gillespie intersubjectivity: towards a dialogical analysis by alex gillespie trust and distrust in society by alex gillespie in the other we trust: buying souvenirs in ladakh, north india by alex gillespie methodological approaches to studying the dialogical self by alex gillespie download pdf ×closelog in log in with facebook log in with google   sign up with apple or email: password: remember me on this computer or reset password enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link. need an account? click here to sign up 	about 	press 	blog 	people 	papers 	job board 	advertise 	 we're hiring! 	 help center 	find new research papers in: 	physics 	chemistry 	biology 	health sciences 	ecology 	earth sciences 	cognitive science 	mathematics 	computer science 	terms 	privacy 	copyright 	academia © worry - wikipedia 	 	 	 	 	worry 	 		from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		thoughts, images, emotions, and actions of a pessimistic nature "worriers" redirects here. for band, see worriers (band). for other uses, see worry (disambiguation). 	part of a series on 	emotions 	 	 	acceptance 	affection 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	awe 	boredom 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	curiosity 	depression 	desire 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	doubt 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	empathy 	enthusiasm 	envy 	euphoria 	faith 	fear 	frustration 	gratification 	gratitude 	greed 	grief 	guilt 	happiness 	hatred 	hope 	horror 	hostility 	humiliation 	interest 	jealousy 	joy 	kindness 	loneliness 	love 	lust 	nostalgia 	outrage 	panic 	passion 	pity 	pleasure 	pride 	rage 	regret 	rejection 	remorse 	resentment 	sadness 	self-pity 	shame 	shock 	shyness 	social connection 	sorrow 	suffering 	surprise 	trust 	wonder 	worry 		v 	t 	e a depiction of rama in the ramayana. worried about his wife sita, he is consoled by his brother lakshmana. worry refers to the thoughts, images, emotions, and actions of a negative nature in a repetitive, uncontrollable manner that results from a proactive cognitive risk analysis made to avoid or solve anticipated potential threats and their potential consequences.[ ] contents 	 introduction 	 theories 	 . avoidance model 	 . cognitive model 	 philosophical perspectives 	 religious perspectives 	 management 	 see also 	 references 	 external links introduction[edit] a young girl looking worried psychologically, worry is part of perseverative cognition (a collective term for continuous thinking about negative events in the past or in the future).[ ] as an emotion "worry" is experienced from anxiety or concern about a real or imagined issue, often personal issues such as health or finances, or external broader issues such as environmental pollution, social structure or technological change. it is a natural response to anticipated future problems. excessive worry is a primary diagnostic feature of generalized anxiety disorder. most people experience short-lived periods of worry in their lives without incident; indeed, a mild amount of worrying have positive effects, if it prompts people to take precautions (e.g., fastening their seat belt or buying insurance) or avoid risky behaviors (e.g., angering dangerous animals, or binge drinking), but with excessive worrisome people they overestimate future dangers in their assessments and in its extremities tend to magnify the situation as a dead end which results stress. overestimation happens because analytic resources are a combination of external locus of control, personal experience and belief fallacies. chronically worried individuals are also more likely to lack confidence in their problem solving ability, perceive problems as threats, become easily frustrated when dealing with a problem, and are pessimistic about the outcome of problem-solving efforts.[ ] seriously anxious people find it difficult to control their worry and typically experience symptoms like restlessness, fatigue, difficulty in concentrating, irritability, muscle tension and sleep disturbance. theories[edit] mental state in terms of challenge level and skill level, according to csikszentmihalyi's flow model.[ ] (click on a fragment of the image to go to the appropriate article) avoidance model[edit] the avoidance model of worry (amw) theorizes that worry is a verbal linguistic, thought based activity, which arises as an attempt to inhibit vivid mental imagery and associated somatic and emotional activation.[ ] this inhibition precludes the emotional processing of fear that is theoretically necessary for successful habituation and extinction of feared stimuli.[ ] worry is reinforced as a coping technique due to the fact that most worries never actually occur, leaving the worrier with a feeling of having successfully controlled the feared situation, without the unpleasant sensations associated with exposure.[ ] cognitive model[edit] this model explains pathological worry to be an interaction between involuntary (bottom-up) processes, such as habitual biases in attention and interpretation favoring threat content, and voluntary (top-down) processes, such as attentional control. emotional processing biases influence the probability of threat representations into the awareness as intruding negative or positive thoughts. at a pre-conscious level, these processes influence the competition among mental representations in which some correspond to the assertive power of worry with impaired cognitive process and others to the preventive power of worry with attentional control or exhaustive vigilance. the biases determine threatening degree and nature of worry content the worrier attempts to resolve the perceived threat and the redirection of anticipations, responses and coping in such situations.[ ] there are some who respond to mental representations in an uncertain or ambiguous state in regard to the stressful or upsetting event.[ ] in this state the worrier is held in a perpetual state of worry. this is because availability of an overwhelming number(maybe or , depending upon the worry-prone individual) of possibilities of outcomes which can be generated, it puts the worrier in a threatening crisis and they focus their attentional control voluntarily on the potential negative outcomes, whereas others engage in a constructive problem solving manner and in a benign approach rather than to engage with heightened anticipation on the possible negative outcome.[ ] philosophical perspectives[edit] greek thinkers such as stoic philosopher epictetus and seneca advised against worry. albert ellis, the inventor of cognitive behavioural therapy, was inspired by the stoics’ therapeutic ideas.[ ] religious perspectives[edit] guido reni's th-century painting of john the baptist depicts anguish and worry. the biblical word used in hebrew for worry (hebrew: דָּאַג‎, daag) regards worry as a combined form of fear and sorrow which affects nephesh, the totality of our being. the bible takes a fortitude-strengthening approach regarding worrying e.g. psalm : 	in the multitude of my anxieties within me, your comforts delight my soul.[ ] in the new testament, the gospel of matthew encourages: 	and can any of you by worrying add a single hour to your span of life? ... so do not worry about tomorrow, for tomorrow will bring worries of its own. today’s trouble is enough for today.[ ] the greek word used for worry in matthew is merimnaō,[ ] which means to be anxious about, or to be troubled with cares. st. paul writes to the philippian church, "there is no need to worry"[ ] and in the pastoral epistles, timothy : emboldens: 	for god did not give us a spirit of cowardice, but rather a spirit of power and of love and of self-discipline. similarly james : - motivates to face trials of any kind with joy, because they produce endurance (strength and courage). further saint peter reveals his understanding of healthy living in second peter : , – : 	we have a sure hope ... this is a cause of great joy for us.[ ] a late indian spiritual teacher meher baba stated that worry is caused by desires and can be overcome through detachment: 	worry is the product of feverish imagination working under the stimulus of desires ... (it) is a necessary resultant of attachment to the past or to the anticipated future, and it always persists in some form or other until the mind is completely detached from everything. [ ] management[edit] the worry system is activated from exposure to a potential triggering event, traumatic experience or vulnerability, this brings worrisome thoughts and feelings which bring about physical stress reactions and response to avoid worrisome behavior, to ensure allostasis. but under the crisis this activity feeds back into the first worrisome thoughts and feelings which generates and strengthens the vicious worry cycle. relaxation, risk assessment, worry exposure and behavior prevention have been proven effective in curbing the excessive worry, a chief feature of generalized anxiety disorder.[ ] cognitive behavioral techniques hasn't branched out enough to address the problem holistically but therapy can control or diminish worry.[ ] see also[edit] 	anxiety 	attitude (psychology) 	fear 	interoceptive exposure 	mental toughness 	neuroticism 	panic attack 	rumination (psychology) references[edit] 	^ borkovec td. ( ). clinical psychology: science and practice , – . 	^ brosschot, j.f.; pieper, s.; thayer, j.f. ( ). "expanding stress theory: prolonged activation and perseverative cognition". psychoneuroendocrinology. ( ): – . doi: . /j.psyneuen. . . . pmid  . 	^ bredemeier, keith; berenbaum, howard ( - - ). "intolerance of uncertainty and perceived threat". behaviour research and therapy. ( ): – . doi: . /j.brat. . . . pmid  . 	^ csikszentmihalyi, m., finding flow, , p. . 	^ borkovec, t. d.; alcaine, o.m.; behar, e. ( ). generalized anxiety disorderl advances in research and practic. guilford press. pp.  – . 	^ gillihan, seth j.; foa, edna b. ( ). associative learning and conditioning theory. pp.  – . doi: . /acprof:oso/ . . . isbn  . 	^ behar, evelyn; dimarco, ilyse dobrow; hekler, eric b.; mohlman, jan; staples, alison m. (dec ). "current theoretical models of generalized anxiety disorder (gad): conceptual review and treatment implications". journal of anxiety disorders. ( ): – . doi: . /j.janxdis. . . . pmid  . 	^ r.h, colette; mathews, andrew ( ). "a cognitive model of pathological worry". behaviour research and therapy. ( ): – . doi: . /j.brat. . . . pmc  . pmid  . 	^ koerner, naomi; dugas, michel j. ( - - ). davey, graham c. l.; wells, adrian (eds.). a cognitive model of generalized anxiety disorder: the role of intolerance of uncertainty. john wiley & sons ltd. pp.  – . doi: . / .ch . isbn  . 	^ robichaud, melisa ( - - ). "generalized anxiety disorder: targeting intolerance of uncertainty". in simos, gregoris; hofmann, stefan g. (eds.). cbt for anxiety disorders. john wiley & sons ltd. pp.  – . doi: . / .ch . isbn  . 	^ evans, j., anxious? depressed? try greek philosophy, the telegraph june , accessed october 	^ psalms : 	^ matthew : , 	^ "is worry a sin?". christianity unfiltered. retrieved - - . 	^ philippians : - jerusalem bible 	^ "new revised standard version" retrieved on - - 	^ baba, meher ( ). discourses. . sufism reoriented. pp. – . isbn  - 	^ o'leary, t. a., brown, t. a., & barlow, d. h. ( ). the efficacy of worry control treatment in generalized anxiety disorder: a multiple baseline analysis. association for advancement of behavior therapy, boston. 	^ zinbarg re, barlow dh, brown ta, hertz rm. cognitive-behavioral approaches to the nature and treatment of anxiety disorders. annu rev psychol. ; : – . external links[edit] 	current theoretical models of generalized anxiety disorder (gad): conceptual review and treatment implications 		look up worry in wiktionary, the free dictionary. 		wikiquote has quotations related to: worry 	 	v 	t 	e emotions (list) 	emotions	 	acceptance 	adoration 	aesthetic emotions 	affection 	agitation 	agony 	amusement 	anger 	angst 	anguish 	annoyance 	anticipation 	anxiety 	apathy 	arousal 	attraction 	awe 	boredom 	calmness 	compassion 	confidence 	contempt 	contentment 	courage 	cruelty 	curiosity 	defeat 	depression 	desire 	despair 	disappointment 	disgust 	distrust 	ecstasy 	embarrassment 	vicarious 	empathy 	enthrallment 	enthusiasm 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	somatic marker 	constructed emotion 	authority control 	 	gnd: - retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=worry&oldid= " 		categories: 	anxiety 	emotions 	psychotherapy 	stress (biological and psychological) hidden categories: 	articles with short description 	short description is different from wikidata 	articles containing hebrew-language text 	wikipedia articles with gnd identifiers 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			article 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	edit 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 		navigation 	 	 			main page 	contents 	current events 	random article 	about wikipedia 	contact us 	donate 		 	 	 	 		contribute 	 	 			help 	learn to edit 	community portal 	recent changes 	upload file 		 	 	 		tools 	 	 			what links here 	related 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(q ) 	 		from wikidata 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 assumption of and reliance on the honesty of another party 	faith edit 	language	label	description	also known as 	english	 trust 	 assumption of and reliance on the honesty of another party 	 	faith statements instance of positive emotion references basic emotion references core concept statement is subject of religion references subclass of belief of honesty good capability references part of psychology terminology references studied by theory of emotion references pronunciation audio ll-q (deu)-sebastian wallroth-vertrauen.wav . s; kb language of work or name german references opposite of distrust references used by confidence trick references described by source brockhaus and efron encyclopedic dictionary statement is subject of q references lean logic: a dictionary for the future and how to survive it described at url https://leanlogic.online/glossary/trust references different from vertrauen references conviction references commons category trust reference imported from wikimedia project english wikipedia wordlift url http://data.thenextweb.com/tnw/entity/trust reference reference url https://thenextweb.com/vocabulary/trust/ identifiers gnd id - references library of congress authority id sh references mesh descriptor id d references australian educational vocabulary id scot/ references bncf thesaurus id reference stated in nuovo soggettario encyclopædia britannica online id topic/trust-religious-philosophy references freebase id /m/ h p reference stated in freebase data dumps publication date october quora topic id trust’-english-word references french vikidia id confiance references yso id reference stated in yso-wikidata linking   sitelinks wikipedia( entries) edit 	 arwiki ثقة (علم الاجتماع) 	 astwiki enfotu 	 bewiki Давер 	 bgwiki Доверие 	 cawiki confiança 	 cswiki důvěra 	 dawiki tillid 	 dewiki vertrauen 	 enwiki trust (social science) 	 eowiki konfido 	 eswiki confianza 	 etwiki usaldus 	 euwiki konfiantza 	 fiwiki luottamus 	 frwiki confiance 	 fywiki fertrouwen 	 glwiki confianza 	 hewiki אמון 	 hrwiki povjerenje 	 hywiki Վստահություն 	 itwiki fiducia 	 jawiki 信頼 	 kkwiki Тәрбиедегі сенім 	 knwiki ನಂಬಿಕೆ 	 kowiki 신뢰 	 nlwiki vertrouwen 	 plwiki zaufanie 	 ptwiki confiança 	 ruwiki Доверие 	 shwiki povjerenje 	 simplewiki trust (social sciences) 	 skwiki dôvera 	 snwiki ruvimbo 	 srwiki Поверење 	 trwiki güven (sosyoloji) 	 ukwiki Довіра 	 zhwiki 信任 wikibooks( entries) edit wikinews( entries) edit wikiquote( entries) edit 	 bgwikiquote Доверие — Недоверие 	 bswikiquote povjerenje 	 cawikiquote confiança 	 cswikiquote důvěra 	 dewikiquote vertrauen 	 elwikiquote Εμπιστοσύνη 	 enwikiquote trust 	 eowikiquote konfido 	 eswikiquote confianza 	 fawikiquote اعتماد 	 hewikiquote אמון 	 hrwikiquote povjerenje 	 huwikiquote bizalom 	 hywikiquote Վստահություն 	 itwikiquote fiducia 	 nlwikiquote vertrouwen 	 plwikiquote zaufanie 	 ptwikiquote confiança 	 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l’historique 		 	 					 	 	 		plus 	 	 		 		 	 				 			 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 	confiance 	 		un article de wikipédia, l'encyclopédie libre. 		 		 		 		 pour les articles homonymes, voir confiance (homonymie). cet article est une ébauche concernant la psychologie et l’économie. vous pouvez partager vos connaissances en l’améliorant (comment ?) selon les recommandations des projets correspondants. consultez la liste des tâches à accomplir en page de discussion. plaque métallique sur le mur d'une maison en saône-et-loire, france. divers philosophes, psychologues et chercheurs en sciences sociales ont travaillé sur la notion de confiance qui, selon une définition assez largement acceptée, peut être entendue comme « un état psychologique se caractérisant par l'intention d'accepter la vulnérabilité sur la base de croyances optimistes sur les intentions (ou le comportement) d'autrui »[ ]. la confiance renvoie à l’idée que l’on peut se fier à quelqu’un ou à quelque chose. dans l’étymologie latine, le verbe confier (du latin confidere : cum, « avec » et fidere « fier ») signifie qu’on remet quelque chose de précieux à quelqu’un, en se fiant à lui et en s’abandonnant ainsi à sa bienveillance et à sa bonne foi. cette origine souligne les liens étroits qui existent entre la confiance, l'espoir, la foi, la fidélité, la confidence, le crédit et la croyance[ ]. confiance est aussi une des vertus chrétiennes plus importantes, particulièrement dans la dévotion à la divine miséricorde[ ]. sommaire 	 confiance en soi 	 faire confiance 	 confiance et foi 	 confiance dans les relations vendeurs-acheteurs 	 sources 	 voir aussi 	 . articles connexes confiance en soi[modifier | modifier le code] articles détaillés : confiance en soi (psychologie) et excès de confiance (psychologie). la confiance en soi[ ] n'est pas identique à l'« estime de soi » qui se réfère à l'évaluation faite d'un individu en rapport à sa propre valeur. selon certains psychologues, la confiance en soi est en rapport avec les capacités d'un individu, non ses valeurs[ ]. selon certains psychologues, la confiance en soi s'apprend, et est dé-corrélée du temps : il est possible d'accélérer l'apprentissage de sa confiance en soi[ ], car elle est mentale, et non physique. faire confiance[modifier | modifier le code] pour faire confiance, il faut pouvoir croire en les autres et accepter le risque de la dépendance. c’est pour cela que la confiance n’est jamais « neutre ». elle est fondamentale car, sans confiance, il serait difficile d’envisager l’existence même des relations humaines – des rapports de travail jusqu’à l’amitié ou bien l’amour. sans confiance, on ne pourrait même pas envisager l’avenir et chercher à bâtir un projet qui se développe dans le temps. comme l’expliquent un bon nombre de travaux en sciences sociales[réf. nécessaire], c’est la confiance qui rend possible le développement de la socialité et le fonctionnement de la démocratie. de la même façon, notre système économique est basé sur la confiance, par exemple dans le billet de banque (monnaie fiduciaire). il est également possible de la définir comme « un certain niveau de probabilité subjective », ce qui devrait permettre à un individu de croire que l’autre accomplira ce qu’il attend de lui. faire confiance à quelqu’un signifierait dès lors d'envisager une possible coopération[réf. nécessaire]. confiance et foi[modifier | modifier le code] bien qu'ayant une étymologie commune (latin fides), la confiance et la foi, prise au sens religieux de foi chrétienne ou de foi religieuse, sont néanmoins assez distinctes : on a confiance en quelqu'un ou dans un système, éventuellement en dieu, mais la foi religieuse s'applique toujours à dieu. ainsi, on pourrait dire que l'on a confiance en la technique pour résoudre les problèmes qui se posent aujourd'hui, mais on voit bien que le christianisme a été et est toujours réservé sur l'usage des techniques : par exemple, cette réserve parcourt toute l'encyclique laudato si' du pape françois « sur la sauvegarde de la maison commune », où celui-ci met en garde contre un progrès uniquement technique qui ignorerait les valeurs spirituelles et morales. dans un contexte de sécularisation, le mot « foi » a souvent perdu son sens religieux pour s'identifier à la confiance pure et simple. confiance dans les relations vendeurs-acheteurs[modifier | modifier le code] une analyse des écrits multiples sur les différentes composantes de la confiance qui s'établit entre vendeurs et acheteurs révèle que quatre variables structurantes jouent un rôle clé : ) les affinités (les atomes crochus entre les deux parties); ) la bienveillance ou le soin qu'une partie prend envers le bien-être de l'autre partie; ) les habiletés ou la reconnaissance des compétences de l'autre (le vendeur sait de quoi il parle et l'acheteur sait ce qu'il veut); et ) l'intégrité. les deux premières composantes sont considérées comme étant émotionnelles puisqu'elles relèvent du senti et le deux suivantes comme étant cognitives, puisqu'elles sous-entendent une évaluation rationnelle[ ]. la confiance interagit avec les éléments formels de gouvernance et, en particulier, le contrat liant le vendeur et l’acheteur.[ ],[ ] sources[modifier | modifier le code] 	↑ l'analyse economique de la confiance, bruxelles, de boeck université, coll. « ouvertures economiques », ,  p. (isbn  - - - - , lire en ligne). il s'agit d'une traduction de la définition suivante: "trust is a psychological state comprising the intention to accept vulnerability based upon positive expectations of the intentions or behavior of another." donnée dans denise m. rousseau, sim b. sitkin, ronald s. burt et colin camerer, « not so different after all: a cross-discipline view of trust », academy of management review (en), vol.  , no  ,‎ , p.  - 	↑ michela marzano, « qu'est ce que la confiance ? », sur www.cairn.info, (consulté en juin ) 	↑ congrégation des sœurs de notre-dame de la miséricorde 	↑ jean-louis vincent, « définition, causes et solutions au manque de confiance en soi », ma vie en main,‎ décembre (lire en ligne, consulté le juillet ) 	↑ michelle larivey, « "lettre du psy" », sur redpsy, mars (consulté le mai ). 	↑ robin warrot, « avoir confiance en soi », sur construistavie.fr, articles web, octobre (consulté le octobre ) 	↑ mesly, olivier ( ). creating models in psychological research. États-unis. springer psychology, pages . (isbn  - - - - ) 	↑ (en) laura poppo et todd zenger, « do formal contracts and relational governance function as substitutes or complements? », strategic management journal, vol.  , no  ,‎ août , p.  – (issn  - et - , doi  . /smj. , lire en ligne, consulté le avril ) 	↑ (en) fabrice lumineau, « how contracts influence trust and distrust », journal of management, vol.  , no  ,‎ mai , p.  – (issn  - et - , doi  . / , lire en ligne, consulté le avril ) voir aussi[modifier | modifier le code] sur les autres projets wikimedia : 	confiance, sur wikimedia commons articles connexes[modifier | modifier le code] 	auto-efficacité 	estime de soi 	foi 	foi chrétienne 	 portail de la psychologie 	 portail de la sociologie ce document provient de « https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=confiance&oldid=  ». 		catégories : 	psychologie sociale 	concept sociologique 	sociologie politique 	sociologie des religions 	futur 	concept de psychologie catégories cachées : 	article contenant un appel à traduction en anglais 	wikipédia:ébauche psychologie 	wikipédia:ébauche économie 	article à référence nécessaire 	catégorie commons avec lien local identique sur wikidata 	portail:psychologie/articles liés 	portail:sciences humaines et sociales/articles liés 	portail:sociologie/articles liés 	 	 	 	 		 		 la dernière modification de cette page a été faite le juin à : . 	droit d'auteur : les textes sont disponibles sous licence creative commons attribution, partage dans les mêmes conditions ; d’autres conditions peuvent s’appliquer. voyez les conditions d’utilisation pour plus de détails, ainsi que les crédits graphiques. en cas de réutilisation des textes de cette page, voyez comment citer les auteurs et mentionner la licence. wikipedia® est une marque déposée de la wikimedia foundation, inc., organisation de bienfaisance régie par le paragraphe (c)( ) du code fiscal des États-unis. 		politique de confidentialité 	À propos de wikipédia 	avertissements 	contact 	version mobile 	développeurs 	statistiques 	déclaration sur les témoins (cookies) 		 	 	 	 	 trust and responsiveness in strain-test situations: a dyadic perspective - pubmed this site needs javascript to work properly. please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! clipboard, search history, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. skip to main page content covid- is an emerging, rapidly evolving situation. get the latest public health information from cdc: https://www.coronavirus.gov get the latest research information from nih: https://www.nih.gov/coronavirus find ncbi sars-cov- literature, sequence, and clinical content: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sars-cov- /   	 		 			 				national institutes of health 				national library of medicine 				national center for biotechnology information 				ncbi homepage 			 			 				log in 				 					 					 					show account info 				 			 			 				 					 						close 						account 					 					 						logged in as: 						username 					 					 							dashboard (my ncbi) 	publications (my bibliography) 	account settings 	log out 					 				 			 		 	 access keys ncbi homepage myncbi homepage main content main navigation 	 search: search advanced clipboard user guide save email send to	 clipboard 	my bibliography 	collections 	citation manager display options display options format abstract pubmed pmid save citation to file format: summary (text) pubmed pmid abstract (text) csv create file cancel email citation subject: to: format: summary summary (text) abstract abstract (text) mesh and other data send email cancel add to collections 	 create a new collection 	 add to an existing collection name your collection: name must be less than characters choose a collection: unable to load your collection due to an error please try again add cancel add to my bibliography 	 my bibliography unable to load your delegates due to an error please try again add cancel your saved search name of saved search: search terms: test search terms would you like email updates of new search results? saved search alert radio buttons 	 yes 	 no email: (change) frequency: monthly weekly daily which day? the first sunday the first monday the first tuesday the first wednesday the first thursday the first friday the first saturday the first day the first weekday which day? sunday monday tuesday wednesday thursday friday saturday report format: summary summary (text) abstract abstract (text) pubmed send at most: item items items items items items items send even when there aren't any new results optional text in email: save cancel create a file for external citation management software create file cancel your rss feed name of rss feed: number of items displayed: create rss cancel rss link copy full text links american psychological association full-text links actions cite favorites display options display options format abstract pubmed pmid share 	 	 	 permalink copy page navigation 	 title & authors 	 abstract 	 similar articles 	 publication types 	 mesh terms 	 related information 	 linkout - more resources title & authors abstract similar articles publication types mesh terms related information linkout - more resources j pers soc psychol actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in nlm catalog 	 add to search . may; ( ): - . doi: . /a . epub jan . trust and responsiveness in strain-test situations: a dyadic perspective sandra l shallcross  , jeffry a simpson affiliations expand affiliation 	 department of psychology, university of minnesota, minneapolis, mn - , usa. shal @umn.edu 	 pmid: 	 doi: . /a item in clipboard trust and responsiveness in strain-test situations: a dyadic perspective sandra l shallcross et al. j pers soc psychol. may. show details display options display options format abstract pubmed pmid j pers soc psychol actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in nlm catalog 	 add to search . may; ( ): - . doi: . /a . epub jan . authors sandra l shallcross  , jeffry a simpson affiliation 	 department of psychology, university of minnesota, minneapolis, mn - , usa. shal @umn.edu 	 pmid: 	 doi: . /a item in clipboard full-text links citedisplay options display options format abstract pubmed pmid abstract in this behavioral observation study, the authors tested predictions derived from various trust models concerning how individuals who are high vs. low in chronic trust perceive and behave during strain-test discussions with their romantic partners. partners in married/cohabitating couples identified and discussed major strain-test issues in their relationship. each partner (when in the role of asker) identified something she or he really wanted to do or accomplish that required the greatest sacrifice by his or her partner (in the responding role). each videotaped discussion was then rated by trained coders. the results revealed that (a) high trust responders were more accommodating during the strain-test discussions than low trust responders; (b) high trust askers were more open/collaborative with the accommodation they received during the discussions than low trust askers; (c) high trust askers overestimated the amount of accommodation they received from their responding partners (relative to coder's ratings); (d) when in discussions that were more threatening, high trust askers showed a correction effect by reporting larger pre- to postdiscussion increases in state trust; and (e) when asked to make larger sacrifices, high trust responders showed a similar correction effect by displaying greater accommodation. these findings are discussed in terms of mutual responsiveness processes in relationships. similar articles 	 buffering the responses of avoidantly attached romantic partners in strain test situations. farrell ak, simpson ja, overall nc, shallcross sl. farrell ak, et al. j fam psychol. aug; ( ): - . doi: . /fam . epub feb . j fam psychol. . pmid: 	 trust and communicated attributions in close relationships. rempel jk, ross m, holmes jg. rempel jk, et al. j pers soc psychol. jul; ( ): - . j pers soc psychol. . pmid: 	 not "capitalizing" on social capitalization interactions: the role of attachment insecurity. shallcross sl, howland m, bemis j, simpson ja, frazier p. shallcross sl, et al. j fam psychol. feb; ( ): - . doi: . /a . j fam psychol. . pmid: 	 distress in spouses of vietnam veterans: associations with communication about deployment experiences. campbell sb, renshaw kd. campbell sb, et al. j fam psychol. feb; ( ): - . doi: . /a . epub dec . j fam psychol. . pmid: 	 attachment and the experience and expression of emotions in romantic relationships: a developmental perspective. simpson ja, collins wa, tran s, haydon kc. simpson ja, et al. j pers soc psychol. feb; ( ): - . doi: . / - . . . . j pers soc psychol. . pmid: see all similar articles publication types 	 research support, non-u.s. gov't actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search mesh terms 	 adult actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 cooperative behavior* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 discriminant analysis actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 female actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 humans actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 life change events* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 male actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 middle aged actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 models, psychological actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 reproducibility of results actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 spouses / psychology* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 stress, psychological / psychology* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 trust* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 united states actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search related information 	 medgen linkout - more resources 	full text sources 	 american psychological association 	 ovid technologies, inc. 	medical 	 medlineplus health information full-text links [x] american psychological association [x] cite copy download .nbib format: ama apa mla nlm send to 	clipboard 	email 	save 	my bibliography 	collections 	citation manager [x] 		 		connect 			twitter 	facebook 	youtube 	linkedin 	github 			blog 	support center 		 		 national center for biotechnology information 		 rockville pike bethesda, md usa 		 		 	about us 	contact us 	policies 	foia 		 		popular 	pubmed 	pubmed central 	bookshelf 	pubchem 	gene 	blast 	nucleotide 	protein 	geo 			 		 			resources 				literature 	health 	genomes 	genes 	proteins 	chemicals 		 		 actions 	submit 	download 	learn 	develop 	analyze 	research 		 		 		 	 		 			nlm 			 |  			nih 			 |  			hhs 			 |  			usa.gov 		 	 	 	 feedback konfiantza - wikipedia, entziklopedia askea. 	jump to content 	 	 		toggle sidebar 	 	 		 		 			 			 		 	 	 	 		bilatu 	 	 		 			 			 			 			 		 	 	 	 		tresna pertsonalak 	 	 			saioa hasi gabe 	eztabaida 	ekarpenak 	sortu kontua 	hasi saioa 		 	 	 	 	 		nabigazioa 	 	 			azala 	txikipedia 	txokoa 	albisteak 	aldaketa berriak 	ausazko orria 	laguntza 	dohaintza egin 		 	 	 	 		tresnak 	 	 			honanzko lotura duten orriak 	lotutako orrietako aldaketak 	fitxategia igo 	orri bereziak 	lotura iraunkorra 	orri honen datuak 	artikulu hau aipatu 	wikidata itema 		 	 	 		inprimatu/esportatu 	 	 			liburu bat sortu 	pdf gisa jaitsi 	inprimatzeko bertsioa 		 	 	 		beste proiektuetan 	 	 			wikimedia commons 		 	 	 	 		beste hizkuntzak 	 	 			العربية 	asturianu 	Беларуская 	Български 	català 	Čeština 	dansk 	deutsch 	english 	esperanto 	español 	eesti 	suomi 	français 	frysk 	galego 	עברית 	hrvatski 	Հայերեն 	italiano 	日本語 	Қазақша 	ಕನ್ನಡ 	한국어 	nederlands 	polski 	português 	Русский 	srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски 	simple english 	slovenčina 	chishona 	Српски / srpski 	türkçe 	Українська 	中文 		aldatu loturak 	 	 		nabigazio menua 		 			 				 					 	 		izen-tarteak 	 	 			artikulua 	eztabaida 		 	 					 	 	 		aldaerak 	 	 		 		 	 				 				 					 	 		ikusketak 	 	 			irakurri 	aldatu 	aldatu iturburu kodea 	ikusi historia 		 	 					 	 	 		gehiago 	 	 		 		 	 				 			 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 	konfiantza 	 		wikipedia, entziklopedia askea 		 		 		 		 	artikulu hau kontzeptu psikologiko eta soziologikoari buruzkoa da; konfiantza estatistikoa gaitzat duena beste hau da: «konfiantza-tarte» iruñeko sanferminetan ohiko bilakatu diren nafarreria iturritik jauziak egiteko behean daudenekiko konfiantza ezinbestekoa da. konfiantza pertsona, talde edo erakunde batek beste batek aurrez planifikatu, hitz eman edo espero den bezala jokatu eta bilatzen diren emaitzak izateko beharrezko ekintzak burutuko dituelako ustea eta horri dagokion jarrera eta sentimendua da. funtsezko jarrera da gizarte harremanak eratzeko, gizartearen aurrerapena norberak hartutako konpromisoetan eta, hartzaileareen aldetik, horiek betetzeko konfiantzan oinarritzen delako. kanpo estekak[aldatu | aldatu iturburu kodea] 	autoritate kontrola	 	wikimedia proiektuak 	 datuak: q 	 multimedia: trust 	identifikadoreak 	gnd: - 	lccn: sh 	hiztegiak eta entziklopediak 	britannica: url 	medikuntzako identifikadoreak 	mesh: d 	 datuak: q 	 multimedia: trust 	 	artikulu hau zirriborroa da. wikipedia lagun dezakezu edukia osatuz. "https://eu.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=konfiantza&oldid= "(e)tik eskuratuta 		kategoriak: 	zirriborroak 	etika 	psikologia morala 	ardura 	gizarte epistemologia ezkutuko kategoriak: 	wikipedia:gnd identifikatzailea duten artikuluak 	wikipedia:lccn identifikatzailea duten artikuluak 	 	 	 	 		 		 orriaren azken aldaketa: iraila , : . 	testua creative commons aitortu-partekatuberdin . lizentziari jarraituz erabil daiteke; baliteke beste klausularen batzuk ere aplikatu behar izatea. xehetasunen berri izateko, ikus erabilera-baldintzak. 		pribazitate politika 	wikipediari buruz 	lege oharra 	mugikorreko bista 	garatzaileak 	statistics 	cookie adierazpena 		 	 	 	 	 privacy policy - wikimedia foundation governance wiki 	 	 	 	 	privacy policy 	 		from the wikimedia foundation governance wiki 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		 	العربية 	azərbaycanca 	تۆرکجه 	беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ 	български 	روچ کپتین بلوچی 	বাংলা 	bosanski 	català 	нохчийн 	کوردی 	čeština 	català 	cymraeg 	deutsch 	deutsch (sie-form)‎ 	zazaki 	Ελληνικά 	emiliàn e rumagnòl 	english 	canadian english 	british english 	esperanto 	español 	euskara 	فارسی 	suomi 	français 	nordfriisk 	frysk 	galego 	avañe'ẽ 	עברית 	हिन्दी 	hrvatski 	magyar 	bahasa indonesia 	italiano 	日本語 	ქართული 	ភាសាខ្មែរ 	한국어 	ripoarisch 	Кыргызча 	lëtzebuergesch 	ligure 	lietuvių 	basa banyumasan 	македонски 	മലയാളം 	bahasa melayu 	မြန်မာဘာသာ 	مازِرونی 	napulitano 	norsk bokmål 	नेपाली 	nederlands 	nl-formal 	diné bizaad 	occitan 	ਪੰਜਾਬੀ 	plautdietsch 	polski 	پښتو 	português 	português do brasil 	română 	русский 	scots 	سنڌي 	ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး 	සිංහල 	soomaaliga 	shqip 	српски / srpski 	svenska 	kiswahili 	தமிழ் 	తెలుగు 	тоҷикӣ 	ไทย 	türkçe 	удмурт 	українська 	اردو 	tiếng việt 	მარგალური 	ייִדיש 	yorùbá 	粵語 	中文 	中文（简体）‎ 	中文（繁體）‎ this policy is approved by the wikimedia foundation board of trustees to apply to all wikimedia projects. it may not be circumvented, eroded, or ignored by local policies. want to help translate? translate the missing messages. privacy policy this is a summary of the privacy policy. to read the full terms, scroll down or click here. disclaimer: this summary is not a part of the privacy policy and is not a legal document. it is simply a handy reference for understanding the full privacy policy. think of it as the user-friendly interface to our privacy policy. because we believe that you shouldn’t have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement, you may: 	read, edit, or use any wikimedia site without registering an account. 	register for an account without providing an email address or real name. because we want to understand how wikimedia sites are used so we can make them better for you, we collect some information when you: 	make public contributions. 	register an account or update your user page. 	use the wikimedia sites. 	send us emails or participate in a survey or give feedback. we are committed to: 	describing how your information may be used or shared in this privacy policy. 	using reasonable measures to keep your information secure. 	never selling your information or sharing it with third parties for marketing purposes. 	only sharing your information in limited circumstances, such as to improve the wikimedia sites, to comply with the law, or to protect you and others. 	retaining your data for the shortest possible time that is consistent with maintaining, understanding, and improving the wikimedia sites, and our obligations under law. be aware: 	any content you add or any change that you make to a wikimedia site will be publicly and permanently available. 	if you add content or make a change to a wikimedia site without logging in, that content or change will be publicly and permanently archived in the public interest; your content or change will be attributed to the ip address used at the time rather than a username. 	our community of volunteer editors and contributors is a self-policing body. certain administrators of the wikimedia sites, who are chosen by the community, use tools that grant them limited access to nonpublic information about recent contributions so they may protect the wikimedia sites and enforce policies. 	this privacy policy does not apply to all sites and services run by the wikimedia foundation, such as sites or services that have their own privacy policy (like the wikimedia shop) or sites or services run by third parties (like third-party developer projects on wikimedia cloud services). 	as part of our commitment to education and research around the world, we occasionally release public information and aggregated or non-personal information to the general public through data dumps and data sets. 	for the protection of the wikimedia foundation and other users, if you do not agree with this privacy policy, you may not use the wikimedia sites. introduction use of info sharing protection important info 	contents 	 contents 	 introduction 	 . welcome! 	 . . definitions 	 . . what this privacy policy does & doesn't cover 	 collection & use of info 	 . types of information we receive from you & how we get it 	 . . your public contributions 	 . . account information & registration 	 . . location information 	 . . . gps & other location technologies 	 . . . metadata 	 . . . ip addresses 	 . information related to your use of the wikimedia sites 	 . . information we receive automatically 	 . . information we collect 	 . how we use information we receive from you 	 . other 	 . . location information 	 . . . gps & other location technologies 	 . . . metadata 	 . . . ip addresses 	 sharing 	 . when may we share your information? 	 . . with your permission 	 . . for legal reasons 	 . . if the organization is transferred (really unlikely!) 	 . . to protect you, ourselves & others 	 . . to our service providers 	 . . to understand & experiment 	 . . because you made it public 	 protection 	 . how do we protect your data? 	 . how long do we keep your data? 	 important info 	 . where is the foundation & what does that mean for me? 	 . our response to do not track (dnt) signals 	 . changes to this privacy policy 	 . contact us 	 . thank you! introduction welcome! the wikimedia foundation is the nonprofit organization that operates collaborative, free knowledge websites, like wikipedia, wikimedia commons, and wiktionary. this policy explains how we collect, use, and share your personal information. 	we collect very little personal information about you. 	we do not rent or sell your information to third parties. by using wikimedia sites, you consent to this policy. the wikimedia movement is founded on a simple, but powerful principle: we can do more together than any of us can do alone. we cannot work collectively without gathering, sharing, and analyzing information about our users as we seek new ways to make the wikimedia sites more usable, safer, and more beneficial. we believe that information-gathering and use should go hand-in-hand with transparency. this privacy policy explains how the wikimedia foundation, the non-profit organization that hosts the wikimedia sites, like wikipedia, collects, uses, and shares information we receive from you through your use of the wikimedia sites. it is essential to understand that, by using any of the wikimedia sites, you consent to the collection, transfer, processing, storage, disclosure, and use of your information as described in this privacy policy. that means that reading this policy carefully is important. we believe that you shouldn't have to provide nonpublic personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement. you do not have to provide things like your real name, address, or date of birth to sign up for a standard account or contribute content to the wikimedia sites. we do not sell or rent your personal information, nor do we give it to others to sell you anything. we use it to figure out how to make the wikimedia sites more engaging and accessible, to see which ideas work, and to make learning and contributing more fun. put simply: we use this information to make the wikimedia sites better for you. after all, it's people like you, the champions of free knowledge, who make it possible for the wikimedia sites to not only exist, but also grow and thrive. definitions back to top we recognize that only a minority of you are familiar with technical terms like “tracking pixels” and “cookies” used in the privacy policy. whether you are brand new to privacy terminology or you are an expert who just wants a refresher, you might find our glossary of key terms helpful. because everyone (not just lawyers) should be able to easily understand how and why their information is collected and used, we use common language instead of more formal terms throughout this policy. to help ensure your understanding of some particular key terms, here is a table of translations: 	when we say... 	... we mean: 	"the wikimedia foundation" / "the foundation" / "we" / "us" / "our" 	the wikimedia foundation, inc., the non-profit organization that operates the wikimedia sites. 	"wikimedia sites" / "our services" 	wikimedia websites and services (regardless of language), including our main projects, such as wikipedia and wikimedia commons, as well as mobile applications, apis, emails, and notifications; excluding, however, sites and services listed in the "what this privacy policy doesn't cover" section below. 	"you" / "your" / "me" 	you, regardless of whether you are an individual, group, or organization, and regardless of whether you are using the wikimedia sites or our services on behalf of yourself or someone else. 	"this policy" / "this privacy policy" 	this document, entitled the "wikimedia foundation privacy policy". 	"contributions" 	content you add or changes you make to any wikimedia sites. 	"personal information" 	information you provide us or information we collect from you in the context of your use of the wikimedia sites that could be used to personally identify you. to be clear, while we do not necessarily collect all of the following types of information, we consider at least the following to be personal information if it can be used to identify you: 	(a) name, address, phone number, email address, username, password, identification number on government-issued id, ip addresses, user-agent information, and credit card number; and; 	(b) when associated with an identifiable person, any sensitive data such as date of birth, gender, sexual orientation, racial or ethnic origins, marital or familial status, genetic and biometric data, medical conditions or disabilities, political affiliation, and religion. 	"third party" / "third parties" 	individuals, entities, websites, services, products, and applications that are not controlled, managed, or operated by the wikimedia foundation. this includes other wikimedia users and independent organizations or groups who help promote the wikimedia movement such as wikimedia chapters, thematic organizations, and user groups as well as volunteers, employees, directors, officers, grant recipients, and contractors of those organizations or groups. what this privacy policy does & doesn't cover except as explained below, this privacy policy applies to our collection and handling of information about you that we receive as a result of your use of any of the wikimedia sites. this policy also applies to information that we receive from our partners or other third parties. to understand more about what this privacy policy covers, please see below. 	examples of what this privacy policy covers 	 for the sake of clarity, this privacy policy covers, regardless of language: 	all of our major sites (found at list of major projects), such as wikipedia, including user pages, discussion pages, and noticeboards. 	our blogs and apis (unless we have provided a separate policy for those services). 	official wikimedia foundation mobile applications. 	emails, sms, and notifications from us or sent to us from you. this privacy policy, however, does not cover some situations where we may gather or process information. for example, some uses may be covered by separate privacy policies (like those of the wikimedia shop) or sites or services run by third parties (such as third-party developer projects on wikimedia cloud services). to understand more about what this privacy policy does not cover, please see below. 	more on what this privacy policy doesn’t cover 	 this section is part of the privacy policy and is meant to explain in detail which situations are not covered by our privacy policy. 	wikimedia sites and tools with alternative policies 	some wikimedia foundation websites or tools have alternative privacy policies or provisions that differ from this privacy policy. these websites include: 	wikimedia shop (covered by the shop's policy); 	donate.wikimedia.org, including the donation process, such as clicking on a donation banner (covered by the donor privacy policy); and 	the wikipedia reading lists browser extension, which is governed by a separate privacy policy. this separate policy will also be made available where the extension can be downloaded. 	if a wikimedia foundation website is governed by an alternative privacy policy, it will link to such policy. when a wikimedia foundation tool is governed by an alternative privacy policy, the page where the tool may be downloaded or enabled will include a link to that policy. 	community members 	the wikimedia sites are collaborative labors of love that are constantly maintained and updated by a global community of volunteers. as a result, some volunteers have access to certain personal information, and use of that personal information may not be governed by this privacy policy. volunteers that have such access include: 	administrative volunteers, such as checkusers or stewards. these are volunteers who enforce wikimedia site policies and ensure the safety of the wikimedia sites. when these administrators access personal information that is nonpublic, they are required to comply with our access to nonpublic information policy, as well as other, tool-specific policies. 	tool providers. tool providers. we support platforms for third-party developers to experiment and develop new tools and sites, such as wmflabs.org. when you use one of the tools developed by these volunteers, you may transfer information to them. when these volunteers access nonpublic information or personal information, they are required to comply with the terms governing the particular platform the tool is available on. 	other users. we provide several tools that allow users to communicate with each other. the communications may be covered by this policy while they pass through our systems, but the users who receive these communications, and what they do with the communications once they receive them, are not covered by this policy. examples include: 	posting to foundation-hosted email lists; 	requesting support from volunteers through our online ticketing system (email sent to info[at]wikimedia.org goes to this system); 	emailing other users through the wikimedia sites (for example, by using the "email this user" feature); and 	chatting on irc (such as on the #wikipedia channel). 	third parties 	this privacy policy only covers the way the wikimedia foundation collects, uses and discloses personal information and does not address the practices of third parties. for example, this privacy policy does not address the practices of: 	websites run by other organizations, like websites linked to from the “references” sections of wikipedia, or run by wikimedia chapters or other movement organizations. these organizations may receive information from you if you visit their websites after using one of the wikimedia sites. they are governed by their own privacy policies. 	mobile applications provided by other organizations or individuals. these organizations or individuals may receive information from you if you use those applications to access the wikimedia sites or wikimedia site content. they are governed by their own privacy policies. sometimes, volunteers may place a data-collecting tool, such as a script, gadget, tracking pixel, or share button, on a wikimedia site without our knowledge. this policy does not cover how third parties handle the information they receive as a result of such a tool. if you come across such a third-party tool, and you believe it violates this policy, you can remove the tool yourself, or report it to privacy[at]wikimedia.org so we can investigate. where community policies govern information, such as the checkuser policy, the relevant community may add to the rules and obligations set out in this policy. however, they are not permitted to create new exceptions or otherwise reduce the protections offered by this policy. collection & use of info types of information we receive from you & how we get it your public contributions whatever you post on wikimedia sites can be seen and used by everyone. when you make a contribution to any wikimedia site, including on user or discussion pages, you are creating a permanent, public record of every piece of content added, removed, or altered by you. the page history will show when your contribution or deletion was made, as well as your username (if you are signed in) or your ip address (if you are not signed in). we may use your public contributions, either aggregated with the public contributions of others or individually, to create new features or data-related products for you or to learn more about how the wikimedia sites are used. 	publicly visible information 	 unless this policy says otherwise, you should assume that information that you actively contribute to the wikimedia sites, including personal information, is publicly visible and can be found by search engines. like most things on the internet, anything you share may be copied and redistributed throughout the internet by other people. please do not contribute any information that you are uncomfortable making permanently public, like revealing your real name or location in your contributions. you should be aware that specific data made public by you or aggregated data that is made public by us can be used by anyone for analysis and to infer further information, such as which country a user is from, political affiliation and gender. back to top account information & registration you do not need to create an account to use any wikimedia site. if you do create an account, you do not need to give us your name or email address. if you do not create an account, your contributions will be publicly attributed to your ip address. want to create an account? great! don't want to create an account? no problem! you are not required to create an account to read or contribute to a wikimedia site, except under rare circumstances. however, if you contribute without signing in, your contribution will be publicly attributed to the ip address associated with your device. if you want to create a standard account, in most cases we require only a username and a password. 	more on usernames 	 your username will be publicly visible, so please be careful about using your real name as your username. your password is only used to verify that the account is yours. your ip address is also automatically submitted to us, and we record it temporarily to help prevent abuse. no other personal information is required: no name, no email address, no date of birth, no credit card information. once created, user accounts cannot be removed entirely (although you can usually hide the information on your user page if you choose to). this is because your public contributions must be associated with their author (you!). in some circumstances, the wikimedia communities can assist users with removing additional information related to their account from the projects. to gain a better understanding of the demographics of our users, to localize our services and to learn how we can improve our services, we may ask you for more demographic information, such as gender or age, about yourself. we will tell you if such information is intended to be public or private, so that you can make an informed decision about whether you want to provide us with that information. providing such information is always completely optional. if you don't want to, you don't have to—it's as simple as that. back to top location information gps & other location technologies some features we offer work better if we know what area you are in. if you consent, we can use gps (and other technologies commonly used to determine location) to show you more relevant content. we keep information obtained by these technologies confidential, except as provided in this policy. you can learn more by checking out the list of examples of how we use these technologies in our faq. back to top metadata sometimes, we automatically receive location data from your device. for example, if you want to upload a photo on the wikimedia commons mobile app, we may receive metadata, such as the place and time you took the photo, automatically from your device. please be aware that, unlike location information collected using gps signals described above, the default setting on your mobile device typically includes the metadata in your photo or video upload to the wikimedia sites. if you do not want metadata sent to us and made public at the time of your upload, please change your settings on your device. back to top ip addresses finally, when you visit any wikimedia site, we automatically receive the ip address of the device (or your proxy server) you are using to access the internet, which could be used to infer your geographical location. back to top information related to your use of the wikimedia sites we use certain technologies to collect information about how you use wikimedia sites. like other websites, we receive some information about you automatically when you visit the wikimedia sites. we also use a variety of commonly-used technologies, like cookies, to collect information regarding how you use the wikimedia sites, make our services safer and easier to use, and to help create a better and more customizable experience for you. we want to make the wikimedia sites better for you by learning more about how you use them. examples of this might include how often you visit the wikimedia sites, what you like, what you find helpful, how you get to the wikimedia sites, and whether you would use a helpful feature more if we explained it differently. we also want this policy and our practices to reflect our community's values. for this reason, we keep information related to your use of the wikimedia sites confidential, except as provided in this policy. back to top information we receive automatically because of how browsers work, we receive some information automatically when you visit the wikimedia sites. this information includes the type of device you are using (possibly including unique device identification numbers, for some beta versions of our mobile applications), the type and version of your browser, your browser's language preference, the type and version of your device's operating system, in some cases the name of your internet service provider or mobile carrier, the website that referred you to the wikimedia sites, which pages you request and visit, and the date and time of each request you make to the wikimedia sites. put simply, we use this information to enhance your experience with wikimedia sites. for example, we use this information to administer the sites, provide greater security, and fight vandalism; optimize mobile applications, customize content and set language preferences, test features to see what works, and improve performance; understand how users interact with the wikimedia sites, track and study use of various features, gain understanding about the demographics of the different wikimedia sites, and analyze trends. back to top information we collect we use a variety of commonly-used technologies, like cookies, to understand how you use the wikimedia sites, make our services safer and easier to use, and to help create a better and more customizable experience for you. we actively collect some types of information with a variety of commonly-used technologies. these generally include tracking pixels, javascript, and a variety of "locally stored data" technologies, such as cookies and local storage. we realize that some of these technologies do not have the best reputation in town and can be used for less-than-noble purposes. so we want to be as clear as we can about why we use these methods and the type of information we collect with them. depending on which technology we use, locally stored data can be anything from text, pictures, and whole articles (as we explain further below) to personal information (like your ip address) and information about your use of the wikimedia sites (like your username or the time of your visit). we use this information to make your experience with the wikimedia sites safer and better, to gain a greater understanding of user preferences and their interaction with the wikimedia sites, and to generally improve our services. we will never use third-party cookies, unless we get your permission to do so. if you ever come across a third-party data collection tool that has not been authorized by you (such as one that may have been mistakenly placed by another user or administrator), please report it to us at privacy@wikimedia.org. 	more on locally stored data 	 locally stored data, javascript, and tracking pixels help us do things like: 	provide you with a customizable experience, such as using cookies to know your language preference, to remember the user preferences you set so we can provide you with the customized look and feel that you want, and to tell you about interesting wikimedia issues and events in your area. 	deliver more relevant content to you faster. for example, we use local storage to store your most recently read articles directly on your device, so they can be retrieved quickly. also, we use cookies to learn about the topics searched so that we can optimize the search results we deliver to you. 	understand how you use the wikimedia sites, so that we know what works and what is useful. for example, we might use cookies to learn about the list of articles you are following on your watchlist so that we can recommend similar articles that you may be interested in. 	understand how you use the wikimedia sites across different devices, so that we can make our varied wikimedia sites more efficient and effective for you. 	make the wikimedia sites more convenient to use, such as by using cookies to maintain your session when you log in or to remember your username in the login field. want to know even more? you can read more about some of the specific cookies we use, when they expire, and what we use them for in our faq. we believe this data collection helps improve your user experience, but you may remove or disable some or all locally stored data through your browser settings, depending on your browser. you can learn more about some options you have in our faq. while locally stored data may not be necessary to use our sites, some features will not function properly if you disable locally stored data. while the examples above concerning information about you collected through the use of data collection tools are kept confidential in accordance with this policy, please note that some information about the actions taken by your username is made publicly available through public logs alongside actions taken by other users. for example, a public log may include the date your account was created on a wikimedia site along with the dates that other accounts were created on a wikimedia site. back to top how we use information we receive from you we and our service providers use your information for the legitimate purpose of pursuing our charitable mission, including: 	operating the wikimedia sites, sharing your contributions and administering our services. 	 	to help you share your knowledge with the world and add new features to our services. 	to arrange access to your account and provide you with related service. 	to send administrative information to you, such as changes to our policies. 	to allow you to send messages to another person if you choose to do so. direct communications between users (such as messages sent through the "email this user" feature), to the extent such communications are nonpublic and stored in or in transit through wikimedia foundation systems, are kept confidential by us, except as provided in this policy. we engage in these activities to manage our relationship with you, because we have a legitimate interest and/or to comply with our legal obligations. 	providing customized services. 	 	to provide to you custom content, notices and settings and to enhance your experience with the wikimedia sites. we will customize the services, in some instances, at your direction; in all instances, in keeping with our legitimate charitable purpose of pursuing our mission. 	sending emails with news updates, surveys and communications about items we believe may be of interest to you. 	 	to let you know about things that are happening with the wikimedia foundation, the wikimedia sites or the wikimedia movement. 	to alert you when there has been a change to an article that you have decided to follow. we will send these types of emails to you only with your consent. we do not sell, rent, or use your email address to advertise third-party products or services to you. you can manage what kinds of notifications you receive and how often you receive them by going to your notifications preferences. you can learn more about email and notifications and how to change your preferences in our faq. 	sending optional surveys and requesting feedback. 	 we will always tell you, at the time we give you an opportunity to share your thoughts, how we plan on using your answers and any personal information you provide. your responses to our surveys and feedback requests are always optional. we will email these types of requests to you only with your consent. you can manage what kinds of notifications you receive and how often you receive them by going to your notifications preferences. you can learn more about email and notifications and how to change your preferences in our faq. 	improving the wikimedia sites and making your user experience safer and better. 	 	to use your public contributions, either aggregated with the public contributions of others or individually, to create new features or data-related products for you or to learn more about how the wikimedia sites are used. 	for research and analytics. 	to fight spam, identity theft, malware and other kinds of abuse. 	to optimize mobile and other applications. 	to test features to see what works, understand how users interact with the wikimedia sites, track and study use of various features, gain understanding about the demographics of the different wikimedia sites and analyze trends. we engage in these activities to further our legitimate charitable purpose and/or to comply with our legal obligations. back to top other location information gps & other location technologies as stated above, we can use commonly-used location technologies to show you more relevant content. for example, our mobile apps can identify articles from the wikimedia sites about points of interest near your location. as a reminder, you can deactivate our access to these location technologies at any time, and still use the wikimedia sites. back to top metadata as stated above, we may automatically receive location data from your device. for example, if you upload a photo using the wikimedia commons mobile app, please be aware that the default setting on your mobile device typically results in the metadata associated with your photo being included in the upload. as a reminder, if you do not want metadata sent to us and made public at the time of your upload, please change your settings on your device. back to top ip addresses when you visit any wikimedia site, we automatically receive the ip address of the device (or your proxy server) you are using to access the internet, which could be used to infer your geographical location. we keep ip addresses confidential, except as provided in this policy. if you are visiting wikimedia sites with your mobile device, we may use your ip address to provide anonymized or aggregated information to service providers regarding the volume of usage in certain areas. we use this location information to make your experience with the wikimedia sites safer and better, to gain a greater understanding of user preferences and their interaction with the wikimedia sites, and to generally improve our services. for example, we use this information to provide greater security, optimize mobile applications, and learn how to expand and better support wikimedia communities. we also use personal information in the manner described in the sections of this policy titled "for legal reasons" and "to protect you, ourselves & others." back to top sharing when may we share your information? we may share your information when you give us specific permission to do so, for legal reasons, and in the other circumstances described below. with your permission we share your information when you give us specific permission to do so. we share your information for a particular purpose, if you agree. you can find more information in the list of examples in our faq. back to top for legal reasons we will disclose your information in response to an official legal process only if we believe it to be legally valid. we will notify you of such requests when possible. we will access, use, preserve, and/or disclose your personal information if we reasonably believe it necessary to satisfy a valid and legally enforceable warrant, subpoena, court order, law or regulation, or other judicial or administrative order. however, if we believe that a particular request for disclosure of a user's information is legally invalid or an abuse of the legal system and the affected user does not intend to oppose the disclosure themselves, we will try our best to fight it. we are committed to notifying you via email at least ten ( ) calendar days, when possible, before we disclose your personal information in response to a legal demand. however, we may only provide notice if we are not legally restrained from contacting you, there is no credible threat to life or limb that is created or increased by disclosing the request, and you have provided us with an email address. nothing in this privacy policy is intended to limit any legal objections or defenses you may have to a third party's request (whether it be civil, criminal, or governmental) to disclose your information. we recommend seeking the advice of legal counsel immediately if such a request is made involving you. for more information, see our subpoena faq. back to top if the organization is transferred (really unlikely!) in the unlikely event that the ownership of the foundation changes, we will provide you days’ notice before any personal information is transferred to the new owners or becomes subject to a different privacy policy. in the extremely unlikely event that ownership of all or substantially all of the foundation changes, or we go through a reorganization (such as a merger, consolidation, or acquisition), we will continue to keep your personal information confidential, except as provided in this policy, and provide notice to you via the wikimedia sites and a notification on wikimediaannounce-l or similar mailing list at least thirty ( ) calendar days before any personal information is transferred or becomes subject to a different privacy policy. back to top to protect you, ourselves & others we, or users with certain administrative rights, may disclose information that is reasonably necessary to: 	enforce or investigate potential violations of the wikimedia foundation or community-based policies; 	protect our organization, infrastructure, employees, contractors, or the public; or 	prevent imminent or serious bodily harm or death to a person. we, or particular users with certain administrative rights as described below, may need to share your personal information if it is reasonably believed to be necessary to enforce or investigate potential violations of our terms of use, this privacy policy, or any wikimedia foundation or user community-based policies. we may also need to access and share information to investigate and defend ourselves against legal threats or actions. wikimedia sites are collaborative, with users writing most of the policies and selecting from amongst themselves people to hold certain administrative rights. these rights may include access to limited amounts of otherwise nonpublic information about recent contributions and activity by other users. they use this access to help protect against vandalism and abuse, fight harassment of other users, and generally try to minimize disruptive behavior on the wikimedia sites. these various user-selected administrative groups have their own privacy and confidentiality guidelines, but all such groups are supposed to agree to follow our access to nonpublic information policy. these user-selected administrative groups are accountable to other users through checks and balances: users are selected through a community-driven process and overseen by their peers through a logged history of their actions. however, the legal names of these users are not known to the wikimedia foundation. we hope that this never comes up, but we may disclose your personal information if we believe that it's reasonably necessary to prevent imminent and serious bodily harm or death to a person, or to protect our organization, employees, contractors, users, or the public. we may also disclose your personal information if we reasonably believe it necessary to detect, prevent, or otherwise assess and address potential spam, malware, fraud, abuse, unlawful activity, and security or technical concerns. (check out the list of examples in our faq for more information.) back to top to our service providers we may disclose personal information to our third party service providers or contractors to help run or improve the wikimedia sites and provide services in support of our mission. as hard as we may try, we can't do it all. so sometimes we use third-party service providers or contractors who help run or improve the wikimedia sites for you and other users. we give access to your personal information to these providers or contractors as needed to perform their services for us or to use their tools and services. we put requirements, such as confidentiality agreements, in place to help ensure that these service providers treat your information consistently with, and no less protective of your privacy than, the principles of this policy. (check out the list of examples in our faq.) if you are visiting wikimedia sites with your mobile device, we use your ip address to provide anonymized or aggregated information to service providers regarding the volume of usage in certain areas. back to top to understand & experiment 	we give volunteer developers and researchers access to systems that contain your information to allow them to protect, develop, and contribute to the wikimedia sites. 	we also share non-personal information or aggregated information with third parties interested in studying the wikimedia sites. 	when we share information with third parties for these purposes, we put reasonable technical and contractual protections in place to protect your information consistent with this policy. the open-source software that powers the wikimedia sites depends on the contributions of volunteer software developers, who spend time writing and testing code to help it improve and evolve with our users' needs. to facilitate their work, we give some developers limited access to systems that contain your personal information, but only as reasonably necessary for them to develop and contribute to the wikimedia sites. similarly, we share non-personal information or aggregated information with researchers, scholars, academics, and other interested third parties who wish to study the wikimedia sites. sharing this information helps them understand usage, viewing, and demographics statistics and patterns. they then can share their findings with us and our users so that we can all better understand and improve the wikimedia sites. when we give access to personal information to third-party developers or researchers, we put requirements, such as reasonable technical and contractual protections, in place to help ensure that these service providers treat your information consistently with the principles of this policy and in accordance with our instructions. if these developers or researchers later publish their work or findings, we ask that they not disclose your personal information. please note that, despite the obligations we impose on developers and researchers, we cannot guarantee that they will abide by our agreement, nor do we guarantee that we will regularly screen or audit their projects. (you can learn more about re-identification in our faq.) back to top because you made it public information that you post is public and can been seen and used by everyone. any information you post publicly on the wikimedia sites is just that – public. for example, if you put your mailing address on your talk page, that is public, and not protected by this policy. and if you edit without registering or logging into your account, your ip address will be seen publicly. please think carefully about your desired level of anonymity before you disclose personal information on your user page or elsewhere. back to top protection how do we protect your data? we use a variety of physical and technical measures, policies, and procedures to help protect your information from unauthorized access, use, or disclosure. we strive to protect your information from unauthorized access, use, or disclosure. we use a variety of physical and technical measures, policies, and procedures (such as access control procedures, network firewalls, and physical security) designed to protect our systems and your personal information. unfortunately, there's no such thing as completely secure data transmission or storage, so we can't guarantee that our security will not be breached (by technical measures or through violation of our policies and procedures). we will never ask for your password by email (but may send you a temporary password via email if you have requested a password reset). if you ever receive an email that requests your password, please let us know by sending it to privacy@wikimedia.org, so we can investigate the source of the email. back to top how long do we keep your data? except as otherwise stated in this policy, we only keep your personal information as long as necessary to maintain, understand and improve the wikimedia sites or to comply with u.s. law. once we receive personal information from you, we keep it for the shortest possible time that is consistent with the maintenance, understanding, and improvement of the wikimedia sites, and our obligations under applicable u.s. law. non-personal information may be retained indefinitely. (check out the list of examples in our faq.) please remember that certain information, such as your ip address (if you edit while not logged in) and any public contributions to the wikimedia sites, is archived and displayed indefinitely by design; the transparency of the projects’ contribution and revision histories is critical to their efficacy and trustworthiness. to learn more about our data retention practices, see our data retention guidelines. for further information about how you may request access to or deletion of your personal information, or other rights you may have with respect to your personal information, see our faq. back to top important info for the protection of the wikimedia foundation and other users, if you do not agree with this privacy policy, you may not use the wikimedia sites. where is the foundation & what does that mean for me? the wikimedia foundation is a non-profit organization based in san francisco, california, with servers and data centers located in the u.s. if you decide to use wikimedia sites, whether from inside or outside of the u.s., you understand that your personal information will be collected, transferred, stored, processed, disclosed and otherwise used in the u.s. as described in this privacy policy. you also understand that your information may be transferred by us from the u.s. to other countries, which may have different or less stringent data protection laws than your country, in connection with providing services to you. back to top our response to do not track (dnt) signals we do not allow tracking by third-party websites you have not visited. we do not share your data with third parties for marketing purposes. we are strongly committed to not sharing nonpublic information and personal information with third parties. in particular, we do not allow tracking by third-party websites you have not visited (including analytics services, advertising networks, and social platforms), nor do we share your personal information with any third parties for marketing purposes. under this policy, we may share your information only under particular situations, which you can learn more about in the “when may we share your information” section of this privacy policy. because we protect all users in this manner, we do not change our behavior in response to a web browser's "do not track" signal. for more information regarding do not track signals and how we handle them, please visit our faq. back to top changes to this privacy policy substantial changes to this policy will not be made until after a public comment period of at least days. because things naturally change over time and we want to ensure our privacy policy accurately reflects our practices and the law, it may be necessary to modify this privacy policy from time to time. we reserve the right to do so in the following manner: 	in the event of substantial changes, we will provide the proposed changes to our users in at least three ( ) languages (selected at our discretion) for open comment period lasting at least thirty ( ) calendar days. prior to the start of any comment period, we will provide notice of such changes and the opportunity to comment via the wikimedia sites, and via a notification on wikimediaannounce-l or a similar mailing list. 	for minor changes, such as grammatical fixes, administrative or legal changes, or corrections of inaccurate statements, we will post the changes and, when possible, provide at least three ( ) calendar days' prior notice via wikimediaannounce-l or similar mailing list. we ask that you please review the most up-to-date version of our privacy policy. your continued use of the wikimedia sites after this privacy policy becomes effective constitutes acceptance of this privacy policy on your part. your continued use of the wikimedia sites after any subsequent version of this privacy policy becomes effective, following notice as outlined above, constitutes acceptance of that version of the privacy policy on your part. contact us if you have questions or suggestions about this privacy policy, or the information collected under this privacy policy, please email us at privacy@wikimedia.org or contact us directly. depending on your jurisdiction, you also may have the right to lodge a complaint with a supervisory authority competent for your country or region. thank you! thank you for reading our privacy policy. we hope you enjoy using the wikimedia sites and appreciate your participation in creating, maintaining, and constantly working to improve the largest repository of free knowledge in the world. please note that in the event of any differences in meaning or interpretation between the original english version of this privacy policy and a translation, the original english version takes precedence. back to top this version was approved by katherine maher on may , , pursuant to the delegation of policy-making authority by the board, and went into effect on may , . previous versions can be found below: 	privacy policy (june - may ): effective from june , until may , 	privacy policy (november - june ): effective from november , until june , 	privacy policy (august - november ): effective from august , until november , . 	privacy policy (june - august ): effective from june , until august , . 	privacy policy (april to june ): effective from april until june , please note that in the event of any differences in meaning or interpretation between the original english version of this privacy policy and a translation, the original english version takes precedence. ± privacy-related pages privacy policy · faq · glossary of key terms · wikimedia blog privacy policy · subpoena faq · access to nonpublic information · data retention guidelines · donor policy · requests for user information retrieved from "https://foundation.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=privacy_policy&oldid= " 		categories: 	privacy policy 	policy hidden category: 	governance wiki 	 	navigation 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terms may apply. see terms of use for details. 		privacy policy 	about wikimedia foundation governance wiki 	disclaimers 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 trustworthy but not lust-worthy: context-specific effects of facial resemblance - pubmed this site needs javascript to work properly. please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! clipboard, search history, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. skip to main page content covid- is an emerging, rapidly evolving situation. get the latest public health information from cdc: https://www.coronavirus.gov get the latest research information from nih: https://www.nih.gov/coronavirus find ncbi sars-cov- literature, sequence, and clinical content: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sars-cov- /   	 		 			 				national institutes of health 				national library of medicine 				national center for biotechnology information 				ncbi homepage 			 			 				log in 				 					 					 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format abstract pubmed pmid share 	 	 	 permalink copy page navigation 	 title & authors 	 abstract 	 figures 	 similar articles 	 cited by 	 publication types 	 mesh terms 	 linkout - more resources title & authors abstract figures similar articles cited by publication types mesh terms linkout - more resources comparative study proc biol sci actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in nlm catalog 	 add to search . may ; ( ): - . doi: . /rspb. . . trustworthy but not lust-worthy: context-specific effects of facial resemblance lisa m debruine  affiliations expand affiliation 	 department of psychology, mcmaster university, hamilton, ontario l s k , canada. lisa@debruine.info 	 pmid: 	 pmcid: pmc 	 doi: . /rspb. . free pmc article item in clipboard comparative study trustworthy but not lust-worthy: context-specific effects of facial resemblance lisa m debruine. proc biol sci. . free pmc article show details display options display options format abstract pubmed pmid proc biol sci actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in nlm catalog 	 add to search . may ; ( ): - . doi: . /rspb. . . author lisa m debruine  affiliation 	 department of psychology, mcmaster university, hamilton, ontario l s k , canada. lisa@debruine.info 	 pmid: 	 pmcid: pmc 	 doi: . /rspb. . item in clipboard full-text links citedisplay options display options format abstract pubmed pmid abstract if humans are sensitive to the costs and benefits of favouring kin in different circumstances, a strong prediction is that cues of relatedness will have a positive effect on prosocial feelings, but a negative effect on sexual attraction. indeed, positive effects of facial resemblance (a potential cue of kinship) have been demonstrated in prosocial contexts. alternatively, such effects may be owing to a general preference for familiar stimuli. here, i show that subtly manipulated images of other-sex faces were judged as more trustworthy by the participants they were made to resemble than by control participants. in contrast, the effects of resemblance on attractiveness were significantly lower. in the context of a long-term relationship, where both prosocial regard and sexual appeal are important criteria, facial resemblance had no effect. in the context of a short-term relationship, where sexual appeal is the dominant criterion, facial resemblance decreased attractiveness. the results provide evidence against explanations implicating a general preference for familiar-looking stimuli and suggest instead that facial resemblance is a kinship cue to which humans modulate responses in a context-sensitive manner. figures figure other-sex transforms were made by… figure other-sex transforms were made by applying % of the shape difference between a… figure other-sex transforms were made by applying % of the shape difference between a participant's face and the same-sex composite face to an other-sex composite face. transforms retained % of the colour information from the other-sex composite face. see electronic appendix a for a high resolution colour version of this image. figure the average preference for self-resemblance… figure the average preference for self-resemblance in response to the trustworthiness, long-term and short-term… figure the average preference for self-resemblance in response to the trustworthiness, long-term and short-term relationship questions for men and women. see this image and copyright information in pmc similar articles 	 women's attractiveness judgments of self-resembling faces change across the menstrual cycle. debruine lm, jones bc, perrett di. debruine lm, et al. horm behav. apr; ( ): - . doi: . /j.yhbeh. . . . epub jan . horm behav. . pmid: 	 facial resemblance increases the attractiveness of same-sex faces more than other-sex faces. debruine lm. debruine lm. proc biol sci. oct ; ( ): - . doi: . /rspb. . . proc biol sci. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 discriminating males and unpredictable females: males differentiate self-similar facial cues more than females in the judgment of opposite-sex attractiveness. zhuang jy, zhang s, xu j, hu d. zhuang jy, et al. plos one. mar ; ( ):e . doi: . /journal.pone. . ecollection . plos one. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 social perception of facial resemblance in humans. debruine lm, jones bc, little ac, perrett di. debruine lm, et al. arch sex behav. feb; ( ): - . doi: . /s - - - . arch sex behav. . pmid: review. 	 neural and behavioral responses to attractiveness in adult and infant faces. hahn ac, perrett di. hahn ac, et al. neurosci biobehav rev. oct; pt : - . doi: . /j.neubiorev. . . . epub sep . neurosci biobehav rev. . pmid: review. see all similar articles cited by articles 	 kin recognition and perceived facial similarity. hansen f, debruine lm, holzleitner ij, lee aj, o'shea kj, fasolt v. hansen f, et al. j vis. jun ; ( ): . doi: . /jov. . . . j vis. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 pleasant body odours, but not genetic similarity, influence trustworthiness in a modified trust game. lobmaier js, probst f, fischbacher u, wirthmüller u, knoch d. lobmaier js, et al. sci rep. feb ; ( ): . doi: . /s - - - . sci rep. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 enhanced memory for fair-related faces and the role of trait anxiety. park g, marsh bu, johnson ej. park g, et al. front psychol. apr ; : . doi: . /fpsyg. . . ecollection . front psychol. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 the more similar, the healthier: the effect of perceived parent-child facial resemblance on parental physical health. yu q, guo y, zhang l, chen j, du x, wei x, zhou z, liu s, gao x. yu q, et al. front psychol. jan ; : . doi: . /fpsyg. . . ecollection . front psychol. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 judging others by your own standards: attractiveness of primate faces as seen by human respondents. rádlová s, landová e, frynta d. rádlová s, et al. front psychol. dec ; : . doi: . /fpsyg. . . ecollection . front psychol. . pmid: free pmc article. see all "cited by" articles publication types 	 comparative study actions 	 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resources title & authors abstract comment in similar articles cited by publication types mesh terms substances related information linkout - more resources clinical trial nature actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in nlm catalog 	 add to search . jun ; ( ): - . doi: . /nature . oxytocin increases trust in humans michael kosfeld  , markus heinrichs, paul j zak, urs fischbacher, ernst fehr affiliations expand affiliation 	 university of zurich, institute for empirical research in economics, blumlisalpstrasse , ch- zurich, switzerland. 	 pmid: 	 doi: . /nature item in clipboard clinical trial oxytocin increases trust in humans michael kosfeld et al. nature. . show details display options display options format abstract pubmed pmid nature actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in nlm catalog 	 add to search . jun ; ( ): - . doi: . /nature . authors michael kosfeld  , markus heinrichs, paul j zak, urs fischbacher, ernst fehr affiliation 	 university of zurich, institute for empirical research in economics, blumlisalpstrasse , ch- zurich, switzerland. 	 pmid: 	 doi: . /nature item in clipboard full-text links citedisplay options display options format abstract pubmed pmid abstract trust pervades human societies. trust is indispensable in friendship, love, families and organizations, and plays a key role in economic exchange and politics. in the absence of trust among trading partners, market transactions break down. in the absence of trust in a country's institutions and leaders, political legitimacy breaks down. much recent evidence indicates that trust contributes to economic, political and social success. little is known, however, about the biological basis of trust among humans. here we show that intranasal administration of oxytocin, a neuropeptide that plays a key role in social attachment and affiliation in non-human mammals, causes a substantial increase in trust among humans, thereby greatly increasing the benefits from social interactions. we also show that the effect of oxytocin on trust is not due to a general increase in the readiness to bear risks. on the contrary, oxytocin specifically affects an individual's willingness to accept social risks arising through interpersonal interactions. these results concur with animal research suggesting an essential role for oxytocin as a biological basis of prosocial approach behaviour. comment in 	 human behaviour: brain trust. damasio a. damasio a. nature. jun ; ( ): - . doi: . / a. nature. . pmid: no abstract available. 	 [the brain and liberty]. kiefer b. kiefer b. rev med suisse. jun ; ( ): . rev med suisse. . pmid: french. no abstract available. similar articles 	 human behaviour: brain trust. damasio a. damasio a. nature. jun ; ( ): - . doi: . / a. nature. . pmid: no abstract available. 	 oxytocin shapes the neural circuitry of trust and trust adaptation in humans. baumgartner t, heinrichs m, vonlanthen a, fischbacher u, fehr e. baumgartner t, et al. neuron. may ; ( ): - . doi: . /j.neuron. . . . neuron. . pmid: clinical trial. 	 oxytocin and social perception: oxytocin increases perceived facial trustworthiness and attractiveness. theodoridou a, rowe ac, penton-voak is, rogers pj. theodoridou a, et al. horm behav. jun; ( ): - . doi: . /j.yhbeh. . . . epub apr . horm behav. . pmid: 	 impact of prosocial neuropeptides on human brain function. meyer-lindenberg a. meyer-lindenberg a. prog brain res. ; : - . doi: . /s - ( ) - . prog brain res. . pmid: review. 	 does oxytocin increase trust in humans? a critical review of research. nave g, camerer c, mccullough m. nave g, et al. perspect psychol sci. nov; ( ): - . doi: . / . perspect psychol sci. . pmid: review. see all similar articles cited by articles 	 increasing prosocial behavior and decreasing selfishness in the lab and everyday life. gloster at, rinner mtb, meyer ah. gloster at, et al. sci rep. dec ; ( ): . doi: . /s - - -z. sci rep. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 plasma oxytocin concentrations during and after gestation in japanese pregnant women affected by anxiety disorder and endometriosis. masumoto t, onishi k, harada t, amano h, otani s, kurozawa y. masumoto t, et al. yonago acta med. nov ; ( ): - . doi: . /yam. . . . ecollection nov. yonago acta med. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 the influence of an attachment-related stimulus on oxytocin reactivity in poly-drug users undergoing maintenance therapy compared to healthy controls. fuchshuber j, tatzer j, hiebler-ragger m, trinkl f, kimmerle a, rinner a, buchheim a, schrom s, rinner b, leber k, pieber t, weiss e, lewis aj, kapfhammer hp, unterrainer hf. fuchshuber j, et al. front psychiatry. sep ; : . doi: . /fpsyt. . . ecollection . front psychiatry. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 social feedback during sensorimotor synchronization changes salivary oxytocin and behavioral states. papasteri cc, sofonea a, boldasu r, poalelungi c, tomescu mi, pistol cad, vasilescu ri, nedelcea c, podina ir, berceanu ai, froemke rc, carcea i. papasteri cc, et al. front psychol. sep ; : . doi: . /fpsyg. . . ecollection . front psychol. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 brain substrates explain differences in the adoption and degree of financial digitalization. carbo-valverde s, lacomba-arias ja, lagos-garcía fm, rodriguez-fernandez f, verdejo-román j. carbo-valverde s, et al. sci rep. oct ; ( ): . doi: . /s - - - . sci rep. . pmid: free pmc article. see all "cited by" articles publication types 	 clinical trial actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 controlled 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	 	 					 						 						esc					 				 				 					 				 			 		 	 	 	 trust (social sciences) - simple english wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 	 	 	 	 	trust (social sciences) 	 		from simple english wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 		 		 		 		 		jump to navigation 		jump to search 		trust is a feeling that somebody or something can be relied upon, or will turn out to be good. it is the feeling of being sure about something, even if it cannot be proved. the word "trust" can be a noun or a verb: 	(noun): i have complete trust in you (meaning: i can rely on you to do the right thing, or what i want you to do). 	(verb): i trust you completely (same meaning). there is also an adjective: trusting. 	he is very trusting (meaning: he trusts people easily). one can also trust a thing: 	i would not trust that chair (meaning: if you sit on it, it will probably break). to trust often means: to feel confident that something will or has happened: 	i trust you are feeling better. in religion, trust can be similar to faith. someone who believes in god will put their trust in him: the book of proverbs says: 'trust in the lord with all your heart' ( : ) to trust (or entrust) can be used in other ways: 	i would not trust him with lots of money (meaning: “he might not be honest. he might keep some for himself”). good or bad?[change | change source] trusting does not necessarily mean that the person or thing that is trusted is good. two criminals might be friends and they might trust one another, but what they trust one another to do is bad (although it might seem good to them). being trusting without thinking carefully about it might be dangerous. people can sometimes win someone’s trust, but then they might break their trust. opposites[change | change source] the opposite of “trusting” is “mistrust” (“to have no trust in”). this is similar to the word “suspicious”. someone who is untrustworthy is someone who cannot be trusted. to “take something on trust” means: to trust something without looking at it carefully. related pages[change | change source] 	social psychology 	intimacy 	trustworthiness 	faith (trust in a god) 	social capital 	in god we trust retrieved from "https://simple.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=trust_(social_sciences)&oldid= " 		category: 	virtues 	 	 	navigation menu 	 		 	 		personal tools 	 	 			not logged in 	talk 	contributions 	create account 	log in 		 	 		 			 	 		namespaces 	 	 			page 	talk 		 	 			 	 	 		variants 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 			 	 		views 	 	 			read 	change 	change source 	view history 		 	 			 	 	 		more 	 	 		 		 	 			 	 		search 	 	 		 			 			 			 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information from cdc: https://www.coronavirus.gov get the latest research information from nih: https://www.nih.gov/coronavirus find ncbi sars-cov- literature, sequence, and clinical content: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sars-cov- /   	 		 			 				national institutes of health 				national library of medicine 				national center for biotechnology information 				ncbi homepage 			 			 				log in 				 					 					 					show account info 				 			 			 				 					 						close 						account 					 					 						logged in as: 						username 					 					 							dashboard (my ncbi) 	publications (my bibliography) 	account settings 	log out 					 				 			 		 	 access keys ncbi homepage myncbi homepage main content main navigation 	 search: search advanced clipboard user guide save email send to	 clipboard 	my bibliography 	collections 	citation manager display options display options format abstract pubmed pmid save citation to file format: summary (text) pubmed pmid abstract (text) csv create file 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send at most: item items items items items items items send even when there aren't any new results optional text in email: save cancel create a file for external citation management software create file cancel your rss feed name of rss feed: number of items displayed: create rss cancel rss link copy full text links atypon full-text links actions cite favorites display options display options format abstract pubmed pmid share 	 	 	 permalink copy page navigation 	 title & authors 	 abstract 	 similar articles 	 cited by 	 mesh terms 	 linkout - more resources title & authors abstract similar articles cited by mesh terms linkout - more resources psychol sci actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in nlm catalog 	 add to search . apr; ( ): - . doi: . /j. - . . .x. group-based trust in strangers: the role of stereotypes and expectations margaret foddy  , michael j platow, toshio yamagishi affiliations expand affiliation 	 carleton university. 	 pmid: 	 doi: . /j. - . . .x item in clipboard group-based trust in strangers: the role of stereotypes and expectations margaret foddy et al. psychol sci. apr. show details display options display options format abstract pubmed pmid psychol sci actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in nlm catalog 	 add to search . apr; ( ): - . doi: . /j. - . . .x. authors margaret foddy  , michael j platow, toshio yamagishi affiliation 	 carleton university. 	 pmid: 	 doi: . /j. - . . .x item in clipboard full-text links citedisplay options display options format abstract pubmed pmid abstract across two studies, we provide evidence for group-based trust in strangers. specifically, when we offered participants a choice between an unknown monetary allocation made by an in-group (university or major) or an out-group allocator, both of whom had total control over the distribution of an identical sum of money, participants strongly preferred the in-group allocator. this preference occurred regardless of whether the stereotype of the in-group was relatively more positive or more negative than that of the out-group. however, this preference did not persist when participants believed that the allocator was unaware of their group membership. measures of expected share of the allocator's funds support our hypothesis that differential trust of in-group members results from expectations of altruistic and fair behavior toward fellow in-group members rather than from positive stereotypes of the in-group. similar articles 	 [in-group bias in trusting behavior: a choice of allocator experiment with minimal groups]. suzuki n, konno y, yamagishi t. suzuki n, et al. shinrigaku kenkyu. apr; ( ): - . doi: . /jjpsy. . . shinrigaku kenkyu. . pmid: japanese. 	 perceived consensus influences intergroup behavior and stereotype accessibility. sechrist gb, stangor c. sechrist gb, et al. j pers soc psychol. apr; ( ): - . j pers soc psychol. . pmid: 	 the strategic confirmation of meta-stereotypes: how group members attempt to tailor an out-group's representation of themselves. klein o, azzi ae. klein o, et al. br j soc psychol. jun; (pt ): - . doi: . / . br j soc psychol. . pmid: 	 does religious belief promote prosociality? a critical examination. galen lw. galen lw. psychol bull. sep; ( ): - . doi: . /a . psychol bull. . pmid: review. 	 positive stereotypes are pervasive and powerful. czopp am, kay ac, cheryan s. czopp am, et al. perspect psychol sci. jul; ( ): - . doi: . / . perspect psychol sci. . pmid: review. see all similar articles cited by articles 	 do i trust you when you smile? effects of sex and emotional expression on facial trustworthiness appraisal. galinsky df, erol e, atanasova k, bohus m, krause-utz a, lis s. galinsky df, et al. plos one. dec ; ( ):e . doi: . /journal.pone. . ecollection . plos one. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 time pressure and in-group favoritism in a minimal group paradigm. maeda k, hashimoto h. maeda k, et al. front psychol. nov ; : . doi: . /fpsyg. . . ecollection . front psychol. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 is participation in high-status culture a signal of trustworthiness? aidenberger a, rauhut h, rössel j. aidenberger a, et al. plos one. may ; ( ):e . doi: . /journal.pone. . ecollection . plos one. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 facilitating collective psychosocial resilience in the public in emergencies: twelve recommendations based on the social identity approach. drury j, carter h, cocking c, ntontis e, tekin guven s, amlôt r. drury j, et al. front public health. jun ; : . doi: . /fpubh. . . ecollection . front public health. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 natives' attitudes and immigrants' unemployment durations. keita s, valette j. keita s, et al. demography. jun; ( ): - . doi: . /s - - - . demography. . pmid: see all "cited by" articles mesh terms 	 altruism actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 attitude* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 female actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 group 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	health 	genomes 	genes 	proteins 	chemicals 		 		 actions 	submit 	download 	learn 	develop 	analyze 	research 		 		 		 	 		 			nlm 			 |  			nih 			 |  			hhs 			 |  			usa.gov 		 	 	 	 feedback 信任 - 维基百科，自由的百科全书 	 	 	 	 	信任 	 		维基百科，自由的百科全书 		 		 		 		 		跳到导航 		跳到搜索 		在社會科學中，信任被認為是一種依賴關係。值得信任的個人或團體意味著他們尋求實踐政策，道德守則，法律和其先前的承諾。 尼克拉斯·盧曼给信任定义为：“信任是为了简化人与人之间的合作关系。” 社會學[编辑] 管理領域中對於人際信任的概念，無論是在人際間、團體隊間、組織間的層次上，均具備下列 項特色： 	相互依賴性： 相互依賴表示雙方之間存在著交換關係，無論交換內容為何，都表示雙方至少有某種程度的利害相關，己方利益必須靠對方才能實現。 	心理概念： 人際信任的經驗是由個人價值觀、態度、心情及情緒交互作用的結果，純粹是一組心理活動的產物。 	風險： 信任他人意謂著必須承受易受對方行為傷害的風險，因此，承擔易受傷害之風險的意願亦是人際信任之核心。 	善意： 善意讓信任者確信被信任者不會傷害自己且會保護自己的利益，因而願意信任對方。善意的表現再更進一步就是慈悲心的流露，慈悲心是指被信任者不以自利為導向，而會以信任者或共同利益為優先，善意可以被視為人際信任產生之關鍵；缺乏善意之信任，只可被視為信心。 	理性決策： 如果僅是一廂情願的相信他人而無任何的懷疑，將會導致危機或加劇信任濫用的情形，當信任者在交換過程中獲得被信任者值得信任的證據，如口碑、意圖、能力、可靠性，及前述的善意等，然後信任者會依其信任傾向來決定是否信任對方。 	情感成份： 個人的情感狀態會影響信任經驗，並影響對被信任者可信任性的判斷。這與前述之理性面向的論點並不矛盾，認知性及情感性的元素同時存在於人際信任之中，如果只有情感而沒有理性認知，信任就成了盲目的信心，反過來說，如果只有理性認知而沒有情感性元素，則信任只是冷血的預測，因此信任通常是情感及理性思考之混合體。 心理學[编辑] 在心理學中，信任是社會影響（英语：social influence）概念中不可或缺的一部分 ：因為影響或說服一個信任你的人是容易的。因此，這個概念已被廣泛的應用於預測組織（例如：政府機構）的行為。然而，再次感受到誠實，能力和價值的相似性（value similarity, 稍微類似仁愛心）是必要的。若因為明顯違反了其中的三個因素而喪失了信任，將很難修復信任。因此，建設信任與破壞信任有一個明確的對稱性。 越來越多的研究已經完成信任的概念和它對社會的影響： 	barbara misztal在她的書中[ ]試圖整合信任的所有概念。她指出在人的生活中，信任做了三件基本的事: 它使社會生活可預測化, 它創造了"社區意識", 而且它讓人們更容易在一起工作. 	在sexual trust中 riki robbins[ ]描述了 信任的四個階段: 	消息理論中ed gerck定義且比較信任的社會功能，例如 [ ]power, surveillance, and accountability: 參考文獻[编辑] 	^ barbara misztal, trust in modern societies: the search for the bases of social order, polity press, isbn - - - 	^ riki robbins, betrayed!: how you can restore sexual trust and rebuild your life, adams media corporation, isbn - - - 	^ ed gerck, in trust points, digital certificates: applied internet security by j. feghhi, j. feghhi and p. williams, addison-wesley, isbn - - - , . 		规范控制 	 	gnd: - 	lccn: sh 取自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=信任&oldid= ” 		分类：	人際關係 	管理学 	心理学 	各类情绪 隐藏分类：	使用isbn魔术链接的页面 	含有英語的條目 	包含gnd标识符的维基百科条目 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display options format abstract pubmed pmid share 	 	 	 permalink copy page navigation 	 title & authors 	 abstract 	 comment in 	 similar articles 	 cited by 	 publication types 	 mesh terms 	 linkout - more resources title & authors abstract comment in similar articles cited by publication types mesh terms linkout - more resources meta-analysis psychol bull actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in nlm catalog 	 add to search . sep; ( ): - . doi: . / - . . . . the happy personality: a meta-analysis of personality traits and subjective well-being k m deneve  , h cooper affiliations expand affiliation 	 department of psychology and neuroscience, baylor university, waco, texas - , usa. kristina__deneve@baylor.edu 	 pmid: 	 doi: . / - . . . item in clipboard meta-analysis the happy personality: a meta-analysis of personality traits and subjective well-being k m deneve et al. psychol bull. sep. show details display options display options format abstract pubmed pmid psychol bull actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in nlm catalog 	 add to search . sep; ( ): - . doi: . / - . . . . authors k m deneve  , h cooper affiliation 	 department of psychology and neuroscience, baylor university, waco, texas - , usa. kristina__deneve@baylor.edu 	 pmid: 	 doi: . / - . . . item in clipboard full-text links citedisplay options display options format abstract pubmed pmid abstract this meta-analysis used literature search strategies to examine distinct personality constructs as correlates of subjective well-being (swb). personality was found to be equally predictive of life satisfaction, happiness, and positive affect, but significantly less predictive of negative affect. the traits most closely associated with swb were repressive-defensiveness, trust, emotional stability, locus of control-chance, desire for control, hardiness, positive affectivity, private collective self-esteem, and tension. when personality traits were grouped according to the big five factors, neuroticism was the strongest predictor of life satisfaction, happiness, and negative affect. positive affect was predicted equally well by extraversion and agreeableness. the relative importance of personality for predicting swb, how personality might influence swb, and limitations of the present review are discussed. comment in 	 is a repressive-defensive coping style really so bad? comment on deneve and cooper ( ). pauls ca. pauls ca. psychol bull. nov; ( ): - ; discussion . doi: . / - . . . . psychol bull. . pmid: similar articles 	 be yourself, believe in yourself, and be happy: self-efficacy as a mediator between personality factors and subjective well-being. strobel m, tumasjan a, spörrle m. strobel m, et al. scand j psychol. feb; ( ): - . doi: . /j. - . . .x. scand j psychol. . pmid: 	 big five personality traits: are they really important for the subjective well-being of indians? tanksale d. tanksale d. int j psychol. feb; ( ): - . doi: . /ijop. . epub mar . int j psychol. . pmid: 	 the relative importance of personality, financial satisfaction, and autonomy for different subjective well-being facets. ng w, russell kua ws, kang sh. ng w, et al. j psychol. ; ( ): - . doi: . / . . . epub apr . j psychol. . pmid: 	 personality, culture, and subjective well-being: emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. diener e, oishi s, lucas re. diener e, et al. annu rev psychol. ; : - . doi: . /annurev.psych. . . . epub jun . annu rev psychol. . pmid: review. 	 how strongly related are health status and subjective well-being? systematic review and meta-analysis. ngamaba kh, panagioti m, armitage cj. ngamaba kh, et al. eur j public health. oct ; ( ): - . doi: . /eurpub/ckx . eur j public health. . pmid: review. see all similar articles cited by articles 	 understanding subjective well-being: perspectives from psychology and public health. das kv, jones-harrell c, fan y, ramaswami a, orlove b, botchwey n. das kv, et al. public health rev. nov ; ( ): . doi: . /s - - - . public health rev. . pmid: free pmc article. review. 	 loneliness and well-being during the covid- pandemic: associations with personality and emotion regulation. gubler da, makowski lm, troche sj, schlegel k. gubler da, et al. j happiness stud. oct : - . doi: . /s - - - . online ahead of print. j happiness stud. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 personality traits mediate the association between perceived parental bonding and well-being in adult volunteers from the community. murakoshi a, mitsui n, masuya j, fujimura y, higashi s, kusumi i, inoue t. murakoshi a, et al. biopsychosoc med. oct ; : . doi: . /s - - - . ecollection . biopsychosoc med. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 is it helpful to believe that efforts will lead to positive outcomes? two cross-lagged panel investigations among adolescents and young adults. ng jck, cheung vwt, wong hsm, leung smy, lau vcy. ng jck, et al. int j environ res public health. oct ; ( ): . doi: . /ijerph . int j environ res public health. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 does the relation between humor styles and subjective well-being vary across culture and age? a meta-analysis. jiang f, lu s, jiang t, jia h. jiang f, et al. front psychol. sep ; : . doi: . /fpsyg. . . ecollection . front psychol. . pmid: free pmc article. see all "cited by" articles publication types 	 meta-analysis actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 research support, non-u.s. gov't actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search mesh terms 	 adolescent actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 adult actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 aged actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 aged, and over actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 female actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 happiness* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 humans actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 male actions 	 search in 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links 	 		 this page was last edited on november , at : . 	text is available under the creative commons attribution-sharealike license; additional terms may apply. see terms of use for details. 		privacy policy 	about mediawiki.org 	disclaimers 	code of conduct 	mobile view 	developers 	statistics 	cookie statement 		 	 	 oxytocin increases trust in humans - nasa/ads now on home page 	 ads 	 enable full ads view abstract citations ( ) references ( ) co-reads similar papers volume content graphics metrics export citation nasa/ads oxytocin increases trust in humans 	kosfeld, michael ; 	heinrichs, markus ; 	zak, paul j. ; 	fischbacher, urs ; 	fehr, ernst abstract trust pervades human societies. trust is indispensable in friendship, love, families and organizations, and plays a key role in economic exchange and politics. in the absence of trust among trading partners, market transactions break down. in the absence of trust in a country's institutions and leaders, political legitimacy breaks down. much recent evidence indicates that trust contributes to economic, political and social success. little is known, however, about the biological basis of trust among humans. here we show that intranasal administration of oxytocin, a neuropeptide that plays a key role in social attachment and affiliation in non-human mammals, causes a substantial increase in trust among humans, thereby greatly increasing the benefits from social interactions. we also show that the effect of oxytocin on trust is not due to a general increase in the readiness to bear risks. on the contrary, oxytocin specifically affects an individual's willingness to accept social risks arising through interpersonal interactions. these results concur with animal research suggesting an essential role for oxytocin as a biological basis of prosocial approach behaviour. 	publication: 	 nature 	pub date: 	june 	doi: 	 . /nature 	bibcode: 	 natur. .. k full text sources publisher | © the sao/nasa astrophysics data 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( ): - . doi: . // - . . . . working models of attachment: implications for explanation, emotion and behavior n l collins  affiliations expand affiliation 	 department of psychology, state university of new york, buffalo - , usa. ncollins@acsu.buffalo.edu 	 pmid: 	 doi: . // - . . . item in clipboard working models of attachment: implications for explanation, emotion and behavior n l collins. j pers soc psychol. oct. show details display options display options format abstract pubmed pmid j pers soc psychol actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in nlm catalog 	 add to search . oct; ( ): - . doi: . // - . . . . author n l collins  affiliation 	 department of psychology, state university of new york, buffalo - , usa. ncollins@acsu.buffalo.edu 	 pmid: 	 doi: . // - . . . item in clipboard full-text links citedisplay options display options format abstract pubmed pmid abstract two studies examined attachment style differences in social perception. in study , participants wrote open-ended explanations for hypothetical relationship events and described how they would feel and behave in response to each event. compared with secure participants, preoccupied participants explained events in more negative ways; they also reported more emotional distress and behaviors that were likely to lead to conflict. avoidant participants also provided negative explanations, but did not report emotional distress. path analysis indicated that attachment style differences in behavior were mediated by explanation patterns and emotional distress. study was designed to replicate study and test the relative importance of attachment style and relationship quality to predicting each outcome. results indicated that both variables were significant predictors of explanations, but only attachment style predicted emotional responses. these findings are consistent with the idea that adults with different working models of attachment are predisposed to think, feel, and behave differently in their relationships. similar articles 	 working models of attachment and daily social interactions. pietromonaco pr, barrett lf. pietromonaco pr, et al. j pers soc psychol. dec; ( ): - . doi: . // - . . . . j pers soc psychol. . pmid: 	 attachment, attractiveness, and social interaction: a diary study. tidwell mc, reis ht, shaver pr. tidwell mc, et al. j pers soc psychol. oct; ( ): - . doi: . // - . . . . j pers soc psychol. . pmid: 	 working models of attachment and attribution processes in intimate relationships. collins nl, ford mb, guichard ac, allard lm. collins nl, et al. pers soc psychol bull. feb; ( ): - . doi: . / . pers soc psychol bull. . pmid: 	 from adaptive emotion to dysfunction: an attachment perspective on social anxiety disorder. vertue fm. vertue fm. pers soc psychol rev. ; ( ): - . doi: . /s pspr _ - . pers soc psychol rev. . pmid: review. 	 attachment orientations and emotion regulation. mikulincer m, shaver pr. mikulincer m, et al. curr opin psychol. feb; : - . doi: . /j.copsyc. . . . epub feb . curr opin psychol. . pmid: review. see all similar articles cited by articles 	 consumer response to corporate hypocrisy from the perspective of expectation confirmation theory. zhigang w, lei z, xintao l. zhigang w, et al. front psychol. nov ; : . doi: . /fpsyg. . . ecollection . front psychol. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 too insecure to be a leader: the role of attachment in leadership emergence. yang y, wang y, lu h, tan l. yang y, et al. front psychol. nov ; : . doi: . /fpsyg. . . ecollection . front psychol. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 vulnerability factors associated with lifetime posttraumatic stress disorder among veterans years after war. castro-vale i, severo m, carvalho d, mota-cardoso r. castro-vale i, et al. healthcare (basel). sep ; ( ): . doi: . /healthcare . healthcare (basel). . pmid: free pmc article. 	 association between cognitive function and early life experiences in patients with alcohol use disorder. cheng f, cui s, zhang c, zhang l, wang l, yuan q, huang c, zhang k, zhou x. cheng f, et al. front psychiatry. aug ; : . doi: . /fpsyt. . . ecollection . front psychiatry. . pmid: free pmc article. 	 using the attachment network q-sort for profiling one's attachment style with different attachment-figures. kamperman am, kooiman cg, lorenzini n, aleknaviciute j, allen jg, fonagy p. kamperman am, et al. plos one. sep ; ( ):e . doi: . /journal.pone. . ecollection . plos one. . pmid: free pmc article. see all "cited by" articles publication types 	 research support, non-u.s. gov't actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 research support, u.s. gov't, p.h.s. actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search mesh terms 	 adolescent actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 adult actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 emotions* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 female actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 humans actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 internal-external control actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 interpersonal relations actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 male actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 object attachment* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 personality inventory actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 social behavior* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search 	 social perception* actions 	 search in pubmed 	 search in mesh 	 add to search grant support 	 mh /mh/nimh nih hhs/united states linkout - more resources 	full text sources 	 american psychological association 	 ovid technologies, inc. full-text links [x] american psychological association [x] cite copy download .nbib format: ama apa mla nlm send to 	clipboard 	email 	save 	my bibliography 	collections 	citation manager [x] 		 		connect 			twitter 	facebook 	youtube 	linkedin 	github 			blog 	support center 		 		 national center for biotechnology information 		 rockville pike bethesda, md usa 		 		 	about us 	contact us 	policies 	foia 		 		popular 	pubmed 	pubmed central 	bookshelf 	pubchem 	gene 	blast 	nucleotide 	protein 	geo 			 		 			resources 				literature 	health 	genomes 	genes 	proteins 	chemicals 		 		 actions 	submit 	download 	learn 	develop 	analyze 	research 		 		 		 	 		 			nlm 			 |  			nih 			 |  			hhs 			 |  			usa.gov 		 	 	 	 feedback journal of management (elsevier science limited). 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(ejournal / emagazine) [worldcat.org] your web browser is not enabled for javascript. some features of worldcat will not be available. 	 		 	 home worldcat home about worldcat 	 help search search for library items search for lists search for contacts search for a library 	 	 	 create lists, bibliographies and reviews: 	 	 	 	 	 or 	 	 	 	 	 search worldcat 	 	 		find items in libraries near you 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 advanced search find a library 	 	 		 			 				 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	 your request to send this item has been completed. 	 	cite/export 			 				 					 						cite/export 	 							copy a citation 	 							 	 								apa ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 												 											 										 									 	 								 	 								chicago (author-date, th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								harvard ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								mla ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								turabian ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 							 	 							export a citation export to refworks   export to endnote / reference manager   export to easybib export to endnote / reference manager(non-latin)   cancel 							note: citations are based on reference standards. however, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. 	 					 				 			 	print 	e-mail 	 				 					 						e-mail 	 						 							 all fields are required. the e-mail address(es) field is required. please enter recipient e-mail address(es). the e-mail address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). you may send this item to up to five recipients. enter recipient e-mail address(es): 								 								separate up to five addresses with commas (,) 								the name field is required. please enter your name. enter your name: 								 								the subject field is required. please enter the subject. subject: 								 								the e-mail message field is required. please enter the message. e-mail message: i thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ title: philosophical quarterly ( -). publisher: [place of publication not identified] : [publisher not identified] oclc: please verify that you are not a robot. cancel 		 							 						 	 					 				 	 			 	share 	permalink permalink copy this url to link to this page: 		 		 		 	 	 add a review 	 would you also like to submit a review for this item?     	 	 	cancel 	 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	you already recently rated this item. 	your rating has been recorded 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 write a review 	 	rate this item: 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 			preview this item 		 		 preview this item 	 	 				 			 checking... 		philosophical quarterly ( -). 			publisher:	[place of publication not identified] : [publisher not identified] 	edition/format:	  ejournal/emagazine : document : english 					 	rating:	 (not yet rated) with reviews - be the first. 						 					 	subjects	 	 philosophy. 	more like this	 	similar items 		 	 	 	 		 find a copy online links to this item jstor.org jstor arts & sciences i: / / to / / add library to favorites please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. allow this favorite library to be seen by others keep this favorite library private save    cancel 			 				find a copy in the library 	 finding libraries that hold this item... 	 		 	 	 details 	material type:	document, internet resource 	document type:	internet resource, computer file, journal / magazine / newspaper 	oclc number:	 	notes:	title from content provider. 	description:	 online resource 	details:	mode of access: world wide web. 	other titles:	philosophical quarterly ( -) philosophical quarterly (nineteen fifty-) philosophical quarterly ( - : online) 		 		reviews 		 user-contributed reviews add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. 	 	tags 		 add tags for "philosophical quarterly ( -).". be the first. 	 	 		similar items 		 			related subjects:( ) 					 							philosophy. 						 			 	 confirm this request you may have already requested this item. please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. 	 linked data 	 			more info about linked data 			\n\nprimary entity\n http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > # philosophical quarterly ( -).\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:creativework, schema:mediaobject, schema:periodical ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:oclcnum \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:seealso http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/philosophical_quarterly_ _online> ; # philosophical quarterly ( - : online)\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/philosophy> ; # philosophy\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:alternatename \"philosophical quarterly (nineteen fifty-)\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datepublished \"uuuu\/ \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:exampleofwork http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:inlanguage \"en\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"philosophical quarterly ( -).\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:productid \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/journal\/philquar> ; \u a \u a \u a \nwdrs:describedby http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \nrelated entities\n http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/philosophical_quarterly_ _online> # philosophical quarterly ( - : online)\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:creativework ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"philosophical quarterly ( - : online)\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/philosophy> # philosophy\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"philosophy\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.jstor.org\/journal\/philquar> \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"jstor arts & sciences i: \/ \/ to \/ \/ \" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \ngenont:informationresource, genont:contenttypegenericresource ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # philosophical quarterly ( -).\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datemodified \" - - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nvoid:indataset http:\/\/purl.oclc.org\/dataset\/worldcat> ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \ncontent-negotiable representations\n \n	\nturtle (text\/turtle)\n 	\njson-ld (application\/ld+json)\n 	\nrdf\/xml (application\/rdf+xml)\n 	\nn-triples (text\/plain)\n 	\nhtml+rdfa (text\/html)\n\n 	 		 	 	 		 			languages:	Česky  |  deutsch  |  english  |  español  |  français  |  italiano  |  nederlands  |  português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) 	 			you:	 sign in | register | my worldcat | my lists | my watchlist | my reviews | my tags | my saved searches 	worldcat:	home | about | 	help | search 	 	 			legal:	copyright © - oclc. all rights reserved. | privacy policy | cookie notice | cookie list and settings | terms and conditions 	 			worldcat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. learn more ›› 			 				follow worldcat: 					 	 	 	 			 	 	 	 		 		 			 	 	 	 please sign in to worldcat  don't have an account? you can easily create a free account. 	 	user name: 	 	 	password: 	 	 	 	 		remember me on this computer 		 	 	 	 	 	 	cancel forgot your password? 	 	 	 political psychology : journal of the international society of political sociology. (journal, magazine) [worldcat.org] your web browser is not enabled for javascript. some features of worldcat will not be available. 	 		 	 home worldcat home about worldcat 	 help search search for library items search for lists search for contacts search for a library 	 	 	 create lists, bibliographies and reviews: 	 	 	 	 	 or 	 	 	 	 	 search worldcat 	 	 		find items in libraries near you 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 advanced search find a library 	 	 		 			 				 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	 your request to send this item has been completed. 	 	cite/export 			 				 					 						cite/export 	 							copy a citation 	 							 	 								apa ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 												 											 										 									 	 								 	 								chicago (author-date, th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								harvard ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								mla ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								turabian ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 							 	 							export a citation export to refworks   export to endnote / reference manager   export to easybib export to endnote / reference manager(non-latin)   cancel 							note: citations are based on reference standards. however, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. 	 					 				 			 	print 	e-mail 	 				 					 						e-mail 	 						 							 all fields are required. the e-mail address(es) field is required. please enter recipient e-mail 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list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	you already recently rated this item. 	your rating has been recorded 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 write a review 	 	rate this item: 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 			preview this item 		 		 preview this item 	 	 				 			 checking... 		political psychology : journal of the international society of political sociology. 			publisher:	new york. 	edition/format:	  journal, magazine : english 					 	rating:	 (not yet rated) with reviews - be the first. 						 					 	subjects	 	 politiek. 	 sociale psychologie. 	 psychologie. 	more like this	 	similar items 	 search this publication for other articles with the following words: 		 	 	 	 		 find a copy online links to this item onlinelibrary.wiley.com ap kdg ua search.ebscohost.com ua search.ebscohost.com ap kdg search.ebscohost.com.bib-proxy.uhasselt.be uh onlinelibrary.wiley.com.bib-proxy.uhasselt.be uh show all links add library to favorites please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. allow this favorite library to be seen by others keep this favorite library private save    cancel 			 				find a copy in the library 	 finding libraries that hold this item... 	 		 	 	 details 	genre/form:	tijdschrift 	material type:	internet resource 	document type:	journal / magazine / newspaper, internet resource 	issn:	 - , - x 	oclc number:	 		 		reviews 		 user-contributed reviews add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. 	 	tags 		 add tags for "political psychology : journal of the international society of political sociology.". be the first. 	 	 		similar items 		 			related subjects:( ) 					 							politiek. 						 	 							sociale psychologie. 						 	 							psychologie. 						 			 	 confirm this request you may have already requested this item. please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. 	 linked data 	 			more info about linked data 			primary entity http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > # political psychology : journal of the international society of political sociology. \u a \u a \u a \u a a schema:creativework, schema:periodical ; \u a \u a \u a library:oclcnum \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a library:placeofpublication http:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/nyu> ; \u a \u a \u a library:placeofpublication http:\/\/dbpedia.org\/resource\/new_york_city> ; # new york. \u a \u a \u a schema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/psychologie> ; # psychologie \u a \u a \u a schema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/politiek> ; # politiek \u a \u a \u a schema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/sociale_psychologie> ; # sociale psychologie \u a \u a \u a schema:exampleofwork 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http:\/\/search.ebscohost.com.bib-proxy.uhasselt.be\/direct.asp?db=buh&jid=% bs % &scope=site> \u a \u a \u a rdfs:comment \"uh\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a . http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > \u a \u a \u a umbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # political psychology : journal of the international society of political sociology. \u a \u a \u a umbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - x> ; # political psychology : journal of the international society of political sociology. \u a \u a \u a \u a . http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - x> # political psychology : journal of the international society of political sociology. \u a \u a \u a \u a a schema:periodical ; \u a \u a \u a schema:issn \" - x\" ; \u a \u a \u a schema:name \"political psychology : journal of the international society of political sociology.\" ; \u a \u a \u a umbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a . http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > # political psychology : 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name: 	 	 	password: 	 	 	 	 		remember me on this computer 		 	 	 	 	 	 	cancel forgot your password? 	 	 	 trust - bibliography - philpapers sign in | create an account philpapers philpeople philarchive philevents philjobs 	syntax 	advanced search 	 new 			all new items 	books 	journal articles 	manuscripts 	 topics 			all categories 	metaphysics and epistemology 	metaphysics and epistemology 	epistemology 	metaphilosophy 	metaphysics 	philosophy of action 	philosophy of language 	philosophy of mind 	philosophy of religion 	m&e, misc 	value theory 	value theory 	aesthetics 	applied ethics 	meta-ethics 	normative ethics 	philosophy of gender, race, and sexuality 	philosophy of law 	social and political philosophy 	value theory, miscellaneous 	science, logic, and mathematics 	science, logic, and mathematics 	logic and philosophy of logic 	philosophy of biology 	philosophy of cognitive science 	philosophy of computing and information 	philosophy of mathematics 	philosophy of physical 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bibliography 	personal pages we track 	archives we track 	information for publishers 	 more 	introduction 	discussion forums 	submitting to philpapers 	frequently asked questions 	subscriptions 	editor's guide 	the categorization project 	for publishers 	for archive admins 	contact us 	philpapers surveys 	api 	bargain finder 	about philpapers 	syntax 	advanced search 	sign in 	create an account 	 	syntax 	advanced search normative ethics > moral psychology > moral states and processes > trust trust edited by edward hinchman (florida state university) related categories siblings:	alienation ( ) 	altruism ( | ) 	anger ( ) 	boredom ( ) 	courage ( ) 	cruelty ( ) 	disgust ( ) 	emotions ( , | , ) 	empathy and sympathy ( ) 	envy ( ) 	forgiveness ( ) 	gratitude ( ) 	guilt and shame ( ) 	happiness ( ) 	hope ( ) 	hypocrisy ( ) 	jealousy ( ) 	kindness ( ) 	philosophy of love ( , | ) 	moral deliberation ( ) 	moral imagination ( ) 	moral intuition ( ) 	moral perception ( ) 	moral phenomenology ( ) 	pride ( ) 	resentment ( ) 	schadenfreude ( ) 	self-deception ( ) 	tolerance ( ) 	moral states and processes, misc ( ) jobs in this area mcgill university associate professor or professor university of st. andrews senior lecturer omniphysical llc consultant jobs from philjobs found order:listing date book price first author impact pub year downloads order options filter applied bibtex / endnote / ris / etc export this page: choose a format.. formatted text plain text bibtex zotero endnote reference manager limit to items. restrictions online only open access only published only viewing options 	 	 show categories 	 	 categorization shortcuts 	 	 hide abstracts 	 	 open articles in new windows open category editor off-campus access using philpapers from home? create an account to enable off-campus access through your institution's proxy server. monitor this page be alerted of all new items appearing on this page. choose how you want to monitor it: 	 email 	   rss feed editorial team general editors: david bourget (western ontario) david chalmers (anu, nyu) area editors: david bourget gwen bradford berit brogaard margaret cameron david chalmers james chase rafael de clercq ezio di nucci barry hallen hans halvorson jonathan ichikawa michelle kosch Øystein linnebo jeeloo liu paul livingston brandon look manolo martínez matthew mcgrath michiru nagatsu susana nuccetelli giuseppe primiero jack alan reynolds darrell p. rowbottom aleksandra samonek constantine sandis howard sankey jonathan schaffer thomas senor robin smith daniel star jussi suikkanen lynne tirrell aness webster other editors contact us learn more about philpapers import / add options add an entry to this list: (help) batch import. use this option to import a large number of entries from a bibliography into this category. 	 		 — / 	 	added - - defending a risk account of scientific objectivity.inkeri koskinen - - british journal for the philosophy of science ( ): - .detailswhen discussing scientific objectivity, many philosophers of science have recently focused on accounts that can be applied in practice when assessing the objectivity of something. it has become clear that in different contexts, objectivity is realized in different ways, and the many senses of objectivity recognized in the recent literature seem to be conceptually distinct. i argue that these diverse ‘applicable’ senses of scientific objectivity have more in common than has thus far been recognized. i combine arguments from philosophical discussions (...) of trust, from negative accounts of objectivity, and from the recent literature on epistemic risks. when we call x objective, we endorse it: we say that we rely on x, and that others should do so too. but the word ‘objective’ is reserved for a specific type of reliance: it is based on the belief that important epistemic risks arising from our imperfections as epistemic agents have been effectively averted. all the positive senses of objectivity identify either some risk of this type, or some efficient strategy for averting one or more such risks. (shrink) epistemic objectivity in epistemology inductive risk in general philosophy of science trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark    citation   	added - - trusting the scientific community: the development and validation of an instrument to measure trust in science.matthew slater - detailstrust in the scientific enterprise — in science as an institution — is arguably important to individuals’ and societies’ well-being. although some measures of public trust in science exist, the recipients of that trust are often ambiguous between trusting individual scientists and the scientific community at large. we argue that more precision would be beneficial — specifically, targeting public trust of the scientific community at large — and describe the development and validation of such an instrument: the scientific community trust (...) index (scti). we show the results of initial field testing to establish instrument reliability and validity. we then demonstrate certain advantages of the scti against other measures of trust and deference, and present correlations between the scti and participant scores in two trust-in-science scenarios. our results suggest that the scti is a useful and compact tool for measuring public trust in the scientific community. (shrink) sociology of science in general philosophy of science trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download     export citation     bookmark   	added - - uncertainty: how it makes science advance.kostas kampourakis & kevin mccain - - oxford university press.detailsscientific knowledge is the most solid and robust kind of knowledge that humans have because of its inherent self-correcting character. nevertheless, anti-evolutionists, climate denialists, and anti-vaxxers, among others, question some of the best-established scientific findings, making claims unsupported by empirical evidence. a common aspect of these claims is reference to the uncertainties of science concerning evolution, climate change, vaccination, and so on. this is inaccurate: whereas the broad picture is clear, there will always exist uncertainties about the details of the (...) respective phenomena. this book shows that uncertainty is an inherent feature of science that does not devalue it. in contrast, uncertainty advances science because it motivates further research. this is the first book on this topic that draws on philosophy of science to explain what uncertainty in science is and how it makes science advance. it contrasts evolution, climate change, and vaccination, where the uncertainties are exaggerated, and genetic testing and forensic science, where the uncertainties are usually overlooked. the goal is to discuss the scientific, psychological, and philosophical aspects of uncertainty in order to explain what it really is, what kinds of problems it actually poses, and why in the end it makes science advance. contrary to public representations of scientific findings and conclusions that produce an intuitive but distorted view of science as certain, people need to understand and learn to live with uncertainty in science. this book is intended for anyone who wants to get a clear view of the nature of science. (shrink) climate change in applied ethics epistemic luck in epistemology evidence and proof in law in philosophy of law explanation and understanding in general philosophy of science explanation in the sciences, misc in general philosophy of science genetic testing in applied ethics inductive risk in general philosophy of science nature of science in general philosophy of science philosophy of science, general works in philosophy of science, misc scientific metamethodology in general philosophy of science scientific progress in general philosophy of science sociology of science in general philosophy of science trust in normative ethics vaccines in philosophy of science, misc $ . new   $ . used   $ . direct from amazon   amazon page remove from this list   direct download     export citation     bookmark   	added - - mapping the stony road toward trustworthy ai: expectations, problems, conundrums.gernot rieder, judith simon & pak-hang wong - forthcoming - in marcello pelillo & teresa scantamburlo (eds.), machines we trust: perspectives on dependable ai. cambridge, mass.:detailsthe notion of trustworthy ai has been proposed in response to mounting public criticism of ai systems, in particular with regard to the proliferation of such systems into ever more sensitive areas of human life without proper checks and balances. in europe, the high-level expert group on artificial intelligence has recently presented its ethics guidelines for trustworthy ai. to some, the guidelines are an important step for the governance of ai. to others, the guidelines distract effort from genuine ai regulation. (...) in this chapter, we engage in a critical discussion of the concept of trustworthy ai by probing the concept both on theoretical and practical grounds, assessing its substance and the feasibility of its intent. we offer a concise overview of the guidelines and their vision for trustworthy ai and examine the conceptual underpinnings of trustworthy ai by considering how notions of 'trust' and 'trustworthiness' have been discussed in the philosophical literature. we then discuss several epistemic obstacles and moral requirements when striving to achieve trustworthy ai in practice before concluding with an argument in support of the establishment of a trustworthy ai culture that respects and protects foundational values. (shrink) ethics of artificial intelligence, misc in philosophy of cognitive science moral status of artificial systems in philosophy of cognitive science trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download     export citation     bookmark   	added - - ecological risk: climate change as abstract-corporeal problem.tom sparrow - - revista latinoamericana de estudios sobre cuerpos, emociones y sociedad ( ): - .detailsthis essay uses ulrich beck’s concept of risk society to understand the threat of catastrophic climate change. it argues that this threat is “abstract-corporeal”, and therefore a special kind of threat that poses special kinds of epistemic and ecological challenges. at the center of these challenges is the problem of human vulnerability, which entails a complex form of trust that both sustains and threatens human survival. climate change in applied ethics environmental ethics, misc in applied ethics trust in normative ethics vulnerability in social and political philosophy remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark   	added - - the roles of institutional trust and distrust in grounding rational deference to scientific expertise.frédéric bouchard - - perspectives on science ( ): - .detailsgiven the complexity of most phenomena, we have to delegate much epistemic work to other knowers and we must find reasons for relying on these specific knowers and not others. in our societies, these other knowers are often called experts and we rely on their epistemic authority more and more. for many complex phenomena such as climate change, genetically modified crops, and immunization, the experts that are called upon are scientific experts. for that reason, finding good reasons and justification for (...) deferring to their knowledge is of paramount societal importance. as we shall see, many have analyzed this epistemic dependence on scientific experts and have tried to show in what contexts are there good... (shrink) epistemic norms in epistemology science and values in general philosophy of science sociology of science in general philosophy of science trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark    citation   	added - - judaeo-christian faith as trust and loyalty.michael pace & daniel j. mckaughan - forthcoming - religious studies.detailsdisputes over the nature of faith, as understood in the judaeo-christian tradition, sometimes focus on whether it is to be identified exclusively with trust in god or with loyalty/fidelity to god. drawing on recent work on the semantic range of the hebrew ʾĕmûnâ and greek pistis lexicons, we argue for a multidimensional account of what it is to be a person of faith that includes trust and loyalty in combination. the trust-loyalty account, we maintain, makes better sense of the faith (...) of exemplars, including abraham, and fits well with the biblical language of faith. further, a normatively appropriate combination of trust and loyalty towards others is a recognizable social virtue, aimed at promoting flourishing relationships. finally, we consider how to make sense of ancient and modern exemplars of faith who protest against god, such as job and elie wiesel, and argue that the trust-loyalty view is uniquely well suited to accommodate them. (shrink) faith in philosophy of religion trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download     export citation     bookmark   	added - - trustworthiness in explanation: the obligation to explain well.sheralce brindell - - science and engineering ethics ( ): - .details‘scientific integrity’ certainly requires that data and references be beyond reproach. however, issues within the theory of scientific explanation suggest that there may be more to it than just this. while it is true that some contemporary, pragmatic analyses of explanation suffer from the ‘problem of relevance’, it does not seem to be true that the addition of formal, metaphysical constraints is necessary to solve this problem. i argue that, when viewed as requests for help with an epistemic problem, explanation (...) -seeking questions reveal the existence of a set of moral criteria centered in trust which, when satisfied, prevent trivial or irrelevant explanations from being offered, thereby broadening the concept of ‘scientific integrity’. (shrink) pragmatic theories of explanation in general philosophy of science science and values in general philosophy of science trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark   	added - - experts, public policy and the question of trust.maria baghramian & michel croce - forthcoming - in michael hannon & jeroen de ridder (eds.), routledge handbook of political epistemology. london, uk: routledge.detailsthis chapter discusses the topics of trust and expertise from the perspective of political epistemology. in particular, it addresses four main questions: (§ ) how should we characterise experts and their expertise? (§ ) how can non-experts recognize a reliable expert? (§ ) what does it take for non-experts to trust experts? (§ ) what problems impede trust in experts? political epistemology in social and political philosophy social epistemology, misc in epistemology trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download     export citation     bookmark   	added - - why think for yourself?jonathan matheson - manuscriptdetailslife is a group project. it takes a village. the same is true of our intellectual lives. since we are finite cognitive creatures with limited time and resources, any healthy intellectual life requires that we rely quite heavily on others. for nearly any question you want to investigate, there is someone who is in a better epistemic position than you are to determine the answer. for most people, their expertise does not extend far beyond their own personal lives, and even (...) here we can sometimes find others who are more reliable. without relying on them we would know very little about the world. since others are typically better positioned to determine the answers to the questions we have, it should make us wonder why we should bother to try and figure out much of anything at all for ourselves. after all, when trying to find an answer to a question, we should take the best route to the answer, and the most reliable route to the answer to most questions is to rely on the minds of others. at the same time, there is something defective about an intellectual life that outsources nearly all of its intellectual projects. that is, it seems that individuals ought to think for themselves, at least about some issues and at least some of the time. the puzzle is in determining why it is epistemically valuable to think for yourself, since doing so will almost always not be the best available route to the answer of your question. in this paper, i will first clarify our central question and sharpen this puzzle regarding epistemic autonomy. having done so, i will argue that autonomous deliberation can be epistemically valuable to inquirers both when it is successful, as well as when it is unsuccessful. i conclude by gesturing at how these considerations point us toward an account of epistemic autonomy as an intellectual virtue. (shrink) collective epistemology in epistemology social epistemology, misc in epistemology trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download   translate     export citation     bookmark   	added - - well-ordered science and public trust in science.gürol irzik & faik kurtulmus - forthcoming - synthese.detailsbuilding, restoring and maintaining well-placed trust between scientists and the public is a difficult yet crucial social task requiring the successful cooperation of various social actors and institutions. philip kitcher’s takes up this challenge in the context of liberal democratic societies by extending his ideal model of “well-ordered science” that he had originally formulated in his. however, kitcher nowhere offers an explicit account of what it means for the public to invest epistemic trust in science. yet in order to understand (...) how his extended model and its implementation in the actual world address the problem of trust as well as to evaluate it critically, an explicit account of epistemic public trust in science needs to be given first. in this article we first present such an account and then scrutinize his project of building public trust in science in light of it. we argue that even though kitcher’s ideal model and his proposals for its implementation in the real world face a number of problems, they can be addressed with the resources of our account. (shrink) inductive risk in general philosophy of science science and values in general philosophy of science scientific research ethics in applied ethics trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark   	added - - what is epistemic public trust in science?gürol irzik & faik kurtulmus - - british journal for the philosophy of science ( ): - .detailswe provide an analysis of the public's having warranted epistemic trust in science, that is, the conditions under which the public may be said to have well-placed trust in the scientists as providers of information. we distinguish between basic and enhanced epistemic trust in science and provide necessary conditions for both. we then present the controversy regarding the connection between autism and measles–mumps–rubella vaccination as a case study to illustrate our analysis. the realization of warranted epistemic public trust in science (...) requires various societal conditions, which we briefly introduce in the concluding section. (shrink) inductive risk in general philosophy of science science and values in general philosophy of science trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark    citations   	added - - elections, civic trust, and digital literacy: the promise of blockchain as a basis for common knowledge.mark alfano - detailsfew recent developments in information technology have been as hyped as blockchain, the first implementation of which was the cryptocurrency bitcoin. such hype furnishes ample reason to be skeptical about the promise of blockchain implementations, but i contend that there’s something to the hype. in particular, i think that certain blockchain implementations, in the right material, social, and political conditions, constitute excellent bases for common knowledge. as a case study, i focus on trust in election outcomes, where the ledger records (...) not financial transactions but vote tallies. i argue that blockchain implementations could foster warranted trust in vote tallies and thereby trust in the democratic process. finally, i argue that if the promise of blockchain implementations as democratic infrastructure is to be realized, then democracies first need to ensure that these material, social, and political conditions obtain. (shrink) civic virtue in social and political philosophy participatory democracy in social and political philosophy representative democracy in social and political philosophy trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download     export citation     bookmark   	added - - trust and distributed epistemic labor‎.boaz miller & ori freiman - - in judith simon (ed.), the routledge handbook on trust and philosophy. new york: routledge. pp. ‎ - ‎.detailsthis chapter explores properties that bind individuals, knowledge, and communities, together. section ‎‎ introduces hardwig’s argument from trust in others’ testimonies as entailing that trust is the glue ‎that binds individuals into communities. section asks “what grounds trust?” by exploring assessment ‎of collaborators’ explanatory responsiveness, formal indicators such as affiliation and credibility, ‎appreciation of peers’ tacit knowledge, game-theoretical considerations, and the role moral character ‎of peers, social biases, and social values play in grounding trust. section deals with establishing (...) ‎reliability standards for formation and breaching of trust. different epistemic considerations and their ‎underpinning of inductive risks are examined through various communication routes within a ‎discipline, between disciplines, and to the public. section examines whether a collective entity can ‎be trusted over and above trust that is given to its individual members. section deals with the roles ‎technological artifacts play in distributed research and collective knowledge. it presents the common ‎view in which genuine trust cannot, in principle, be accorded to artifacts, so as an opposite view. we ‎show that what counts as a genuine object of trust is relevant to debates about the boundaries of ‎collective agency and as a criterion for extended cognitive systems.‎. (shrink) collective epistemology in epistemology epistemology of testimony in epistemology extended epistemology in philosophy of mind inductive risk in general philosophy of science sociology of science in general philosophy of science trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download     export citation     bookmark   	added - - trust and sincerity in art.c. thi nguyen - forthcoming - ergo: an open access journal of philosophy.detailsour life with art is suffused with trust. we don’t just trust one another’s aesthetic testimony; we trust one another’s aesthetic actions. audiences trust artists to have made it worth their while; artists trust audiences to put in the effort. without trust, audiences would have little reason to put in the effort to understand difficult and unfamiliar art. i offer a theory of aesthetic trust, which highlights the importance of trust in aesthetic sincerity. we trust in another’s aesthetic sincerity when (...) we rely on them to fulfill their commitments to act for aesthetic reasons — rather than for, say, financial, social, or political reasons. we feel most thoroughly betrayed by an artist, not when they make bad art, but when they sell out. this teaches us something about the nature of trust in general. according to many standard theories, trust involves thinking the trusted to be cooperative or good-natured. but trust in aesthetic sincerity is different. we trust artists to be true to their own aesthetic sensibility, which might involve selfishly ignoring their audience’s needs. why do we care so much about an artist’s sincerity, rather than merely trusting them to make good art? we emphasize sincerity when wish to encourage originality, rather than to demand success along predictable lines. and we ask for sincerity when our goal is to discover a shared sensibility. in moral life, we often try to force convergence through coordinated effort. but in aesthetic life, we often hope for the lovely discovery that our sensibilities were similar all along. and for that we need to ask for sincerity, rather than overt coordination. (shrink) aesthetic cognition in aesthetics aesthetics and ethics in aesthetics trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download     export citation     bookmark   	added - - trust-based theories of promising.daniele bruno - - philosophical quarterly ( ): - .detailsthis paper discusses the prospects of a comprehensive philosophical account of promising that relies centrally on the notion of trust. i lay out the core idea behind the trust view, showing how it convincingly explains the normative contours and the unique value of our promissory practice. i then sketch three distinct options of how the trust view can explain the normativity of promises. first, an effect based-view, second, a view drawing on a wider norm demanding respect to those whom one (...) has invited to something, and finally, as a new suggestion, a normative interest view. this view holds that promising is a normative power that serves our interest in facilitating or enabling the relationship of trust between promisor and promisee. i argue that only those embracing the third view can fully account for the distinctive obligation that results from the giving of a valid promise in all cases. (shrink) moral pluralism in normative ethics obligation in normative ethics promises in normative ethics trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark    citation   	added - - the ethics and epistemology of trust.j. adam carter & mona simion - - internet encyclopedia of philosophy.detailstrust is a topic of longstanding philosophical interest. it is indispensable to every kind of coordinated human activity, from sport to scientific research. even more, trust is necessary for the successful dissemination of knowledge, and by extension, for nearly any form of practical deliberation and planning. without trust, we could achieve few of our goals and would know very little. despite trust’s fundamental importance in human life, there is substantial philosophical disagreement about what trust is, and further, how trusting is (...) normatively constrained and best theorized about in relation to other things we value. this entry is divided into three sections, which explore key (and sometimes interconnected) ethical and epistemological themes in the philosophy of trust: ( ) the nature of trust; ( ) the normativity of trust, and ( ) the value of trust. (shrink) epistemology of testimony in epistemology social epistemology, misc in epistemology trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark   	added - - experts: what are they and how can laypeople identify them?thomas grundmann - forthcoming - in jennifer lackey & aidan mcglynn (eds.), oxford handbook of social epistemology. oxford university press.detailsin this chapter, i survey and assess various answers to two basic questions concerning experts: ( ) what is an expert?; ( ) how can laypeople identify the relevant experts? these questions are not mutually independent, since the epistemology and the metaphysics of experts should go hand in hand. on the basis of our platitudes about experts, i will argue that the prevailing accounts of experts such as truth-linked, knowledge-linked, understanding-linked or service-oriented accounts are inadequate. in contrast, i will defend an evidence-linked (...) account of expertise. in the second part of the chapter, i address the question of how laypeople can identify experts in this sense. here, i will argue that agreement among experts plays a major role. i will outline how laypeople can follow this criterion without running into circularity. (shrink) social epistemology, misc in epistemology trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download     export citation     bookmark   	added - - trust in medicine.philip j. nickel & lily frank - - in judith simon (ed.), the routledge handbook of trust and philosophy.detailsin this chapter, we consider ethical and philosophical aspects of trust in the practice of medicine. we focus on trust within the patient-physician relationship, trust and professionalism, and trust in western (allopathic) institutions of medicine and medical research. philosophical approaches to trust contain important insights into medicine as an ethical and social practice. in what follows we explain several philosophical approaches and discuss their strengths and weaknesses in this context. we also highlight some relevant empirical work in the section on (...) trust in the institutions of medicine. it is hoped that the approaches discussed here can be extended to nursing and other topics in the philosophy of medicine. (shrink) medical ethics in applied ethics medicine in professional areas trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download     export citation     bookmark    citation   	added - - werte, wahrheit, wissenschaft.nicola mößner - forthcoming - in r. rothenbusch & oliver wiertz (eds.), umstrittene wahrheit. die frage nach der wahrheit in philosophie und religionen. munich, germany:detailsscience and values in general philosophy of science scientific practice, misc in general philosophy of science trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download   translate     export citation     bookmark   	added - - rebuilding trust in an era of widening wealth inequality.patti tamara lenard - - journal of social philosophy ( ): - .detailsdemocracy in social and political philosophy distributive justice in social and political philosophy equality, misc in social and political philosophy justice, misc in social and political philosophy social activities in social and political philosophy social relationships in social and political philosophy trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark   	added - - trust and belief.arnon keren - forthcoming - in judith simon (ed.), the routledge handbook of trust and philosophy. new york, usa: pp. - .detailsone fundamental divide among philosophers studying the nature of trust concerns the relation between trust and belief. according to doxastic accounts of trust, trust entails a belief about the trustee: either the belief that she is trustworthy with respect to what she is trusted to do, or that she will do what she is trusted to do. non-doxastic accounts deny that trusting entails holding such a belief. the chapter describes and evaluates the main considerations which have been cited for and (...) against doxastic accounts of trust. it argues that a preemptive reasons account of trust neutralizes some of the key objections to doxastic accounts, and that considerations favoring a doxastic account appear to be stronger than those favoring non-doxastic accounts. the chapter also suggests that the debate about the nature of trust, and the mental state required for trusting can benefit from linking it with the debate about the value of trust. -/- . (shrink) epistemology of testimony in epistemology trust in normative ethics remove from this list     export citation     bookmark    citation   	added - - the humility heuristic or: people worth trusting admit to what they don’t know.mattias skipper - forthcoming - social epistemology: - .detailspeople don't always speak the truth. when they don't, we do better not to trust them. unfortunately, that's often easier said than done. people don't usually wear a ‘not to be trusted!’ badge on their sleeves, which lights up every time they depart from the truth. given this, what can we do to figure out whom to trust, and whom not? my aim in this paper is to offer a partial answer to this question. i propose a heuristic—the “humility heuristic”—which (...) is meant to help guide our search for trustworthy advisors. in slogan form, the heuristic says: people worth trusting admit to what they don't know. i give this heuristic a precise probabilistic interpretation, offer a simple argument for it, defend it against some potential worries, and demonstrate its practical worth by showing how it can help address some difficult challenges in the relationship between experts and laypeople. (shrink) formal social epistemology, misc in epistemology social epistemology, misc in epistemology trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark   	added - - matters of trust as matters of attachment security.andrew kirton - forthcoming - international journal of philosophical studies: - .detailsi argue for an account of the vulnerability of trust, as a product of our need for secure social attachments to individuals and to a group. this account seeks to explain why it is true that, when we trust or distrust someone, we are susceptible to being betrayed by them, rather than merely disappointed or frustrated in our goals. what we are concerned about in matters of trust is, at the basic level, whether we matter, in a non-instrumental way, to (...) that individual, or to the group of which they are a member. we have this concern as a result of a drive to form secure social attachments. this makes us vulnerable in the characteristic way of being susceptible to betrayal, because how the other acts in such matters can demonstrate our lack of worth to them, or to the group, thereby threatening the security of our attachment, and eliciting the reactive attitudes characteristic of betrayal. (shrink) moral emotion in normative ethics moral phenomenology in normative ethics promises in normative ethics social relationships in social and political philosophy trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark    citation   	added - - believing to belong: addressing the novice-expert problem in polarized scientific communication.helen de cruz - - social epistemology ( ): - .detailsthere is a large gap between the specialized knowledge of scientists and laypeople’s understanding of the sciences. the novice-expert problem arises when non-experts are confronted with (real or apparent) scientific disagreement, and when they don’t know whom to trust. because they are not able to gauge the content of expert testimony, they rely on imperfect heuristics to evaluate the trustworthiness of scientists. this paper investigates why some bodies of scientific knowledge become polarized along political fault lines. laypeople navigate conflicting epistemic (...) and social demands in their acceptance of scientific testimony; this might explain their deference to scientific fringe theories, which often goes together with denying established scientific theories. i evaluate three approaches to mitigate denialism: improving the message, improving the messenger, and improving the environment in which the message is conveyed. (shrink) social epistemology in epistemology trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark   	added - - negative epistemic exemplars.mark alfano & emily sullivan - - in benjamin sherman & stacey goguen (eds.), overcoming epistemic injustice: social and psychological perspectives. rowman & littlefield.detailsin this chapter, we address the roles that exemplars might play in a comprehensive response to epistemic injustice. fricker defines epistemic injustices as harms people suffer specifically in their capacity as (potential) knowers. we focus on testimonial epistemic injustice, which occurs when someone’s assertoric speech acts are systematically met with either too little or too much credence by a biased audience. fricker recommends a virtue­theoretic response: people who do not suffer from biases should try to maintain their disposition towards naive (...) testimonial justice, and those who find themselves already biased should cultivate corrective testimonial justice by systematically adjusting their credence in testimony up or down depending on whether they are hearing from someone whom they may be biased against or in favor of. we doubt that the prominent admiration­emulation model of exemplarism will be much use in this connection, so we propose two ways of learning from negative exemplars to better conduct one’s epistemic affairs. in the admiration­emulation model, both the identification of what a virtue is and the cultivation of virtues identified thusly proceed through the admiration of virtuous exemplars. we show that this model has serious flaws and argue for two alternatives: the envy­agonism model and the ambivalence­avoidance model. (shrink) feminist epistemology in epistemology trust in normative ethics virtue epistemology in epistemology virtues and vices in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download   translate     export citation     bookmark    citation   	added - - vulnerability in social epistemic networks.emily sullivan, max sondag, ignaz rutter, wouter meulemans, scott cunningham, bettina speckmann & mark alfano - - international journal of philosophical studies ( ): - .detailssocial epistemologists should be well-equipped to explain and evaluate the growing vulnerabilities associated with filter bubbles, echo chambers, and group polarization in social media. however, almost all social epistemology has been built for social contexts that involve merely a speaker-hearer dyad. filter bubbles, echo chambers, and group polarization all presuppose much larger and more complex network structures. in this paper, we lay the groundwork for a properly social epistemology that gives the role and structure of networks their due. in particular, (...) we formally define epistemic constructs that quantify the structural epistemic position of each node within an interconnected network. we argue for the epistemic value of a structure that we call the (m,k)-observer. we then present empirical evidence that (m,k)-observers are rare in social media discussions of controversial topics, which suggests that people suffer from serious problems of epistemic vulnerability. we conclude by arguing that social epistemologists and computer scientists should work together to develop minimal interventions that improve the structure of epistemic networks. (shrink) formal epistemology, misc in epistemology social epistemology, misc in epistemology sociology of knowledge in epistemology trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark   	added - - a metacognitive approach to trust and a case study: artificial agency.ioan muntean - - computer ethics - philosophical enquiry (cepe) proceedings.detailstrust is defined as a belief of a human h (‘the trustor’) about the ability of an agent a (the ‘trustee’) to perform future action(s). we adopt here dispositionalism and internalism about trust: h trusts a iff a has some internal dispositions as competences. the dispositional competences of a are high-level metacognitive requirements, in the line of a naturalized virtue epistemology. (sosa, carter) we advance a bayesian model of two (i) confidence in the decision and (ii) model uncertainty. to trust (...) a, h demands a to be self-assertive about confidence and able to self-correct its own models. in the bayesian approach trust can be applied not only to humans, but to artificial agents (e.g. machine learning algorithms). we explain the advantage the metacognitive trust when compared to mainstream approaches and how it relates to virtue epistemology. the metacognitive ethics of trust is swiftly discussed. (shrink) bayesian reasoning, misc in philosophy of probability moral status of artificial systems in philosophy of cognitive science trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark   	added - - the moral limits of open‐mindedness.matt a. ferkany - - educational theory ( ): - .detailsepistemologists have long worried that the willingness of open-minded people to reconsider their beliefs in light of new evidence is both a condition of improving their beliefs and a risk factor for losing their grip on what they already know. in this paper i introduce and attempt to resolve a moral variation of this puzzle: a willingness to engage people having strange or (to us) repugnant moral ideals looks like a condition of broadening our moral horizons, but also a risk (...) factor for doing the wrong thing or becoming bad. i pursue a contractualist line according to which such hazardous engagement is a virtue only when it matters to our interlocutors whether they can justify themselves to us on terms we can accept—and for our sake or for the sake of their own virtue, not instrumentally or to get something out of us. when it does not so matter, openness can be unintelligent or gullible, i.e. not virtuous. (shrink) moral contractualism in normative ethics moral disagreement in meta-ethics philosophy of education in philosophy of social science trust in normative ethics virtues and vices in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark   	added - - in ai we trust incrementally: a multi-layer model of trust to analyze human-artificial intelligence interactions.andrea ferrario, michele loi & eleonora viganò - - philosophy and technology ( ): - .detailsreal engines of the artificial intelligence revolution, machine learning models, and algorithms are embedded nowadays in many services and products around us. as a society, we argue it is now necessary to transition into a phronetic paradigm focused on the ethical dilemmas stemming from the conception and application of ais to define actionable recommendations as well as normative solutions. however, both academic research and society-driven initiatives are still quite far from clearly defining a solid program of study and intervention. in (...) this contribution, we will focus on selected ethical investigations around ai by proposing an incremental model of trust that can be applied to both human-human and human-ai interactions. starting with a quick overview of the existing accounts of trust, with special attention to taddeo’s concept of “e-trust,” we will discuss all the components of the proposed model and the reasons to trust in human-ai interactions in an example of relevance for business organizations. we end this contribution with an analysis of the epistemic and pragmatic reasons of trust in human-ai interactions and with a discussion of kinds of normativity in trustworthiness of ais. (shrink) ethics of artificial intelligence, misc in philosophy of cognitive science moral status of artificial systems in philosophy of cognitive science trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)   translate     export citation     bookmark    citations   	added - - can novices trust themselves to choose trustworthy experts? reasons for (reserved) optimism.johnny brennan - - social epistemology ( ): - .detailsnovices face a problem when it comes to forming true beliefs about controversial issues that they cannot assess themselves: who are the trustworthy experts? elizabeth anderson offers a set of criteria intended to allow novices to form reliable assessments of expert trustworthiness. all they need to assess experts is a high-school education and access to the internet. in this paper, i argue that novices face a much harder time using her criteria effectively than we would expect or hope. this problem (...) is amplified when novices hold the wrong opinions. such novices need her criteria the most and are the least likely to use them correctly. such novices lack knowledge necessary for using the criteria accurately, and are likely to resist correction of their wrong opinions due to cognitive biases. after providing reasons to be skeptical of the effectiveness of her criteria, i propose some supplemental criteria to increase their effectiveness: metacognitive reliability conditions aimed at getting novices to assess themselves in the way that they assess experts. although these additional criteria show promise, we should be reserved in our optimism. (shrink) testimony in epistemology trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark    citation   	added - - testimony: a philosophical introduction.joseph shieber - - routledge.detailsthe epistemology of testimony has experienced a growth in interest over the last twenty-five years that has been matched by few, if any, other areas of philosophy. _testimony: a philosophical introduction _provides an epistemology of testimony that surveys this rapidly growing research area while incorporating a discussion of relevant empirical work from social and developmental psychology, as well as from the interdisciplinary study of knowledge-creation in groups. the past decade has seen a number of scholarly monographs on the epistemology of (...) testimony, but there is a dearth of books that survey the current field. this book fills that gap, assessing the strengths and weaknesses of all major competing theories. all chapters conclude with suggestions for further reading and discussion questions. (shrink) collective epistemology in epistemology epistemic injustice in epistemology epistemology of testimony in epistemology social epistemology, misc in epistemology sociology of knowledge in epistemology testimony, misc in epistemology the nature of testimony in epistemology trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark    citations   	added - - the fellowship of the ninth hour: christian reflections on the nature and value of faith.daniel howard-snyder & daniel j. mckaughan - forthcoming - in james arcadi & james t. turner jr (eds.), the t&t clark companion to analytic theology. new york, ny, usa: t&t clark/bloomsbury. pp. - .detailsit is common for young christians to go off to college assured in their beliefs but, in the course of their first year or two, they meet what appears to them to be powerful defenses of scientific naturalism and crushing critiques of the basic christian story (bcs), and many are thrown into doubt. they think to themselves something like this: "to be honest, i am troubled about the bcs. while the problem of evil, the apparent cultural basis for the diversity (...) of religions, the explanatory breadth of contemporary science, naturalistic explanations of religious experience and miracle reports, and textual and historical criticism of the bible, among other things, don’t make me believe the bcs is false , i am in serious doubt about it, so much so that i lack belief of it. in that case, how can i have christian faith? and if i don’t have faith, how can i keep on praying, attending church, affirming the creed, confessing my sins, taking the sacraments, singing the hymns and songs, and so on? i can’t, unless i’m a hypocrite. so integrity requires me to drop the whole thing and get out." of course, our student is not alone. many christians find themselves for some portion of their lives somewhere on the trajectory from doubt to getting out. indeed, christians in the west struggle with intellectual doubt more than they used to, especially university-educated christians. what should we say to them? some will say “get out!,” welcoming the development as a path to liberation. we explore a different response in this essay. (shrink) faith in philosophy of religion philosophical traditions religious experience in philosophy of religion religious skepticism in philosophy of religion trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download     export citation     bookmark   	added - - humility in networks.mark alfano & emily sullivan - forthcoming - in alessandra tanesini, michael lynch & mark alfano (eds.), the routledge handbook of the philosophy of humility. routledge.detailswhat do humility, intellectual humility, and open-mindedness mean in the context of inter-group conflict? we spend most of our time with ingroup members, such as family, friends, and colleagues. yet our biggest disagreements —— about practical, moral, and epistemic matters —— are likely to be with those who do not belong to our ingroup. an attitude of humility towards the former might be difficult to integrate with a corresponding attitude of humility towards the latter, leading to smug tribalism that masquerades (...) as genuine virtue. these potentially conflicting priorities have recently come to the fore because “tribal epistemology” has so thoroughly infected political and social discourse. most research on these dispositions focuses on individual traits and dyadic peer-disagreement, with little attention to group membership or inter-group conflict. in this chapter, we dilate the social scale to address this pressing philosophical and social problem. (shrink) extended epistemology in philosophy of mind trust in normative ethics virtue epistemology in epistemology remove from this list   direct download   translate     export citation     bookmark   	added - - trust in a social and digital world.mark alfano & colin klein - - social epistemology review and reply collective ( ): - .detailsepistemology of testimony in epistemology extended epistemology in philosophy of mind sociology of knowledge in epistemology the nature of testimony in epistemology trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download   translate     export citation     bookmark   	added - - linking faith and trust: of contracts and covenants.ionut untea - - teoria ( ): - .detailstrust is so intimately linked with faith that sometimes trust needs faith to unfold in a relationship. i argue that the role of this faith element in trust is to elevate the status of the one in which we trust so as to emphasize the equal dignity of all the participants in the relationship of trust. against views that focus on a «rational» trust based on an exaggerated emphasis on the capacity of self-trust as a point of departure for the (...) trust in others, the essay develops toward the depiction of a kind of trust that is rooted in faith and still maintains a «reasonable» character. by way of discussing the implications of thomas hobbes’s reflections on covenants and contracts, and annette baier’s critique of what she sees as the hobbesian «fixation» on contracts, i argue toward the identification of what i call a «covenantal trust» in contemporary political ontology. (shrink) ethics of belief in epistemology hobbes: moral psychology in th/ th century philosophy moral contractarianism in normative ethics moral contractualism in normative ethics trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark   	added - - trust as an unquestioning attitude.c. thi nguyen - forthcoming - oxford studies in epistemology.detailsmost theories of trust presume that trust is a conscious attitude that can be directed only at other agents. i sketch a different form of trust: the unquestioning attitude. what it is to trust, in this sense, is not simply to rely on something, but to rely on it unquestioningly. it is to rely on a resource while suspending deliberation over its reliability. to trust, then, is to set up open pipelines between yourself and parts of the external world — (...) to permit external resources to have a similar relationship to one as one’s internal cognitive faculties. this creates efficiency, but at the price of exquisite vulnerability. we must trust in this way because we are cognitively limited beings in a cognitively overwhelming world. crucially, we can hold the unquestioning attitude towards objects. when i trust my climbing rope, i climb while putting questions of its reliability out of mind. many people now trust, in this sense, complex technologies such as search algorithms and online calendars. but, one might worry, how could one ever hold such a normatively loaded attitude as trust towards mere objects? how could it ever make sense to feel betrayed by an object? such betrayal is grounded, not in considerations of inter-agential cooperation, but in considerations of functional integration. trust is our engine for expanding and outsourcing our agency — for binding external processes into our practical selves. thus, we can be betrayed by our smartphones in the same way that we can be betrayed by our memory. when we trust, we try to make something a part of our agency, and we are betrayed when our part lets us down. this suggests a new form of gullibility: agential gullibility, which occurs when agents too hastily and carelessly integrate external resources into their own agency. (shrink) agency in philosophy of action extended cognition in philosophy of mind philosophy of technology in philosophy of computing and information trust in normative ethics virtue epistemology in epistemology virtues and vices in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download     export citation     bookmark    citation   	added - - trust, testimony, and reasons for belief.rebecca wallbank & andrew reisner - forthcoming - in kevin mccain & scott stapleford (eds.), epistemic duties: new arguments, new angles. london: routledge.detailsthis chapter explores two kinds of testimonial trust, what we call ‘evidential trust’ and ‘non-evidential trust’ with the aim of asking how testimonial trust could provide epistemic reasons for belief. we argue that neither evidential nor non-evidential trust can play a distinctive role in providing evidential reasons for belief, but we tentatively propose that non-evidential trust can in some circumstances provide a novel kind of epistemic reason for belief, a reason of epistemic facilitation. the chapter begins with an extensive discussion (...) of standard accounts of both kinds of trust and criticises especially the standard accounts of non-evidential trust. a new account of non-evidential trust is offered that avoids a number of difficulties that plague the standard accounts by rejecting what we call ‘attitude-liability assumptions’. (shrink) epistemic normativity, misc in epistemology the nature of testimony in epistemology trust in normative ethics $ . new   $ . direct from amazon   (collection)   amazon page remove from this list   direct download     export citation     bookmark   	added - - exploitative epistemic trust.katherine dormandy - - in trust in epistemology. new york city, new york, vereinigte staaten: pp. - .detailswhere there is trust, there is also vulnerability, and vulnerability can be exploited. epistemic trust is no exception. this chapter maps the phenomenon of the exploitation of epistemic trust. i start with a discussion of how trust in general can be exploited; a key observation is that trust incurs vulnerabilities not just for the party doing the trusting, but also for the trustee (after all, trust can be burdensome), so either party can exploit the other. i apply these considerations to (...) epistemic trust, specifically in testimonial relationships. there, we standardly think of a hearer trusting a speaker. but we miss an important aspect of this relationship unless we consider too that the speaker standardly trusts the hearer. given this mutual trust, and given that both trustees and trusters can exploit each other, we have four possibilities for exploitation in epistemic-trust relationships: a speaker exploiting a hearer (a) by accepting his trust or (b) by imposing her trust on him, and a hearer exploiting a speaker (c) by accepting her trust or (d) by imposing his trust on her. one result is that you do not need to betray someone to exploit him – you can exploit him just as easily by doing what he trusts you for. (shrink) trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark    citations   	added - - introduction: an overview of trust and some key epistemological applications.katherine dormandy - - in trust in epistemology. new york: routledge. pp. - .detailsi give an overview of the trust literature and then of six central issues concerning epistemic trust. the survey of trust zeroes in on the kinds of expectations that trust involves, trust’s characteristic psychology, and what makes trust rational. the discussion of epistemic trust focuses on its role in testimony, the epistemic goods that we trust for, the significance of epistemic trust in contrast to reliance, what makes epistemic trust rational, and epistemic self-trust. trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark    citation   	added - - loopholes, gaps, and what is held fast.nancy potter - - philosophy, psychiatry, and psychology ( ): - .detailsthis paper raises questions about who counts as a knower with regard to his or her own memories, what gets counted as a genuine memory, and who will affirm those memories within an epistemic community. i argue for a democratic epistemology informed by an understanding of relations of power. i investigate implications of the claim that knowledge is both social and political and suggest ways it is related to trust. given the tendency of epistemology to draw lines that discriminate unfairly (...) against some, it is vital that efforts to create democratic epistemologies be sensitive to the potential for exploitation. standards of credibility often favor members of dominant groups, and our ontological commitments may intersect with patterns of domination. while acknowledging difficulties in evaluating what counts as credible claims to memories, i argue that one’s engagement with clients must be mapped onto the larger moral and political domain. (shrink) epistemology of memory in philosophy of mind knowledge in epistemology mental illness in philosophy of cognitive science ontology in metaphysics philosophy of consciousness in philosophy of mind philosophy of psychiatry and psychopathology, misc in philosophy of cognitive science trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark    citations   	added - - the public understanding of what? laypersons' epistemic needs, the division of cognitive labor, and the demarcation of science.arnon keren - - philosophy of science ( ): - .detailswhat must laypersons understand about science to allow them to make sound decisions on science-related issues? relying on recent developments in social epistemology, this paper argues that scientific education should have the goal not of bringing laypersons' understanding of science closer to that of expert insiders, but rather of cultivating the kind of competence characteristic of “competent outsiders” (feinstein ). moreover, it argues that philosophers of science have an important role to play in attempts to promote this kind of understanding, (...) but that to successfully fulfill this role, they will have to approach central questions in the field differently. (shrink) trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark    citations   	added - - trust, preemption, and knowledge.arnon keren - - in katherine dormandy (ed.), trust in epistemology.detailsthis chapter gives an account of epistemic trust. it argues that trust in general is a matter of declining to take precautions against the trustee’s failing to come through, and that this amounts in the epistemic case to declining to rely on evidence for the testified proposition, instead relying solely on the testifier. but if this is so, how can trust play a positive role in securing knowledge? the key, it is argued, lies in recognizing that trust is preemptive: trusting (...) someone entails believing that she is trustworthy, and this belief preempts other evidence about whether she will come through. in other words, this belief gives the truster himself a good reason to desist from relying on evidence other than the trustee’s word. but if trust is preemptive, how is it compatible with epistemic responsibility, which seems to involve relying on your own evidence? because, it is claimed, preempting your own evidence in favor of the testifier’s say-so enables your belief to be supported by her evidence – which, we may assume, is superior to your own. far from forfeiting epistemic responsibility, then, epistemic trust on the preemptive account gives you justificatory access to a swathe of evidence that you would not otherwise have had. (shrink) epistemology of testimony in epistemology trust in normative ethics remove from this list     export citation     bookmark   	added - - trust, autonomy, and the fiduciary relationship.carolyn mcleod & emma ryman - - in paul miller & matthew harding (eds.), fiduciaries and trust: ethics, politics, economics, and law. cambridge, uk: pp. - .detailssome accounts of the fiduciary relationship place trust and autonomy at odds with one another, so that trusting a fiduciary to act on one’s behalf reduces one’s ability to be autonomous. in this chapter, we critique this view of the fiduciary relationship (particularly bilateral instances of this relationship) using contemporary work on autonomy and ‘relational autonomy’. theories of relational autonomy emphasize the role that interpersonal trust and social relationships play in supporting or hampering one’s ability to act autonomously. we argue (...) that fiduciary relationships, understood through the lens of relational autonomy, can provide a means of enhancing, rather than diminishing, beneficiaries’ autonomy. (shrink) autonomy, misc in social and political philosophy philosophy of law, miscellaneous in philosophy of law trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download     export citation     bookmark    citations   	added - - disappointed yet unbetrayed: a new three-place analysis of trust.edward hinchman - forthcoming - in kevin vallier & michael weber (eds.), social trust.detailsthis paper engages two debates about trust, deriving from two distinct questions about the nature of trust. the first asks how to define trust. does trusting b to φ involve anything more than relying on b to φ? the second asks about the normative structure of trust. does trust most fundamentally embody a two-place or a three-place relation? i’ll defend a new position in the second debate that yields an equally new position in the first. -/- the standard three-place model (...) highlights ‘a trusts b to φ.’ the two-place model prefers ‘a trusts b.’ on my new three-place model, both are less fundamental than ‘a φs through trust in b.’ we do, of course, trust people to do things. but the most fundamental form of trust lies in doing something through trust in a person. i call this the assurance view of trust because i’ll argue that trusting involves accepting another’s invitation to trust – an assurance, in effect, that the other is relevantly trustworthy. -/- trust thereby differs from mere reliance by how it makes available a reason to rely on the trusted. in mere reliance, your reason to rely on b is exogenous to the reliance relation, emerging, for example, from b’s track record of relevant reliability. when you trust b, by contrast, you take yourself to have a reason to rely on b that is endogenous to your trust, a reason grounded not merely in b’s reliability, exogenously considered, but in b’s ongoing responsiveness to your relevant needs. -/- the assurance view’s key insight emerges, i’ll argue, from cases wherein trust is disappointed – the trusted does not do what you trusted her to do – yet not thereby betrayed. (shrink) trust in normative ethics remove from this list     export citation     bookmark   	added - - balancing the normativity of expertise.markus seidel - - social epistemology review and reply collective ( ): - .detailssocial epistemology, misc in epistemology sociology of knowledge in epistemology sociology of science in general philosophy of science trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download     export citation     bookmark    citation   	added - - trust in medicine: its nature, justification, significance, and decline.markus wolfensberger & anthony wrigley - - cambridge: cambridge university press.detailsover the past decades, public trust in medical professionals has steadily declined. this decline of trust and its replacement by ever tighter regulations is increasingly frustrating physicians. however, most discussions of trust are either abstract philosophical discussions or social science investigations not easily accessible to clinicians. the authors, one a surgeon-turned-philosopher, the other an analytical philosopher working in medical ethics, joined their expertise to write a book which straddles the gap between the practical and theoretical. using an approach grounded in (...) the methods of conceptual analysis found in analytical philosophy which also draws from approaches to medical diagnosis, the authors have conceived an internally coherent and comprehensive definition of trust to help elucidate the concept and explain its decline in the medical context. this book should appeal to all interested in the ongoing debate about the decline of trust - be it as medical professionals, medical ethicists, medical lawyers, or philosophers. (shrink) conceptual analysis in metaphilosophy medical ethics, misc in applied ethics trust in normative ethics remove from this list     export citation     bookmark   	added - - lying, trust, and gratitude.collin o'neil - - philosophy and public affairs ( ): - .detailsamong the various methods of deceit, lying is often thought to be a special affront on the grounds that it invites the victim’s trust. such an explanation is incomplete without an account of the moral significance of trust. this article distinguishes two morally problematic relations to trust, betrayals and abuses, and, appealing to the idea that we should be grateful to be trusted, attempts to explain these wrongs as violations of distinct demands of gratitude for trust. only the wrong of (...) abuse, not betrayal, is useful for distinguishing methods of deceit. although lying commits an abuse of trust, it turns out that it is really the broader category of deceit by means of communication that is special in this way. -/- . (shrink) deception in applied ethics gratitude in normative ethics social and political philosophy trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)     export citation     bookmark    citations   	added - - betraying trust.collin o'neil - - in paul faulkner & thomas w. simpson (eds.), the philosophy of trust. oxford, uk: oxford university press. pp. - .detailstrust not only disposes us to feel betrayed, trust can be betrayed. understanding what a betrayal of trust is requires understanding how trust can ground an obligation on the part of the trusted person to act specifically as trusted. this essay argues that, since trust cannot ground an appropriate obligation where there is no prior obligation, a betrayal of trust should instead be conceived as the violation of a trust-based obligation to respect an already existing obligation. two forms of trust (...) are evaluated for their potential to ground such a second-order obligation. one form counts as a gift to the trusted person only because it does not involve an expectation of trustworthiness; the other form cannot count as a gift but confers an honor because it does include an expectation of trustworthiness. only trust that confers an honor generates a second-order obligation whose violation would be a betrayal of trust. -/- . (shrink) moral psychology, misc in normative ethics normative ethics, miscellaneous in normative ethics trust in normative ethics remove from this list   direct download ( more)   translate     export citation     bookmark    citation   	added - - public trust in science: exploring the idiosyncrasy-free ideal.marion boulicault & s. andrew schroeder - forthcoming - in social trust.detailswhat makes science trustworthy to the public? this chapter examines one proposed answer: the trustworthiness of science is based at least in part on its independence from the idiosyncratic values, interests, and ideas of individual scientists. that is, science is trustworthy to the extent that following the scientific process would result in the same conclusions, regardless of the particular scientists involved. we analyze this "idiosyncrasy-free ideal" for science by looking at philosophical debates about inductive risk, focusing on two recent proposals (...) which offer different methods of avoiding idiosyncrasy: the high epistemic standards proposal and the democratic values proposal. 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\u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:oclcnum \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datepublished \" \/ \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:exampleofwork http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:inlanguage \"en\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issimilarto http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/ssrn_working_paper_series_print> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"ssrn working paper series\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:productid \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nwdrs:describedby http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \nrelated entities\n http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/ssrn_working_paper_series_print> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:creativework ; \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:label \"ssrn working paper series (print)\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issimilarto http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # ssrn working paper series\n \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \ngenont:informationresource, genont:contenttypegenericresource ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # ssrn working paper series\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datemodified \" - - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nvoid:indataset http:\/\/purl.oclc.org\/dataset\/worldcat> ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \ncontent-negotiable representations\n \n	\nturtle (text\/turtle)\n 	\njson-ld (application\/ld+json)\n 	\nrdf\/xml (application\/rdf+xml)\n 	\nn-triples (text\/plain)\n 	\nhtml+rdfa (text\/html)\n\n 	 		 	 	 		 			languages:	Česky  |  deutsch  |  english  |  español  |  français  |  italiano  |  nederlands  |  português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) 	 			you:	 sign in | register | my worldcat | my lists | my watchlist | my reviews | my tags | my saved searches 	worldcat:	home | about | 	help | search 	 	 			legal:	copyright © - oclc. all rights reserved. | privacy policy | cookie notice | cookie list and settings | terms and conditions 	 			worldcat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. learn more ›› 			 				follow worldcat: 					 	 	 	 			 	 	 	 		 		 			 	 	 	 please sign in to worldcat  don't have an account? you can easily create a free account. 	 	user name: 	 	 	password: 	 	 	 	 		remember me on this computer 		 	 	 	 	 	 	cancel forgot your password? 	 	 	 philosophical perspectives. (journal, magazine, ) [worldcat.org] your web browser is not enabled for javascript. some features of worldcat will not be available. 	 		 	 home worldcat home about worldcat 	 help search search for library items search for lists search for contacts search for a library 	 	 	 create lists, bibliographies and reviews: 	 	 	 	 	 or 	 	 	 	 	 search worldcat 	 	 		find items in libraries near you 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 advanced search find a library 	 	 		 			 				 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	 your request to send this item has been completed. 	 	cite/export 			 				 					 						cite/export 	 							copy a citation 	 							 	 								apa ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 												 											 										 									 	 								 	 								chicago (author-date, th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								harvard ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								mla ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								turabian ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 							 	 							export a citation export to refworks   export to endnote / reference manager   export to easybib export to endnote / reference manager(non-latin)   cancel 							note: citations are based on reference standards. however, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. 	 					 				 			 	print 	e-mail 	 				 					 						e-mail 	 						 							 all fields are required. the e-mail address(es) field is required. please enter recipient e-mail address(es). the e-mail address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). you may send this item to up to five recipients. enter recipient e-mail address(es): 								 								separate up to five addresses with commas (,) 								the name field is required. please enter your name. enter your name: 								 								the subject field is required. please enter the subject. subject: 								 								the e-mail message field is required. please enter the message. e-mail message: i thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ title: philosophical perspectives. publisher: atascadero, ca : ridgeview, - isbn/issn: - oclc: please verify that you are not a robot. cancel 		 							 						 	 					 				 	 			 	share 	permalink permalink copy this url to link to this page: 		 		 		 	 	 add a review 	 would you also like to submit a review for this item?     	 	 	cancel 	 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	you already recently rated this item. 	your rating has been recorded 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 write a review 	 	rate this item: 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 			preview this item 		 		 preview this item 	 	 				 			 checking... 		philosophical perspectives. 			publisher:	atascadero, ca : ridgeview, - 	edition/format:	  journal, magazine : periodical : englishview all editions and formats 					 	rating:	 (not yet rated) with reviews - be the first. 						 					 	subjects	 	 philosophy -- periodicals. 	 philosophie -- périodiques. 	 . philosophy: general. 	view all subjects 	more like this	 	similar items 	 search this publication for other articles with the following words: 		 	 	 	 		 find a copy online links to this item jstor.org blackwell-synergy.com add library to favorites please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. allow this favorite library to be seen by others keep this favorite library private save    cancel 			 				find a copy in the library 	 finding libraries that hold this item... 	 		 	 	 details 	genre/form:	periodicals périodiques 	additional physical format:	philosophical perspectives (nl-leocl) 	material type:	periodical, internet resource 	document type:	journal / magazine / newspaper, internet resource 	issn:	 - 	oclc number:	 	notes:	vanaf dl. uitg.: cambridge [etc.] : blackwell. 	description:	v. ; cm. 		 		reviews 		 user-contributed reviews add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. 	 	tags 		 add tags for "philosophical perspectives.". be the first. 	 	 		similar items 		 			related subjects:( ) 					 							philosophy -- periodicals. 						 	 							philosophie -- périodiques. 						 	 							 . philosophy: general. 						 	 							philosophy. 						 	 							filosofie. 						 			 	 confirm this request you may have already requested this item. please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. 	 linked data 	 			more info about linked data 			\n\nprimary entity\n http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > # philosophical perspectives.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:creativework, schema:periodical ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:oclcnum \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/atascadero_ca> ; # atascadero, ca\n \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/cau> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/id.worldcat.org\/fast\/ > ; # philosophy\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/ _ _philosophy_general> ; # . philosophy: general\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/philosophy> ; # philosophy\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/filosofie> ; # filosofie\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/id.loc.gov\/authorities\/classification\/b > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/dewey.info\/class\/ \/e \/> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/philosophie> ; # philosophie\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datepublished \" \/\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datepublished \" \/ \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:exampleofwork http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:genre \"periodicals\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:inlanguage \"en\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issimilarto http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/philosophical_perspectives> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"philosophical perspectives.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:productid \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:publication http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #publicationevent\/atascadero_ca_ridgeview_ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:publisher http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/ridgeview> ; # ridgeview\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/journals\/ .html> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/www.blackwell-synergy.com\/rd.asp?goto=journal&code=phpe> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:workexample http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # philosophical perspectives.\n \u a \u a \u a \nwdrs:describedby http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \nrelated entities\n http:\/\/dewey.info\/class\/ \/e \/> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/ridgeview> # ridgeview\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nbgn:agent ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"ridgeview\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/atascadero_ca> # atascadero, ca\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"atascadero, ca\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/ _ _philosophy_general> # . philosophy: general\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \" . philosophy: general\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/filosofie> # filosofie\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"filosofie\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/philosophie> # philosophie\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"philosophie\"@fr ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/philosophy> # philosophy\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:seealso http:\/\/id.loc.gov\/authorities\/subjects\/sh > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"philosophy\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.loc.gov\/authorities\/classification\/b > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/cau> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \ndcterms:identifier \"cau\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.worldcat.org\/fast\/ > # philosophy\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"philosophy\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/philosophical_perspectives> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:creativework ; \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:label \"philosophical perspectives\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issimilarto http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # philosophical perspectives.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # philosophical perspectives.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > # philosophical perspectives.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:periodical ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issn \" - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"philosophical perspectives.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \ngenont:informationresource, genont:contenttypegenericresource ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # philosophical perspectives.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datemodified \" - - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nvoid:indataset http:\/\/purl.oclc.org\/dataset\/worldcat> ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #publicationevent\/atascadero_ca_ridgeview_ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:publicationevent ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:location http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/atascadero_ca> ; # atascadero, ca\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:organizer http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/ridgeview> ; # ridgeview\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:startdate \" -\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \ncontent-negotiable representations\n \n	\nturtle (text\/turtle)\n 	\njson-ld (application\/ld+json)\n 	\nrdf\/xml (application\/rdf+xml)\n 	\nn-triples (text\/plain)\n 	\nhtml+rdfa (text\/html)\n\n 	 		 	 	 		 			languages:	Česky  |  deutsch  |  english  |  español  |  français  |  italiano  |  nederlands  |  português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) 	 			you:	 sign in | register | my worldcat | my lists | my watchlist | my reviews | my tags | my saved searches 	worldcat:	home | about | 	help | search 	 	 			legal:	copyright © - oclc. all rights reserved. | privacy policy | cookie notice | cookie list and settings | terms and conditions 	 			worldcat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. learn more ›› 			 				follow worldcat: 					 	 	 	 			 	 	 	 		 		 			 	 	 	 please sign in to worldcat  don't have an account? you can easily create a free account. 	 	user name: 	 	 	password: 	 	 	 	 		remember me on this computer 		 	 	 	 	 	 	cancel forgot your password? 	 	 	 philosophy & public affairs (journal, magazine, ) [worldcat.org] your web browser is not enabled for javascript. some features of worldcat will not be available. 	 		 	 home worldcat home about worldcat 	 help search search for library items search for lists search for contacts search for a library 	 	 	 create lists, bibliographies and reviews: 	 	 	 	 	 or 	 	 	 	 	 search worldcat 	 	 		find items in libraries near you 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 advanced search find a library 	 	 		 			 				 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	 your request to send this item has been completed. 	 	cite/export 			 				 					 						cite/export 	 							copy a citation 	 							 	 								apa ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 												 											 										 									 	 								 	 								chicago (author-date, th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								harvard ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								mla ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								turabian ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 							 	 							export a citation export to refworks   export to endnote / reference manager   export to easybib export to endnote / reference manager(non-latin)   cancel 							note: citations are based on reference standards. however, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. 	 					 				 			 	print 	e-mail 	 				 					 						e-mail 	 						 							 all fields are required. the e-mail address(es) field is required. please enter recipient e-mail address(es). the e-mail address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). you may send this item to up to five recipients. enter recipient e-mail address(es): 								 								separate up to five addresses with commas (,) 								the name field is required. please enter your name. enter your name: 								 								the subject field is required. please enter the subject. subject: 								 								the e-mail message field is required. please enter the message. e-mail message: i thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ title: philosophy & public affairs publisher: princeton, n.j. : princeton university press, - isbn/issn: - oclc: please verify that you are not a robot. cancel 		 							 						 	 					 				 	 			 	share 	permalink permalink copy this url to link to this page: 		 		 		 	 	 add a review 	 would you also like to submit a review for this item?     	 	 	cancel 	 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	you already recently rated this item. 	your rating has been recorded 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 write a review 	 	rate this item: 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 			preview this item 		 		 preview this item 	 	 				 			 checking... 		philosophy & public affairs 			author:	princeton university (princeton, n.j.) 	publisher:	princeton, n.j. : princeton university press, - 	series:	 						philosophy and public affairs. 					 	edition/format:	  journal, magazine : periodical : english 					 	rating:	 (not yet rated) with reviews - be the first. 						 					 	subjects	 	 social sciences -- periodicals. 	 social history -- periodicals. 	 filosofie. 	view all subjects 	more like this	 	similar items 	 search this publication for other articles with the following words: 		 	 	 	 		 find a copy online links to this item swetswise.com ap ua jstor.org ap ua onlinelibrary.wiley.com ap kdg ua onlinelibrary.wiley.com.bib-proxy.uhasselt.be uh onlinelibrary.wiley.com toegang via de bibliotheken van de artesis plantijn hogeschool toegang via de bibliotheken van de karel de grote hogeschool toegang via de bibliotheken van de universiteit antwerpen bib-proxy.uhasselt.be toegang via de bibliotheken van uhasselt jstor.org muse.jhu.edu blackwell-synergy.com firstsearch.oclc.org address for accessing the journal using authorization number and password through oclc firstsearch electronic collections online. subscription to online journal required for access to abstracts and full text firstsearch.oclc.org address for accessing the journal from an authorized ip address through oclc firstsearch electronic collections online. subscription to online journal required for access to abstracts and full text show all links add library to favorites please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. allow this favorite library to be seen by others keep this favorite library private save    cancel 			 				find a copy in the library 	 finding libraries that hold this item... 	 		 	 	 details 	genre/form:	tijdschrift periodicals 	additional physical format:	philosophy & public affairs (nl-leocl) 	material type:	periodical, internet resource 	document type:	journal / magazine / newspaper, internet resource 	all authors / contributors:	 	 princeton university (princeton, n.j.) 	issn:	 - 	oclc number:	 	notes:	later uitg.: malden, mass., [etc.] : blackwell. 	description:	v. ; cm 	series title:	philosophy and public affairs. 	other titles:	philosophy and public affairs 	responsibility:	[ed.: marshall cohen]. 		 		reviews 		 user-contributed reviews add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. 	 	tags 		 add tags for "philosophy & public affairs". be the first. 	 	 		similar items 		 			related subjects:( ) 					 							social sciences -- periodicals. 						 	 							social history -- periodicals. 						 	 							filosofie. 						 	 							social history. 						 	 							social sciences. 						 	 							openbaar bestuur. 						 			 	 confirm this request you may have already requested this item. please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. 	 linked data 	 			more info about linked data 			\n\nprimary entity\n http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > # philosophy & public affairs\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:periodical, schema:creativework ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:oclcnum \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/princeton_n_j> ; # princeton, n.j.\n \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/nju> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/filosofie> ; # filosofie\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/dewey.info\/class\/ . \/> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/social_history> ; # social history\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/social_sciences> ; # social sciences\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/openbaar_bestuur> ; # openbaar bestuur\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:alternatename \"philosophy and public affairs\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:contributor http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #person\/cohen_marshall> ; # marshall cohen\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:contributor http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #organization\/princeton_university_princeton_n_j> ; # princeton university (princeton, n.j.)\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datepublished \" \/ \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datepublished \" \/\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:exampleofwork http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:genre \"tijdschrift\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:genre \"periodicals\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:inlanguage \"en\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:ispartof http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #series\/philosophy_and_public_affairs> ; # philosophy and public affairs.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issimilarto http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/philosophy_&_public_affairs> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"philosophy & public affairs\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:productid \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:publication http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #publicationevent\/princeton_n_j_princeton_university_press_ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:publisher http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/princeton_university_press> ; # princeton university press\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/action\/showpublication?journalcode=philpublaffa> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/journal\/ . \/(issn) - \/issues> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/firstsearch.oclc.org> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/journals\/ .html> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com.bib-proxy.uhasselt.be\/journal\/ . \/(issn) - \/issues> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/www.swetswise.com\/link\/access_db?issn= - > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/muse.jhu.edu\/journals\/pap> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/www.blackwell-synergy.com\/rd.asp?goto=journal&code=papa> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/loi\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/bib-proxy.uhasselt.be\/login?url=https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/loi\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/firstsearch.oclc.org\/journal= - ;screen=info;ecoip> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:workexample http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # philosophy & public affairs\n \u a \u a \u a \nwdrs:describedby http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \nrelated entities\n http:\/\/bib-proxy.uhasselt.be\/login?url=https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/loi\/ > \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"toegang via de bibliotheken van uhasselt\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/dewey.info\/class\/ . \/> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/princeton_university_press> # princeton university press\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nbgn:agent ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"princeton university press\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #organization\/princeton_university_princeton_n_j> # princeton university (princeton, n.j.)\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:organization ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"princeton university (princeton, n.j.)\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #person\/cohen_marshall> # marshall cohen\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:person ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:familyname \"cohen\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:givenname \"marshall\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"marshall cohen\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/princeton_n_j> # princeton, n.j.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"princeton, n.j.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #series\/philosophy_and_public_affairs> # philosophy and public affairs.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nbgn:publicationseries ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:haspart http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # philosophy & public affairs\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"philosophy and public affairs.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/filosofie> # filosofie\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"filosofie\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/openbaar_bestuur> # openbaar bestuur\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"openbaar bestuur\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/social_history> # social history\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"social history\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/social_sciences> # social sciences\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"social sciences\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/firstsearch.oclc.org> \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"address for accessing the journal using authorization number and password through oclc firstsearch electronic collections online. subscription to online journal required for access to abstracts and full text\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/firstsearch.oclc.org\/journal= - ;screen=info;ecoip> \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"address for accessing the journal from an authorized ip address through oclc firstsearch electronic collections online. subscription to online journal required for access to abstracts and full text\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/nju> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \ndcterms:identifier \"nju\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/journal\/ . \/(issn) - \/issues> \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"ua\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"kdg\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"ap\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com.bib-proxy.uhasselt.be\/journal\/ . \/(issn) - \/issues> \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"uh\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/philosophy_&_public_affairs> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:creativework ; \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:label \"philosophy & public affairs\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issimilarto http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # philosophy & public affairs\n \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # philosophy & public affairs\n \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > # philosophy & public affairs\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:periodical ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issn \" - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"philosophy & public affairs\" ; \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.jstor.org\/action\/showpublication?journalcode=philpublaffa> \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"ua\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"ap\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.swetswise.com\/link\/access_db?issn= - > \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"ua\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"ap\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \ngenont:informationresource, genont:contenttypegenericresource ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # philosophy & public affairs\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datemodified \" - - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nvoid:indataset http:\/\/purl.oclc.org\/dataset\/worldcat> ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #publicationevent\/princeton_n_j_princeton_university_press_ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:publicationevent ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:location http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/princeton_n_j> ; # princeton, n.j.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:organizer http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/princeton_university_press> ; # princeton university press\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:startdate \" -\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttps:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/loi\/ > \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"toegang via de bibliotheken van de universiteit antwerpen\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"toegang via de bibliotheken van de karel de grote hogeschool\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"toegang via de bibliotheken van de artesis plantijn hogeschool\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \ncontent-negotiable representations\n \n	\nturtle (text\/turtle)\n 	\njson-ld (application\/ld+json)\n 	\nrdf\/xml (application\/rdf+xml)\n 	\nn-triples (text\/plain)\n 	\nhtml+rdfa (text\/html)\n\n 	 		 	 	 		 			languages:	Česky  |  deutsch  |  english  |  español  |  français  |  italiano  |  nederlands  |  português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) 	 			you:	 sign in | register | my worldcat | my lists | my watchlist | my reviews | my tags | my saved searches 	worldcat:	home | about | 	help | search 	 	 			legal:	copyright © - oclc. all rights reserved. | privacy policy | cookie notice | cookie list and settings | terms and conditions 	 			worldcat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. learn more ›› 			 				follow worldcat: 					 	 	 	 			 	 	 	 		 		 			 	 	 	 please sign in to worldcat  don't have an account? you can easily create a free account. 	 	user name: 	 	 	password: 	 	 	 	 		remember me on this computer 		 	 	 	 	 	 	cancel forgot your password? 	 	 	 journal of the association for information systems. (ejournal / emagazine, ) [worldcat.org] your web browser is not enabled for javascript. some features of worldcat will not be available. 	 		 	 home worldcat home about worldcat 	 help search search for library items search for lists search for contacts search for a library 	 	 	 create lists, bibliographies and reviews: 	 	 	 	 	 or 	 	 	 	 	 search worldcat 	 	 		find items in libraries near you 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 advanced search find a library 	 	 		 			 				 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	 your request to send this item has been completed. 	 	cite/export 			 				 					 						cite/export 	 							copy a citation 	 							 	 								apa ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 												 											 										 									 	 								 	 								chicago (author-date, th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								harvard ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								mla ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								turabian ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 							 	 							export a citation export to refworks   export to endnote / reference manager   export to easybib export to endnote / reference manager(non-latin)   cancel 							note: citations are based on reference standards. however, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. 	 					 				 			 	print 	e-mail 	 				 					 						e-mail 	 						 							 all fields are required. the e-mail address(es) field is required. please enter recipient e-mail address(es). the e-mail address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). you may send this item to up to five recipients. enter recipient e-mail address(es): 								 								separate up to five addresses with commas (,) 								the name field is required. please enter your name. enter your name: 								 								the subject field is required. please enter the subject. subject: 								 								the e-mail message field is required. please enter the message. e-mail message: i thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ title: journal of the association for information systems. publisher: atlanta, ga. : association for information systems. isbn/issn: - oclc: please verify that you are not a robot. cancel 		 							 						 	 					 				 	 			 	share 	permalink permalink copy this url to link to this page: 		 		 		 	 	 add a review 	 would you also like to submit a review for this item?     	 	 	cancel 	 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	you already recently rated this item. 	your rating has been recorded 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 write a review 	 	rate this item: 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 			preview this item 		 		 preview this item 	 	 				 			 checking... 		journal of the association for information systems. 			publisher:	atlanta, ga. : association for information systems. 	edition/format:	  ejournal/emagazine : document : periodical : englishview all editions and formats 					 	rating:	 (not yet rated) with reviews - be the first. 						 					 	subjects	 	 information technology. 	 computing, mathematics and information systems 	more like this	 	similar items 		 	 	 	 		 find a copy online links to this item search.ebscohost.com login.ezproxy.brunel.ac.uk business source premier add library to favorites please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. allow this favorite library to be seen by others keep this favorite library private save    cancel 			 				find a copy in the library 	 finding libraries that hold this item... 	 		 	 	 details 	material type:	document, periodical, internet resource 	document type:	internet resource, computer file, journal / magazine / newspaper 	issn:	 - 	oclc number:	 		 		reviews 		 user-contributed reviews add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. 	 	tags 		 add tags for "journal of the association for information systems.". be the first. 	 	 		similar items 		 			related subjects:( ) 					 							information technology. 						 	 							computing, mathematics and information systems 						 			 	 confirm this request you may have already requested this item. please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. 	 linked data 	 			more info about linked data 			\n\nprimary entity\n http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > # journal of the association for information systems.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:creativework, schema:periodical, schema:mediaobject ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:oclcnum \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/gau> ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/atlanta_ga> ; # atlanta, ga.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #thing\/computing_mathematics_and_information_systems> ; # computing, mathematics and information systems\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/information_technology> ; # information technology\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datepublished \" \/ \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:exampleofwork http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:inlanguage \"en\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"journal of the association for information systems.\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:productid \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:publication http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #publicationevent\/atlanta_ga_association_for_information_systems> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:publisher http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/association_for_information_systems> ; # association for information systems.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url https:\/\/login.ezproxy.brunel.ac.uk\/login?url=https:\/\/search.ebscohost.com\/direct.asp?db=buh&jid=l x&scope=site> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/search.ebscohost.com\/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&jid=l x&site=ehost-live> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:workexample http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # journal of the association for information systems.\n \u a \u a \u a \nwdrs:describedby http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \nrelated entities\n http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/association_for_information_systems> # association for information systems.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nbgn:agent ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"association for information systems.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/atlanta_ga> # atlanta, ga.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"atlanta, ga.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #thing\/computing_mathematics_and_information_systems> # computing, mathematics and information systems\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:thing ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"computing, mathematics and information systems\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/information_technology> # information technology\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"information technology\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/gau> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \ndcterms:identifier \"gau\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # journal of the association for information systems.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > # journal of the association for information systems.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:periodical ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issn \" - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"journal of the association for information systems.\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \ngenont:informationresource, genont:contenttypegenericresource ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # journal of the association for information systems.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datemodified \" - - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nvoid:indataset http:\/\/purl.oclc.org\/dataset\/worldcat> ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #publicationevent\/atlanta_ga_association_for_information_systems> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:publicationevent ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:location http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/atlanta_ga> ; # atlanta, ga.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:organizer http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/association_for_information_systems> ; # association for information systems.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttps:\/\/login.ezproxy.brunel.ac.uk\/login?url=https:\/\/search.ebscohost.com\/direct.asp?db=buh&jid=l x&scope=site> \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"business source premier\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \ncontent-negotiable representations\n \n	\nturtle (text\/turtle)\n 	\njson-ld (application\/ld+json)\n 	\nrdf\/xml (application\/rdf+xml)\n 	\nn-triples (text\/plain)\n 	\nhtml+rdfa (text\/html)\n\n 	 		 	 	 		 			languages:	Česky  |  deutsch  |  english  |  español  |  français  |  italiano  |  nederlands  |  português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) 	 			you:	 sign in | register | my worldcat | my lists | my watchlist | my reviews | my tags | my saved searches 	worldcat:	home | about | 	help | search 	 	 			legal:	copyright © - oclc. all rights reserved. | privacy policy | cookie notice | cookie list and settings | terms and conditions 	 			worldcat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. learn more ›› 			 				follow worldcat: 					 	 	 	 			 	 	 	 		 		 			 	 	 	 please sign in to worldcat  don't have an account? you can easily create a free account. 	 	user name: 	 	 	password: 	 	 	 	 		remember me on this computer 		 	 	 	 	 	 	cancel forgot your password? 	 	 	 journal of personality and social psychology (ejournal / emagazine, s) [worldcat.org] your web browser is not enabled for javascript. some features of worldcat will not be available. 	 		 	 home worldcat home about worldcat 	 help search search for library items search for lists search for contacts search for a library 	 	 	 create lists, bibliographies and reviews: 	 	 	 	 	 or 	 	 	 	 	 search worldcat 	 	 		find items in libraries near you 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 advanced search find a library 	 	 		 			 				 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	 your request to send this item has been completed. 	 	cite/export 			 				 					 						cite/export 	 							copy a citation 	 							 	 								apa ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 												 											 										 									 	 								 	 								chicago (author-date, th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								harvard ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								mla ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								turabian ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 							 	 							export a citation export to refworks   export to endnote / reference manager   export to easybib export to endnote / reference manager(non-latin)   cancel 							note: citations are based on reference standards. however, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. 	 					 				 			 	print 	e-mail 	 				 					 						e-mail 	 						 							 all fields are required. the e-mail address(es) field is required. please enter recipient e-mail address(es). the e-mail address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). you may send this item to up to five recipients. enter recipient e-mail address(es): 								 								separate up to five addresses with commas (,) 								the name field is required. please enter your name. enter your name: 								 								the subject field is required. please enter the subject. subject: 								 								the e-mail message field is required. please enter the message. e-mail message: i thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ title: journal of personality and social psychology publisher: [washington, dc] : american psychological association, [ -]- isbn/issn: - oclc: please verify that you are not a robot. cancel 		 							 						 	 					 				 	 			 	share 	permalink permalink copy this url to link to this page: 		 		 		 	 	 add a review 	 would you also like to submit a review for this item?     	 	 	cancel 	 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	you already recently rated this item. 	your rating has been recorded 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 write a review 	 	rate this item: 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 			preview this item 		 		 preview this item 	 	 				 			 checking... 		journal of personality and social psychology 			author:	american psychological association. 	publisher:	[washington, dc] : american psychological association, [ -]- 	edition/format:	  ejournal/emagazine : document : periodical : englishview all editions and formats 					 	rating:	 (not yet rated) with reviews - be the first. 						 					 	subjects	 	 social psychology -- periodicals. 	 psychologie sociale -- périodiques. 	 social psychology. 	more like this	 	similar items 		 	 	 	 		 find a copy online links to this item content.apa.org add library to favorites please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. allow this favorite library to be seen by others keep this favorite library private save    cancel 			 				find a copy in the library 	 finding libraries that hold this item... 	 		 	 	 details 	genre/form:	periodicals périodiques 	additional physical format:	journal of personality and social psychology (nl-leocl) 	material type:	document, periodical, internet resource 	document type:	internet resource, computer file, journal / magazine / newspaper 	all authors / contributors:	 	 american psychological association. 	issn:	 - 	oclc number:	 	description:	 cm. 	other titles:	journal of personality and social psychology journal of personality & social psychology 	responsibility:	american psychological association. 		 		reviews 		 user-contributed reviews add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. 	 	tags 		 add tags for "journal of personality and social psychology". be the first. 	 	 		similar items 		 			related subjects:( ) 					 							social psychology -- periodicals. 						 	 							psychologie sociale -- périodiques. 						 	 							social psychology. 						 			 	 confirm this request you may have already requested this item. please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. 	 linked data 	 			more info about linked data 			\n\nprimary entity\n http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > # journal of personality and social psychology\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:mediaobject, schema:creativework, schema:periodical ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:oclcnum \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/dcu> ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/washington_dc> ; # washington, dc\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/psychologie_sociale> ; # psychologie sociale\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/social_psychology> ; # social psychology\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/id.worldcat.org\/fast\/ > ; # social psychology\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/dewey.info\/class\/ . \/> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:alternatename \"journal of personality & social psychology\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:contributor http:\/\/viaf.org\/viaf\/ > ; # american psychological association.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datepublished \" u\/ \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:exampleofwork http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:genre \"periodicals\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:inlanguage \"en\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issimilarto http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/journal_of_personality_and_social_psychology> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"journal of personality and social psychology\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:productid \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:publication http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #publicationevent\/washington_dc_american_psychological_association_ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:publisher http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/american_psychological_association> ; # american psychological association\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/content.apa.org\/journals\/psp> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:workexample http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # journal of personality and social psychology\n \u a \u a \u a \nwdrs:describedby http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \nrelated entities\n http:\/\/dewey.info\/class\/ . \/> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/american_psychological_association> # american psychological association\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nbgn:agent ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"american psychological association\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/washington_dc> # washington, dc\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"washington, dc\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/psychologie_sociale> # psychologie sociale\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"psychologie sociale\"@fr ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/social_psychology> # social psychology\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:seealso http:\/\/id.loc.gov\/authorities\/subjects\/sh > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"social psychology\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/dcu> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \ndcterms:identifier \"dcu\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.worldcat.org\/fast\/ > # social psychology\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"social psychology\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/viaf.org\/viaf\/ > # american psychological association.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:organization ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"american psychological association.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/journal_of_personality_and_social_psychology> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:creativework ; \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:label \"journal of personality and social psychology\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issimilarto http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # journal of personality and social psychology\n \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # journal of personality and social psychology\n \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > # journal of personality and social psychology\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:periodical ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issn \" - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"journal of personality and social psychology\" ; \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \ngenont:informationresource, genont:contenttypegenericresource ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # journal of personality and social psychology\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datemodified \" - - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nvoid:indataset http:\/\/purl.oclc.org\/dataset\/worldcat> ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #publicationevent\/washington_dc_american_psychological_association_ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:publicationevent ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:location http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/washington_dc> ; # washington, dc\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:organizer http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/american_psychological_association> ; # american psychological association\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:startdate \"-\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \ncontent-negotiable representations\n \n	\nturtle (text\/turtle)\n 	\njson-ld (application\/ld+json)\n 	\nrdf\/xml (application\/rdf+xml)\n 	\nn-triples (text\/plain)\n 	\nhtml+rdfa (text\/html)\n\n 	 		 	 	 		 			languages:	Česky  |  deutsch  |  english  |  español  |  français  |  italiano  |  nederlands  |  português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) 	 			you:	 sign in | register | my worldcat | my lists | my watchlist | my reviews | my tags | my saved searches 	worldcat:	home | about | 	help | search 	 	 			legal:	copyright © - oclc. all rights reserved. | privacy policy | cookie notice | cookie list and settings | terms and conditions 	 			worldcat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. learn more ›› 			 				follow worldcat: 					 	 	 	 			 	 	 	 		 		 			 	 	 	 please sign in to worldcat  don't have an account? you can easily create a free account. 	 	user name: 	 	 	password: 	 	 	 	 		remember me on this computer 		 	 	 	 	 	 	cancel forgot your password? 	 	 	 current directions in psychological science (ejournal / emagazine, ) [worldcat.org] your web browser is not enabled for javascript. some features of worldcat will not be available. 	 		 	 home worldcat home about worldcat 	 help search search for library items search for lists search for contacts search for a library 	 	 	 create lists, bibliographies and reviews: 	 	 	 	 	 or 	 	 	 	 	 search worldcat 	 	 		find items in libraries near you 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 advanced search find a library 	 	 		 			 				 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	 your request to send this item has been completed. 	 	cite/export 			 				 					 						cite/export 	 							copy a citation 	 							 	 								apa ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 												 											 										 									 	 								 	 								chicago (author-date, th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								harvard ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								mla ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								turabian ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 							 	 							export a citation export to refworks   export to endnote / reference manager   export to easybib export to endnote / reference manager(non-latin)   cancel 							note: citations are based on reference standards. however, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. 	 					 				 			 	print 	e-mail 	 				 					 						e-mail 	 						 							 all fields are required. the e-mail address(es) field is required. please enter recipient e-mail address(es). the e-mail address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). you may send this item to up to five recipients. enter recipient e-mail address(es): 								 								separate up to five addresses with commas (,) 								the name field is required. please enter your name. enter your name: 								 								the subject field is required. please enter the subject. subject: 								 								the e-mail message field is required. please enter the message. e-mail message: i thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ title: current directions in psychological science publisher: oxford : blackwell publishing, - isbn/issn: - oclc: please verify that you are not a robot. cancel 		 							 						 	 					 				 	 			 	share 	permalink permalink copy this url to link to this page: 		 		 		 	 	 add a review 	 would you also like to submit a review for this item?     	 	 	cancel 	 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	you already recently rated this item. 	your rating has been recorded 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 write a review 	 	rate this item: 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 			preview this item 		 		 preview this item 	 	 				 			 checking... 		current directions in psychological science 			publisher:	oxford : blackwell publishing, - 	edition/format:	  ejournal/emagazine : englishview all editions and formats 					 	rating:	 (not yet rated) with reviews - be the first. 						 					 	subjects	 	 psicologia -- revistes. 	 psicologia. 	more like this	 	similar items 		 	 	 	 		 find a copy online links to this item sfx.urv.cat accés restringit als usuaris de la ub, uab, upc, upf, udg, udl, urv, uoc, bc, uji i uvic add library to favorites please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. allow this favorite library to be seen by others keep this favorite library private save    cancel 			 				find a copy in the library 	 finding libraries that hold this item... 	 		 	 	 details 	genre/form:	revistes electròniques revistes electròniques 	material type:	internet resource 	document type:	internet resource, journal / magazine / newspaper 	issn:	 - 	oclc number:	 	notes:	descripció feta a partir de: vol. , no. (february ), el febrer . 	other titles:	wiley interscience. 		 		reviews 		 user-contributed reviews add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. 	 	tags 		 add tags for "current directions in psychological science". be the first. 	 	 		similar items 		 			related subjects:( ) 					 							psicologia -- revistes. 						 	 							psicologia. 						 			 	 confirm this request you may have already requested this item. please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. 	 linked data 	 			more info about linked data 			\n\nprimary entity\n http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > # current directions in psychological science\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:creativework, schema:mediaobject, schema:periodical ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:oclcnum \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/enk> ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/oxford> ; # oxford\n \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:seealso http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/wiley_interscience> ; # wiley interscience.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/id.loc.gov\/authorities\/classification\/bf > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/psicologia_revistes> ; # psicologia--revistes\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/psicologia> ; # psicologia\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datepublished \" \/ \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datepublished \" \/\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:exampleofwork http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:genre \"revistes electr\u f niques\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:inlanguage \"en\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"current directions in psychological science\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:productid \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:publication http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #publicationevent\/oxford_blackwell_publishing_ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:publisher http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/blackwell_publishing> ; # blackwell publishing\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/sfx.urv.cat\/urv?url_ver=z . - &rft.issn= - &sfx.ignore_date_threshold= 𝔯_id=info:sid\/sfxit.com:curv> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:workexample http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # current directions in psychological science\n \u a \u a \u a \nwdrs:describedby http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \nrelated entities\n http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/blackwell_publishing> # blackwell publishing\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nbgn:agent ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"blackwell publishing\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/wiley_interscience> # wiley interscience.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:creativework ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"wiley interscience.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/oxford> # oxford\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"oxford\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/psicologia> # psicologia\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"psicologia\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/psicologia_revistes> # psicologia--revistes\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"psicologia--revistes\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.loc.gov\/authorities\/classification\/bf > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/enk> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \ndcterms:identifier \"enk\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/sfx.urv.cat\/urv?url_ver=z . - &rft.issn= - &sfx.ignore_date_threshold= 𝔯_id=info:sid\/sfxit.com:curv> \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"acc\u e s restringit als usuaris de la ub, uab, upc, upf, udg, udl, urv, uoc, bc, uji i uvic\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # current directions in psychological science\n \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > # current directions in psychological science\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:periodical ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issn \" - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"current directions in psychological science\" ; \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \ngenont:informationresource, genont:contenttypegenericresource ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # current directions in psychological science\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datemodified \" - - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nvoid:indataset http:\/\/purl.oclc.org\/dataset\/worldcat> ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #publicationevent\/oxford_blackwell_publishing_ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:publicationevent ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:location http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/oxford> ; # oxford\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:organizer http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/blackwell_publishing> ; # blackwell publishing\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:startdate \" -\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \ncontent-negotiable representations\n \n	\nturtle (text\/turtle)\n 	\njson-ld (application\/ld+json)\n 	\nrdf\/xml (application\/rdf+xml)\n 	\nn-triples (text\/plain)\n 	\nhtml+rdfa (text\/html)\n\n 	 		 	 	 		 			languages:	Česky  |  deutsch  |  english  |  español  |  français  |  italiano  |  nederlands  |  português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) 	 			you:	 sign in | register | my worldcat | my lists | my watchlist | my reviews | my tags | my saved searches 	worldcat:	home | about | 	help | search 	 	 			legal:	copyright © - oclc. all rights reserved. | privacy policy | cookie notice | cookie list and settings | terms and conditions 	 			worldcat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. learn more ›› 			 				follow worldcat: 					 	 	 	 			 	 	 	 		 		 			 	 	 	 please sign in to worldcat  don't have an account? you can easily create a free account. 	 	user name: 	 	 	password: 	 	 	 	 		remember me on this computer 		 	 	 	 	 	 	cancel forgot your password? 	 	 	 business ethics (ejournal / emagazine, ) [worldcat.org] your web browser is not enabled for javascript. some features of worldcat will not be available. 	 		 	 home worldcat home about worldcat 	 help search search for library items search for lists search for contacts search for a library 	 	 	 create lists, bibliographies and reviews: 	 	 	 	 	 or 	 	 	 	 	 search worldcat 	 	 		find items in libraries near you 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 advanced search find a library 	 	 		 			 				 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	 your request to send this item has been completed. 	 	cite/export 			 				 					 						cite/export 	 							copy a citation 	 							 	 								apa ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 												 											 										 									 	 								 	 								chicago (author-date, th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								harvard ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								mla ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								turabian ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 							 	 							export a citation export to refworks   export to endnote / reference manager   export to easybib export to endnote / reference manager(non-latin)   cancel 							note: citations are based on reference standards. however, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. 	 					 				 			 	print 	e-mail 	 				 					 						e-mail 	 						 							 all fields are required. the e-mail address(es) field is required. please enter recipient e-mail address(es). the e-mail address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). you may send this item to up to five recipients. enter recipient e-mail address(es): 								 								separate up to five addresses with commas (,) 								the name field is required. please enter your name. enter your name: 								 								the subject field is required. please enter the subject. subject: 								 								the e-mail message field is required. please enter the message. e-mail message: i thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ title: business ethics publisher: oxford : blackwell publishers, [ ]- isbn/issn: - oclc: please verify that you are not a robot. cancel 		 							 						 	 					 				 	 			 	share 	permalink permalink copy this url to link to this page: 		 		 		 	 	 add a review 	 would you also like to submit a review for this item?     	 	 	cancel 	 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	you already recently rated this item. 	your rating has been recorded 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 write a review 	 	rate this item: 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 			preview this item 		 		 preview this item 	 	 				 			 checking... 		business ethics 			publisher:	oxford : blackwell publishers, [ ]- 	edition/format:	  ejournal/emagazine : english 					 	rating:	 (not yet rated) with reviews - be the first. 						 					 	subjects	 	 ètica empresarial. 	more like this	 	similar items 		 	 	 	 		 find a copy online links to this item onlinelibrary.wiley.com accés consorciat per als usuaris de la ub via wiley add library to favorites please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. allow this favorite library to be seen by others keep this favorite library private save    cancel 			 				find a copy in the library 	 finding libraries that hold this item... 	 		 	 	 details 	genre/form:	revistes electròniques 	material type:	internet resource 	document type:	internet resource, journal / magazine / newspaper 	issn:	 - 	oclc number:	 	notes:	descripció basada en: vol. , issue (jan. ), el maig . 	other titles:	wiley online library e-journals. 	more information:	 	 	 sumari 	 		 		reviews 		 user-contributed reviews add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. 	 	tags 		 add tags for "business ethics". be the first. 	 	 		similar items 		 			related subjects:( ) 					 							ètica empresarial. 						 			 	 confirm this request you may have already requested this item. please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. 	 linked data 	 			more info about linked data 			\n\nprimary entity\n http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > # business ethics\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:creativework, schema:mediaobject, schema:periodical ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:oclcnum \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/enk> ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/oxford> ; # oxford\n \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:seealso http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/wiley_online_library_e_journals> ; # wiley online library e-journals.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/etica_empresarial> ; # \u c tica empresarial\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datepublished \" \/ \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datepublished \" \/\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:exampleofwork http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:genre \"revistes electr\u f niques\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:inlanguage \"en\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"business ethics\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:productid \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:publication http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #publicationevent\/oxford_blackwell_publishers_ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:publisher http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/blackwell_publishers> ; # blackwell publishers\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/journal\/ . \/(issn) - > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:workexample http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # business ethics\n \u a \u a \u a \nwdrs:describedby http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \nrelated entities\n http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/blackwell_publishers> # blackwell publishers\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nbgn:agent ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"blackwell publishers\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/wiley_online_library_e_journals> # wiley online library e-journals.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:creativework ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"wiley online library e-journals.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/oxford> # oxford\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"oxford\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/etica_empresarial> # \u c tica empresarial\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"\u c tica empresarial\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/enk> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \ndcterms:identifier \"enk\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/journal\/ . \/(issn) - > \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"acc\u e s consorciat per als usuaris de la ub via wiley\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # business ethics\n \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > # business ethics\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:periodical ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issn \" - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"business ethics\" ; \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \ngenont:informationresource, genont:contenttypegenericresource ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # business ethics\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datemodified \" - - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nvoid:indataset http:\/\/purl.oclc.org\/dataset\/worldcat> ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #publicationevent\/oxford_blackwell_publishers_ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:publicationevent ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:location http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/oxford> ; # oxford\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:organizer http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/blackwell_publishers> ; # blackwell publishers\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:startdate \" -\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \ncontent-negotiable representations\n \n	\nturtle (text\/turtle)\n 	\njson-ld (application\/ld+json)\n 	\nrdf\/xml (application\/rdf+xml)\n 	\nn-triples (text\/plain)\n 	\nhtml+rdfa (text\/html)\n\n 	 		 	 	 		 			languages:	Česky  |  deutsch  |  english  |  español  |  français  |  italiano  |  nederlands  |  português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) 	 			you:	 sign in | register | my worldcat | my lists | my watchlist | my reviews | my tags | my saved searches 	worldcat:	home | about | 	help | search 	 	 			legal:	copyright © - oclc. all rights reserved. | privacy policy | cookie notice | cookie list and settings | terms and conditions 	 			worldcat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. learn more ›› 			 				follow worldcat: 					 	 	 	 			 	 	 	 		 		 			 	 	 	 please sign in to worldcat  don't have an account? you can easily create a free account. 	 	user name: 	 	 	password: 	 	 	 	 		remember me on this computer 		 	 	 	 	 	 	cancel forgot your password? 	 	 	 new issues and paradigms in research on social dilemmas (ebook, ) [worldcat.org] your web browser is not enabled for javascript. some features of worldcat will not be available. 	 		 	 home worldcat home about worldcat 	 help search search for library items search for lists search for contacts search for a library 	 	 	 create lists, bibliographies and reviews: 	 	 	 	 	 or 	 	 	 	 	 search worldcat 	 	 		find items in libraries near you 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 advanced search find a library 	 	 		 			 				 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	 your request to send this item has been completed. 	 	cite/export 			 				 					 						cite/export 	 							copy a citation 	 							 	 								apa ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 												 											 										 									 	 								 	 								chicago (author-date, th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								harvard ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								mla ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								turabian ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 							 	 							export a citation export to refworks   export to endnote / reference manager   export to easybib export to endnote / reference manager(non-latin)   cancel 							note: citations are based on reference standards. however, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. 	 					 				 			 	print 	e-mail 	 				 					 						e-mail 	 						 							 all fields are required. the e-mail address(es) field is required. please enter recipient e-mail address(es). the e-mail address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). you may send this item to up to five recipients. enter recipient e-mail address(es): 								 								separate up to five addresses with commas (,) 								the name field is required. please enter your name. enter your name: 								 								the subject field is required. please enter the subject. subject: 								 								the e-mail message field is required. please enter the message. e-mail message: i thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ title: new issues and paradigms in research on social dilemmas author: anders biel; daniel eek; tommy gärling; mathias gustafsson publisher: [new york, n.y.] : springer, © . isbn/issn: oclc: please verify that you are not a robot. cancel 		 							 						 	 					 				 	 			 	share 	permalink permalink copy this url to link to this page: 		 		 		 	 	 add a review 	 would you also like to submit a review for this item?     	 	 	cancel 	 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	you already recently rated this item. 	your rating has been recorded 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 write a review 	 	rate this item: 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 			preview this item 		 		 preview this item 	 	 				 			 checking... 		new issues and paradigms in research on social dilemmas 			author:	anders biel; daniel eek; tommy gärling; mathias gustafsson 	publisher:	[new york, n.y.] : springer, © . 	edition/format:	  ebook : document : englishview all editions and formats 					 	summary:	 presents the developments in the field of social dilemma research. this volume aims to investigate under what circumstances people make decisions that are inline with the collective interest as well as investigating what can increase the likelihood of cooperation. it features three man sections mirroring the different levels of analysis. 	rating:	 (not yet rated) with reviews - be the first. 						 					 	subjects	 	 social interaction. 	 social conflict. 	 self-interest. 	view all subjects 	more like this	 	user lists 	similar items 		 	 	 	 		 find a copy online links to this item ebrary ebscohost myilibrary ohiolink proquest ebook central scholarsportal scholars portal scholars portal springerlink springerlink springerlink springerlink springerlink an electronic book accessible through the world wide web; click for information dx.doi.org.ezproxy.aub.edu.lb click for electronic access to e-book. myilibrary, table of contents archive.org free ebook from the internet archive openlibrary.org additional information and access via open library link.springer.com show all links add library to favorites please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. allow this favorite library to be seen by others keep this favorite library private save    cancel 			 				find a copy in the library 	 finding libraries that hold this item... 	 		 	 	 details 	genre/form:	electronic books 	additional physical format:	print version: new issues and paradigms in research on social dilemmas. [new york, n.y.] : springer, © (dlc) (ocolc) 	material type:	document, internet resource 	document type:	internet resource, computer file 	all authors / contributors:	 	 anders biel; daniel eek; tommy gärling; mathias gustafsson 		find more information about: 		anders biel daniel eek tommy gärling mathias gustafsson 		 		 	 	 	isbn:	 	oclc number:	 	description:	 online resource (xii, pages) : illustrations 	contents:	the conceptual framework of social dilemmas / anders biel -- a new look at the theory of social value orientations : prosocials nether maximize joint outcome nor minimize outcome differences but prefer equal outcomes / daniel eck, tommy gärling -- a classification of games by player type / gary bornstein -- how do we react to feedback in social dilemmas? / eric van dijk [and others] -- group-based trust in social dilemmas / margaret foddy, robyn dawes -- promoting cooperation in social dilemmas via fairness norms and group goals / ali kazemi, daniel eek -- bringing back leviathan into social dilemmas / mizuho shinada, toshio yamagishi -- effectiveness of coercive and voluntary institutional solutions to social dilemmas / yuval samid, ramzi suleiman -- a recursive model for changing justice concerns in social dilemmas / david a. schroeder [and others] -- the emergence of generalized exchange by indirect reciprocity / rie mashima, nobuyaki takahashi -- the herdsman and the sheep, mouton, or kivsa? the influence of group culture on cooperation in social dilemmas / shirli kopelman -- will lessons from small-scale social dilemmas scale up? / michael mcginnis, elinor ostrom -- effect of information structure in a step-level public-good dilemma under a real-time protocol / chi sing ngan, wing tung au -- toward an analysis of cooperation and fairness that includes concepts of cooperative game theory / axel ostmann, holger meinhardt -- using genetic algorithms for simulation of social dilemmas / lilan fischer -- toward a comprehensive model of social dilemmas / robert gifford. 	responsibility:	edited by anders biel [and others]. 	more information:	 	 	 table of contents 	 publisher description 	 		 abstract: readers need look no further if they seeking an edited volume compiled to present the latest developments in the field of social dilemma research. social dilemmas are situations when there is a conflict between self-interest and collective interest.  read more... 		reviews 		 user-contributed reviews add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. 	 	tags 		 add tags for "new issues and paradigms in research on social dilemmas". be the first. 	 	 		similar items 		 			related subjects:( ) 					 							social interaction. 						 	 							social conflict. 						 	 							self-interest. 						 	 							interaction sociale. 						 	 							intérêt personnel. 						 	 							political science -- public policy -- social services & welfare. 						 	 							social science -- human services. 						 	 							social values. 						 	 							social problems. 						 	 							sciences humaines. 						 	 							sciences sociales. 						 			 user lists with this item ( ) 	things to check out( items) by dowdingh updated - - 	 confirm this request you may have already requested this item. please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. 	 linked data 	 			more info about linked data 			\n\nprimary entity\n http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > # new issues and paradigms in research on social dilemmas\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:creativework, schema:book, schema:mediaobject ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:oclcnum \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/new_york_n_y> ; # new york, n.y.\n \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/nyu> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/social_science_human_services> ; # social science--human services\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/sciences_sociales> ; # sciences sociales\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/social_problems> ; # social problems\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/dewey.info\/class\/ . \/e \/> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/interaction_sociale> ; # interaction sociale\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/interet_personnel> ; # int\u e r\u eat personnel\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/social_values> ; # social values\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/id.worldcat.org\/fast\/ > ; # social conflict\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/id.worldcat.org\/fast\/ > ; # self-interest\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/id.worldcat.org\/fast\/ > ; # social interaction\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/political_science_public_policy_social_services_&_welfare> ; # political science--public policy--social services & welfare\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/sciences_humaines> ; # sciences humaines\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:bookformat schema:ebook ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:copyrightyear \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datepublished \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:description \"presents the developments in the field of social dilemma research. this volume aims to investigate under what circumstances people make decisions that are inline with the collective interest as well as investigating what can increase the likelihood of cooperation. it features three man sections mirroring the different levels of analysis.\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:description \"the conceptual framework of social dilemmas \/ anders biel -- a new look at the theory of social value orientations : prosocials nether maximize joint outcome nor minimize outcome differences but prefer equal outcomes \/ daniel eck, tommy g\u e rling -- a classification of games by player type \/ gary bornstein -- how do we react to feedback in social dilemmas? \/ eric van dijk [and others] -- group-based trust in social dilemmas \/ margaret foddy, robyn dawes -- promoting cooperation in social dilemmas via fairness norms and group goals \/ ali kazemi, daniel eek -- bringing back leviathan into social dilemmas \/ mizuho shinada, toshio yamagishi -- effectiveness of coercive and voluntary institutional solutions to social dilemmas \/ yuval samid, ramzi suleiman -- a recursive model for changing justice concerns in social dilemmas \/ david a. schroeder [and others] -- the emergence of generalized exchange by indirect reciprocity \/ rie mashima, nobuyaki takahashi -- the herdsman and the sheep, mouton, or kivsa? the influence of group culture on cooperation in social dilemmas \/ shirli kopelman -- will lessons from small-scale social dilemmas scale up? \/ michael mcginnis, elinor ostrom -- effect of information structure in a step-level public-good dilemma under a real-time protocol \/ chi sing ngan, wing tung au -- toward an analysis of cooperation and fairness that includes concepts of cooperative game theory \/ axel ostmann, holger meinhardt -- using genetic algorithms for simulation of social dilemmas \/ lilan fischer -- toward a comprehensive model of social dilemmas \/ robert gifford.\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:editor http:\/\/viaf.org\/viaf\/ > ; # mathias gustafsson\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:editor http:\/\/viaf.org\/viaf\/ > ; # anders biel\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:editor http:\/\/viaf.org\/viaf\/ > ; # tommy g\u e rling\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:editor http:\/\/viaf.org\/viaf\/ > ; # daniel eek\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:exampleofwork http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:genre \"electronic books\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:inlanguage \"en\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issimilarto http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"new issues and paradigms in research on social dilemmas\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:productid \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:publication http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #publicationevent\/new_york_n_y_springer_ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:publisher http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/springer> ; # springer\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/www.myilibrary.com?id= &ref=toc> ; 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\u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/dx.doi.org.ezproxy.aub.edu.lb\/ . \/ - - - - > \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"click for electronic access to e-book.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/springer> # springer\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nbgn:agent ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"springer\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/new_york_n_y> # new york, n.y.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"new york, n.y.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/interaction_sociale> # interaction sociale\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"interaction sociale\"@fr ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/interet_personnel> # int\u e r\u eat personnel\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"int\u e r\u eat personnel\"@fr ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/political_science_public_policy_social_services_&_welfare> # political science--public policy--social services & welfare\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"political science--public policy--social services & welfare\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/sciences_humaines> # sciences humaines\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"sciences humaines\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/sciences_sociales> # sciences sociales\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"sciences sociales\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/social_problems> # social problems\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"social problems\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/social_science_human_services> # social science--human services\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"social science--human services\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/social_values> # social values\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"social values\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/nyu> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \ndcterms:identifier \"nyu\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.worldcat.org\/fast\/ > # self-interest\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"self-interest\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.worldcat.org\/fast\/ > # social conflict\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"social conflict\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.worldcat.org\/fast\/ > # social interaction\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"social interaction\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/viaf.org\/viaf\/ > # anders biel\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:person ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:familyname \"biel\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:givenname \"anders\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"anders biel\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/viaf.org\/viaf\/ > # daniel eek\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:person ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:familyname \"eek\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:givenname \"daniel\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"daniel eek\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/viaf.org\/viaf\/ > # mathias gustafsson\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:person ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:familyname \"gustafsson\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:givenname \"mathias\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"mathias gustafsson\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/viaf.org\/viaf\/ > # tommy g\u e rling\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:person ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:familyname \"g\u e rling\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:givenname \"tommy\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"tommy g\u e rling\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/isbn\/ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:productmodel ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:isbn \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:isbn \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/isbn\/ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:productmodel ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:isbn \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:isbn \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.library.yorku.ca\/eresolver\/?id= > \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"an electronic book accessible through the world wide web; click for information\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:creativework ; \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:label \"new issues and paradigms in research on social dilemmas.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:description \"print version:\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issimilarto http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # new issues and paradigms in research on social dilemmas\n \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \ngenont:informationresource, genont:contenttypegenericresource ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # new issues and paradigms in research on social dilemmas\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datemodified \" - - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nvoid:indataset http:\/\/purl.oclc.org\/dataset\/worldcat> ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #publicationevent\/new_york_n_y_springer_ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:publicationevent ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:location http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/new_york_n_y> ; # new york, n.y.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:organizer http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/springer> ; 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(journal, magazine, ) [worldcat.org] your web browser is not enabled for javascript. some features of worldcat will not be available. 	 		 	 home worldcat home about worldcat 	 help search search for library items search for lists search for contacts search for a library 	 	 	 create lists, bibliographies and reviews: 	 	 	 	 	 or 	 	 	 	 	 search worldcat 	 	 		find items in libraries near you 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 advanced search find a library 	 	 		 			 				 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	 your request to send this item has been completed. 	 	cite/export 			 				 					 						cite/export 	 							copy a citation 	 							 	 								apa ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 												 											 										 									 	 								 	 								chicago (author-date, th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								harvard ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								mla ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								turabian ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 							 	 							export a citation export to refworks   export to endnote / reference manager   export to easybib export to endnote / reference manager(non-latin)   cancel 							note: citations are based on reference standards. however, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. 	 					 				 			 	print 	e-mail 	 				 					 						e-mail 	 						 							 all fields are required. the e-mail address(es) field is required. please enter recipient e-mail address(es). the e-mail address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). you may send this item to up to five recipients. enter recipient e-mail address(es): 								 								separate up to five addresses with commas (,) 								the name field is required. please enter your name. enter your name: 								 								the subject field is required. please enter the subject. subject: 								 								the e-mail message field is required. please enter the message. e-mail message: i thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ title: journal of operations management. publisher: bognor regis wiley amsterdam elsevier - - isbn/issn: - oclc: please verify that you are not a robot. cancel 		 							 						 	 					 				 	 			 	share 	permalink permalink copy this url to link to this page: 		 		 		 	 	 add a review 	 would you also like to submit a review for this item?     	 	 	cancel 	 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	you already recently rated this item. 	your rating has been recorded 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 write a review 	 	rate this item: 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 			preview this item 		 		 preview this item 	 	 				 			 checking... 		journal of operations management. 			publisher:	bognor regis wiley amsterdam elsevier - - 	edition/format:	  journal, magazine  computer file : english 					 	rating:	 (not yet rated) with reviews - be the first. 						 					 	 search this publication for other articles with the following words: 		 	 	 	 		 find a copy online links to this item doi.org bibliothek.uni-regensburg.de onlinelibrary.wiley.com sciencedirect.com sciencedirect.com deutschlandweit zugänglich show all links add library to favorites please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. allow this favorite library to be seen by others keep this favorite library private save    cancel 			 				find a copy in the library 	 finding libraries that hold this item... 	 		 	 	 details 	genre/form:	zeitschrift 	additional physical format:	druckausg. journal of operations management hoboken, nj : wiley, - (de- )ht 	material type:	internet resource 	document type:	computer file, journal / magazine / newspaper, internet resource 	issn:	 - 	oclc number:	 	notes:	gesehen am . . 	description:	online-ressource 	other titles:	jom jom 		 		reviews 		 user-contributed reviews add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. 	 	tags 		 add tags for "journal of operations management.". be the first. 	 confirm this request you may have already requested this item. please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. 	 linked data 	 			more info about linked data 			\n\nprimary entity\n http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > # journal of operations management.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:periodical, schema:creativework ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:oclcnum \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/ne> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:alternatename \"jom\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datepublished \" \/ \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:exampleofwork http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:genre \"zeitschrift\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:inlanguage \"en\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issimilarto http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/journal_of_operations_management> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"journal of operations management.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:productid \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/journal\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url https:\/\/doi.org\/ . \/(issn) - > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/www.bibliothek.uni-regensburg.de\/ezeit\/? > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/journal\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:workexample http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/ . \/(issn) - > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:workexample http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # journal of operations management.\n \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/d-nb.info\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nwdrs:describedby http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \nrelated entities\n http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/ . \/(issn) - > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:individualproduct ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/ne> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \ndcterms:identifier \"ne\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/journal_of_operations_management> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:creativework ; \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:label \"journal of operations management\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:description \"druckausg.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issimilarto http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # journal of operations management.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # journal of operations management.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > # journal of operations management.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:periodical ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issn \" - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"journal of operations management.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/journal\/ > \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"deutschlandweit zug\u e nglich\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \ngenont:informationresource, genont:contenttypegenericresource ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # journal of operations management.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datemodified \" - - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nvoid:indataset http:\/\/purl.oclc.org\/dataset\/worldcat> ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \ncontent-negotiable representations\n \n	\nturtle (text\/turtle)\n 	\njson-ld (application\/ld+json)\n 	\nrdf\/xml (application\/rdf+xml)\n 	\nn-triples (text\/plain)\n 	\nhtml+rdfa (text\/html)\n\n 	 		 	 	 		 			languages:	Česky  |  deutsch  |  english  |  español  |  français  |  italiano  |  nederlands  |  português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) 	 			you:	 sign in | register | my worldcat | my lists | my watchlist | my reviews | my tags | my saved searches 	worldcat:	home | about | 	help | search 	 	 			legal:	copyright © - oclc. all rights reserved. | privacy policy | cookie notice | cookie list and settings | terms and conditions 	 			worldcat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. learn more ›› 			 				follow worldcat: 					 	 	 	 			 	 	 	 		 		 			 	 	 	 please sign in to worldcat  don't have an account? you can easily create a free account. 	 	user name: 	 	 	password: 	 	 	 	 		remember me on this computer 		 	 	 	 	 	 	cancel forgot your password? 	 	 	 risk : a sociological theory (book, ) [worldcat.org] your web browser is not enabled for javascript. some features of worldcat will not be available. 	 		 	 home worldcat home about worldcat 	 help search search for library items search for lists search for contacts search for a library 	 	 	 create lists, bibliographies and reviews: 	 	 	 	 	 or 	 	 	 	 	 search worldcat 	 	 		find items in libraries near you 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 advanced search find a library 	 	 		 			 				 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	 your request to send this item has been completed. 	 	cite/export 			 				 					 						cite/export 	 							copy a citation 	 							 	 								apa ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 												 											 										 									 	 								 	 								chicago (author-date, th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								harvard ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								mla ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								turabian ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 							 	 							export a citation export to refworks   export to endnote / reference manager   export to easybib export to endnote / reference manager(non-latin)   cancel 							note: citations are based on reference standards. however, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. 	 					 				 			 	print 	e-mail 	 				 					 						e-mail 	 						 							 all fields are required. the e-mail address(es) field is required. please enter recipient e-mail address(es). the e-mail address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). you may send this item to up to five recipients. enter recipient e-mail address(es): 								 								separate up to five addresses with commas (,) 								the name field is required. please enter your name. enter your name: 								 								the subject field is required. please enter the subject. subject: 								 								the e-mail message field is required. please enter the message. e-mail message: i thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ title: risk : a sociological theory author: niklas luhmann publisher: new brunswick, n.j. : aldine transaction, . isbn/issn: oclc: please verify that you are not a robot. cancel 		 							 						 	 					 				 	 			 	share 	permalink permalink copy this url to link to this page: 		 		 		 	 	 add a review 	 would you also like to submit a review for this item?     	 	 	cancel 	 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	you already recently rated this item. 	your rating has been recorded 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 write a review 	 	rate this item: 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 			preview this item 		 		 preview this item 	 	 				 			 checking... 		risk : a sociological theory 			author:	niklas luhmann 	publisher:	new brunswick, n.j. : aldine transaction, . 	edition/format:	  print book : english : st paperback editionview all editions and formats 					 	summary:	 "this new edition of risk includes an outstanding essay on the enormous importance of niklas luhmann in contemporary social theory. the authors explain not only why he has been all but ignored in the english-speaking world, but the lasting importance of luhmann in developing a genuinely innovative vision of the component of modern society. stehr and bechmann show how the author of risk is a universal scholar located within the context of the enlightenment and european sociology and philosophy."--book jacket.  read more... 	rating:	 (not yet rated) with reviews - be the first. 						 					 	subjects	 	 risk -- sociological aspects. 	 risk. 	 sociology. 	more like this	 	similar items 		 	 	 	 		 add library to favorites please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. allow this favorite library to be seen by others keep this favorite library private save    cancel 			 				find a copy in the library 	 finding libraries that hold this item... 	 		 	 	 details 	document type:	book 	all authors / contributors:	 	 niklas luhmann 		find more information about: 		niklas luhmann 		 		 	 	 	isbn:	 	oclc number:	 	notes:	english translation originally published: new york : a. de gruyter, © . 	description:	xxxiii, pages ; cm 	contents:	ch. . the concept of risk -- ch. . the future as risk -- ch. . time binding : material and social aspects -- ch. . the risk of observing and the coding of function systems -- ch. . the special case of high technology -- ch. . decision makers and those affected -- ch. . protest movements -- ch. . demands on politics -- ch. . risk in the economic system -- ch. . risky behaviour in organizations -- ch. . and science? -- ch. . second-order observation. 	other titles:	soziologie des risikos. 	responsibility:	niklas luhmann, translated by rhodes barrett, with a new introduction by nico stehr & gotthard bechmann. 		 abstract: theoretical sociology has shown little interest in risk research. here, niklas luhmann develops a theoretical program for such research. his premise is that the concept of risk projects essential aspects of our description of the future onto the present.  read more... 		reviews 		 user-contributed reviews add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. 	 	tags 		 add tags for "risk : a sociological theory". be the first. 	 	 		similar items 		 			related subjects:( ) 					 							risk -- sociological aspects. 						 	 							risk. 						 	 							sociology. 						 			 	 confirm this request you may have already requested this item. please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. 	 linked data 	 			more info about linked data 			\n\nprimary entity\n http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > # risk : a sociological theory\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:book, schema:creativework ; \u a \u a \u a \nbgn:translationofwork http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #creativework\/unidentifiedoriginalwork> ; # soziologie des risikos.\n \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:oclcnum \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/nju> ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/new_brunswick_n_j> ; # new brunswick, n.j.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/risk_sociological_aspects> ; # risk--sociological aspects\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/dewey.info\/class\/ . \/e \/> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/risk> ; # risk\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/id.loc.gov\/authorities\/subjects\/sh > ; # risk--sociological aspects\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/sociology> ; # sociology\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:bookedition \" st paperback edition.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:bookformat bgn:printbook ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:creator http:\/\/viaf.org\/viaf\/ > ; # niklas luhmann\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datepublished \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:description \"ch. . the concept of risk -- ch. . the future as risk -- ch. . time binding : material and social aspects -- ch. . the risk of observing and the coding of function systems -- ch. . the special case of high technology -- ch. . decision makers and those affected -- ch. . protest movements -- ch. . demands on politics -- ch. . risk in the economic system -- ch. . risky behaviour in organizations -- ch. . and science? -- ch. . second-order observation.\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:exampleofwork http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; # soziologie des risikos.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:inlanguage \"en\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"risk : a sociological theory\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:productid \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:publication http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #publicationevent\/new_brunswick_n_j_aldine_transaction_ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:publisher http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/aldine_transaction> ; # aldine transaction\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:reviews http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #review\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:workexample http:\/\/worldcat.org\/isbn\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nwdrs:describedby http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \nrelated entities\n http:\/\/dewey.info\/class\/ . \/e \/> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/aldine_transaction> # aldine transaction\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nbgn:agent ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"aldine transaction\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/new_brunswick_n_j> # new brunswick, n.j.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"new brunswick, n.j.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/risk> # risk\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"risk\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/risk_sociological_aspects> # risk--sociological aspects\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"risk--sociological aspects\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/sociology> # sociology\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"sociology\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.loc.gov\/authorities\/subjects\/sh > # risk--sociological aspects\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"risk--sociological aspects\"@en ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/nju> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \ndcterms:identifier \"nju\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/viaf.org\/viaf\/ > # niklas luhmann\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:person ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:birthdate \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:deathdate \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:familyname \"luhmann\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:givenname \"niklas\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"niklas luhmann\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > # soziologie des risikos.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"soziologie des risikos.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/isbn\/ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:productmodel ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:isbn \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:isbn \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \ngenont:informationresource, genont:contenttypegenericresource ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # risk : a sociological theory\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datemodified \" - - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nvoid:indataset http:\/\/purl.oclc.org\/dataset\/worldcat> ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #creativework\/unidentifiedoriginalwork> # soziologie des risikos.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:creativework ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:inlanguage \"de\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"soziologie des risikos.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #publicationevent\/new_brunswick_n_j_aldine_transaction_ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:publicationevent ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:location http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #place\/new_brunswick_n_j> ; # new brunswick, n.j.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:organizer http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #agent\/aldine_transaction> ; # aldine transaction\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:startdate \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ #review\/ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:review ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:itemreviewed http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # risk : a sociological theory\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:reviewbody \"\"this new edition of risk includes an outstanding essay on the enormous importance of niklas luhmann in contemporary social theory. the authors explain not only why he has been all but ignored in the english-speaking world, but the lasting importance of luhmann in developing a genuinely innovative vision of the component of modern society. stehr and bechmann show how the author of risk is a universal scholar located within the context of the enlightenment and european sociology and philosophy.\"--book jacket.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \ncontent-negotiable representations\n \n	\nturtle (text\/turtle)\n 	\njson-ld (application\/ld+json)\n 	\nrdf\/xml (application\/rdf+xml)\n 	\nn-triples (text\/plain)\n 	\nhtml+rdfa (text\/html)\n\n 	 		 	 	 		 			languages:	Česky  |  deutsch  |  english  |  español  |  français  |  italiano  |  nederlands  |  português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) 	 			you:	 sign in | register | my worldcat | my lists | my watchlist | my reviews | my tags | my saved searches 	worldcat:	home | about | 	help | search 	 	 			legal:	copyright © - oclc. all rights reserved. | privacy policy | cookie notice | cookie list and settings | terms and conditions 	 			worldcat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. learn more ›› 			 				follow worldcat: 					 	 	 	 			 	 	 	 		 		 			 	 	 	 please sign in to worldcat  don't have an account? you can easily create a free account. 	 	user name: 	 	 	password: 	 	 	 	 		remember me on this computer 		 	 	 	 	 	 	cancel forgot your password? 	 	 	 strategic management journal. (ejournal / emagazine, ) [worldcat.org] your web browser is not enabled for javascript. some features of worldcat will not be available. 	 		 	 home worldcat home about worldcat 	 help search search for library items search for lists search for contacts search for a library 	 	 	 create lists, bibliographies and reviews: 	 	 	 	 	 or 	 	 	 	 	 search worldcat 	 	 		find items in libraries near you 		 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 advanced search find a library 	 	 		 			 				 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	 your request to send this item has been completed. 	 	cite/export 			 				 					 						cite/export 	 							copy a citation 	 							 	 								apa ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 												 											 										 									 	 								 	 								chicago (author-date, th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								harvard ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								mla ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 								turabian ( th ed.) 								 	 									 										 											 											 										 									 	 								 	 							 	 							export a citation export to refworks   export to endnote / reference manager   export to easybib export to endnote / reference manager(non-latin)   cancel 							note: citations are based on reference standards. however, formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study. the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher, classroom teacher, institution or organization should be applied. 	 					 				 			 	print 	e-mail 	 				 					 						e-mail 	 						 							 all fields are required. the e-mail address(es) field is required. please enter recipient e-mail address(es). the e-mail address(es) you entered is(are) not in a valid format. please re-enter recipient e-mail address(es). you may send this item to up to five recipients. enter recipient e-mail address(es): 								 								separate up to five addresses with commas (,) 								the name field is required. please enter your name. enter your name: 								 								the subject field is required. please enter the subject. subject: 								 								the e-mail message field is required. please enter the message. e-mail message: i thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ title: strategic management journal. publisher: chichester wiley blackwell isbn/issn: - , - oclc: please verify that you are not a robot. cancel 		 							 						 	 					 				 	 			 	share 	permalink permalink copy this url to link to this page: 		 		 		 	 	 add a review 	 would you also like to submit a review for this item?     	 	 	cancel 	 your list has reached the maximum number of items. please create a new list with a new name; move some items to a new or existing list; or delete some items. 	you already recently rated this item. 	your rating has been recorded 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 write a review 	 	rate this item: 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 			preview this item 		 		 preview this item 	 	 				 			 checking... 		strategic management journal. 			publisher:	chichester wiley blackwell 	edition/format:	  ejournal/emagazine : periodical : englishview all editions and formats 					 	rating:	 (not yet rated) with reviews - be the first. 						 					 	subjects	 	 strategisches management. 	 strategische unternehmensführung -- zeitschrift. 	more like this	 	similar items 		 	 	 	 		 find a copy online links to this item onlinelibrary.wiley.com jstor.org sfx.metabib.ch onlinezugriff via sfx bibliothek.uni-regensburg.de onlinelibrary.wiley.com jstor.org show all links add library to favorites please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours. allow this favorite library to be seen by others keep this favorite library private save    cancel 			 				find a copy in the library 	 finding libraries that hold this item... 	 		 	 	 details 	genre/form:	online-ressource zeitschrift 	additional physical format:	druck-ausgabe strategic management journal (chdsb) 	material type:	periodical, internet resource 	document type:	internet resource, computer file, journal / magazine / newspaper 	issn:	 - , - 	oclc number:	 	notes:	special iss. vol. ( ): ten years index - . 	description:	online-ressource. 	contents:	special iss., vol. ( ) five year index: vol. - , - . special iss., vol. ( )no. five year index: vol. - , - . 		 		reviews 		 user-contributed reviews add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. add a review and share your thoughts with other readers. be the first. 	 	tags 		 add tags for "strategic management journal.". be the first. 	 	 		similar items 		 			related subjects:( ) 					 							strategisches management. 						 	 							strategische unternehmensführung -- zeitschrift. 						 			 	 confirm this request you may have already requested this item. please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway. 	 linked data 	 			more info about linked data 			\n\nprimary entity\n http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > # strategic management journal.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:periodical, schema:mediaobject, schema:creativework ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:oclcnum \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nlibrary:placeofpublication http:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/xxk> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/dewey.info\/class\/ \/> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/strategisches_management> ; # strategisches management\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/strategische_unternehmensfuhrung> ; # strategische unternehmensf\u fchrung\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datepublished \" \/ \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:exampleofwork http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:genre \"online-ressource\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:genre \"zeitschrift\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:inlanguage \"en\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issimilarto http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/strategic_management_journal> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"strategic management journal.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:productid \" \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/sfx.metabib.ch\/sfx_locater?sid=aleph:dsv &issn= - > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/journals\/ .html> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/journal\/ . \/(issn) - > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/journal\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/journals\/ .html> ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:url http:\/\/www.bibliothek.uni-regensburg.de\/ezeit\/? > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:workexample http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # strategic management journal.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:workexample http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/ . \/(issn) - > ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:workexample http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # strategic management journal.\n \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/d-nb.info\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \nwdrs:describedby http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \nrelated entities\n http:\/\/dewey.info\/class\/ \/> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/dx.doi.org\/ . \/(issn) - > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:individualproduct ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/strategische_unternehmensfuhrung> # strategische unternehmensf\u fchrung\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"strategische unternehmensf\u fchrung\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/experiment.worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #topic\/strategisches_management> # strategisches management\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:intangible ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"strategisches management\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/id.loc.gov\/vocabulary\/countries\/xxk> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:place ; \u a \u a \u a \ndcterms:identifier \"xxk\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/sfx.metabib.ch\/sfx_locater?sid=aleph:dsv &issn= - > \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:comment \"onlinezugriff via sfx\" ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/data\/ #creativework\/strategic_management_journal> \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:creativework ; \u a \u a \u a \nrdfs:label \"strategic management journal\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:description \"druck-ausgabe\" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issimilarto http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # strategic management journal.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # strategic management journal.\n \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > ; # strategic management journal.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > # strategic management journal.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:periodical ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issn \" - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"strategic management journal.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/worldcat.org\/issn\/ - > # strategic management journal.\n \u a \u a \u a \u a a \nschema:periodical ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:issn \" - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:name \"strategic management journal.\" ; \u a \u a \u a \numbel:islike http:\/\/worldcat.org\/entity\/work\/id\/ > ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\nhttp:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/title\/-\/oclc\/ > \u a \u a \u a \u a a \ngenont:informationresource, genont:contenttypegenericresource ; \u a \u a \u a \nschema:about http:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/ > ; # strategic management journal.\n \u a \u a \u a \nschema:datemodified \" - - \" ; \u a \u a \u a \nvoid:indataset http:\/\/purl.oclc.org\/dataset\/worldcat> ; \u a \u a \u a \u a .\n \n \n\n \ncontent-negotiable representations\n \n	\nturtle (text\/turtle)\n 	\njson-ld (application\/ld+json)\n 	\nrdf\/xml (application\/rdf+xml)\n 	\nn-triples (text\/plain)\n 	\nhtml+rdfa (text\/html)\n\n 	 		 	 	 		 			languages:	Česky  |  deutsch  |  english  |  español  |  français  |  italiano  |  nederlands  |  português  |  ภาษาไทย  |  한국어  |  日本語  |  中文(繁體)  |  中文(简体) 	 			you:	 sign in | register | my worldcat | my lists | my watchlist | my reviews | my tags | my saved searches 	worldcat:	home | about | 	help | search 	 	 			legal:	copyright © - oclc. all rights reserved. | privacy policy | cookie notice | cookie list and settings | terms and conditions 	 			worldcat is the world's largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. learn more ›› 			 				follow worldcat: 					 	 	 	 			 	 	 	 		 		 			 	 	 	 please sign in to worldcat  don't have an account? you can easily create a free account. 	 	user name: 	 	 	password: 	 	 	 	 		remember me on this computer 		 	 	 	 	 	 	cancel forgot your password? 	 	 	 trust, power and control in trans-organizational relations | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . / corpus id: trust, power and control in trans-organizational relations @article{bachmann trustpa, title={trust, power and control in trans-organizational relations}, author={r. bachmann}, journal={organization studies}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	r. bachmann 	published 	sociology, political science 	organization studies this paper analyzes trust and power as means of co-ordinating trans-organizational relationships. it is argued that, depending on the institutional environment, there are two distinct patterns of controlling relationships, where trust and power are interrelated in quite different ways. first, both mechanisms are generated at the inter-personal level and either trust or power dominates the relationship. second, power occurs at the level of the structural framework of relationships and is highly… continue reading view on sage nebula.wsimg.com save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationshighly influencial citations background citations methods citations results citations view all citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency trust and power as means of co-ordinating the internal relations of the organization: a conceptual framework 	r. bachmann 	sociology, political science 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed trust and control interrelations 	ana cristina costa, k. bijlsma-frankema 	sociology, psychology 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed the role of trust and power in the institutional regulation of territorial business systems 	r. bachmann 	sociology, business 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed understanding institutional-based trust building processes in inter-organizational relationships 	r. bachmann, a. inkpen 	sociology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed who trusts who?: the role of individual and organizational level in determining the nature of inter-organizational trust 	risto seppänen 	political science, computer science 	int. j. knowl. based organ. 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed trust and institutions 	r. bachmann, a. inkpen 	political science 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed beyond rational order: shifting the meaning of trust in organizational research 	t. b. eikeland, tone saevi 	sociology 	 	 save alert research feed trust, control and the role of interorganizational systems in electronic partnerships 	michael j. gallivan, gordon depledge 	business, computer science 	inf. syst. j. 	 	 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed balancing trust and control in organizations: towards a process perspective 	søren jagd 	sociology 	 	 save alert research feed cooperation and coordination : the role of trust in inter-organizational relationships 	a. brattström, r. bachmann 	business 	 	 save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	 	 	› references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency organization, trust and control: a realist analysis 	m. reed 	sociology 	 	 save alert research feed co-operation in inter-firm relations in britain and germany: the role of social institutions 	c. lane, r. bachmann 	economics 	 	 save alert research feed contracts, opportunism and trust: self-interest and social orientation 	b. lyons, j. mehta 	economics 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed market, hierarchy, and trust: the knowledge economy and the future of capitalism 	p. adler 	economics 	 	 , 	pdf save alert research feed the formation of inter-organizational networks 	m. ebers 	political science, business 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed contract law, social norms and inter-firm cooperation 	a. arrighetti, r. bachmann, s. deakin 	economics, business 	 	 	 save alert research feed an organizational perspective on changing buyer-supplier relations: a critical review of the evidence 	mike bresnen 	sociology 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed the social constitution of trust: supplier relations in britain and germany 	c. lane, r. bachmann 	economics 	 	 save alert research feed explaining the limited effectiveness of legalistic “remedies” for trust/distrust 	s. sitkin, n. roth 	business 	 	 , 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed 'trust' or law? towards an integrated theory of contractual relations between firms 	s. deakin, c. lane, f. wilkinson 	sociology 	 	 save alert research feed 	‹ 	 	 	 	 	 	› related papers 	abstract 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue trust, distrust and commitment st andrews research repository toggle navigation view item  	   st andrews research repository 	 university of st andrews research 	 university of st andrews research 	 university of st andrews research 	 view item 	   st andrews research repository 	 university of st andrews research 	 university of st andrews research 	 university of st andrews research 	view item 	   st andrews research repository 	 university of st andrews research 	 university of st andrews research 	 university of st andrews research 	view item 	 toggle navigation 	 login javascript is disabled for your browser. some features of this site may not work without it. trust, distrust and commitment view/open hawley nous trustdistrustandcommitment.pdf ( . kb) date / author hawley, katherine jane keywords bj ethics metadata show full item record citation hawley , k j , ' trust, distrust and commitment ' , noûs , vol. , no. , pp. - . https://doi.org/ . /nous. publication noûs status peer reviewed doi https://doi.org/ . /nous. issn - type journal article rights © wiley periodicals, inc. this is a wiley onlineopen article collections 	 university of st andrews research uri http://hdl.handle.net/ / items in the st andrews research repository are protected by copyright, with all rights reserved, unless otherwise indicated. search search repository this collection advanced search browse all of repositorycommunities & collectionsby issue datenamestitlessubjectsclassificationtypefunderthis collectionby issue datenamestitlessubjectsclassificationtypefunder my account login open access to find out how you can benefit from open access to research, see our library web pages and open access blog. for open access help contact: openaccess@st-andrews.ac.uk. accessibility read our accessibility statement. how to submit research papers the full text of research papers can be submitted to the repository via pure, the university's research information system. for help see our guide: how to deposit in pure. electronic thesis deposit help with deposit. repository help for repository help contact: digital-repository@st-andrews.ac.uk. give feedback cookie policy this site may use cookies. please see terms and conditions. usage statistics counter-compliant statistics on downloads from the repository are available from the irus-uk service. contact us for information. © university of st andrews library university of st andrews is a charity registered in scotland, no sc . 	 	   department of sociology: trust online edition success fail 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	mar	nov	feb 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 captures 	 oct - jan 	 	 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 about this capture collected by 			 		organization: alexa crawls 		 	 	 starting in , alexa internet has been donating their crawl data to the internet archive. flowing in every day, these data are added to the wayback machine after an embargo period. 	 	 			 		collection: alexa crawl ef 		 	 	 crawl ef from alexa internet. this data is currently not publicly accessible. 	 	 timestamps 	 	 home people teaching research oia crest links 	 	 	 	 trust: making and breaking cooperative relations, edited by diego gambetta. this collection was originally published by basil blackwell in . the complete text is now available online in word / and pdf formats. click on the relevant icons to download the corresponding text. click on the name of an author for a brief biography, current contact details and relevant subsequent publications. this electronic edition was prepared by soojin yu and edmund chattoe. the editor and contributors have decided that the book should be available to download free of charge. one of the original reasons for the volume was to try and understand the difficulties of developing economies, and we therefore feel that the volume should be accessible to scholars and students of less privileged countries. given that we incurred some cost in producing the digital version, and would like to fund further electronic publishing, we would be grateful if those readers who find the volume of value (and can afford it) would send us a contribution of $ . (cash would make the administration easier for us.) please send contributions to: electronic publishing, department of sociology, littlegate house, st ebbes, oxford, oxon, ox pt, uk. please cite this edition as follows: gambetta, diego (ed.) ( ) trust: making and breaking cooperative relations, electronic edition, department of sociology, university of oxford, <http://www.sociology.ox.ac.uk/papers/trustbook.html>. the new edition is © , diego gambetta. the individual chapters must not be duplicated without the correct citations and should be downloaded only for teaching or personal research purposes. they must not be provided for resale or redistribution. if you want others to make use of this book, please direct them to this page in person. 	 	 .	diego gambetta	pp. vii-x		 	foreword (and front matter for print edition) 	 	part i: trust considered 	 	 .	bernard williams	pp. - 		 	formal structures and social reality 	 	 .	patrick bateson	pp. - 		 	the biological evolution of cooperation and trust 	 	 .	david good	pp. - 		 	individuals, interpersonal relations, and trust 	 	 .	partha dasgupta	pp. - 		 	trust as a commodity 	 	 .	john dunn	pp. - 		 	trust and political agency 	 	 .	niklas luhmann	pp. - 		 	familiarity, confidence, trust: problems and alternatives 	 	part ii: trust observed 	 	 .	geoffrey hawthorn	pp. - 		 	three ironies in trust 	 	 .	anthony pagden	pp. - 		 	the destruction of trust and its economic consequences in the case of eighteenth century naples 	 	 .	ernest gellner	pp. - 		 	trust, cohesion, and the social order 	 	 .	diego gambetta	pp. - 		 	mafia: the price of distrust 	 	 .	keith hart	pp. - 		 	kinship, contract, and trust: the economic organization of migrants in an african city slum 	 	 .	edward h. lorenz	pp. - 		 	neither friends nor strangers: informal networks of subcontracting in french industry 	 	part iii: conclusion 	 	 .	diego gambetta	pp. - 		 	can we trust trust? 	 	-	fiona f. barr	pp. - 		 	index 	 	this paper can be downloaded in word / and adobe portable document format. (for information about how to download a free pdf viewer from adobe, go to the bottom of this page.) please click on the appropriate icons to download the files. if you do not have an adobe acrobat reader, you can download one by clicking this icon.	 © , department of sociology, university of oxford. page maintained by webadmin@sociology.ox.ac.uk. stages of social-emotional development in children and teenagers (child development institute) success fail 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	sep	oct	nov 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 captures 	 aug - nov 	 	 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 about this capture collected by 			 		organization: internet archive 		 	 	 the internet archive discovers and captures web pages through many different web crawls. at any given time several distinct crawls are running, some for months, and some every day or longer. view the web archive through the wayback machine. 	 	 			 		collection: wikipedia outlinks july 		 	 	 crawl of outlinks from wikipedia.org started july, . these files are currently not publicly accessible. 	 	 timestamps 			 	 			 			 site map    news/research    parenting today blog     parenting resource center 	 				 				 	home	development	psychology	learning	parenting	health/safety	kids/media 				 		 		 	 			 home > child development > stages of social-emotional development in children and teenagers 		visit our blog-parenting today: 	   	news widget 	 e-mail    print    				    				 	 		 	 		    cdi website parenting today blog parent resource center 		 	 free monthly newsletter sign up today! email address: 		 		 		subscribe now and receive a 		free copy of smart parenting 	 				follow us! 				 	 				 				 					 				 				 					 				 				 				 				 	development home 	stages of development 			prenatal 	toddler-preschool 	school age 	puberty 	teenagers 	developmental domains 			intellectual 	language 	social-emotional 	physical 	birth order 	play 			work of the child 	types of play 	developmental stages 	forms of play 	supporting play activities 	playing with your child 	temperament 			introduction 	 temperament traits 	easy vs diffitult chils 	coping with your child's personality 	news/research 	web links 	self-help & books 	  			 			 				 stages of social-emotional development in children and teenagers 				 this page presents an overview of the developmental 						tasks involved in the social and emotional development 						of children and teenagers which continues into 						adulthood. the presentation is based on the eight stages 						of development developed by psychiatrist, erik erikson 						in . 						 						according to erikson, the socialization process consists 						of eight phases - the "eight stages of man." his eight 						stages of man were formulated, not through experimental 						work, but through wide - ranging experience in 						psychotherapy, including extensive experience with 						children and adolescents from low - as well as upper - 						and middle - social classes. each stage is regarded by 						erikson as a "psychosocial crisis," which arises and 						demands resolution before the next stage can be 						satisfactorily negotiated. these stages are conceived in 						an almost architectural sense: satisfactory learning and 						resolution of each crisis is necessary if the child is 						to manage the next and subsequent ones satisfactorily, 						just as the foundation of a house is essential to the 						first floor, which in turn must be structurally sound to 						support and the second story, and so on. 						erikson's eight stages of development 						 . learning basic trust versus basic mistrust (hope) 						chronologically, this is the period of infancy 						through the first one or two years of life. the child, 						well - handled, nurtured, and loved, develops trust and 						security and a basic optimism. badly handled, he becomes 						insecure and mistrustful. 						 . learning autonomy versus shame (will) 						the second psychosocial crisis, erikson believes, 						occurs during early childhood, probably between about 						months or years and ½ to years of age. the "well - 						parented" child emerges from this stage sure of himself, 						elated with his new found control, and proud rather than 						ashamed. autonomy is not, however, entirely synonymous 						with assured self - possession, initiative, and 						independence but, at least for children in the early 						part of this psychosocial crisis, includes stormy self - 						will, tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism. for 						example, one sees may year olds resolutely folding 						their arms to prevent their mothers from holding their 						hands as they cross the street. also, the sound of "no" 						rings through the house or the grocery store. 						 . learning initiative versus guilt (purpose) 						erikson believes that this third psychosocial crisis 						occurs during what he calls the "play age," or the later 						preschool years (from about ½ to, in the united states 						culture, entry into formal school). during it, the 						healthily developing child learns: ( ) to imagine, to 						broaden his skills through active play of all sorts, 						including fantasy ( ) to cooperate with others ( ) to 						lead as well as to follow. immobilized by guilt, he is: 						( ) fearful ( ) hangs on the fringes of groups ( ) 						continues to depend unduly on adults and ( ) is 						restricted both in the development of play skills and in 						imagination. 						 . industry versus inferiority (competence) 						erikson believes that the fourth psychosocial crisis 						is handled, for better or worse, during what he calls 						the "school age," presumably up to and possibly 						including some of junior high school. here the child 						learns to master the more formal skills of life: ( ) 						relating with peers according to rules ( ) progressing 						from free play to play that may be elaborately 						structured by rules and may demand formal teamwork, such 						as baseball and ( ) mastering social studies, reading, 						arithmetic. homework is a necessity, and the need for 						self-discipline increases yearly. the child who, because 						of his successive and successful resolutions of earlier 						psychosocial crisis, is trusting, autonomous, and full 						of initiative will learn easily enough to be 						industrious. however, the mistrusting child will doubt 						the future. the shame - and guilt-filled child will 						experience defeat and inferiority. 						 . learning identity versus identity diffusion 						(fidelity) 						during the fifth psychosocial crisis (adolescence, 						from about or to about ) the child, now an 						adolescent, learns how to answer satisfactorily and 						happily the question of "who am i?" but even the best - 						adjusted of adolescents experiences some role identity 						diffusion: most boys and probably most girls experiment 						with minor delinquency; rebellion flourishes; self - 						doubts flood the youngster, and so on. 						 						erikson believes that during successful early 						adolescence, mature time perspective is developed; the 						young person acquires self-certainty as opposed to 						self-consciousness and self-doubt. he comes to 						experiment with different - usually constructive - roles 						rather than adopting a "negative identity" (such as 						delinquency). he actually anticipates achievement, and 						achieves, rather than being "paralyzed" by feelings of 						inferiority or by an inadequate time perspective. in 						later adolescence, clear sexual identity - manhood or 						womanhood - is established. the adolescent seeks 						leadership (someone to inspire him), and gradually 						develops a set of ideals (socially congruent and 						desirable, in the case of the successful adolescent). 						erikson believes that, in our culture, adolescence 						affords a "psychosocial moratorium," particularly for 						middle - and upper-class american children. they do not 						yet have to "play for keeps," but can experiment, trying 						various roles, and thus hopefully find the one most 						suitable for them. 						 . learning intimacy versus isolation (love) 						the successful young adult, for the first time, can 						experience true intimacy - the sort of intimacy that 						makes possible good marriage or a genuine and enduring 						friendship. 						 . learning generativity versus self-absorption 						(care) 						in adulthood, the psychosocial crisis demands 						generativity, both in the sense of marriage and 						parenthood, and in the sense of working productively and 						creatively. 						 . integrity versus despair (wisdom) 						if the other seven psychosocial crisis have been 						successfully resolved, the mature adult develops the 						peak of adjustment; integrity. he trusts, he is 						independent and dares the new. he works hard, has found 						a well - defined role in life, and has developed a 						self-concept with which he is happy. he can be intimate 						without strain, guilt, regret, or lack of realism; and 						he is proud of what he creates - his children, his work, 						or his hobbies. if one or more of the earlier 						psychosocial crises have not been resolved, he may view 						himself and his life with disgust and despair. 						 						these eight stages of man, or the psychosocial 						crises, are plausible and insightful descriptions of how 						personality develops but at present they are 						descriptions only. we possess at best rudimentary and 						tentative knowledge of just what sort of environment 						will result, for example, in traits of trust versus 						distrust, or clear personal identity versus diffusion. 						helping the child through the various stages and the 						positive learning that should accompany them is a 						complex and difficult task, as any worried parent or 						teacher knows. search for the best ways of accomplishing 						this task accounts for much of the research in the field 						of child development. 						 						socialization, then is a learning - teaching process 						that, when successful, results in the human organism's 						moving from its infant state of helpless but total 						egocentricity to its ideal adult state of sensible 						conformity coupled with independent creativity. click on a tag to find related articles on our site: emotional development, social development 				 				 				 				 		 			 				 		 					visit our sponsors 	 	 		 	 				 				 		 	 		 	 		 		affiliate status disclosure:  you should assume that the owner of this website is an affiliate for providers of goods and services mentioned on this website and may be compensated when you purchase from a provider. to learn more, click here 		 the information on this website is solely for informational purposes. it is not intended to provide medical advice. neither child development institute, llc nor dr. myers nor any of the editors, columnists or authors take responsibility for any possible consequences from any action taken which results from reading or following the information contained in this information. the publication of this information does not constitute the practice of medicine or psychology, and this information does not replace the advice of your physician or mental health care provider. before undertaking any course of treatment, the reader must seek the advice of their physician or other health care provider.  see additional information. about cdi  awards & recommendations   contact cdi  terms & conditions   anti-spam   compensation disclosure   dmca notice   external links   health disclaimers   privacy    refunds & returns copyright © - by child development institute, llc 		 	 	 world database of trust success fail 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	may	oct	mar 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 captures 	 feb - oct 	 	 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 about this capture collected by 			 		organization: alexa crawls 		 	 	 starting in , alexa internet has been donating their crawl data to the internet archive. flowing in every day, these data are added to the wayback machine after an embargo period. 	 	 			 		collection: alexa web 		 	 	 crawl data donated by alexa internet. this data is currently not publicly accessible 	 	 timestamps world database of trust   compiled by harvey s. james, jr., ph.d. university of missouri updated august   welcome to the world database of trust! in compiling research on trust, i have divided it into theoretical, empirical, and other designations. these designations are only approximate. some empirical studies will make a theoretical contribution, and some theoretical papers contain empirical results. nevertheless, i have made every effort to fit the papers and books as closely as possible to the main theoretical or empirical contribution of the work. i am also beginning to compile definitions of trust and, to be added later, empirical measures of trust and trust-related concepts, such as trustworthiness and the like. if you have any comments, suggestions for improvement, or know of papers or books that should be listed here, please e-mail me at hjames@missouri.edu.     definitions of trust “trust … is reliance on another's good will … where one depends on another's good will, one is necessarily vulnerable to the limits of that good will. one leaves others an opportunity to harm one when one trusts, and also shows one's confidence that they will not take it. reasonable trust will require good grounds for such confidence in another's good will, or at least the absence of good grounds for expecting their ill will or indifference. trust then … is accepted vulnerability to another's possible but not expected ill will (or lack of good will) toward one.” “trust … is letting other persons (natural or artificial, such as firms, nations, etc.) take care of something the trustor cares about, where such 'caring for' involves some exercise of discretionary powers.” - a. baier, “trust and antitrust,” ethics, , , pp. , ,   trust “is the mutual confidence that one's vulnerability will not be exploited in an exchange.” - j.b. barney and m.h. hansen, “trustworthiness as a source of competitive advantage,” strategic management journal, (winter special issue), , p.   “trust is an expectation that alleviates the fear that one's exchange partner will act opportunistically.” - j.l. bradach and r.g. eccles, “markets versus hierarchies: from ideal types of plural forms,” in w.r. scott (ed.), annual review of sociology, , , p.   “trust is the expectation that arises within a community of regular, honest, and cooperative behavior, based on commonly shared norms, on the part of other members of that community.” - f. fukuyama, trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity, new york, ny: free press, , p.   “trust (or, symmetrically, distrust) is a particular level of the subjective probability with which an agent assesses that another agent or group of agents will perform a particular action, both before he can monitor such an action (or independently of his capacity ever to be able to monitor it) and in a context in which it affects his own action.” - d. gambetta, “can we trust trust?” in d. gambetta (ed.), trust: making and breaking cooperative relations, new york, ny:basil blackwell, , p.   “trust is the reliance by one person, group, or firm upon a voluntarily accepted duty on the part of another person, group, or firm to recognize and protect the rights and interests of all others engaged in a joint endeavor or economic exchange.” trust is “the expectation … of ethically justifiable behavior – that is, morally correct decisions and actions based upon ethical principles of analysis.” - l.t. hosmer, “trust: the connecting link between organizational theory and philosophical ethics,” academy of management review, , , p. ,   “in the language of economics, trust can be viewed as an expectation, and it pertains to circumstances in which agents take risky actions in environments characterized by uncertainty or informational incompleteness. to say 'a trusts b' means that a expects b will not exploit a vulnerability a has created for himself by taking the action.” - h.s. james, jr., “the trust paradox: a survey of economic inquiries into the nature of trust and trustworthiness,” journal of economic behavior and organization, ( ), , p.   “trust can be defined as the belief or perception by one party (e.g. a principal) that the other party (e.g. an agent) to a particular transaction will not cheat, where the payoff structure internal to the transaction can be characterized by a prisoner’s dilemma or principal-agent game.” - s. knack, “trust, associational life and economic performance,” j.f. helliwell (ed.), the contribution of human and social capital to sustained economic growth and well-being, quebec: human resources develeopment canada (hrdc) and organization for economic co-operation and development (oecd), , p.   trust is the “undertaking of a risky course of action on the confident expectation that all persons involved in the action will act competently and dutifully.” - j.d. lewis and a. weigert, “trust as a social reality,” social forces, , ,   “trust can be defined as the judgement one makes on the basis of one's past interactions with others that they will seek to act in ways that favor one's interests, rather than harm them, in circumstances that remain to be defined. trusting judgements inevitably remain tentative, rather than certain, since they are based on a limited knowledge of others rather than a precise calculation of their interests.” - e. lorenz, “trust, contract and economic cooperation,” cambridge journal of economics, , , p.   trust “is the perceived likelihood of the other not behaving in a self-interested manner.” - a. madhok, “revisiting multinational firms' tolerance for joint ventures: a trust-based approach,” journal of international business studies, ( ), , p.   trust is “the willingness of a party to be vulnerable to the actions of another party based on the expectation that the other will perform a particular action important to the trustor.” - r.c. mayer, j.h. davis, and f.d. schoorman, “an integrative model of organizational trust,” academy of management review, ( ), , p.   trust is “the extent to which a person is confident in, and willing to act on the basis of, the words, actions, and decisions of another.” - d.j. mcallister, “affect- and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizations,” academy of management journal, , , p.   “trust in things or people entails the willingness to submit to the risk that they may fail us, with the expectation that they will not, or the neglect or lack of awareness of the possibility that they might.” “'real' trust, or trust in the strong sense, is an expectation that things or people will not fail us, or the neglect of lack of awareness of the possibility of failure, even if there are perceived opportunities and incentives for it.” - b. nooteboom, trust: forms, foundations, functions, failures and figures, northampton, ma: edward elgar, , pp. ,   trust broadly defined is “the expectation that a partner will not engage in opportunistic behavior, for whatever reason, including control of his conduct.” trust more narrowly defined is “the expectation that a partner will not engage in opportunistic behavior, even in the face of short-term opportunities and incentives, in the absence of control.” - b. nooteboom, “social capital, institutions and trust,” review of social economy, ( ), , p. .   “trust is a psychological state comprising the intention to accept vulnerability based upon positive expectations of the intentions or behavior of another.” - d.m. rousseau, s.b. sitkin, r.s. burt, and c. camerer, “not so different after all: a cross-discipline view of trust,” academy of management review, , , p. .   trust is a person's “expectations, assumptions, or beliefs about the likelihood that another's future actions will be beneficial, favorable, or at least not detrimental to one's interests.” - s.l. robinson, “trust and breach of the psychological contract,” administrative science quarterly, , , p.   “trust is a state of mind, an expectation held by one trading partner about another, that the other behaves or responds in a predictable and mutually expected manner.” - m. sako, prices, quality, and trust: inter-firm relations in britain and japan, cambridge: cambridge university press, , p. ; quoted in nooteboom, , p.   trust “may be defined as a reliance upon information received from another person about uncertain environmental states and their accompanying outcomes in a risky situation.” - b.r. schlenker, b. helm, and j.t. tedeschi, “the effects of personality and situational variables on behavioral trust,” journal of personality and social psychology, , , p.   trust is a “belief, attitude, or expectation concerning the likelihood that the actions or outcomes of another individual, group or organization will be acceptable or will serve the actor’s interests.” trust is the “belief in a person's competence to perform a specific task under specific circumstances.” - s.b. sitkin and n.l. roth, “explaining the limited effectiveness of legalistic 'remedies' for trust/distrust,” organization science, , , p. ,   “trust is the willingness to permit the decisions of others to influence your welfare.” - j. sobel, “can we trust social capital,” journal of economic literature, (march), , p. .   “when we trust other people, we expect that they will fulfill their promises, either because we know that they have usually done so in the past … or because we believe that we shall fare better if we presume that others are trustworthy.” - e.m. uslaner, the moral foundations of trust, new york, ny: cambridge university press, , p.   “from a sociological perspective, trust is defined as a set of expectations shared by all those involved in an exchange.” - l.g. zucker, “production of trust: institutional sources of economic structure, - ,” research in organizational behavior, , , p.       books on trust axelrod, robert, the evolution of cooperation, new york, ny: basic books, . barber, bernard, the logic and limits of trust, new brunswick, nj: rutgers university press, . braithwaite, valerie, and margaret levi, (eds.), trust and governance, new york, ny: russell sage foundation, . casson, mark, studies in the economics of trust, brookfield, vt: edward elgar, . volume : entrepreneurship and business culture. volume : the organization of international business. cook, karen s. (ed.), trust in society, new york, ny: russell sage foundation, . fukuyama, francis, trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity, new york, ny: free press, . gambetta, diego (ed.), trust: making and breaking cooperative relations, new york, ny: basil blackwell, . govier, trudy, social trust and human communities, mcgill-queen's university press, . govier, trudy, dilemmas of trust, mcgill-queen's university press, . hardin, russell, trust and trustworthiness, new york, ny: russell sage foundation, . hardin, russell (ed.), distrust, new york, ny: russell sage foundation, . hardin, russell, trust, malden, ma: polity press, . kramer, roderick m., and karen s. cook (eds.), trust and distrust in organizations: dilemmas and approaches, new york, ny: russell sage foundation, . misztal, barbara, trust in modern societies: the search for the bases of social order, polity press, . nooteboom, bart, trust: forms, foundations, functions, failures and figures, northampton, ma: edward elgar, . ostrom, elinor, and james walker, (eds.), trust and reciprocity, new york, ny: russell sage foundation, . ridley, matt, the origins of virtue: human instincts and the evolution of cooperation, new york, ny: viking penguin, . seligman, adam, the problem of trust, princeton university press, . sztompka, piotr, trust: a sociological theory, cambridge university press, . uslaner, eric m., the moral foundations of trust, new york, ny: cambridge university press, .     surveys, overviews, general discussions baier, a., “trust and antitrust,” ethics, (january), , - . barney, j.b., and m.h. hansen, “trustworthiness as a source of comparative advantage,” strategic management journal, (winter), , - . das, t.k., and teng, bing-sheng, “the risk-based view of trust: a conceptual framework,” journal of business and psychology, ( ), , - . dasgupta, p., “trust as a commodity,” in d. gambetta (ed.) trust: making and breaking cooperative relations, new york, ny: blackwell, , - . gambetta, d., “can we trust in trust?” in d. gambetta (ed.) trust: making and breaking cooperative relations, new york, ny: blackwell, , - . hardin, r., “the street-level epistemology of trust,” politics & society, ( ), , - . hardin, r., “trustworthiness,” ethics, ( ), , - . hardin, r., “conceptions and explanations of trust,” in k.s. cook (ed.), trust in society, new york, ny: russell sage foundation, , - . hardin, r., “distrust: manifestations and management,” in r. hardin (ed.), distrust, new york, ny: russell sage foundation, , - . james, h.s., jr., “the trust paradox: a survey of economic inquiries into the nature of trust and trustworthiness,” journal of economic behavior and organization, ( ), , - . kay, n.m., “the economics of trust,” international journal of the economics of business, ( ), , - . koehn, d., “should we trust in trust?” american business law journal, ( ), , - .  see also fort, timothy l., “trust and law's facilitating role,” american business law journal, ( ), , - . leibenstein, h., “on some economic aspects of a fragile input: trust,” in g.r. feiwel (ed.), arrow and the foundations of the theory of economic policy, new york, ny: new york university press, , - . levi, m., “when good defenses make good neighbors: a transaction cost approach to trust, the absence of trust and distrust,” in c. menard, (ed.) institutions, contracts and organizations: perspectives from new institutional economics, northampton, ma: edward elgar, , - . nooteboom, b. “social capital, institutions and trust,” review of social economy, ( ), , - . perelman, m., “the neglected economics of trust: the bentham paradox and its implications,” american journal of economics and sociology, ( ), , - . sitkin, s.b., and n.l. roth, “explaining the limited effectiveness of legalistic 'remedies' for trust/distrust,” organization science, , , - . williamson, o.e., “calculativeness, trust, and economic organization,” journal of law and economics, , , - .  see also craswell, richard, “on the uses of 'trust': comment on williamson, 'calculativeness, trust, and economic organization,'“ journal of law and economics, (april), , - .     theoretical models bhattacharya, r., t.m. devinney, and m.m. pillutla, “a formal model of trust based on outcomes,” academy of management review, ( ), , - . bohnet, i., b.s. frey, and s. huck, “more order with less law: on contract enforcement, trust and crowding,” american political science review, , , - . coleman, j.s., “relations of trust,” in foundations of social theory, cambridge, ma: harvard university press, , - . colombo, f., and g. merzoni, “in praise of rigidity: the bright side of long-term contracts in repeated trust games,” journal of economic behavior and organization, ( ), , - . güth, w., and h. kliemt, “competition or co-operation: on the evolutionary economics of trust, exploration and moral attitudes,” metroeconomica, ( ), , - . huang, p.h., and h. wu, “more order without more law: a theory of social norms and organizational cultures,” journal of law, economics, and organization, ( ), , - . huck, s., “trust, treason, and trials: an example of how the evolution of preferences can be driven by legal institutions,” journal of law, economics, and organization, ( ), , - . hwang, p., and w.p. burgers, “properties of trust: an analytical view,” organizational behavior and human decision processes, ( ), , - . james, h.s., jr., “on the reliability of trusting,” rationality and society, ( ), , - . kreps, d.m., “corporate culture and economic theory,” in j. alt and k. shepsle (eds.), perspectives in positive political economy, new york, ny: cambridge university press, , - . lahno, b., “trust and strategic rationality,” rationality and society, ( ), , - . snijders, c., and g. keren, “determinants of trust,” in d.v. budescu, i. erev, and r. zwickm (eds.), games and human behavior: essays in honor of amnon rapaport, mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates, , - .     markets, institutions and society aulakh, p.s., m. kotabe, and a. sahay, “trust and performance in cross-border marketing partnerships: a behavioral approach,” journal of international business studies, ( ), , - . bjørnskov, c., “the happy few. cross-country evidence on social capital and life satisfaction,” kyklos, , , - bjørnskov, c., “determinants of generalized trust. a cross-country comparison,” public choice, forthcoming. blair, m.m., and l.a. stout, “trust, trustworthiness, and the behavioral foundations of corporate law,” university of pennsylvania law review, june . doney, p.m., and j.p. cannon, “an examination of the nature of trust in buyer-supplier relationships,” journal of marketing, ( ), , - . gefen d., “e-commerce: the role of familiarity and trust”, omega: the international journal of management science, ( ), , - . gefen, d. “nurturing clients’ trust to encourage engagement success during the customization of erp systems,” omega: the international journal of management science, ( ), , - . gefen, d., “what makes erp implementation relationships worthwhile: linking trust mechanisms and erp usefulness,” journal of management information systems, ( ), , - . hwang, p., “asset specificity and the fear of exploitation,” journal of economic behavior and organization, ( ), , - . lorenz, e., “trust, contract and economic cooperation,” cambridge journal of economics, ( ), , - . moorman, c., r. deshpande, and g. zaltman, “factors affecting trust in market research relationships,” journal of marketing, ( ), , - . pavlou, p.a. and gefen, d., “building effective online marketplaces with institution-based trust,” information systems research, ( ), , - . pavlou, p.a., and gefen d., “psychological contract violation in online marketplaces: antecedents, consequences, and moderating role,” information systems research, ( ), , - . rose-ackerman, s., “trust, honesty, and corruption: reflection on the state-building process,” european journal of sociology, , , - . shapiro, s.p., “the social control of impersonal trust,” american journal of sociology, ( ), , - . zak, p., and s. knack, “trust and growth,” the economic journal, , , - . zak, p., and s. knack, “building trust: public policy, interpersonal trust, and economic development,” supreme court economic review, , . zucker, l.g., “production of trust: institutional sources of economic structure, - ,” research in organizational behavior, , , - .     organizational trust beccerra, m., a.k. gupta, “trust within organization: integrating the trust literature with agency theory and transaction cost economics,” public administration quarterly, ( ), , - . creed, w.e.d., and r.e. miles, “trust in organizations: a conceptual framework linking organizational forms, managerial philosophies, and the opportunity costs of controls,” in r.m. kramer and t.r. tyler (eds.), trust in organizations: frontiers of theory and research, thousand oaks, ca: sage., , - dirks, k.t., and d.l. ferrin, “the role of trust in organizational settings,” organizational science, ( ), , - . grey, c., and c. garsten, “trust, control and post-bureaucracy,” organization studies, ( ), , - . hall, ma, e. dugan, b. zheng, and a. mishra, “trust in physicians and medical institutions: what is it?, can it be measured? and does it matter?” the milbank quarterly, ( ), , - . hansen, m.h., j.l. morrow jr., and j.c. batista, “the impact of trust on cooperative membership retention, performance, and satisfaction: an exploratory study,” international food and agribusiness management review, , , - . james, h.s., jr., and m. sykuta, “property right and organizational characteristics of producer-owned firms and organizational trust,” annals of public and cooperative economics, ( ), , - . james, h.s., jr., and m. sykuta, “farmer trust in producer- and investor-owned firms: evidence from missouri corn and soybean producers,” agribusiness: an international journal, ( ), , - . kramer, r.m., “trust and distrust in organizations: emerging perspectives, enduring questions,” annual review of psychology, , , - . la porta, r., f. lopez-de-silanes, a. shleifer, and r.w. vishny, “trust in large organizations,” american economic review papers and proceedings, ( ), , - . mayer, r.c., j.h. davis, and f.d. schoorman, “an integrative model of organizational trust,” academy of management review, ( ), , - . miller, g., “why is trust necessary in organizations? the moral hazard of profit maximization,” in k.s. cook (ed.), trust in society, new york, ny: russell sage foundation, , - . morrow, j.l., jr., m.h. hansen, and a.w. pearson, “the cognitive and affective antecedents of general trust within cooperative organizations,” journal of managerial issues, ( ), , - . nooteboom, b., “trust, opportunism and governance: a process and control model,” organization studies, ( ), , - . nooteboom, b., h. berger, and n. noorderhaven, “effects of trust and governance on relational risk,” academy of management journal, ( ), , - . ole borgen, s., “identification as a trust-generating mechanism in cooperatives,” annals of public and cooperative economics, ( ), , - . wicks, a.c., s.l. berman, t.m. jones, “the structure of optimal trust: moral and strategic implications,” academy of management review, ( ), , - . zaheer, a., b. mcevily, and v. perrone, “does trust matter? exploring the effects of interorganizational and interpersonal trust on performance,” organization science, ( ), , - .     general empirical studies alesina, a., and e. la ferrara, “the determinants of trust,” nber working paper , . available on the internet at http://www.nber.org/papers/w . bjørnskov, c., “the multiple facets of social capital,” european journal of political economy, ( ), , - . glaeser, e., d. laibson, j. scheinkman, and christine soutter, “measuring trust,” quarterly journal of economics, ( ), , - .     experiments berg, j., j. dickhaut, and k. mccabe, “trust, reciprocity, and social history,” games and economic behavior, ( ), , - . bohnet, i., and r. zeckhauser, “trust, risk and betrayal,” journal of economic behavior and organization, ( ), , - . buchan, n.r., and r.t.a. croson, “the boundaries of trust: own and others' actions in the us and china,” journal of economic behavior and organization, ( ), , - . buchan, n.r., e.j. johnson, and r.t.a. croson, “let’s get personal: an international examination of the influence of communication, culture and social distance on other regarding preferences,” journal of economic behavior and organization, ( ), , - . carpenter, j.p., a.g. daniere, and l.m. takahashi, “cooperation, trust, and social capital in southeast asian urban slums,” journal of economic behavior and organization, ( ), , - . chaudhuri, a., s.a. khan, a. lakshmiratan, a py, and l. shah, “trust and trustworthiness in a sequential bargaining game,” journal of behavioral decision making, ( ), , - . de cremer, d., “trust and fear of exploitation in a public goods dilemma,” current psychology, ( ), , - . eckel, c.c., and r.k. wilson, “is trust a risky decision?” journal of economic behavior and organization, ( ), , - . engle-warnick, j., and r.l. slonim, “the evolution of strategies in a repeated trust game,” journal of economic behavior and organization, ( ), , - . gächter, s., b. herrmann, and c. thöni, “trust, voluntary cooperation, and socio-economic background: survey and experiment evidence,” journal of economic behavior and organization, ( ), , - . gefen d. and straub, d.w., “consumer trust in b c e-commerce and the importance of social presence: experiments in e-products and e-services,” omega: the international journal of management science, ( ), , - . henrich, j., “does culture matter in economic behavior? ultimatum game bargaining among the machiguenga of the peruvian amazon,” american economic review, ( ), , - . holm, h., and p. nystedt, “intra-generational trust—a semin-experimental study of trust among difference generations,” journal of economic behavior and organization, ( ), , - . malhotra, d., and j.k. murnighan, “the effects of contracts on interpersonal trust,” administrative science quarterly, , , - . parks, c.d., and l.g. hulbert, “high and low trusters' responses to fear in a payoff matrix,” journal of conflict resolution, ( ), , - . renner, e., and j.r. tyran, “price rigidity in customer markets,” journal of economic behavior and organization, ( ), , - . tullock, g., “non-prisoner's dilemma,” journal of economic behavior and organization, , , - .     trust and risk communication hunt, s., and lynn j. frewer, “trust in sources of information about genetically modified food risks in the uk,” british food journal, ( ), , - . james, h.s., jr., “the effect of trust on public support for biotechnology: evidence from the u.s. biotechnology study, - ,” agribusiness: an international journal, ( ), , - james, h.s., jr., “trust in scientists and food manufacturers: implications for the public support of biotechnology,” journal of agribusiness, ( ), , - kasperson, r.e., d. golding, and s. tuler, “social distrust as a factor in siting hazardous facilities and communicating risks,” journal of social issues, ( ), , - . lang, j.t, k.m. o'neill, and w.k. hallman, “expertise, trust, and communication about food biotechnology,” agbioforum, ( ), , article . peters, r.g., v.t. covello, and d.b. mccallum, “the determinants of trust and credibility in environmental risk communication: an empirical study,” risk analysis, ( ), , - . renn, o., and d. levine, “credibility and trust in risk communication,” in r.e. kasperson and p.j.m. stallen (eds.) communicating risks to the public, netherlands: kluwer academic publishers, , - . siegrist, m., “the influence of trust and perceptions of risks and benefits on the acceptance of gene technology,” risk analysis, ( ), , - . sjöberg, l., “limits of knowledge and the limited importance of trust,” risk analysis, ( ), , - . slovic, p., “perceived risk, trust, and democracy,” risk analysis, ( ), , - . williams, b.l., s. brown, and michael greenberg, “determinants of trust perceptions among residents surrounding the savannah river nuclear weapons site,” environment and behavior, ( ), , - .     social psychology of trust deutsch, m., “trust, trustworthiness, and the f-scale,” journal of abnormal and social psychology, , , - . gurtman, m.b., “trust, distrust, and interpersonal problems: a circumplex analysis,” journal of personality and social psychology, , , - . orbell, m., r. dawes, and p. schwartz-shea, “trust, social categories, and individuals: the case of gender,” motivation and emotion, , , - . quigley-fernandez, b., f.s. malkis, and j.t. tedeschi, “effects of first impressions and reliability of promises on trust and cooperation,” british journal of social psychology, , , - . sorrentino, r.m., j.g. holmes, s.e. hanna, and a. sharp, “uncertainty orientation and trust in close relationships: individual differences in cognitive styles,” journal of personality and social psychology, , , - .     neurobiology and trust fehr, e., u. fischbacher, and m. kosfeld, “neuroeconomic foundations of trust and social preferences,” institute for the study of labor discussion paper no. , june . king-casas, b., d. tomlin, c. anen, c.f. camerer, s.r. quartz, p.r. montague, “getting to know you: reputation and trust in a two-perons economic exchange,” science, , , - . kosfeld, m., m. heinrichs, p. zak, u. fischbacher, and e. fehr, “oxytocin increases trust in humans,” nature, june , , - . zak, p.j. “trust: a temporary human attachment facilitated by oxytocin,” behavioral and brain sciences, forthcoming.     working paper - success fail 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	dec	sep	mar 		 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 captures 	 may - sep 	 	 	 	 	 		 	 	 	 about this capture collected by 			 		organization: internet archive 		 	 	 the internet archive discovers and captures web pages through many different web crawls. at any given time several distinct crawls are running, some for months, and some every day or longer. view the web archive through the wayback machine. 	 	 			 		collection: wikipedia outlinks july 		 	 	 crawl of outlinks from wikipedia.org started july, . these files are currently not publicly accessible. 	 	 timestamps the meanings of trust prepared by: d. harrison mcknight carlson school of management 	university of minnesota 	 hubert h. humphrey center 	 - th avenue south 	minneapolis, mn 	voice: ( ) - ; ( ) - 	fax: ( ) - hmcknight@csom.umn.edu norman l. chervany university of minnesota nchervany@csom.umn.edu 	 acknowledgments: the authors wish to thank three anonymous reviewers from the organizational behavior division of the meeting of the academy of management. the meanings of trust abstract: researchers and practitioners have shown sufficient interest in trust that it has become a widely-studied and highly-heralded concept. but what does the word 'trust' mean? since the term trust is so frequently used, the business practitioner literature tends to assume everyone knows what trust means. therefore, the word is rarely defined in most practitioner articles. while most scholars provide a definition of trust, they are dissatisfied regarding their own lack of consensus about what trust is. researchers have used a wide variety of trust definitions, leading to a plethora of in-use meanings of the concept. this has resulted in confusion regarding how to compare one trust research result to another. in order to move trust research forward in a cumulative manner, the questions about the conceptual meaning of trust must be resolved. to move toward this objective, the authors propose: (a) a classification system for types of trust and (b) definitions of six related trust types. the classification system shows analytically the types of trust that have been studied and compares these types to what people mean by 'trust' in everyday language. our six trust construct model addresses the more common and important types of trust in use and provides a manageable way to understand trust-related phenomena for both theoretical, empirical, and practical purposes. some implications of the model are drawn for management. 	the meanings of trust "...trust is a term with many meanings." (williamson, : ) "trust is itself a term for a clustering of perceptions." (white, : ) scholars and practitioners widely acknowledge trust's importance. trust makes cooperative endeavors happen (e.g., arrow, ; deutsch, ; gambetta, ). it is a key to positive interpersonal relationships in various settings (e.g., fox, ; lewis & weigert, a) because it is central to how we interact with others (e.g., berscheid, ; golembiewski & mcconkie, ). trust becomes even more central and critical during periods of uncertainty due to organizational crisis (mishra, ; weick & roberts, ). in the organizational "restructuring" crisis of the s, trust has emerged as a central and key strategic asset for organizations (e.g., mayer, davis & schoorman, ; mishra, ). trust is a central component in effective working relationships (gabarro, ). practitioners acknowledge the importance of trust as much as do scholars (e.g., bartlett & ghoshal, ; covey, ; peters, ). for example, a book on partnering recently quoted one business person as saying, "...'there are a lot of issues in partnering,...but trust is truly the key. everything else has to be based on it. without trust, there is no basis for partnering. it's the bottom line.'" (rackham, friedman & ruff, : ) the same authors reported, "we heard the same sentiment over and over." because trust is considered so vital, it has been studied extensively in many research disciplines (e.g., golembiewski & mcconkie, ; kramer & tyler, ). scientific study should, over time, lead to some level of consensus on a topic (kuhn, ). but while agreement is rising concerning the positive effects of trust (e.g., kramer & tyler, ), little consensus has formed on what trust means (kee & knox, ; taylor, ; yamagishi & yamagishi, ). rather, significantly diverse meanings of trust continue to be used in the interdisciplinary research literature. this pattern is primarily driven by empirical studies that typically define trust in very specific, narrow ways. wrightsman's ( : ) commentary on future research directions is insightful: "...the general concept of trust deserves much more theoretical analysis. measurement has advanced more rapidly than conceptual clarification..." to continue to make progress in any scientific field, researchers need to be able to clearly summarize the state of that progress. this is difficult to do for trust research because of the widely divergent ways in which trust has been defined. "efforts to measure trust...are so variegated that the results of any two or more studies are not necessarily comparable." (golembiewski & mcconkie, : ) in order for researchers to make sense of the empirical and theoretical literature on trust, ways of categorizing each type of empirical and theoretical trust construct should be developed. in this way, trust research can move forward appropriately--and its progress can more easily be judged. having some measure of agreement on specific definitions of trust types should make a discussion of the antecedents and consequents of trust more meaningful and specific. definitional clarity represents a greatly neglected topic in the trust literature. yet it is a key to long-term progress. schwab ( ) argued that researchers have overemphasized covariation between constructs (substantive research) and underemphasized construct validation. while these are both important endeavors, our reading of the trust literature found that both empirical construct validation and substantive research have been overemphasized while integrative conceptualization has been underemphasized (kee & knox, ; lewicki & bunker, ; taylor, ; williamson, ). effective conceptualization is critical to the success of construct validation and substantive research. schwab ( ) endorsed james and jones's ( ) assessment that adequately defining the conceptual meaning boundaries of a construct should take priority over construct measurement and construct validation. without clear conceptual definitions, the overall nomological network will still be fraught with puzzling gaps and overlaps. schwab ( : ) outlined a related challenge: "constructs are of interest only if they are connected to other constructs." similarly, wrightsman said, "...research is needed on the relationships among the several recent measures of trust." ( : ) hence, differentiating several types of trust is only effective if these types can be shown to relate to each other, and to other constructs, in some sensible manner. this intensifies the importance of building a model of trust constructs that fit together in meaningful ways--this paper's primary objective. we believe a cross-disciplinary conceptualization of trust constructs would be valuable. by creating a cross-disciplinary set of trust concepts, researchers in various fields could study types of trust that could be related to each other. then work by researchers in one field could be compared to work in other fields. in this way, researchers will make cumulative progress on trust. however, this approach is not without its potential pitfalls. van de ven & ferry ( ) applied cross-disciplinary concepts to their organizational assessment framework. in so doing, they found that the potential danger of this strategy lies in "using concepts incorrectly because they were abstracted from their parent disciplines...[o]ne may lose sight of the paradigm origin or base [and develop] an eclectic conceptual model that is without 'roots.'" ( : ) to guard against these problems, they defined their concepts "as clearly as possible," grounded them in the originating literature, and evaluated their framework for "logical validity and consistency" ( : ). this paper attempts to follow van de ven & ferry's example. van de ven & ferry ( ) also pointed out the high payoff to researchers and practitioners when such an endeavor is successful: "the value in taking these risks lies in the potential for conceptual advances that are present when concepts from different paradigm origins are juxtaposed to create a new paradigm" (ibid.). to the extent that this paper's trust typology is useful for the management discipline, its usefulness is largely due to its cross-disciplinary nature. this is because an interdisciplinary approach enables a richer, more well-balanced view of a phenomenon. this seems especially important for phenomena in organizations, in which complex factors are present. the resulting theory is therefore likely to be more useful for practice. "nothing is quite so practical as a good theory" (van de ven, : ). although definitional diversity can lead to confusion, we do not assert that diversity of trust definitions is completely wrong or improper. rather, we argue that trust is appropriately difficult to define narrowly. this paper analyzes the trust literature and common usage (dictionary) trust meanings to further understand why trust definitions are so difficult to specify. we will show that trust refers to a relatively broad set of constructs, both in terms of the trust research literature and in terms of everyday usage of the term. we will argue that narrow definitions of trust do not accurately depict this concept's rich set of meanings. hence, we suggest that trust be characterized as a set of inter-related constructs. in section , we discuss the issue of divergent trust definitions. to begin to address this issue, this paper creates two kinds of conceptual typologies: typology type (a)--a classification system for types or kinds of trust; typology type (b)--a set of six related types of trust constructs resulting from the analysis of the classification system (tiryakian, ). by classification system, we mean a sensible method of differentiating one conceptual type from another. in section , we propose a classification system [typology type (a)] for trust constructs to better understand the definitional problem. by a set of related types of a concept, we mean a group of constructs that are conceptually distinguishable, but which relate to each other in specified ways. in section , guided by the classification system, we define six related types of trust [conceptual typology type (b)], and briefly relate them to each other. these six definitions: (a) correspond closely to the meanings found in everyday usage of the word trust; (b) cover the more common and the more important types of trust in the classification system (based on the trust research literature); and (c) provide a manageable, cohesive way to understand and research trust. the relations between the six trust types are more completely explained elsewhere (mcknight & chervany, ; mcknight, cummings & chervany, ). we will argue that understanding the meanings of trust in both everyday and scientific usage is important to creating a better definition of trust for scientific purposes. the paper adds value in two ways. first, it develops a way to classify types of trust, benefiting our understanding of how to evaluate the trust literature. second, through synthesizing existing research- and common use meanings of trust, it provides a set of interrelated trust constructs that are useful for research and practice. research implications and management applications of the model are included in the conclusion. section : conceptual confusion--problem and suggestion . problem: divergent narrow conceptual definitions in , giffin said that trust "has been viewed as a somewhat mystical and intangible factor, probably defying careful definition" ( : ). twenty-two years later, taylor ( : ) found that if one examined the available library research on trust, "a bewildering array of meanings and connotations for trust would be provided." today, researchers are still far from a consensus on what trust means. in fact, they remark that trust definitions have become a "confusing potpourri," (shapiro, a: ), a "conceptual confusion" (lewis & weigert, a: ), even a "conceptual morass" (barber, : ; carnevale & wechsler, : ). trust is an "elusive" concept (gambetta, : ix; yamagishi & yamagishi, : ). after reviewing the trust literature, we find that these statements are scarcely exaggerations. table summarizes the divergent ways in which trust has been defined in sixty research articles or books. eighteen of the sources come from the management [ ] /communication-related literatures, nineteen come from sociology/economics/political science, and twenty-three from psychology or social psychology. this range of literature was chosen to reflect the breadth of major research efforts about trust both from the management discipline and from disciplines supporting the management discipline. a particular work on the list was selected either because it is cited by others in the literature, or because it represents a unique view about the definition of trust. note in table that we have momentarily excluded the important recent work of several researchers (bromiley & cummings, ; dobing, ; mayer, davis & schoorman, ; mcallister, ; mishra, ). their work will be included in the discussion later. many other useful and important articles on trust were excluded from table either because they adopted someone else's definition of trust instead of creating their own, or because they never stated what trust means (e.g., boyle & bonacich, ; conviser, ; granovetter, ; kramer, ; lewicki & bunker, ; shapiro, sheppard & cheraskin, ). table types of trust concepts in research articles and books 				 		 								 personal /interpersonal 					_______________________________________________ 				impersonal		affective state cognitive state 								 	________________________ 				structural dispositional attitude feeling expectancy belief intention behavior article/book anderson & narus, 	 						 x	 	 x baier, 		 				x	x	 	 	 x 	 barber, 		 x				x	x blakeney, 		 						 x bonoma, 		 						 x	 	 x bradach & eccles, 	 					x carnevale et al., 	 					x coleman, 		 						 	 	 x currall & judge, 	 						 	 x	 x dasgupta, 		 					x deutsch, 		 				x	x	 	 x driscoll, 		 						 x dunn, 		 				x	x	 	 x	 x erikson, 	 	 		x fox, 	 	 x				x		 x gabarro, 		 						 x gaines, 		 					x gambetta, 		 					x	 x garfinkel, 	 	 x					x giffin, 		 				x		 	 	 x good, 		 						 x heimovics, 		 					x	 x holmes, 		 				x	x hoy & kupersmith, 	 						 x husted, 		 					x	 	 	 x johnson & johnson, 	 				x		 	 	 x johnson-george & swap, 				x		 x kasperson et al., 	 					x kee & knox, 	 				x		 x	 	 x kegan & rubenstein, 			x koller, 		 					x	 x	 x	 x krackhardt & stern, 						 x lewis & weigert, ab	 x				x	x	 	 	 x lindskold, 		 						 x lorenz, 		 						 	 	 x luhmann, 	 	 x				x	x luhmann, 		 			x			 	 x				 mcgregor, 		 				x		 x	 x mclain & hackman, 				x		 x	 	 x orbell et al., 	 					x	 	 	 x rempel et al., 	 				x	x riker, 		 						 x	 x	 x ring & van de ven, 	 				x roberts & o'reilly, 	 				x rotter, 		 		x			x				 sato, 		 		x				 x					 	 scanzoni, 		 				x		 	 x schlenker et al., 	 						 	 	 x shapiro, a	 	 x sitkin & roth, 								 solomon, 		 					x	 	 	 x	 taylor, 		 						 x	 x thorslund, 		 			x			 x williams, 		 						 	 	 x worchel, 		 				x		 x yamagishi et al., 	 					x	 x zaheer et al., 							 x zaltman et al., 							 x zand, 		 						 	 	 x zucker, 	 	 x					x 		 _____ _____ ____ ____ _____ ____ _____ _____ 	total 	% of total % % % % % % % % notes: . a large 'x' denotes authors' primary definition of trust. a small 'x' denotes other than primary definition. . feeling includes specific affective states (besides attitude), such as confidence and security. . expectancy includes expectations. . belief includes other cognitive perceptions or assessments. . intention includes cognitive choices and behavioral estimates. the top of table shows categories of construct types. the three major categories are impersonal/structural, dispositional, and personal/interpersonal. researchers have characterized trust as anything from an impersonal structural construct to an interpersonal behavior construct. [ ] impersonal/structural means that trust is founded upon social or institutional structures in the situation, not on personal attributes of the trusting or trusted parties (lewis & weigert, b). further, impersonal/structural refers to those definitions of trust that differentiate it from being a property or state of a person or persons. rather, it is an institutional property, either in terms of the natural (garfinkel, ) or social/organizational (shapiro, a) situation. by dispositional, we mean that trust is based in the personality attributes of the trusting party. that is, the trustor has a general tendency to trust others across situations (rotter, , ), or has a general faith in human nature (rosenberg, ; wrightsman, ). erikson describes dispositional trust as "a sense of basic trust, which is a pervasive attitude toward oneself and the world," an "essential trustfulness of others as well as a fundamental sense of one's own trustworthiness" (erikson, : ). by personal, we mean that one person trusts another person, persons, or thing(s) in the situation. that is, the trusting entity is one person, and trust is directed to another party or parties. by interpersonal, we mean that two or more people (or groups) trust each other in the situation. that is, the trusting entity is at least two persons. our categories of trust constructs implicitly include one other important consideration (johnson-george & swap, ): the situation. the situation is implicitly included because dispositional means cross-situational, while personal/interpersonal and impersonal/structural are, by definition, situation-specific (see category definitions above). since trust is often defined as a verb, [ ] the direct object of the verb trust also seems important to include in our categories. table does not explicitly contain the object of trust. implicitly, however, the object of personal or interpersonal trust is likely to be a person (e.g., to trust a specific person), while in the impersonal/structural category, trust is more likely to refer to an institutional structure (e.g., to trust that the judicial system will uphold contract law). the research literature generally uses people as the object of dispositional trust (e.g., to generally trust other people). note in table that an attempt was made to break down research definitions to the lowest level possible. hence, for example, we only placed an 'x' in the attitude column when the researcher explicitly called trust an attitude without breaking the attitude down further into beliefs, intentions, and affect (cf. cummings & bromiley, ). table reveals several things about the trust literature. first, trust is most often defined in terms of expectancies or beliefs. expectancies and expectations reflect the future orientation of trust. beliefs reflect the critical role perceptions about the other party play in trust. second, many definitions include affective, or cognitive/affective, aspects. these definitions of trust typically include a phrase about feelings of security about, or confidence in, the trusted party (e.g., rempel, holmes & zanna, : discuss "emotional security"). third, note that a large number of definitions refer to trust as a behavior. also, note the considerable breadth of coverage of the types of definitions. if this were a test of consensus on trust definitions, then researchers would receive a very low consensus rating. by reading across the rows, we found that thirty-six of the sixty articles or books (sixty percent) define trust in more than one conceptual category. on average, these researchers used . categories. hence, most of these individual researchers feel trust has more than one meaning. this is additional evidence of the breadth of the trust concept. but trust definitions diverge not only based on the type of construct, as table shows, but also diverge regarding the perceived attributes of the trusted party. table shows the attribute dimension of trust conceptualizations. thirty of the sixty articles or books in table state that trust refers to a perceived attribute, or set of attributes, of the person trusted. these sources generally define trust in terms of beliefs or expectations about the other person (e.g., p believes o is competent; p expects o to act benevolently). these definitions have proliferated into a large number of attributes that we clustered into sixteen groupings. [ ] the notes at the end of table explain which definitions are grouped into the categories shown. some researchers mention only one attribute (e.g., husted, ), while others list as many as six or seven (blakeney, ; giffin, ). on average, they list . attributes. certain attributes are mentioned more frequently, such as benevolence/caring/concern ( ), competence ( ), good will/good intentions ( ), and honesty ( ). in spite of these four categories comprising just over half of the eighty entries, table shows a rather divergent set of attributes of the person trusted. this is often due to the specific context being studied. for example, giffin ( ) addressed trust (credibility) in speech communication. hence, appearance-related attributes like dynamism and personal attraction were more important to his research than were benevolence or honesty of the person trusted. on the other hand, gaines ( ) studied relationships between subordinates and superiors. here, the superior's benevolence was the key to the subordinate's trust. when table is considered along with table , a good view of the diversity of trust definitions can be seen. not only do trust definitions vary significantly in terms of type of construct (table ), but they also vary in terms of the attributes of the person trusted--the belief or expectancy referent (table ). table types of atributes to which trust refers 			e s m y y s n s y y y y d e g n 			 article/book anderson &		x x narus, 	 baier, 		x x 	 barber, 		x x blakeney, 		 x x x x x x bonoma, 		 x x x x dunn, 		 x gabarro, 		x x x x x gaines, 		 x giffin, 		 x x x x x x x 				 heimovics, 		 x x x x 				 holmes, 		 x x						 husted, 		 x 	 johnson-george & swap, 		 x x x x x 				 kasperson, et al, 		x x x kee & knox, 	x x 	 koller, 		x x x x krackhardt & stern, 		 x lindskold, 			 x x mcgregor, 		 x mclain & hack- man, 		x x rempel et al, 			 x x x x x ring & van de ven, 		 x x sato, 		 x x sitkin & roth, 			x solomon, 		 x thorslund, 			x x x worchel, 		 x x yamagishi & yam- agishi, 		 x zaheer & venkat- ramen, 		 x x zaltman & moor- man, 		 x x x 		 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 	total 	 	% of total % % % % % % % % % % % % % % - % notes: . benevolent/caring/concern includes not acting opportunistically or manipulatively, and favorable motives . the definitions of baier ( ), giffin ( ), and husted ( ) are stated in terms of behaviors or actions, not beliefs in personal attributes . honesty includes integrity and sincerity . competence includes ability, capability, good judgment . predictability includes consistency . careful/safe includes keeping confidences 	 we believe that table 's conceptual propagation has occurred for a reason: what is important to trust varies from situation to situation. therefore, in order to instill trust in the other person, the attributes the trusted person must possess differ from relationship to relationship and from situation to situation. for example, a client trusts her physician to diagnose and treat her malady properly. this means that the client believes the doctor desires to help and is capable of helping. but the patient doesn't care whether the doctor is motivated by a desire to make money or by the goodness of her heart (benevolence). the patient does need the doctor to be competent, however, or the illness will be improperly diagnosed or ineffectively treated. therefore, in this situation, the doctor's competence is vital, while her benevolence is not as important. by contrast, in the parent/child relationship, the child is more likely to be concerned with benevolence, since the child cannot readily choose a new parent based on competence anyway. however, this emphasis will vary from situation to situation. in fact, benevolence is important in a physician/patient relationship when there arise interpretive treatment choices, in which the physician has a monetary incentive to prefer one treatment over another--perhaps at the patient's expense. when a child is failing in mathematics, the parent's mathematical competence may be more important to the child than is the parent's benevolence toward the child. since different situations require different attributes of the other person, some proliferation of these attributes is natural and proper as researchers look across a range of situations in which to apply trust. overall, then, trust has been defined by researchers in many different ways. this situation, called homonymy, means that one label encompasses more than one construct (smith, ). the severity of homonymy in trust definitions is such that lewicki & bunker ( ) compared it to the story of the six blind men and an elephant. each man perceived the elephant ("trust") to be something different (e.g., a rope, a wall, a tree), because of the narrow portion of the elephant which they blindly felt (e.g., the tail, the side, the leg, respectively). they each thought the elephant was what they felt because they were unable to see the big picture of what an entire elephant is like. based on tables and , the story of the blind man and the elephant probably exaggerates the situation. many trust researchers have examined more than one type of trust. still, individual researchers have conceptualized trust in relatively narrow ways, given the breadth of meanings trust has accumulated across researchers. on the whole, researchers have tended "to deal with two or a few variables at a time" (golembiewski & mcconkie, : ). in addition, the definitions of trust in the literature tend to reflect the paradigms of the particular academic discipline of the researcher (lewicki & bunker, ; lewis & weigert, b). for example, while sociologists tend to see trust as structural in nature (e.g., garfinkel, ; lewis & weigert, b; shapiro, a), some psychologists have viewed trust as a personal attribute (e.g., erikson, ; rotter, ). social psychologists are more likely to view trust as an interpersonal phenomenon (e.g., deutsch, ; holmes, ). economists are more inclined to view trust as a rational choice mechanism (see williamson, ). not all studies have approached trust in a narrow way. some researchers have analyzed more than one or two of the dimensions of trust. examples include: barber ( ), butler ( ), lewis & weigert ( a,b), luhmann ( ), and zucker ( ). note that, with the exception of butler ( ), these pieces were theoretical in nature. in an empirical article, researchers have a norm to include only the particular portion of a theory they are testing (sutton & staw, ). much of the trust research has been empirical--in which each study measures a particular aspect of trust. hence, many studies provide unique definitions of trust. this raises the question asked two decades ago by golembiewski & mcconkie ( ): if one researcher defines trust differently from another researcher, how can the theoretical formulations and the empirical results of researchers build on each other? the work on trust will not be convincingly cumulative unless researchers can compare the results of one study with the results of another study. this will not adequately occur unless scholars understand the range of trust's conceptual meanings and then purposely conduct research in a specific portion of the conceptual range. . suggestion for individual researchers: carefully broaden one's theoretical conceptualization of trust in the aggregate (tables and ), trust definitions have become too broad (golembiewski & mcconkie, ). on the other hand, individual studies tend to define trust too narrowly. in fact, in a given paper, the definition of trust is typically very narrow compared to the aggregate diversity of definitions (kee & knox, ; see tables and ). the issue of divergent trust definitions is similar to the problem of having many diverse theories explaining the same dependent variable. the latter problem was addressed by the editor of the academy of management review special issue on theory building. van de ven ( : ) warned that when theories on a topic widely diverge, the advocates "for each theory engage in activities to make their theory better by increasing its internal consistency, often at the expense of limiting its scope...[s]uch impeccable micro logic is creating macro nonsense!" we found evidence that this is happening in terms of definitions in the trust literature. for example, lewis and weigert ( b) depicted the differences in trust definitions used by psychologists and sociologists in incommensurable terms. that is, trust definitions cannot be compared because they have different bases in psychology and sociology. lewis and weigert did not allow the possibility that trust could be an individual characteristic. to counter such tendencies, van de ven recommended that scholars should "deal with the tensions, debates, and forced choices between overly narrow competing theories" by using these "inconsistencies and contradictions between theories...to develop better and more encompassing theories." ( : ) similarly, luhmann ( : ) warned against devaluing the "traditional range of meaning" of the word trust. this counsel suggests that individual researchers should broaden their conceptual views of what trust is. note that this is not the proper advice for researchers as a whole. tables and show more than enough divergence. in fact, the suggestion we have for the trust literature as a whole is to try to narrow its view of what trust is. that is, we suggest that the need exists to narrow the collective perspective on trust conceptualizations at the same time as researchers broaden their individual perspective on trust conceptualizations. similarly, practitioners need to come to a consensus on how to define trust, so that they can communicate--with each other and with researchers--on this important topic. this suggestion can now be framed in terms of what the rest of this paper will do. the divergence of narrow trust definitions should motivate individual researchers to broaden--and thus improve--the theoretical basis of the study of trust. overall, researchers and practitioners need to build consensus toward a manageable number of meaningful types of trust. if several types of trust really exist, what are they, and how do they fit together? we propose that the primary challenge is twofold: (a) to understand the nature of the various types of trust; (b) to synthesize and define a broad, parsimonious, and cohesive set of useful trust types. the resulting set of constructs should effectively serve theoretical, empirical, and practical objectives. section will address (a) by attempting to expand understanding of the meanings of trust through use of a classification system--a type (a) trust typology. section will address (b) by defining and then briefly relating six types of trust--a type (b) typology. 	 section : common and scientific meanings of trust . common usages of the word trust tables and showed that social scientists have used widely diverging meanings of the term trust. in section . , we show that trust has numerous and diverse meanings in everyday usage as well. an analysis of common usages of the word trust supports the suggestion to broaden trust conceptualizations. studying a single narrow type of trust does not adequately capture the breadth of meaning assigned to the word trust in everyday usage. social scientists like harold h. kelley (kelley, ) and trust researchers in particular (e.g., barber, ; bromiley & cummings, ; strickland, cafferty, allen, klecka & silver, ), have noted the importance of relating scientific terms to their everyday usage counterparts. this technique is especially important for building good conceptual theory. in social psychology, berscheid & meyers ( ) gave as an example, "the extraordinary theoretical fruits that heider's ( ) systematic mining of 'common-sense psychology' produced for social psychology." in the trust literature, gabarro ( : ) purposely "ignored" literature definitions of trust and "probed...for the person's own conceptions of trust." gabarro's study yielded a large number of useful trust dimensions. deutsch ( ) and coleman ( ) each went through four examples of everyday trust situations. to improve his own trust conceptualization, fox ( ) compared dictionary definitions of trust with those of zand ( ) and deutsch (e.g., ), and noted that the scientific definitions were similar to those in the dictionary. to be effective, then, scientists should start with, or at least be grounded in, common terms (such as trust). writing to members of his discipline, kelley ( ) called these "common-sense psychology" terms. then, per kelley, scientists should try "to extract from [common-sense psychology] the essence of everyday terms that lend themselves to [scientific psychology] uses." (kelley, : ) finally, the terms used in scientific models should be compared back to common terms to see how well they approximate the meaning, and range of meaning, the everyday terms connote (sagasti & mitroff, ). in the preface to his timeless treatise on trust, luhmann ( ) suggested that sociologists form a theory of trust and "then enter a dialogue with the everyday understanding of the social world" ( : ). since the term trust is used so frequently in everyday language, kelley's and luhmann's advice seems particularly appropriate. this dialectical interplay between common terms and scientific terms improves the effectiveness of science; it improves the practical applicability of the scientific, and renders researchable the common. using common-sense terms to help create scientific definitions has its potential drawbacks, however. berscheid & meyers ( ) point out that using common-use examples to help define scientific terms may only provide a "toehold," since ordinary language will not provide particularly novel definitions. rather, common language will supply ordinary meanings. kelley ( ) and barber ( ) pointed out that common-use definitions need to be sharpened for scientific use. but using everyday meanings of terms like trust has large potential benefits. in fields of applied research, where concepts and theories are communicated back to practitioners for potential use, it is important that scientists create and use concepts that practitioners can understand, and definitions with which practitioners can agree. in order for this to occur, the everyday meanings of the term 'trust' should be properly understood by trust researchers (cf. berscheid & meyers, ). this seems implicit in cook & wall's ( : ) comment that "trust as a common word in ordinary language retains much of that meaning when employed as a concept in social science." unless this happens, researchers will create and study concepts that diverge significantly from lay use. when this occurs, they will be unable to convince practitioners that their terms have the meaning they claim they have in real world situations. in fact, researchers and practitioners will be unable to communicate effectively, because their views of the same concept are so different. an example of this has occurred in research on love (berscheid & meyers, ). fehr & russell ( : ) point out that "scientists doing research on love are probably subscribing to a much narrower concept of love than are their subjects." the problem with this is that "the natural language concept of love guides people's official and unofficial interpretation of some of life's major and minor events, and that concept must be understood--as it is." (fehr, : ) too narrow a view of a concept like trust will not necessarily prove helpful as an everyday guide for people. berscheid & meyers ( ) cite heider's ( ) observation that people are guided by what they believe to be true--including their implicit definitions of concepts. if people are guided by their own conceptualization of a term like love or trust, their conceptualization will likely guide their actions much more strongly than a scientific conceptualization to which they have trouble relating. while scientific uses of concepts will diverge from those of practice, part of the job of social scientific inquiry is to develop ways to relate scientific terms to real world use (sagasti & mitroff, ). in so doing, scientists can improve their own set of definitions of important concepts (berscheid & meyers, ). in the trust domain, one way to conduct a dialectical analysis between common and scientific definitions is to compare scientific definitions of trust to dictionary definitions of trust. this is already common practice in the trust literature (e.g., barber, ; giffin, ; taylor, ). dictionaries attempt to stay abreast of the common usages of words as the words dynamically change over time. for example, stein ( : v) says, "if modern man is to function well in his society, one of his necessities, surely, is to keep pace with the dynamic growth of his language. to meet such a need the random house dictionary of the english language has been prepared." because dictionaries try to reflect current common usage of words, we can see how broadly or narrowly people use the word trust--and its particular everyday meanings-- by an examination of the dictionary meanings of trust. a look at three specific dictionaries' trust definitions provides one indication of the breadth of usage of the word trust. table compares the number of definitions and the length of entry for trust and five other terms. trust has more (and longer) definitions than the words that mayer, davis & schoorman ( ) differentiate from trust: cooperation, confidence, and predictability. but trust generally has somewhat fewer and shorter definitions than the very vague interpersonal terms, love and like. hence, (a) trust is broader than mayer, davis & schoorman's ( ) three similar terms; (b) trust approaches the breadth of the terms love and liking--both of which are very broad and difficult to define terms (brehm, ). [ ] taylor ( ) apparently conducted, but did not specifically report, a similar review. taylor ( : ) said that if someone were to compare the definition lengths of trust and of other concepts, "[they] would most likely conclude--and quite correctly--that trust is not a singular or simple concept." table dictionary definition comparison 				random house	webster's	oxford 				( )		( )		( ) concept		counts cooperation	 		#def'ns		 		 		 		 		#lines		 		 		 confidence 		#def'ns		 		 		 		#lines		 		 		 predictable 		#def'ns		 		 		 		#lines		 		 		 trust 		#def'ns		 		 		 		#lines		 		 		 love 		#def'ns		 		 		 		#lines		 		 		 like 		#def'ns		 		 		 		#lines		 		 		 	 note: . #lines refers to the number of lines devoted to the definition of the word. . #def'ns means the number of ordinally numbered definitions, regardless of their number of subheadings (e.g., a b = #def'n; a b c = #def'n) even more telling is an analysis of the conceptual range of these dictionary trust definitions. table shows the conceptual range of the random house (stein, ) trust definitions plotted across the dimensions tables and used to map the research literature. table uses concept types from table across the top and attribute types from table down the left hand side. the left hand side also includes behavior and miscellaneous referent types. by referent, we mean an explanatory category. just as the attribute types explain what characteristic one believes or expects in the other person, so miscellaneous types generally explain what is the object of the (verb) trust. sometimes the object of trust is a person; sometimes it is a thing. the behavior types simply further categorize the behaviors into subtypes, indicating reliance, dependence, or commitment. table shows the relatively broad range of trust meanings found in one dictionary (stein, ). table types of trust concepts in the random house dictionary (stein, ) 								 personal /interpersonal 				_______________________________________________ 			impersonal			affective state cognitive state 								 ______________________________ 			structural dispositional attitude feeling expectancy belief intention behavior article/book referent 			 		 attribute types competence									 x expertness									 x dynamism predictability goodness/morality good will/intentions benevolent/care/concrn responsiveness honesty										 x credibility reliability dependability openness/minded careful/safe									 x shared understanding personal attraction behavior types -rely on									 x -depend on									 x -commit to									 x 	 -commission									 x 										 	 misc. types other person							x		 x something		x			 x		x		 x something/someone								 x oblig/responsibility	x not specified					 x		x	x sources: random house--(stein, ); webster's--(gove, ); oxford--(simpson & weiner, 	 ) though the random house dictionary focuses primarily on behavior (table ), its range of trust definitions is still rather large. it portrays trust as a reliance, a dependence, a competent-, expert-, honest- or safe- behavior. it defines trust as a belief, confidence, or expectation (without specifying a referent). it defines trust across the horizontal axis as a structural concept, an affective concept, a cognitive state, and a behavior. hence, stein portrays trust as a broad, hard-to-narrowly-define concept. since the random house dictionary attempts to closely match actual word usage, we may infer that trust is a concept with many everyday meanings. we believe that for frequently used terms, it is important that scientific concepts reflect common usage. hence, this discussion supports the suggestion that research views of the trust concept should be broadened. in essence, table presents a classification system (type [a] typology) for the term trust. across the top, it shows the types of concepts (e.g., belief). on the left hand side, it shows the specific referent of the concept type. for example, the belief concept has the other person's attribute as a referent. similarly, a behavior concept has a type of behavior as a referent. . scientific usages of the term trust the dictionary tries to present the meanings of a word from a broad range of common-use sources. it may or may not give the source. but it does categorize uses into types. we have tried to capture these types of trust definitions in the table categories. the same thing could be done for scientific-use definitions. from the articles and books in tables and , we can see that the research definitions plotted against table would fill up a large fraction of the cells of the matrix. from this, we can see that trust is a very broad concept to the scientific community. in fact, trust definitions have probably proliferated more in scientific use than in common use. this is somewhat deceptive, however, in that several of the columns in table are more useful to scientific practice than to everyday language. also, the dictionary would only include uses of the word trust that are frequently encountered. . past efforts to broaden trust conceptualizations some researchers have tried to incorporate aspects of the broad common meanings of trust by looking at dictionary definitions (e.g., barber, ; dobing, ; fox, ; giffin, ; good, ; lindskold, ). however, each researcher typically uses only a small portion of the range of trust definitions the dictionary contains. for example, compare barber's own definitions of trust (table , second column) to his list of three definitions of trust from his dictionary (gove, ) (table , first column). table comparison of two sets of definitions of trust trust definitions in webster's			barber's trust definitions in third new internat'l dictionary		the logic and limits of trust . assumed reliance on some			 .the expectation of technical- person or thing; a confident			ly competent role performance dependence on the character,			(e.g., expert knowledge, tech- ability, strength, or truth				nical facility, or everyday of someone or something				routine performance) . dependence on something			 .expectations that the natural future or contingent;				order--both physical and confident anticipation...				biological--and the moral 						social order will persist and 						 						be more or less realized . a charge or duty imposed			 . expectations of fiduciary in faith or confidence or				obligation and responsibility, as a condition of some				that is, that some others in relationship 					our social relationships have 						moral obligations and respon- 						sibility to demonstrate a 						special concern for other's 						interests above their own (source: barber, : , , ) barber's third definition corresponds closely to the third dictionary definition. barber's first definition corresponds closely to the first dictionary definition. however, barber made his first and third definitions significantly less vague and overlapping than those of the dictionary. in the process, barber's first definition also became much more narrow. barber's dictionary said trust was a reliance on a person or thing; barber limited his definition to reliance on a person only. the dictionary referred to a confident dependence on a person's or thing's attributes of character, ability, strength or truth. barber narrowed the four dictionary attributes (character, ability, truth or strength) into one attribute (role competence). he eliminated the dictionary's dimensions of confidence ("confident dependence") and assumption ("assumed reliance"). the conceptual definition type (e.g., belief, behavior) changed from a behavior (webster's) to an expectation (barber), following luhmann ( ). barber also changed the rather vague dictionary definition . (dependence on something) into a specific expectation, basing that expectation on work by garfinkel ( ). in the process, he left behind the dictionary's concepts of dependence and confident anticipation. we should note that barber was citing only webster's trust definitions a, a, and a( ). what were the other dictionary definitions? [ ] a look at webster's (gove, ) shows several more trust meanings. barber probably cited the most appropriate of webster's definitions, since: definitions b, a and b refer to financial trusts, definition is archaic, and a( ), b, and c refer again to a fiduciary obligation. but barber forfeited several conceptual meanings by not using the following of webster's noun definitions of trust: 	 b: "a person or thing in which confidence is placed: a basis of reliance, faith or hope" 	synonyms: "confidence, reliance, dependence, faith: trust implies an assured attitude toward 	another" barber also did not use these webster's verb definitions of trust: "to place confidence: depend" 	"confer as trust: entrust" 	"to permit to stay or go somewhere or to do something without fear or misgiving: venture 	 confidently" 	"to rely on the truthfulness or accuracy of: believe, credit" 	"to...have faith in: rely on" 	"to hope or expect confidently" from the above analysis, we constructed table , which shows the contrast in coverage between barber's definitions and those of his dictionary. webster's does cover a significant amount of conceptual space, and is conceptually similar to the definitions from the random house dictionary (see table ). notice especially how thoroughly webster's covers the behavior and feeling (confidence/security) columns in table . table types of trust concepts in barber (*) versus his dictionary 								 personal /interpersonal 				_______________________________________________ 			impersonal			affective state cognitive state 								 ______________________________ 			structural dispositional attitude feeling expectancy belief intention behavior article/book referent 			 		 attribute types competence						 *			 wb expertness dynamism					 wb				 wb predictability goodness/morality				 wb	 *			 wb good will/intentions benevolent/care/concrn responsiveness honesty						 wb				 wb				 credibility reliability dependability openness/minded careful/safe					 shared understanding personal attraction behavior types -rely on					 wb				 wb -depend on					 wb				 wb	 -commit to					 	 -commission					 										 	 misc. types other person				wb	 wb	wb						 something				 something/someone								 oblig/responsibility	 not specified					 sources: random house--(stein, ); webster's--(gove, ); oxford--(simpson & weiner, 	 ) barber made the trust concept more manageable and closer to common usage by consulting a dictionary. this was intentional on his part, since he had noticed with dismay his own, and others', vague use of the word trust in an earlier work: "i saw on reflection that i had not defined trust or made clear just what i meant by it...i looked to see how others deal with it, only to discover that my own shortcoming often occurs in distinguished quarters." (barber, : - ) but while barber's trust conceptualization is manageable, a significant number of common usages were left out of barber's conceptualization (compare with table 's row and column headings): (a) the behavioral views of trust (e.g., reliance, dependence) (b) the confidence component related to trusting behavior (c) the specific referents of trust constructs (e.g., people, things, attributes) (d) types of affective and cognitive components besides expectations (attitudes and beliefs) in spite of this, we believe barber made an outstanding contribution toward defining trust in a way that was useful both to scientists and to practitioners. barber's book on trust is a classic. . recent efforts to broaden/clarify trust conceptualizations what has happened since barber? scholars continue to struggle with how trust should be defined. for example, rather than using existing trust conceptualizations, five recent studies developed new conceptual and/or empirical views of trust (bromiley & cummings, /cummings & bromiley, ; dobing, ; mayer, davis & schoorman, ; mcallister, ; mishra, ). each of these studies used a multi-dimensional view of trust. this action underscores the felt need to conceptualize trust more broadly. table shows where these five studies fit in the classification typology. table types of trust concepts in five recent studies codes: bc=bromiley & cummings; d=dobing; mds=mayer, davis, & schoorman; mc=mcallister; m=mishra 		 	 		 				 		 personal /interpersonal 			 _______________________________________________________________ 		 impersonal affective state cognitive state 								 _________________________________ 	 referent	 structural dispositional attitude feeling expectancy belief intention behavior attribute types competence						 d/mds/mc/m expertness			 dynamism						 					 predictability goodness/morality						 	 				 good will/intentions benevolent/care/concrn					 bc/mc bc/mds/m	 bc responsiveness honesty							 bc	 	 bc/mds/d bc credibility reliability							 		 mc/m dependability									 mc openness/minded							 	 m careful/safe									 d		 shared understanding								 d	 personal attraction behavior types -rely on												 -depend on				 -commit to										 -commission											 miscellaneous types other person			 mds		 mc 	 mds	 d d/mds/m something	 	 something/someone oblig/responsibility 							 d bromiley & cummings ( ) conceptualized trust in terms of three belief dimensions. they operationalized trust into a three-by-three grid with nine cells (cummings & bromiley, ). one side of their three-by-three matrix has the three belief dimensions of trust (keeps commitments, negotiates honestly, avoids taking excessive advantage). the first two of these have been plotted in the honesty row in table 's attribute types. both refer to honesty, but differ in terms of time frame (negotiating commitments precedes keeping commitments). the other side of their three-by-three matrix has three components of belief types (affective state, cognition, and intended behavior). we have mapped these to the feeling, belief, and intention columns. dobing's ( ) view of trust included willingness to depend (an intention), trusting beliefs, and several situation-specific trusting behaviors. dobing's definitions of trusting behaviors were tailored to the domain he studied--the relationship between an information system user and the system analyst during system development. in table , we have mapped dobing's definitions in the belief, intention, and behavior columns. mayer, davis & schoorman ( ) focused on trust as a willingness to be vulnerable to another. their trust construct is based on two types of antecedents of trust: (a) a propensity to trust (similar to a personal disposition to trust), and (b) a set of three perceptions regarding the other person's trustworthy attributes--ability, benevolence and integrity. their model also includes risk as a moderator of the relationship between trust and risk taking. table shows their trust constructs in the dispositional, belief, and intention columns. mcallister ( ) developed conceptual and empirical versions of trust that differentiated trust's cognitive and emotional aspects. mcallister's study found evidence for a clear distinction between affect-based and cognition-based trust, both in terms of factor separation, and in terms of distinct relationships with other concepts. he concluded: "thus, affect-based trust and cognition-based trust represent distinct forms of interpersonal trust." ( : ) table shows two mcallister symbols in the feeling column, and three in the belief column. mishra ( ) defines trust as a party's willingness to be vulnerable to another party based on the belief that the other party is competent, open, concerned, and reliable. mishra argues that trust is an overall construct that is made up of the combination of the four belief dimensions. that is, trust is a multi-dimensional construct formed by the these beliefs. mishra also describes these beliefs as combining in a multiplicative way. "that is, a low level of trust in terms of any of the dimensions offsets high levels of trust in terms of the other dimensions." ( : ) we plotted mishra's definitions in the intention column (once) and in the belief column (four times). each of these five recent trust conceptualizations is based on literature reviews. the researchers overlap on only six ( %) of the eighteen trust cells filled in table . taken together, these definitions cover a large portion of the trust classification typology. however, as table shows, each covers a different subset of trust constructs. researchers in these recent studies, by choosing to reconceptualize trust, seem to be expressing dissatisfaction with existing conceptualizations. their collective efforts to conceptualize trust multidimensionally indicate a felt need to reflect more of trust's meanings. yet individually, none of the four recent conceptualizations of trust covers the entire range of trust meanings in the research literature or in common usage. collectively, they cover all of the columns except impersonal structural, and ten of the twenty-five rows. still, each provides well-grounded and useful definitions. each defines several important and valid meanings of trust. however, if we assume that each individual definition is valid, we must conclude that trust is a broader concept than any of the five portray it to be. this means that a cohesive set of trust definitions that approximates the range of meanings of the word trust in research and everyday settings probably does not exist. having such a set of trust constructs is important to the objective that trust research should be cumulative. to effectively research something multi-dimensional, one must understand all its dimensions. otherwise, one study may unintentionally overlap another. research gaps may go undiscovered. worse still, one study's results may contradict another's with little hope of understanding why. the same problem has been experienced in other domains. for example, berscheid & meyers ( ) quoted rubin about the lack of progress caused by confusion regarding the concept of love: ...the science of love is still in its infancy...one sign of this immaturity is the fact that the investigators represented in this volume share so little of a common vocabulary....many of the contributors to this volume have developed their own taxonomies of love. each categorizing scheme differs from the next, and there are no ready translation rules from one chapter's formulation to another's. just as partners with different views of love may find themselves talking past each other....i suspect that some of the contributors to this volume may find it difficult to relate to others' perspectives...love researchers might do well to move toward a more common conceptual vocabulary. (rubin, : ix) we suggest that the matrix in table provides a set of 'translation rules' for trust concepts. but knowing how to categorize a trust construct is not our only concern. we also want to provide a set of consistent constructs for research and practical use. for this to be accomplished, knowing how each type of trust construct relates to the other trust constructs is critical. tiryakian said, [ ] ...a typological classification creates order out of the potential chaos of discrete, discontinuous, or heterogeneous observations. but in so codifying phenomena, it also permits the observer to seek and predict relationships between phenomena that do not seem to be connected in any obvious way. this is because a good typology is not a collection of undifferentiated entities but is composed of a cluster of traits which do in reality 'hang together.' ( : ) to tiryakian, then, a good conceptual typology produces common, related entities. in the social sciences, this means that one construct in a type (b) typology relates to another. for example, beliefs, intentions and behaviors may fit together in a meaningful way if they are defined to be cohesive constructs (e.g., fishbein & ajzen, ). triandis ( ), fishbein & ajzen ( ) and others (e.g., davis, ) have demonstrated that related constructs can fit together such that one construct leads to, or predicts, another. for example, davis ( ) showed that a person's belief in the usefulness of an information system predicted behavioral intention to use the system, which in turn predicted actual system use. dobing ( ) and mayer, davis & schoorman ( ) have each conceptualized trust such that their respective constructs relate to each other. without such linkages, scientists may lose some of the predictive and/or explanatory power possible in their models of trust. from our analysis of the literature's trust definitions, we have developed a type (a) typology--a system for categorizing (tiryakian, ) the definitions of trust. this typology consists of the n by m chart shown in tables , , and . in section , we used this typology to show how narrow individual researcher definitions of trust are, compared with the broad totality of common use and scientific trust definitions. section used the typology to better understand research and everyday definitions of trust. in section , the classification typology will guide a trust type (b) typology--a parsimonious, yet wide-ranging set of six trust construct definitions. section : definitions of six trust-related constructs in the past, trust researchers have not clearly distinguished between trust and its antecedents and consequences. this "has hindered previous research on trust." (mayer, davis & schoorman, ). in order to develop an acceptable set of trust constructs, we decided to use these criteria: (a) the constructs should cover a broad spectrum of the concept types (i.e., the more important columns in table ), such that the most commonly used scientific and everyday usages are represented (see columns in tables , , , and ). (b) the constructs should cover the key attribute-, behavior-, and miscellaneous referent types (i.e., the rows in table ), such that they cover the more commonly used scientific and everyday usages (see rows in tables , , , and ; also see table ). (c) the constructs should facilitate scientific measurement and prediction. (d) the constructs should be parsimonious enough to be easily understood and distinguished. (e) the constructs should relate to each other as antecedents and consequents. (f) the constructs should be 'scalable' to additional levels of analysis. (g) the constructs should properly represent conceptualizations from several disciplines. they may not correspond exactly to a discipline's concept, but they should capture significant portions of the conceptual meaning which the discipline's trust concept embodies. directed by these criteria and the trust classification typology, we define six trust constructs that extend across impersonal, dispositional and interpersonal construct dimensions and table 's broad attributes. we will show that they are structured to be compatible with, and supportive of, each other (figure ). by compatible, we mean that the constructs do not overlap each other and lie at the same level of analysis. by supportive, we mean that one type of trust construct may be considered an antecedent of another type of trust construct. (other research has also viewed trust as the relation between more than one construct--e.g., dobing, ; mayer, davis & schoorman, ; zucker, ). the six constructs are: trusting intention, trusting behavior, trusting beliefs, system trust, dispositional trust, and situational decision to trust. following what table showed about the importance of certain construct types, we include both cognitive and affective components in trusting beliefs, trusting intention, and trusting behavior. we will also show that the six constructs cover the more common of the dictionary definitions of trust. this multi-dimensional view of trust provides a parsimonious way to organize measurable trust types, while clearly distinguishing one type from another. this set of six constructs is not fully comprehensive; it does not cover every type of trust in the literature. the types of trust we define were selected to cover what the authors consider the more important forms of trust, such that a broad, cohesive, yet parsimonious group of constructs emerges. the concept types covered are structural, dispositional, feeling, belief, intention, and behavior. figure shows how these constructs fit together. the detailed relationships between these trust constructs are discussed elsewhere (mcknight, cummings, & chervany, ). in general, their relationships follow the pattern of the fishbein & ajzen ( ) theory of reasoned action. that is, beliefs/attitudes (in our case trusting beliefs) lead to intentions (trusting intention), which, in turn, readily become manifest in behaviors (trusting behavior). the logic here is simple. when one has trusting beliefs about another, one will be willing to depend on that person (trusting intention). if one intends to depend on the person, then one will behave in ways that manifest that intention to depend (trusting behavior) (cf. currall & judge, ; dobing, ). table compares the range of this set of definitions with that of the five recent studies shown in table . these six constructs cover a somewhat greater definitional range than any one of the five recent studies. they cover a somewhat smaller range than the collective constructs in the five studies. as each is defined below, we will discuss where the six trust constructs lie on table . the six trust constructs will be defined and distinguished from each other largely based on the dimensions shown in table . each definition implies that there are different empirical levels of each trust construct, such that each construct could be measured with a level-differentiating (e.g., likert) scale. table types of trust concepts: this paper and five recent studies codes: bc=bromiley & cummings; d=dobing; mds=mayer, davis, & schoorman; mc=mcallister; m=mishra; **=this paper 		 	 		 				 		 personal /interpersonal 			 _______________________________________________________________ 		 impersonal affective state cognitive state 								 _________________________________ 	 referent	 structural dispositional attitude feeling expectancy belief intention behavior attribute types competence						 � 	 	d/mds/mc/m/** expertness			 dynamism						 					 predictability						 � 		 � goodness/morality						 	 				 good will/intentions benevolent/care/concrn					 bc/mc** bc/ mds/m** bc responsiveness honesty							 bc/d** 	 	 bc/mds/d** 	 bc credibility reliability							 			 mc/m dependability									 mc openness/minded							 		 m	 careful/safe									 d		 shared understanding								 	 d	 personal attraction behavior types -rely on		 -depend on				 		 ** 					 ** -commit to										 -commission											 misc. types other person			 mds/** 	 mc/** /** 	 mds	 d	d/mds/m /** ** something	 	 ** 							 ** 	 ** something/someone oblig/responsibility 					 ** 					 d/** 	 table distinguishing dimensions of six trust types 	 dimensions _________________________________________________________ context persons construct ________________________ __________________ ________________________________________ 	 situation cross- 	 person- cross- impersonal 	 personal / interpersonal trust type -specific situational specific personal structural dispos'l feeling belief intention behavior trusting intention x	 -	 x	 -	 -	 -	 x	-	 x	 - trusting behavior x	 -	 x -	 -	 -	 x	-	 -	 x trusting beliefs		x	 -	 x	 -	 -	 -	 x	x	 -	 - system trust		x	 -	 -	 x	 x	 -	 -	x	 -	 - dispos'l trust	 -	 x	 -	 x	 -	 x	 -	-	 -	 - situat'l decision	x	 -	 -	 x	 -	 -	 -	-	 x	 - to trust	 						 . trusting intention we define trusting intention as follows: the extent to which one party is willing to depend on the other party in a given situation with a feeling of relative security, even though negative consequences are possible. trusting intention is a situation-specific construct (table ): one is willing to depend on the other party in a specific situation. trusting intention is an intentional state: the person is ready to depend on the other in the situation. it is personal (originating in a person) and (one-way) directional: one person is willing to depend on the other. we define trusting intention at an individual level of analysis, as opposed to some higher level like a group or society. the individual level of analysis was chosen because it is the simplest, most elemental unit of a relationship. by elemental, we mean that two or more of these units may together form at a higher level of analysis. for example, if p has trusting intention toward o, and if o has trusting intention toward p, this forms a reciprocal dyadic trusting intention relationship. obviously, additional combinations of persons could form higher levels of analysis, such as triads or groups. our definition of trusting intention embodies five essential elements synthesized from the trust literature: (a) potential negative consequences, (b) dependence, (c) feelings of security, (d) a situation-specific context, and (e) lack of reliance on control. (a) the prospect of negative consequences (e.g., bonoma, ) or risk (e.g., giffin, ) is what makes trust important but problematic. we do not specify the amount of risk required (cf. deutsch, ). but we do specify that some risk is necessary in order for trust to be present (e.g., williamson, ; zand, ). (b) trust involves the concept of dependence on another person (e.g., dobing, ). if one is not required to depend on the other, one does not need to be willing to depend on the other. the word depend is also important because it links trust to the power literature. astley & zajac ( : ) point out that emerson ( ) defined dependence as the "obverse of power." one who becomes dependent on another places the other in a position of power over her/him. since trusting intention means being willing to depend, one with a trusting intention is willing to place the other in a situational position of dependence-based power over him/her. the trust literature has already noted the important interplay between trust and power (e.g., fox, ; solomon, ; bonoma, ). this definitional link between trust and power should help to better integrate these two bodies of research, which some have already begun to link (e.g., gabarro, ). kaplan ( : ) said that theories should fit together into "a network of highways and superhighways, so that any important point may be linked with any other." (c) to trust, the person facing risk must be willing to depend on the other with feelings of security (e.g., lewis & weigert, b; rempel, holmes & zanna, ). felt security means one feels safe and assured and comfortable (not anxious or fearful) about one's willingness to depend. the research literature has defined trust in terms of feelings of security or comfort (eayrs, ) or lack of fear (bradach & eccles, ). to rempel, holmes & zanna, felt security is what enables the trustor to make the "leap of faith" beyond the evidence they possess about the other party. trustors can then feel assured that "their partner will be responsive and caring despite the vicissitudes of an uncertain future." ( : ) felt security distinguishes trusting intention from a willingness to depend that has feelings of anxiety or fear associated with it. this aspect of trusting intention is an emotional component, whereas the other aspects of trusting intention are cognitive. however, the emotional and cognitive aspects are closely related. the term "emotion" is used herein the sense of feelings, based on cognitive evaluation and assignment of positive or negative values to the object of those feelings (berscheid, : ). (d) trusting intention is situation-specific. one does not trust another person to do every task in one's behalf. rather, one develops, over time, a mental model of the specific domains (baldwin, ) in which the other person may be depended on (gabarro, ; sitkin & roth, ). one would trust one's doctor to diagnose and treat one's illness, but would generally not trust the doctor to fly one on a commercial airplane. (e) trusting intention is distinguished from willingness to depend on another based on control of the other. control means one attempts to ensure desired outcomes by trying to influence another (combining definitions of lawler & rhode, ; anthony, ). influence means that one person causes changes in another person, as manifest by their behavior, emotion or cognitions (huston, ). riker ( : ) said, "if one has power over other people,...then one can by definition control events, bringing them to a desired conclusion. in this sense the man of power need not trust others to do what he wants because he can coerce them instead." this distinction rests on the idea that the person who trusts must "trust trust" (gambetta, : , ; luhmann, ) or "rely on trust" (ring & van de ven, : ), and must not significantly depend on control mechanisms. by this definition, control can substitute for trust (e.g., holmes, ). here is another important link between trust and a related body of literature--the control literature. in table , we placed a trusting intention mark (� ) at the intersection of intention (top of matrix) and other person (left side of matrix). this is because one is willing to depend on the other person. we put a second mark (� ) reflecting felt security in one's willingness to depend at the intersection of feeling and other person. . trusting behavior figure shows trusting intention supporting trusting behavior. willingness to depend leads one to actually depend (behaviorally) on the other party. trusting behavior means the extent to which one person voluntarily (lewis & weigert, a) depends on another person in a specific situation with a feeling of relative security, even though negative consequences are possible. depends is a behavioral term, which distinguishes trusting behavior from the intentional term trusting intention (willingness to depend). when one depends on another, one confers upon the other person a fiduciary obligation to act in one's behalf (cf. barber, ). we do not define the fiduciary responsibility itself as trust. rather, trusting behavior means giving the other person a fiduciary obligation. in effect, the first person gives the second person some measure of power over him/her. when you give another power over you, that means you have placed yourself in a situation of risk. hence, our trusting behavior construct implies acceptance of risk, much as mayer, davis & schoorman ( ) argue. table shows trusting behavior at the intersection of behavior and: (a) other person (� ), (b) obligation/responsibility (fiduciary) (� ), and (c) behavior types: -depend on (� ). corresponding marks have been placed in the feeling column (� )( � )( � ), to reflect the feeling of security associated with depending on the other. we may discuss trusting behavior in terms of many of the same ideas already discussed in trusting intention (table ). trusting behavior takes place in a given situation, with a specific other person. this definition of trust as a dependence on another ties both to dictionary definitions (table ) and the trust literature (e.g., baier, ; bonoma, ; giffin, ; riker, ; wheeless, ). trusting behavior takes place in the presence of little or no use of control. one relies on trust, not on control (lorenz, ; ring & van de ven, ; zand, ). the primary difference (figure ) between trusting behavior and trusting intention is that the latter is a cognitive-based construct (willing to depend) and the former is an behavior-based construct (depends). that is, with trusting behavior, one takes action on one's willingness to depend. we believe trust as a behavior can be directly measured in the form in which we define it here (cf. cummings & bromiley, ). researchers can also treat trusting behavior as a latent construct with measurable indicators (riker, ). specifically, we distinguish trusting behavior from other constructs like information sharing openness, which have sometimes been called trust (e.g., mishra, ), but which are really indicators of trust. by this method, trusting behavior acts like a latent construct, with measurable indicators of its presence. in game theory research, for example, the act of not defecting has been referred to as trust (e.g., deutsch, ). but it has also been called "cooperation" or "cooperative behavior." using trusting behavior as a latent construct, the act of not defecting may be designated as an empirical indicator of the latent construct trusting behavior. this overcomes two weaknesses of many behavioral trust definitions: that the indicator selected (e.g., cooperation) (a) is really a consequent of trust and (b) is only one of a number of behaviors that demonstrate trust. it would be difficult to develop a list of all the types of behaviors that people believe are manifestations of trust. arguably, any act of dependence or increasing dependence on another would fit. however, we found these in the literature: (a) committing to a possible loss based on the other's actions (anderson & narus, ); (b) placing resources or authority in the other party's hands (coleman, ; shapiro, a); (c) providing open/honest information (e.g., mishra, ); (d) cooperating or task coordinating (e.g., solomon, ); (e) entering informal agreements (currall & judge, ); (f) increasing one's vulnerability (e.g., zand, ); (g) reducing one's control over the other (dobing, ); (h) being influenced by the other (e.g., bonoma, ); (i) risk taking (e.g., coleman, ; mayer, davis & schoorman, ); (j) increasing the scope of the other person's discretionary power (baier, ), or expanding their role (fox, ); (k) reducing the rules we place on the other's behavior (fox, ) (l) involving subordinates in decision making (carnevale & wechsler, ). each of these may be used as an indicator of the latent construct trusting behavior. therefore, researchers can distinguish such behaviors from trusting behavior by treating them as manifestations of the latent construct trusting behavior. . trusting beliefs trusting intention, as is typical of intentions (fishbein & ajzen, ), is primarily based upon the person's cognitive beliefs about the other person (bromiley & cummings, ; dobing, ; gabarro, ). yamagishi & yamagishi ( ), for example, said that trust is based on inference about the other person's traits and intentions. we also posit that trusting intention is based on the person's confidence in those beliefs (mcknight, cummings & chervany, ). together, these cognitive beliefs and belief-related confidence form a construct we call trusting beliefs. trusting beliefs means the extent to which one believes (and feels confident in believing) that the other person is trustworthy in the situation. lest this be viewed as using the word trust to define trust, we hasten to define the term 'trustworthy.' trustworthy means one is willing and able to act in the other person's best interests (driver, russell, cafferty, & allen, ; mclain & hackman, ). the trusting beliefs construct is shown as person- and situation-specific (table ). based on an early trust literature review (mcknight & chervany, ), the most prevalent (and probably the most important) trusting beliefs in the literature involve benevolence, honesty, competence, and predictability. [ ] benevolence means one cares about the welfare of the other person and is therefore motivated to act in the other person's interest. a benevolent person does not act opportunistically toward the other person. honesty means one makes good faith agreements (cf. bromiley & cummings, ), tells the truth, and fulfills any promises made. competence means one has the ability to do for the other person what the other person needs to have done. so the essence of competence is efficacy. predictability means one's actions are consistent enough that another can forecast what one will do in a given situation. table shows how most of table 's attributes can be categorized under these four broad belief categories. we constructed table by counting the times each belief attribute (e.g., dynamism, credibility, etc.) was used in table 's definitions of trust. then we grouped those individual belief attributes that seemed appropriate into our trusting belief super-categories (competence, benevolence, predictability, honesty). . % of the table literature's belief counts fall within these four belief categories. hence, nearly all of the attributes found in table 's articles can be considered either subconstructs of, or equivalent to, the four trusting beliefs. in the situation, then, one with trusting beliefs believes that the other is benevolent, honest, competent, or/and predictable. table informal clustering of belief attributes table 				 	 table 			attribute column		broad category	 	 attribute			count	 % 		competence:						 					 competence			 		 					 expertness			 					 dynamism			 							subtotal	 	 . 		predictability:						 					 predictability			 	 . 		benevolence:							 					 goodness/morality		 					 good will/intentions		 					 benev'nt/caring/concern 					 responsiveness			 							subtotal 	 	 . 		honesty:								 					 honesty			 					 credibility			 					 reliability			 					 dependability			 							subtotal 		 . 		other:								 					 openness/openminded		 					 careful/safe			 					 shared understanding		 					 personal attraction		 							subtotal	 	 . 		grand total						 		 . % note the important relationship between these four beliefs and the 'willing and able' definition of trustworthiness. benevolence is the essence of willingness to serve another's interests. competence is the essence of ability to serve another's interests. one with honesty will prove one's willingness by making and fulfilling agreements to do so. predictability embodies an element of temporal continuity that can be related to the other trusting beliefs. having predictability means that one's willingness and ability to serve another's interest does not vary or change over time. as articulated elsewhere (mayer, davis & schoorman, ; mcknight, cummings & chervany, ), the combination of the four beliefs provides a firm foundation for trusting intention and trusting behavior. that is, if one is consistently (predictably) proven to be willing (benevolent) and able (competent) to serve the trustor's interests in an (honest) manner, then one is worthy of trust indeed. we propose that such beliefs form a core cognitive construct we call trusting beliefs, that finds expression via trusting intention, which in turn is acted upon through trusting behavior (figure ). we don't claim that these four beliefs are the only ones on which trusting intention is based. in a given situation, a different belief or set of beliefs than these may be important. however, one or more of these four beliefs will be salient in most organizational situations. for example, in many situations, one must rely on the other's competence. this would include whenever we require the services of a professional (e.g., doctor, lawyer, airline pilot) or an organizational co-worker or team member to do for us things we cannot do for ourselves. for those close to us, with whom we share confidential things, we depend on their benevolence to assure us certain information won't get in the wrong hands. in sales transactions in which the other party has information we don't, we depend on their honesty and benevolence to assure that they do not take advantage of us. when timing or sequence or repeatability is an issue, we depend on the other person's predictability (e.g., for delivering us something we need on time on a consistent periodic basis). having these trusting beliefs helps one to be willing to depend on the other person (trusting intention). hence, trusting beliefs is an antecedent of trusting intention. the trusting beliefs construct encompasses belief-related confidence. this means the level of confidence one possesses in one's beliefs about the other person. by confidence, we mean a feeling of certainty regarding a belief one holds (cf. gove, ). using this construct ties closely to both dictionary and research trust definitions (e.g., cook & wall, ; giffin, ; lindskold, ). table reflects trusting beliefs at the intersection of the four attribute types (competence, predictability, benevolence, and honesty) and the feeling and belief columns (� -� ). . system trust system trust means the extent to which one believes that proper impersonal structures are in place to enable one to anticipate a successful future endeavor (luhmann, ; lewis & weigert, a; shapiro, b). personal attributes of the other are not at issue with system trust (table ). hence, it does not support trusting beliefs about the other (figure ); but it does support trusting intention. two types of impersonal structures can be differentiated: (a) structural assurances, and (b) situational normality. structural assurances include such safeguards as regulations, guarantees, or contracts (shapiro, a; zucker, ). situational normality may include one's own role and others' roles in the situation (baier, ). both types of system trust relate to a specific situation (table ). situational normality (type [b]) system trust is based on the appearance that things are normal (baier, ; garfinkel, ) or in "proper order" (lewis & weigert, a: ). system trust supports trusting intention in that it makes it feel safe to depend on that person because of type (a) system trust's safeguards, which act like a 'safety net,' or type (b) system trust's reduction of uncertainty, which enables one to feel more secure in taking risks with other people. our definitions revises system trust's impersonal focus by making it into a belief. this was done to make it more compatible with the other trust constructs. in our depiction, the structures themselves do not constitute a trust construct. rather, the person's beliefs about those structures forms a trust construct. in table , system trust is found: (a) at the intersection of impersonal/structural and something (� ); and (b) at the intersection of belief and something (� ). the "something" refers, in this context, to the impersonal structures. system trust might be regarded as personal in that a person holds a belief; but it is impersonal in that the referent of the belief is not a person or the person's attributes. . dispositional trust to this point, we have treated trust as a situational construct. but it can also be viewed (table ) as a cross-situational, cross-personal construct (e.g., harnett & cummings, ; wrightsman, ), which we call dispositional trust. this construct recognizes that people develop, over the course of their lives (erikson, ), generalized expectations (rotter, , ) about the trustworthiness of other people. by our definition, a person has dispositional trust to the extent that s/he has a consistent tendency to trust across a broad spectrum of situations and persons. there are two types of reasoning that underlie dispositional trust. with reasoning type a, one assumes that others are generally trustworthy people--hence, one should almost always trust others. with reasoning type b, one assumes that irrespective of whether people are good or bad, one will obtain better outcomes by trusting them--hence, one should trust them. in either case, dispositional trust is directed toward people (i.e., that others generally should be trusted). however, type a supports trusting beliefs (kramer, ), while type b supports trusting intention directly (figure ). that is, if one believes that others are generally trustworthy (type a), this supports trusting beliefs (which in turn support trusting intention). but if one solely believes that better outcomes are achieved through trusting others (type b), trusting beliefs are not affected. however, a type b dispositional trust does encourage one to be willing to depend on specific others; so type b supports trusting intention directly. table places dispositional trust at the intersection of dispositional and other person (� ). . situational decision to trust situational decision to trust means the extent to which one intends to depend on a non-specific other party in a given situation. it means that one has formed an intention to trust every time a particular situation arises, irrespective of one's beliefs about the attributes of the other party in the situation (riker, ). like dispositional trust, it means that one has decided to trust without regard to the specific persons involved (table )--because the benefits of trusting in this situation outweigh the possible negative outcomes of trusting. kee & knox suggested that this may occur "when there is much to gain from trusting..., but little attendant risk." ( : ). situational decision to trust differs from dispositional trust in that it is an intentional construct and relates only to specific situations (table ), not across situations generally. it differs from system trust in that it does not imply structural safeguards. it is simply an individual, situational strategy. because it does not concern specific individuals, situational decision to trust does not support trusting beliefs about specific individuals. but because it encourages a willingness to depend on others in the situation, situational decision to trust supports trusting intention directly. because of this construct's impersonal nature, table shows situational decision to trust at the intersection of intention and something (� ). . appropriateness of the range and choice of trust constructs given the complexity of the trust concept and the wide range of existing scientific definitions (tables and ), we consider our set of constructs to be parsimonious. parsimony is important because it makes conducting empirical research more practical (mayer, davis & schoorman, ). however, parsimony should be viewed as a relative term. the more complex a concept is, the less parsimonious its dimensions may appear. we join hirschman ( ) in arguing that one must loosen the strictest bounds of parsimony in order to increase conceptual understanding and relevance of trust constructs. these six constructs extend across the impersonal, dispositional, and interpersonal dimensions of table . they cover both cognitions, behaviors, and related emotions. behaviors are important to include because both scientists (table ) and practitioners (tables and ) have frequently viewed trust as a behavior. for scientific use, cognitions and emotions are important. the preponderant use of both cognitions (beliefs, expectancies) and emotions (felt security, confidence) in past research (table ) provides support for including both in our set of trust constructs. we depict trusting beliefs as beliefs instead of expectations because: (a) beliefs are more often found in the research literature, and (b) beliefs relate more closely than expectations to such construct-cohesive models as that of fishbein and ajzen ( ). beliefs are too distal from behaviors to always predict well (e.g., fishbein & ajzen, ). hence, an intentional construct was selected. being willing to depend was selected as the intention because it is grounded in scientific use (e.g., dobing, ; scanzoni, ) and because it is related to the concept of dependence, which is widely seen as a behavioral form of trust (e.g., riker, ). we excluded attitudes because of their infrequent use in the trust literature (table ) and because they have not proven to be as highly predictive as beliefs and intentions in some studies (e.g., davis, ). the use of dual (cognitive/emotional) constructs like our trusting intention and trusting beliefs is well-supported in research practice (e.g., cummings & bromiley, ; rempel, holmes & zanna, ). our combination of constructs that reflect institutional phenomena (system trust) and molar behavior (trusting behavior) facilitate middle and higher levels of analysis views of trust-related phenomena. however, the cognitive/emotional (trusting beliefs) and personality (dispositional trust) constructs provide person-specific detail explanatory mechanism level of analysis. prediction is enabled by two intentional constructs (trusting intention and situational decision to trust), which together will relate strongly to trusting behavior. in total, the constructs have a significant synergistic effect. this result would probably not have occurred if this typology had not been created using an interdisciplinary approach. the interdisciplinary nature of the constructs is apparent: system trust comes from sociology, situational decision to trust comes from economics, dispositional trust from psychology, while trusting beliefs and trusting intention, and trusting behavior reflect research in several disciplines. the four beliefs we chose cover most of the beliefs found in the trust literature. overall, these six trust constructs provide adequate coverage. they tie both to common usage and the research literature. though geared to a psychological framework, they extend across disciplines into both personality, interpersonal, and structural concerns. they are manageable for scientific purposes. further, these constructs fit together (figure ), meeting one of tiryakian's ( ) criteria for a good type (b) typology. as a quick 'reality test' of these constructs' usefulness in actual work relationships, we checked them against john gabarro's ( , ) work on trust development between new division or company presidents and their subordinates. gabarro used qualitative techniques that in order to be careful not to 'force' theory on his respondents. hence, his results are a test for what attributes were important to trust in practice. gabarro ( ) lists integrity as the most important (compare our honesty), then motives (similar to our benevolence), and then consistency of behavior (predictability) and competency (same term as ours). note that he also mentioned openness and discretion. but the first four he emphasizes were the same ones we cover. this provides some assurance that our four trusting beliefs are useful in actual work relationships. perhaps most important to researchers, these constructs are amenable to empirical work. they are defined in sufficient detail to enable researchers to develop instruments that can correspond closely with these definitions, in order to demonstrate construct validity. more importantly, these constructs can be distinguished from each other and from closely related constructs (e.g., control), such that research results on trust can be compared, analyzed, and cumulated. the cognitive and behavioral portions of the constructs can be measured through level distinguishing (e.g., likert) scales. the confidence and security portions of the constructs can be measured through secondary scales that tap one's feelings about the cognitive scale response just made. for example, the respondent would be asked how they secure they felt about their response to the trusting intention question they just answered. conclusion lewis & weigert ( a) called trust a highly complex and multi-dimensional phenomenon. our classification typology helps us understand the nature of existing trust meanings. our set of six trust definitions helps address conceptual confusion by representing trust as a broad, but coherent set of constructs. one benefit of this type of broad depiction of trust is that it has heuristic value (kaplan, ) by being generative of research possibilities. another benefit is that it presents a set of specifically defined trust types that enables practitioners and scholars to know what each means when they discuss this important topic. implications for research this paper integrates and synthesizes the research literature on trust. several researchers have suggested that the trust concept needs considerable integrative effort (barber, ; kramer, ; lewis & weigert, a; sitkin & roth, ). these two typologies ([a]--classification system; and [b] set of related types) make progress toward achieving tiryakian's target results for a typology: "[it] creates order out of the potential chaos..." ( : ) this paper provides a way to make the results of trust research more cumulative. the type (a) typology can be used to classify past trust research efforts in order to analyze evidence regarding trust. for example, empirical studies about trust's antecedents can now be classified and cumulated by the dimensions of table (trust construct type and referent). the trust type (b) typology can guide future research, making research results more comparable between researchers (even in different disciplines). to build on this foundation for cumulative trust research, future operationalizations should correspond as closely as possible to these conceptualizations. reliable and valid instruments should be developed. these should be tested against what people mean when they use the term trust in everyday life. the interrelationships between the figure constructs should be tested empirically in a number of situational contexts, using various methods. as kee & knox ( : ) recommended, research should measure several types of trust concurrently to gain greater explanatory power. sutton & staw ( ) commented that editors need to more readily accept articles that present a broad theory but only test a portion of that theory. since trust is not unidimensional, we recommend that this advice be applied in the trust research domain. in this way, empirical evidence on trust will more rapidly and reliably accumulate. applications for management practice first, the size of the boxes in figure is meant to imply that trusting beliefs is the most important (but not the sole) determinant of trusting intention, and therefore trusting behavior. if a boss's subordinates, for example, do not believe that the boss is predictably competent, honest, and benevolent, then the chances are low that the subordinate will be willing to depend on the boss. managers need to first try to be the type of person that others feel is trustworthy. but since trusting intention is based primarily on perceptions (beliefs) of trustworthiness, considerable attention needs to be paid to presenting oneself in ways that are consistent with trusting beliefs. perception management alone, however, is not likely to work over time, because experience with a superior gives the subordinates a history of how well one's actions match one's self-presentation. hypocrisy is not hard to detect over time. second, practitioners should note the affective component of trusting beliefs and trusting intention. the affective component (confidence, security) raises the issue of a set of subtle feelings about the trusted person. feelings are hard to separate from each other, so one who likes the boss is more likely to also feel secure in the belief that the boss is benevolent towards her/him. hence, bosses should devote time to develop an appropriate measure of positive personal relationships with their subordinates, so that subordinates can feel comfortable, confident and secure with them (gabarro, ). third, one can develop a good relationship with another person by gradually increasing trusting behavior, while at the same time decreasing control measures, directed at the other person. decreasing controls includes less monitoring of the other person. it also includes moving from a formal relationship to a more personal, informal relationship. this indicates to the other person that they are 'okay,' that they can be trusted, and therefore can have positive effects on the trusted person's self-esteem. in fact, trust is often a motivator. control measures tend to express to the subordinate that they are not okay and are not trusted. being controlled is very demotivating because it feels demeaning (kohn, ). fourth, this model points out the relationship between trust and power. superiors have positional power. but they should recognize (and generally should not discourage) that their employees have power over the boss by the boss's extending them trust--by the boss's depending on them. this levels out what is often an asymmetrical power situation between employees and bosses, in which the boss dominates. in a dominating situation, the employee will feel insecure around the boss. therefore, the employee will withhold or distort information given to the boss. they will also accept less influence from the boss. this will typically lead to the boss's use of control mechanisms, leading to a downward spiral of distrust (e.g., zand, ). fifth, the boss needs to consider the employee's individual makeup. if the employee has dispositional distrust, s/he may interpret messages from the boss more cynically. hence, the boss should take additional steps to overcome these tendencies by developing a personal relationship with these individuals and by communicating very clearly the positive intent behind directions. sixth, the superior can take advantage of system trust in several ways. management should make sure employees know about the effectiveness of company safety nets (such as grievance procedures). this will make employees feel more secure in the company's environment, leading them to be better able to trust others within the environment. management should also be sure that roles are clearly defined in the organization, such that people feel comfortable in their roles. also, major changes like restructuring should be handled carefully, and layoffs should be minimized in order to provide workers a feeling that the environment is safe for them. seventh, since trust is built or destroyed through iterative reciprocal interaction, the initial period of the relationship is crucial. to get off 'on the right foot,' managers should begin each new work relationship by choosing to 'trust until' (situational decision to trust). in other words, managers should take small initial risks with their people to signal a desire to have a trusting relationship. this gives the relationship a chance to move forward on the trusting cycle instead backward on the distrusting cycle. at the same time, we caution that initial trust results should be monitored to assure that they are warranted in the future with larger risks. references footnotes go to working paper order and request form... return to the misrc working papers page return to the misrc home page this page last updated on november , this page designed and maintained by nikki michalowske. misrc@csom.umm.edu