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ELEMENTS OF
ORNAMENTAL
DESIGN
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THE ELEMENTS
OF
ORNAMENTAL DESIGN
PREPARED FOR STUDENTS OF THE
INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS
SCRANTON, PA.
Volume II
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT
PRACTICAL DESIGN
APPLIED DESIGN
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING
COLOR HARMONY
First Edition
SCRANTON
INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK CO.
1901


Spe
Copyright, 1901, by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY.
Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.
Elements of Ornament: Copyright, 1900, by THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY.
Practical Design : Copyright, 1901, by THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY.
Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.
Applied Design, Part 1: Copyright, 1901, by THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY.
Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.
Applied Design, Part 2: Copyright, 1901, by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY.
Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.
Historic Ornamental Drawing, Part 1: Copyright, 1900, by THE COLLIERY EN-
GINEER COMPANY.
Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.
Historic Ornamental Drawing, Part 2: Copyright, 1901, by THE COLLIERY EN-
GINEER COMPANY.
Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.
Color Harmony: Copyright, 1901, by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY.
Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.
All rights reserved.
b
Press of EATON & MAINS
NEW YORK
1


1510
NK
Frank H. Ball
I 5
6,2
188
2
LIBRARY
STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE
SANTA BARSARA, CALIFORNIA
4294
CONTENTS.
Section. Page.
6
6
6
6
1
3
12
15
24
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
Composition.
Surface Decoration
Conventionalism
Ornament.
Natural Ornament.
Conventional Ornament
Classification of Elements
Geometrical Elements
Architectural Elements
Industrial Elements
Natural Elements
Animal Elements
Human Figure
28
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6
6
6
34
34
35
40
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41
6
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43
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PRACTICAL DESIGN.
Principles Involved
Planning the Design
Drop Pattern
Turn-Over Method
Variety of Methods
Borders, Corners, and Stripes .
Book-Cover Design
Early Bookbinding.
Modern Bookbinding -
iii
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5
12
19
24
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iy
CONTENTS.
APPLIED DESIGN.
Section. Page.
1
8
8
9
18
18
20
34
38
41
8
8
Geometrical Considerations.
Arrangement of Details
Application of Ornament
Hanging Fabrics
Wall Decoration
Ceiling Decoration.
Floor Decoration
Utensils and Vases
Textile Fabrics .
Character of the Threads
Yarns
Cotton, Flax, and Silk
Warp and Weft.
Double Cloths
Jacquard Machine
Carpets
8
9
9
1
4
9
9
9
9
12
13
18
25
29
.
9
9
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
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1
10.
3
30
Introduction.
Plate, Historic Mural Detail
Plate, Architectural Elements .
Introduction
Plate, Textile Patterns
Plate, Ceramics and Leather
Plate, Light Textiles .
1
10
11
11
11
.
2
1+
27
.
11
COLOR HARMONY.
Introduction
Primary Colors
Secondary Colors
Position of Colors in Chromatic Scale
Neutral Tints
Producing Harmony
Making a Color Card
Plate, Historic Ornament
Plate, Natural Forms.
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4
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CONTENTS.
V
Section.
QUESTIONS
Elements of Ornament .
Practical Design
Applied Design
Applied Design (Continued)
Color Harmony
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ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
COMPOSITION.
1. Unity in Design.- Composition in art deals almost
entirely with the grouping of the elements of a design to
bring them together and appear as a unity. No matter of
how many parts a design may be composed, if these parts
are properly treated, it will
present to the eye an appear-
ance of unity and individu-
ality, and only in such
periods of art history as the
designs have presented this
unity do we find a progress
in
(a)
a thoroughly artistic
sense.
To illustrate this some-
X
(b)
FIG. 2.
FIG. 1.
what, we have, in Fig. 1, a group of six lines, all of one
length, but irregularly arranged. There is no expression
For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page.
§ 6


2
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
of unity in this, nor is there anything about it suggestive of
an attempt at any kind of an arrangement, but in Fig. 2
these same six lines are so placed as to convey an idea
beyond the lines themselves, and the individual lines are
lost in the expression of unity.
Another method of pro-
ducing this impression is to surround the irregularly drawn
FIG. 3.
FIG. 4.
lines with some detail of more importance, as shown in
Fig. 3, where a number of irregular lines are included within
a rectangle and the force of the outline is sufficient to com-
bine all the lines in one idea. Again, the smaller lines may
be grouped to form a series of geometrical figures within a
similar geometrical figure, and produce this same feeling, as
shown in Fig. 4.
2. Limit of Outline.-In order to express this feeling
of unity, there must be a limit in the outline governing the
arrangement of the lines; for instance, in Fig. 5 we have a
^
FIG. 5.
series of equal lines arranged in groups that repeat indefi-
nitely; but there is nothing to stop them and there is a feeling
of continuity as though it might be extended forever in the
same arrangement without materially changing the form.
This feeling is not unity, but continuity, of which we shall


ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
3
have occasion to speak later. In Fig. 2, the arrangement of
the six lines, in one case, conveys an impression of extension,
as though it could be extended in any direction and in all
directions without impairing the original form—this is con-
tinuity in all directions. The other geometrical form in
Fig. 2 conveys the idea of unity and contraction without any
impression of a desire to spread out.
3. Assemblage of Details to Secure Unity.-In
assembling the subordinate details of a design in order
to secure a unity in the whole, there are three general
arrangements or groupings that completely satisfy the
mind to a sense of unity: One single object always looks
well alone, unless improperly subdivided or surrounded by
a lot of trivial and discordant details. An arrangement con-
sisting of a group of two things can be made to look well,
unless there is too great a difference in their form or size, or
unless they are badly united. Any group of three things
looks well, unless they are of uniform size or consist of too
prominent a character to be expressed in any quantity at all.
SURFACE DECORATION,
4. Subdivision of Space. Surface decoration con-
sists in the subdivision of a given space so that its parts
shall bear a relation to one another that varies in form and
shade. This subdivision may
be accomplished by the judi-
cious spacing of a number of
straight lines so that the sepa-
rated members bear a definite
relation to one another. Take,
for instance, the square; its pro-
portions cannot in any way be
varied, as all its sides are equal;
but its surface may be divided
into number of smaller
squares, as shown in Fig. 6,
а.
FIG. 6.


4
$ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
simply by the placing of equally spaced vertical and hori-
zontal lines. This, however, does not accord with our
idea of unity, because, if it expressed unity, we should feel
that nothing could be taken away from the square without
destroying its value, and, in Fig. 6, should we take away
eleven of the smaller squares across the top and one side,
we would still have a square very little different from the
first one.
5. Arrangement of Lines. - Suppose we divide the
surface of the square somewhat as shown in Fig. 9, spacing
the dividing lines more irregularly and grouping the lines
themselves in pairs and singly. This relieves the surface
of its monotony, and the various parts bear definite relations
FIG. 7.
FIG. 8.
to one another, so that the surface appears as a unit, the
subtraction of any member of which would materially
change its appearance. In Fig. 8 we have another sub-
division of the surface of the square where the lines are not
symmetrical on all four sides, and yet this is relieved of that
feeling of monotony so dominant in Fig. 6.
An immense variation of surface can thus be accomplished
simply by the placing of lines, and the more irregular the
intervals between the lines, the greater scope is there for
invention and design, as there is no limit to the number of
different arrangements that can be arrived at in the division
of a space in this manner. The symmetrical arrangement in


$ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
Fig. 4 is the character of subdivision we must adhere to in
the design of ceilings, paneled wainscots, and the like,
while the unsymmetrical design shown in Fig. 8 is char-
acteristic of woven fabrics such as plaids and other dress
goods.
6. In order to fully comprehend the importance of this
simple suggestion, the student should make a freehand
drawing of a simple square measuring about 4 inches on
each side, and divide it by vertical and horizontal lines into
various relative shapes. A piece of tracing paper laid over
the square, so as to retrace its outline, may be used to
advantage, and a traced square made in this way may be
divided into a number of pleasing forms that may afterwards
300
# .
FIG. 9.
be compared to determine which of the arrangements are
more satisfactory to the eye than others. When this has
been determined, endeavor to ascertain what arrangement of
lines satisfies the eye most, and what arrangement satisfies it
least. Some arrangements will always be more interesting
than others, and a little study will show that the most sat-
isfactory groupings are dependent entirely on the variation
in the proportions and relations of their parts. Take, for
instance, Fig. 9, wherein we have six different arrangements
on precisely the same grouping of lines, the relative parts
of this being produced by shade and not by line grouping,


6
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ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
as in the previous example. But in Fig. 10 we have four
examples of a surface divided by lines the grouping of which
makes four distinct figures entirely different, some of which
more pleasing
than the others.
are
no
Fig. 10
ng. Study of
Grouping. In this
grouping of lines it
is important that the
student should study
various works of art.
He will soon learn
that certain things
look well if grouped
in a certain manner,
matter whether
they are the figures
in an oil painting,
lines in a plaid, the
windows of a building, or the leaves of a plant as they are
disposed in a carved panel; and he should study as much as
possible those forms of art that have been handed down from
generation to generation throughout history as being beauti-
ful and worthy of attention. In the French châteaux we
have an elaborate grouping of chimneys and turrets; in fact,
the distinguishing characteristic of these buildings lies in the
grouping of their roof treatment. In the Venetian palaces
we have a variety of relations of lines and spaces in the
arrangement of the windows in their facades, and in Ara-
bian and Moorish art we find the surface decoration grouped
on geometrical principles wherein the proportion of one
part to another is affected not only by lines, but by color
systematically and scientifically applied. The student
should therefore, in studying the simple outline forms in
Figs. 6 to 10, bear in mind that, simple though they be,
the principle of their pleasing or unpleasing appearance
is the same that governs the most elaborate ornament


8 6
7
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
in the Venetian style or the most brilliant coloring in
Moorish art.
8. Relation of Colors.-In the coloring of parts we
do not really consider the actual spectrum shades that exist
on adjacent members of a design, but rather the tints or
shades as they appear to the eye. A design may be
expressed in two tints or it may be expressed in more, and
the depths of these tints should bear a definite relation to
one another in proportion to the surface that is covered.
We know that the three primary colors—yellow, red, and
blue-exist in their pure form in perfect harmony in the
proportion of 3, 5, and 8, and the same may be said of black-
and-white compositions. A certain depth of one shade must
be in exact proportion to a lighter or darker shade, in order
that a feeling of harmony may exist in the composition. In
all examples of ancient art we find that attention has been
given not only to the exact subdivision of a surface in order
that the space relations may be pleasing, but that the most
careful consideration has been given to the coloring of each
of these divisions and its appearance and relation beside the
coloring of its neighbors. This color relation can exist
in line composition where the lines used are of different
breadths, or weights, thereby bringing somewhat the effect
of a surface element in their appearance.
9. Light and Shade:—We find in certain oriental designs
for rugs a thorough understanding of this relation of light
and shade, and to it we are indebted largely to the influence
of Mohammedan religion on oriental art. As the creed of
Mohammed forbade the representation of any natural form,
it became necessary for his followers to secure pleasing
effects in their designs by color relation or light and shade,
and thus freed from the struggle to imitate nature, their
whole attention could be concentrated on this other element.
10. Reversion of Colors.-In Fig. 11 is shown a
design for a rug, based on the simplest geometrical lines,
while in Fig. 12 the same identical pattern is produced, but


8
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
14
reversed so far as its color relations are concerned. It is at
once evident that any design consisting of but two tones is
susceptible to this reversing
of its treatment in color
relations, and parts of it
also can in some
cases be
reversed, while others remain
the same.
For instance, in
Fig. 11 we have a rug with
a dark center on which the
geometrical ornament is
traced in light lines, while
the border is of a light shade
and the geometrical orna-
ment is traced in dark lines.
mm. In Fig. 12 we have exactly
the reversal of this—a light
FIG. 11.
center and a dark border.
Put the border of Fig. 12 on Fig. 11 and we have a dark
rug throughout, the geometrical ornament of which is
executed in light lines; reverse this new pattern, and we have
what would be the equivalent
of Fig. 12 with the border of
Fig. 11. In this way a num-
ber of different arrangements
in light-and-shade effects can
be made with the same geo-
metrical design as its founda-
tion. In fact, many grades of
rugs and carpets are woven so
that one side presents one
effect and the other exactly
its reverse in light and shade.


X
11. Reversion of Treat-
ment.-In Fig. 13 are shown
four styles of ornamentation,
each of which is expressive of unity and balance in its
FIG. 12.


$ 6
9
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
design, but each at the same time being perfectly capable of a
reversal in treatment in three or more ways. For instance,


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FIG. 13.
in any example the border can consist of black figures on
a white ground and the center of white figures on a black
ground, or the border and center can both consist of white






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§ 6
11
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
figures on a black ground, or a third arrangement will per-
mit of a reversal of the first; certain figures can be changed
and others remain the same, thus giving a great variety.
The proper understanding and comprehension of this
color relation in surface decoration enables the student to
produce an almost unlimited variety of effects, as is shown
in Fig. 14. Here we have eight examples of variation in
light and shade, all based on precisely the same geometrical
arrangement, the entire variation being produced simply by
a variation in the relation and proportion of the effects of
light and shade. The frequent practice of rendering in
this manner is of immense value to the designer. Let him
divide a surface up into a number of small rectangles and
then work over them with a brush charged with heavy
color, and group these rectangles so as to produce different
symmetrical designs, in order that he may familiarize himself
with the capability of these forms for extension and compre-
hend the value of a thorough understanding of this principle.
12. Variety of Designs from Same Elements.
Referring to Fig. 14, the eight examples there shown are
executed in but two colors—black and white--and all based
on a uniform arrangement of lines that divide the surface
originally into a number of small squares. Turn this prin-
ciple over to immediate practical work, and we find that, in
laying a tile or mosaic floor, any one of these designs could
be produced with a series of tiles or mosaics cut to uniform
squares representing each of the squares divided in our sur-
face design, and colored in proportion to the light and shade
of our example.
In wood mosaic or parquetry work, a number of simple
squares or a combination of squares and rectangles of uni-
form sizes in light and dark woods would produce any of
these eight patterns and many more. The arrangement of
the geometrical constructive principle of diagonally inter-
secting lines so as to produce the triangle, the lozenge shape,
or the hexagon, brings us again in contact with other sys-
tems of construction in which the variety is also unlimited.


12
$6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
CONVENTIONALISM.
13. Necessity of Conventionalism. Convention-
alism of design is usually very much misunderstood by
students in art, and the majority are inclined to believe
that it is simply a term that means stiffness and rigid for-
mality in a design. This is entirely wrong. A conventional
treatment may be easy and flowing as well as severe, both
qualities being necessary and valuable in their proper places,
but by no means is either one of them absolutely necessary
at all times.
As an illustration, take a piece of pottery or a china plate,
and the design executed on it represents a spray of flowers.
While it is proper that the designer should go to nature and
draw his instructions from natural forms in order to create
decorative design, there is a limit to which he can carry this
imitation justifiably, and it is in this spray of flowers where
that limit shall be expressed,
14. Shall the imitation be a portrait of the flower spray,
showing the light and shade, and the shine of the leaves, and
all the details connected with the appearance of that spray
under particular conditions of surrounding and lighting? Or,
shall it represent the spray regardless of light and shade, so
that, no matter under what conditions the plate or pottery
appears, its decoration will always seem to be in place ? A
plate is a movable object, and its decoration is seldom seen in
the same position twice in succession. Therefore, a painted
spray on this plate, that demanded a certain condition of
light in order that it should appear to its best advantage,
would be entirely out of place, while one with the light and
shade ignored, all the refinements of form still retained, and
all the delicate details of nature emphasized, would certainly
be most suitable.
In the naturalistic treatment, the beautiful and delicate
details of nature are lost in the attempt to make the spray
seem natural, and, in making it natural-contrary as it may
seem-we make it false.


$6
13
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
15. Invention and Imitation. Decorative art origi-
nates in two distinct faculties of the mind—the inventive,
or constructive, and the imitative. Inventive ornament
consists of an arbitrary and abstract arrangement of lines
calculated to produce a pleasing effect. This is character-
istic of the savage tribes, though traces of it pervaded all
the great styles, the frets and interlacings of the Classic,
Medieval, and Arabian styles being of this character. Invent-
ive ornament of this class affords the best practice to the
student in the study of decorative design, and, at the same
time, offers the best and simplest means of demonstrating
some of the greatest principles of ornament.
16. The Oval in Nature.-There is an abstract form
that seems to pervade many beautiful forms in nature; this
form we call the oval, and on it are based many outlines
seen in the vegetable world. It is an elementary outline of
many leaves, and also enters into the composition of the
human head and hand.
In studying the oval we find that its two sides are
alike, that is, it is repeated on each side of a center line.
It is not only repeated, but, being reversed, one side is
contrasted to another, and still, again, throughout the entire
curve — unlike the curve of a circle — there is a constant
change of form and direction; therefore, we have a variety.
Hence, three important principles of design-repetition,
contrast, and variety—are expressed in the simple form of
this oval.
>
17. Repetition, Contrast, and Variety.–Now let us
take up these three principles in a point of design. The
simplest arrangement of lines in order to secure repetition
is somewhat shown at (a) in Fig. 15, but here there is no
variety; while at (b) we secure variety with the same
arrangement for repetition by making the lines of varying
lengths, but there is no contrast. Let us again change them
and put them as we have them at (c), which gives us con-
trast, but destroys our variety. However, by adopting the


14
86
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
three methods in (a), (6), and (c), we have in (d), repetition,
variety, and contrast—the three elements that we seek.
Abandoning lines, let us return to some natural form. In
(6)
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(6)
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(c)
(a)
FIG. 15.
FIG. 16.
Fig. 16, at (a), we have repetition, at (b), we have variety,
and at (c), by combining (a) and (b), introducing the third
element as in the previous case, we have repetition, variety,
and contrast in leaf forms as desired.
18. Symmetry and Radiation. In addition to these
principles, we have evolved two more, so far unspoken of,
as shown at (b) and (d) in Fig. 15. These principles are,




(a)
(6)
C)
(a)
FIG. 17.
symmetry and radiation. Symmetry has many forms of
expression, but usually may be considered to mean likesided-
ness, no matter what the form of the object may be. At (a),


S6
15
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
as
Fig. 17, is shown a form of symmetry that consists simply
of the arrangement and repetition of a given form each side
of a center line ; this is known
bisymmetry. At (6) is a similar arrange-
ment where the forms on the sides are
the same in detail as the form that
separates them ; this is known as tri-
syminetry. At (c), where there are a
number of forms each side of a similar
form in the center, we have what is
known as multisymmetry.
By bringing the forms shown at (6),
Fig. 17, together to form a unity, we
have an example of radiation from a
point, as shown at (d), while the dis-
tribution of the forms along a center
line, as shown in Fig. 18, gives an example of radiation
from a center line.
FIG. 18.
ORNAMENT.
LINEAR ORNAMENT.
19. Ancient Pottery Decoration. From a considera-
tion of the earliest forms of historic art, it will be found
that, after the most suitable form of utensil for the purpose
required had been arrived at, the easiest and readiest means
were employed to execute the decoration of its surface.
The elements of the pattern were of the simplest character-
composed of straight lines—and a pointed stick was gener-
ally used to execute the ornament in the soft clay of their
pottery.
Fig. 19 shows a vase where the straight lines variously
arranged in patterns are disposed in bands, and the patterns
are a result of simple arrangement in accordance with some
fundamental principle handed down from generation to
generation. Pottery is selected for the demonstration of


16
S6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
this point; inasmuch as it is of a more durable character,
we have more examples of the early period, and it there-
fore furnishes a more reliable series of art development,
It has often been demonstrated that the
patterns evolved by weaving are identi-
cal with, and often suggested by, the
patterns found on pottery. It is only
incidental to point out in this figure
that there appears to be an unconscious
obedience to the laws of fitness in the
application of these straight-line pat-
terns. They are not applied in an
arbitrary way, but in harmony with the
structure they adorn,

As a
FIG. 19.
20. Fitness of Ornament.
usual thing, the rim comes in for deco-
ration in order to give the part most
likely to fracture an appearance of strength, while any change
in the contour of the form is usually emphasized by additional
ornamentation. The reason for this may be found in the
fact that the application of ornament gives an impression
of strength, and, when a vase or jug in its plastic condition
is difficult to maintain in shape, the idea naturally sug-
gests itself to the potter to decorate that part that exhib-
its the weakness of the form. This determines largely the
location of the bands around the curves. We will find
also a precedent for this in the vegetable world, as
changes in the directions of stems are generally accented
in some way or other by the thickening or broadening of
the point of union for the two elements. The stem of a
leaf is usually almost as large or thick as the branch itself at
that point.
21. As we progress in the study of prehistoric decora-
tion, the later examples possess the curved line, and the
zigzag—so common in early work—becomes softened and
gradually develops itself into a wavy scroll, as shown at


$ 6
17
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
(a), (b), and (c) in Fig. 20. The changes arise from the fact
that the angles are first rounded off, and the other portions
of the line between the curves are softened and graduated
until the zigzag loses its
identity entirely in the
wavy line at (c).
(a)
(6)
22. Constructive
Origin of Decorative
Art. - From these illus-
trations it will be readily
understood that decora-
tive art had a construc-
tive origin. Primitive
man, finding it necessary
to provide coverings for his body, learned that the weaving
of certain strands produced certain patterns, such as the zig-
zag, lozenge, etc., and in later periods, when he had learned
the use of metals, he applied the forms thus associated in his
mind. These forms were again adopted in decorating other
materials, and hence formed a starting point for decoration.
(C)
FIG. 20.
23. Evolution of Design.-If the student will now
follow out graphically the progress of design from the work
of the savage to that of civilized man, he will comprehend
a number of details that he otherwise could not learn.
On a sheet of paper, rule off a number of equally spaced
vertical and horizontal lines, as shown in Fig. 21. Then
emphasize certain lines of the square meshes, but varying
the emphasis by shade work or spotting to produce different
patterns all based on the same geometrical principle as
shown at (a), (b), (c), and (d). (a) is the simplest form, and
consists of repeated crosses alternating with squares, while
(6) is evolved on the same principle, but by uniting the inter-
mediate squares with the crosses; (c) is another pattern
resulting from the inclusion of a greater number of founda-
tion squares, and (d) shows how an interlaced design may
be produced. The geometrical figures at (e) contain
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(6)
{(e)
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(e)
FIG. 21.



(a)
(6)
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(c)

(e)
FIG, 23,


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$ 6
21
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
elements of more progressive design, and resemble the pat-
terns usually evolved by the savage race.
In Fig. 22 is shown a different series of patterns evolved
by working on the diagonals of the squares and then by the
introduction of semicircles struck from the angles or inter-
sections of the diagonals.
24. Limitless Variety of Patterns.—The product of
various patterns on this plan is almost unlimited, a few of
which are shown in Fig. 23 in order that the student may
better understand the extent to which this can be carried.
At (a), Fig. 23, quarter circles are struck from the center
of each figure, thereby forming a series of wavy lines
that determine the shape of the pattern. At (6), how-
ever, a series of semicircles is emphasized so as to gen-
erate a trefoil pattern, while (c) and (d) are produced by
means of a number of tangent circular arcs, and (e) is
developed upon lines crossing one another diagonally so
as to leave lozenge shaped spaces instead of squares or
parallelograms.
In the latter case we have a series of figures produced
somewhat as shown in Fig. 24, each of which can be used as
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
FIG. 24.
the element for the construction of a new pattern, as shown
in Fig. 25. If, now, we reduce the forms shown in Fig. 24
to their own individual elements, we get a series of forms
similar to Fig. 26, and, applying these as elements of design,
produce results similar to Fig. 27, where at (a) we have an
orderly arrangement of the obtuse angle shown at (a) in
Fig. 26, at (6) a combination of the quadrants shown at (6)



AUCERVEIS
BBC
FIG. 25.


$ 6
23
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
in Fig. 26, and at (c) a similar combination of the ogee
curves, shown at (c)
in Fig. 26. Straight
lines alone may be
combined almost
(6)
without limit, as
shown in Fig. 28; (a)
and a combination of
curves and straight
lines, or curves, straight lines, and spirals, gives a great
کر
S
(c)
FIG. 26.
(a)
(6)
(c)
FIG. 27.
c
variety of forms, which can be introduced and combined
to form an unlimited series of patterns.
(a)
(6)
(c)
FIG. 28.
25. Brush Decoration of Pottery.“We have been
considering so far only linear patterns as were found in pre-
historic pottery when pottery was ornamented chiefly by
incising the soft clay with a hard point. In later periods,
however, pottery was decorated by means of the brush, and,


24
86
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
as has already been pointed out, the use of this employment
led to much excellence in ornamental art.
It will now be readily understood how the combination of
a few brush marks produced such important historic forms
as the Greek palmette and honeysuckle ornament, and the
fleur-de-lis and other devices common in medieval heraldry.
In the first instance we considered the development of
linear design in pottery decoration; then the application
of pottery design to surface decoration and an analysis of
forms that these arts produced; and, finally, a production
of new forms from the elements of the original ones.
now follow out the same idea and reproduce these forms
with the variety that can be given them through brush
decoration, we introduce an entirely new lot of expressions
that linear decoration is incapable of carrying forth.
If we
NATURAL ORNAMENT.
26. Union With Geometrical Ornament.--History
shows that, as civilization advanced, greater ability for the
expression of ornamental design was developed, and that
mere geometrical design was found insufficient. Natural
forms were therefore resorted to in order to add new fea-
tures to the preexisting forms, and this was done in such a
way that the new elements should harmonize with the old.
The natural representations, though imitations of nature,
were not pictorial copies, but modifications to suit their pur-
pose, or, as we now consider it, conventional renderings;
and it is the union of these two principles—the imitative
and the inventive—that has given rise to the most impor-
tant styles of ornamental art. Therefore, in applying
natural forms to decoration, the student must always guard
against the tendency to run into a pictorial representa-
tion, as pictorial forms do not harmonize with the older
geometrical lines that may be called on to serve with them.
Forms adopted from nature must be adapted by a judicious
conventionalism.


$ 6
25
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
CONVENTIONALISM IN ANCIENT ART.
27. Kinds of Conventionalism. In historic ornament
we find two kinds of conventionalism : first, the conven-
tionalism of principles or ideas, and second, the conven-
tionalism of facts. The first deals only with the principles
or ideas of growth common to a number of classes of plants or
objects, and not representative of any specific form. The
second deals with the individualizing of particular plants or
objects, giving a more or less geometrical rendering of them.
FIG. 29.
28. Egyptian Conventionalism.-For instance, the
art of the Egyptians, being purely symbolic, bound them to
the conventionalism of facts, and in using their favorite
flowers — the lotus and
papyrus
- in decorative
art, they did not copy
them pictorially, but con-
ventionalized them in
such a manner that they
readily conveyed the idea
(a)
(6)
of the type and at the
same time obeyed the rules of their geometrical foundation.
In Fig. 29 the papyrus is shown at (a) and the lotus at (b),
in their natural forms.
In Fig. 30 is shown a
border based on the primi-
tive zigzag of prehistoric
ornament, and decorated
at (a) with a conyentional
(a)
(c)
rendering of the lotus
and at (6) with a conven-
tional rendering of the papyrus, while at (c) is shown the
lotus flower with its curyed outline as we see it in later
Egyptian art after the curve of the zigzag had been evened
up, as heretofore shown in Fig. 20.
(0)
FIG. 30.
29. Greek Conventionalism.-—The art system of the
Greeks, however, was of the other kind of conventionalism-


26
§ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT,
that of principles or ideas. Greek art not being symbolic,
there was no necessity to represent particular plants (though
at times they did so), and usually in their ornament we find
principles expressed without indicating any particular natural
type.
In Fig. 31 is shown an ornament found as a border on
many vases. Its structural line is undoubtedly a develop-
ment of the zigzag, while the leaf forms owe their origin to
the limitations of brush
work, and the general
character of the orna-
ment is indicative of a
class of running plants,
but expressive of no par-
ticular plant. Another point observable in Greek art is the
way in which the scrolls are decorated, which, though based
on a principle of vegetation, do not imitate any particular
type.
In Fig. 32 is shown an example of Greek foliated orna-
ment; it will be noticed that the principles there expressed
are based on certain ideas derived from the vegetable world.
In Fig. 33 is shown a branch of a shrub from nature, and it
FIG. 31.
FIG. 32.
FIG, 33.
will be observed that the part of the shrub above the
branches is smaller than the part of the shrub below the
branches, and that there is a considerable thickening of the


86
217
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
part where the main stem and the branching stem unite.
The Greek ornament in Fig. 32 is simply a development of
this principle, and does not imitate the plant at all, but
ornaments the idea.
30. Development of Leaves.-Following the general
growth and development of plants comes the consideration of
their leaves; these should be studied systematically, accord-
ing to their develop-
ment. Such study will
show that in spite of
the apparent irregu-
larity of leaf form there
is a regular order in
their outlines. It has
already been shown
that leaves develop
FIG, 34.
according to some geo-
metrical principle, and it will be found that the majority of
leaves or leaf clusters may be enclosed within a circle or an
(a)
(0)
FIG, 35,
ellipse, as shown in Fig. 34; and a continuance of this prin-
ciple to the study of flowers will show that the top views of
many flowers are governed by the same geometrical figure,
as shown at (a), Fig. 35, where the buttercup, daisy, and


28
$ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
phlox are shown, while at (b) the side views of these flowers
are enclosed within a triangle.
31. Geometrical Forms in Nature.—The study of
nature will show that this principle can be carried out exten-
sively, even to the fruit or seeds of the various plants; and
a careful study of individual forms and their details will
enlighten the student to many ideas that can be reduced to
a geometrical principle and thereby become conventional-
ized, while other facts observable in nature can also be con-
ventionalized to give a closer representation of the form.
CONVENTIONAL ORNAMENT.
32. Natural Forms in Design.„We will now try to
show how the study of nature can be applied in ornamental
design. Suppose we return to Fig. 21 and take the design
worked out at (e) and decorate it with forms from nature.
FIG. 36.
We will surround the extremities of the radiating lines with
figures derived from the study of nature, such as the edges
of some flowers, and produce a design somewhat as shown
in Fig. 36. A similar treatment of (c), Fig. 22, will


ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
29
produce a design somewhat as shown in Fig. 37. Fig. 38 is
based on the development of (c), Fig. 23, and Fig. 39 is a
development of (d),
Fig. 22.
317
FIG. 37.
33. Now, instead
of dividing our sur-
face up into rectan-
gles, as we did in
Figs. 21, 22, etc.,
we will let the out-
line of some natural
form
govern the
subdivision; and, in
Fig. 40 we have a
pattern where the
contour of a five-
lobed leaf is used as the governing principle of the outline,
within which other floral forms are used to form a surface
decoration. This, it will immediately be observed, is the
method of using natural forms practiced by oriental artists,
and the pattern shown in
Fig. 40 is strongly sug-
gestive of Arabian art.
For instance, at (a),
Fig. 41, is shown a spray
of leaves from nature,
while at (6) is an Arabian
design based on the out-
line of this spray of leaves.
La
FIG. 38.
34. Arrangement of
Ornament in Indian
Art.-In Indian art a favorite way of spacing out the orna-
ment was after the manner shown in Fig. 42, where the leaf
form is evidently of the lotus type. Diapers in Indian art
are often designed as shown in Fig. 43, where there is no
attempt made to represent any particular plant, but simply


30
$ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
an application of principles. Thus, we see that the conven-
tionalism of principles is almost unlimited in its extent, and
we will now consider
the conventionalism of
facts.
स
a
35. Convention-
alizing Plant
Form.--Take, for in-
stance, any plant suit-
able for the purpose,
and adapt it to orna-
ment. We are not
going to make a pic-
ture of it, but study
its characteristics, par-
FIG. 39.
ticularly those
those that
distinguish it from other plants, and idealize the original.
It will be necessary to examine more than one specimen of
the selected plant, because a peculiarity or accidental mark
in one individual may not be found in another, and what we
then require is a knowl-
edge of the details and
characteristics common to
the entire family or kind
to which the chosen speci-
men belongs. This knowl-
edge can be acquired only
by long and continued
study of plant analysis, as
a limited study is likely to
render an untrue repre-
sentation.

FIG. 40.
36. Realism and Conventionalism.—To copy nature
as she is presented to us, with all the accidents and defects,
would be to render her realistically. To correct nature by
knowledge derived from the study of all her works in each


86
31
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
class, would be to treat her naturally. To reduce the
result of these studies to a principle that expresses a
simple fact with the fewest possible lines, as was done by
(a)
(6)
FIG. 41.
the Egyptians with their lotus blossom, is to treat nature
conventionally.
For instance, at (a), Fig. 44, is shown an ivy leaf sketched
from nature. It cannot be considered as ideal or natural,
because its shape is not even the average shape of a number

FIG. 42.
of leaves; therefore, (a) is a realistic drawing. At (6), how-
ever, is shown what might be considered a composite picture
of a number of leaves possessing all the corrections of irreg-
ularities found in the entire class. This is a naturalistic ren-
dering of the ivy leaf, and the reduction of this leaf to a


32
$ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
pentagonal form, shown in Fig. 34, reduces it to the simple
expression of an idea, and presents the ivy leaf in a most
conventional form.
37. Consideration of Purpose.—The extent, however,
to which the modification of the details must be carried in
order to apply a plant
form in design must
be determined by the
purpose of its applica-
tion, whether the design
is to be free or severe.
If the design is to be
severe, the geometrical
rendering shown in
Fig. 34 will be most
serviceable, but, if the
design is to be free, the
naturalistic form shown
at (6), Fig. 44, may be
used. The form shown at (a) with all its shadings and
gradations, so strongly characteristic of the growing plant
under certain conditions of lighting, is never suitable to
ornament.
FIG. 43.
2.
38. Taste in Conventionalism.—Now let us consider
this application in Fig. 45. At (a) is shown the application
of the flower to the primi-
tive design illustrated at (e)
in Fig. 21. The flattened
curves of the flowers and
leaves in the natural repre-
sentation as shown in Fig. 46
are arranged at (a), Fig. 45,
stiffly, in order to harmonize
(a)
(6)
with the severe character of
the design. But the char-
acter of the plant is maintained, because its main features
FIG. 44.


§ 6
33
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
have not only been adhered to, but have been empha-
sized. Observe the indented ends of the petals, the serrated
edges of the calyx, and the acutely lobed characteristic of
(a)
(b)
FIG. 45.
the leaves. At (6), Fig. 45, however, the lines forming
the basis of the pattern are composed of curves and do
not demand so severe a treatment of the ornamenting
plant, and the flower is rendered in a freer and more
naturalistic manner than was possible
in the previous case.
39. Thus, it will be seen that the
conventionalized rendering of a natural
object requires careful consideration as
to the extent to which the geometrical
rendering shall have influence, and the
idea that conventional rendering is sim-
ply a geometrical rendering, without
consideration of the properties and application, is entirely
wrong.
FIG, 46,


34
$ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
These may
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS,
40. Although good ornament is possible with the sim-
plest forms and materials, it is undoubtedly true that the
higher the form of decorative art, the nobler must be the
elements of which it is composed. The elements of orna-
ment are therefore drawn from a great many different
sources, but may be classified in a general way under two
distinct heads—the artificial and the natural.
again be subdivided, for the sake of convenience, into six
subordinate classes-geometrical, architectural, industrial,
vegetable, animal, and the human figure.
41. Under the subject of geometrical ornament, we
include frets, traceries, diapers, interlacings, etc., together
with those forms that are so simply developed in the orna-
ment of the savage races.
In architectural ornament, we
include columns, entablatures, pediments, cartouches, etc.
Industrial ornament may be considered to include all
musical instruments, vases, spears, and other arms, as well
as laces, ribbons, etc. Vegetable ornament embraces
designs from plant life-leaves, flowers, fruits, festoons,
various rosettes, etc.—while under the animal classification
we have quadrupeds, fishes, birds, insects, and reptiles, as
well as such imaginary figures as griffins, dragons, etc.
The human figure used in design includes both natural
and mythological representations, the terminals of foliage
designs used in the Renaissance periods, the caryatids used
in classic art, as well as certain creations in the mind of
man, such as sphinxes, atlantes, mermaids, etc.
GEOMETRICAL ELEMENTS.
42. Frets.—The simplest form of geometrical elements
we find in the frets, which throughout all ages and with all
peoples seem to have been a favorite method of ornamenting


$ 6
35
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
flat surfaces. They are used largely for borders, for which
they are eminently fitted, but diapers are also formed of
them in Japanese and Egyptian art.
In fretwork, the pattern and the ground are usually
equally spaced, but this need not always be the case, as a
strong effect is sometimes obtained by making a variation in
this respect, as shown at (a), Fig. 47. Another variation
that may be attained in frets is accomplished by changing
the formation of the figure that forms their governing
outline. It is not necessary that this figure should be
L2 222 JA
=
FIG. 47.
square or even rectangular, as is clearly illustrated at (6)
and (c), the former being a parallelogram in the form of
each section of its pattern, and the latter developed on the
intersection of a series of diagonal lines, this being more
characteristic of ornamental work, and suitable for flat or
inclined surfaces. The introduction of curved lines in this
class of work, either in conjunction with straight lines or
entirely by themselves, leads us to various interlaced pat-
terns, including the guilloche and basketwork.
43. The study of geometrical ornament is of particular
value on account of the elements that lie at the base of the
elaborate and intricate patterns that oriental artists and the
Middle-Age mosaic workers so freely indulged in. With a
thorough understanding of geometrical ornament and the
possibilities of geometrical arrangement, the designing of
complex and intricate patterns becomes a comparatively
simple task.
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS.
44. Construction Allied With Beauty.–Next in the
order of our subdivision we take up architectural ele-
ments, and we must consider that architecture properly


36
§ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
comprehended is the art of construction allied with beauty
—not construction made beautiful by superadded decora-
tion, but construction with beauty incorporated with it. In
all the best periods of ornamental art, it has been architec-
ture that has afforded the greatest field for its development;
and in pottery, stained and painted glass, ironwork, jewelry,
and the decoration of pilasters, shafts, etc., architectural
construction has had a most marked influence.
In decorated designs, certain architectural forms have
been used in their pure and simple form, but most fre-
quently they have been modified by imagination so as to
bring them in harmony with other details with which they
are associated. Hence, in some forms of ornament, we
find but a suggestion of architecture, while, in others, a
distinctive characteristic,
45. Adaptation of Architectural Forms.--In adapt-
ing architectural forms to a surface design, it is entirely
unnecessary that the stiffness and structural rigidity that is
demanded in architectural practice should be maintained in
the surface pattern, because the same structural conditions
do not exist. There is no physical weight to be provided
for, and, in the decoration, the introduction of the appear-
ance of weight is all that is
necessary so long as the eye is
satisfied.
The representation of a frieze
may be taken from
carved pro-
totype, but the details of the
relief expressed in the original
carving need form no part of the
textile or other surface design,
the element of beauty lying in the
direction and proportioning of the
lines only; the frieze may there-
(a)
(b) fore be reduced to a simple sur-
face treatment.
The same may be said in the design of an iron grille
FIG. 48.


$ 6
37
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
either for a railing or for a gate. The design should be
influenced if not governed by some characteristic of a simi-
ilar detail in its original material. For instance, the design
of the fence panel shown at (a), Fig. 48, is clearly copied in
its general outline from the stone baluster of the classic
balustrade shown at (6). The treatment of the head-piece
over the gateway shown at (a), Fig. 49, is clearly developed
>
bane
(a)
(0)
FIG. 49.
from the broken pediment characteristic of certain Renais-
sance work shown at (6). These details as reproduced in
iron are not copies of the original, but simply ornamental
forms founded on a principle of earlier construction. In
the same manner a well-designed iron railing is influenced
in its proportions and composition by the architectural orders
and classic proportions for balustrades.
46. The Volute Scroll.–Some of the ornamental
details derived in architecture and applied in decorative art
will now be considered as to their origin and proper treat-
ment. There is, for instance, the little volute scroll so
characteristic of the Corinthian column as it curls out under
the corner of the abacus. The gracefulness of this feature
and its apparent strength render it particularly adaptable in
setting out friezes and other purely ornamental arrange-
ments where the qualities of grace and strength are to be


33
$ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT,
combined, as shown in Fig. 50, where a frieze is designed

FIG. 50.
using one of the forms of scroll shown in Fig. 51, all of
FIG. 51.
which have been taken from the capitals of the various
modifications of the Corinthian.
(a)
FIG. 52.


SG
39
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
some
>
47. The Cartouch.—The cartouch is another archi-
tectural detail that enters largely into decorative design; it
owes its origin to the ancient use of paper or parchment
labels for inscriptions and badges. The margins of these
labels were usually cut
in
ornamental
shape and afterwards
curled into scroll forms
of an ornamental char-
acter. This led to
a systematic develop-
ment, and, subsequent-
ly, in conjunction with
interlaced ornament,
produced a new kind of
decorative work that we
usually term cartouch
work. This element
is invaluable to the
designer, both in its
capacity as a filling-in
treatment for an uninteresting piece of background, and as
a strengthening element to the general composition.
At (a), Fig. 52, is shown one of the earliest and simplest
forms of this cartouch work, while at (6) is shown the paper
from which it is cut. In Figs. 53
and 54 are shown examples of
advanced and more complicated
cartouches, developed from the
same general principle. It is
easy to understand the develop-
ment of the cartouch form into
the carved work shown in
Fig. 53, where a shield-shaped
cartouch, with its curled and
ornamental edges, is carved in
relief with the human figure.
In Fig. 54 is shown a further
FIG. 53.

FIG. 51,


40
S6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
development of the ornament, in order to convert it into
a frame, as was done during the period of the Italian
Renaissance. The general form varied, but became more
elaborate in design as the Renaissance spread into France
and Germany.
INDUSTRIAL ELEMENTS.
48. Association With Architectural Elements,—The
industrial elements of design are not widely separated
from the architectural class, and are considered here under
a different heading simply as a matter of convenience. Indus-
trial objects, such as tools, armor, musical instruments, etc.,
are used in various ways in decoration, usually for purely
symbolic purposes. These articles are usually introduced
purely from an esthetic sense, with no other purpose than
to please the sense of vision, and are therefore arranged to
present to the best advantage the beauty of their forms.
49. Symbolism.-In the symbolic use of these details,
it should always be remembered that there are two ideas
associated with nearly all symbols-one, the idea of recall-
ing something to the memory; the other, the expression of
an entirely new idea, or the illustration of one. Thus, the
Latin cross may stand as an expression or as a symbol of
the Christian faith, or it may act as a reminder of the
crucifixion of Christ. Another case is where the musical
instrument, the lyre, so frequently used to express the idea
of music, may with equal propriety set forth a reminder of
the ancient use of that instrument in the classic musical
entertainments.
50. Prehistoric Emblems.-At (a), Fig. 55, is shown
a prehistoric emblem of God. It had its origin almost
undoubtedly in early sun worship, which fact is attested by
the circle, and the survival of this form is seen in the halo,
or nimbus, painted over the heads of the saints during the
Middle Ages. At (1) we have the Egyptian symbol of
divinity, but of a more complex character. The circle is


$ 6
41
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
still retained but is supported by outstretched wings, indica-
tive of sovereignty and ubiquity of the deity. The scara-
bæus of the Egyptians, shown at (c), was a detail that
appeared frequently in their designs. At (d) we have the
nimbus, or halo, characteristic of the Christian symbol of
glory, and at (e), (f), (g), and (1) we have four forms of
(a)
(b)
T+X
A
(e)
(9)
(h)
FIG. 55.
crosses known under the names of the Latin cross at (e),
the Greek cross at (ſ), the cross of St. Andrew at (8), and
the Maltese cross at (1). At (1) is shown the old symbolic
monogram of Christ, composed of the two Greek letters of
his name X (chi) and P (rho), with A (alpha) and 2 (omega),
the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, added to
indicate his eternal character.
51. These few forms will serve to illustrate the extent
to which symbolism enters into modern ornamental design,
and a little study and thought will bring to the student's
mind and attention numerous other examples of the same
kind.
1
NATURAL ELEMENTS.
52. Vegetable Forms.--Of the elements of design
that are taken directly from nature, our first consideration
will naturally be the vegetable forms. Here the material
presented to the designer is not only unlimited in style, but
is easy of adaptation to all his requirements.


42
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
a te
Org
whic
In using plant forms for design, there is material for the
designer in every part of the growth-the roots, stalk,
leaves, flowers, and seed all contain details that may sug-
gest ideas to the designer. While there may be nothing of
great beauty in the root of a flower itself, yet there is always
sufficient detail of importance there, and, if properly studied,
can give rise to beautiful ideas.
STOV
fect
mor
bore
cen
mei
53. Thickening of Stem at Points of Departure.
In all good ornament of a flowing character, no matter how
conventionally it may be arranged, it has always been the
practice that there should be a thickening of the stem at
the point of departure of the two
reversed growths, as shown at (a),
Fig. 56; or, if more than one starting
point is used, a stop is usually intro-
(a)
duced between the two sections of
gro
can
goc
ha
na
(a)
(6)
cu

FIG. 56.
an
in
run-
design that are
ning together, as at (6).
m
ir
11
54.
(c)
Botanical
Principles in Design.
Now let us see how
the application of some
of these principles of
growth can be proper-
ly considered in orna-
mental design. Let us
study the botanical
aspect for a moment.
We have in botany
(d)
FIG. 57.


SG
43
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
a term called inflorescence, which is the arrangement
or growth of flowers on the stem, the simplest form of
which is shown at (a), Fig. 57. Taking its principle of
growth and not copying in any way the specimens, we can
introduce it in the design shown at (c), where it forms a per-
fectly proper termination with the scroll, with which it har-
monizes, as well as with the longitudinal character of the
border pattern. At (6) is shown another form of inflores-
cence, and at (d) is shown its application to a scroll orna-
ment as before.
55. There are many different characteristics of botanical
growth, each of which is capable of furnishing an idea that
can be carried out as simply as the above, and always to
good advantage, in the product of satisfactory designs.
ANIMAL ELEMENTS.
3
56. Frequent Use in Design. Animal elements
have always been used in ornamental art in a more or less
naturalistic manner, and, though these forms are more diffi-
cult to treat ornamentally than are inanimate forms, the
ancient artist used them frequently, as animal forms will
increase the interest in any composition.
In Celtic orna-
ment, for instance, elements from the animal world are
introduced even with the purest geometrical designs, and
we find down to the present day that conventionalized rep-
resentations from the animal world are most conspicuous
details of heraldry.
In certain periods of art, animal forms were preferred
even to the vegetable forms, as man in his early condition
had a closer interest in certain classes of beasts that aided
him in his struggle for existence, such as the horse, rein-
deer, dog, etc. His admiration for them lay more in his
comprehension of their usefulness than in his admiration of
their form, as his chief business in life at that time was the
provision for his natural wants and his own protection.


$ 6
45
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
watchfulness, strength, alertness, and swiftness. We find
this figure on the piers of gateways, and it was often used
by the Greeks to adorn certain portions of their temples. .
In this representation, we conventionalize the idea by
representing it symbolically, the eagle's head and wings and
the expression of the added ears being symbolic of watch-
fulness, alertness, and swiftness, whereas the lion's body is
symbolic of strength. The conventionalized facts we find in
the reduction of these emblems to a form by which they can
be combined in one figure.
59. Sphinx, Wivern, Etc.--Other figures of this char-
acter are the sphinx, shown in Fig. 59, which combines the
>
FIG. 59.
human head with the body of the lion-symbolic of intelli-
gence and strength; the wivern, shown in Fig. 60, which con-
sists of a sort of winged
serpent with a bird's head
and legs, and carries the
same idea as the griffin,
with the addition of wis-
dom indicated by the ser-
pent's body, and alertness
during the nocturnal hours
from the bat-like form of
its wings.
Another figure of this
character, which is of Greek

FIG. 60.


46
§ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
origin, is the chimera, shown in Fig. 61. This figure is
supposed to typify a volcanic mountain in Greece, which,
according to various legends, was infested with lions at the
top, and around the middle with goats, while the foot of
FIG. 61.
the mountain abounded in venomous snakes. The chimera
therefore combining the forms of the lion, goat, and ser-
pent, from whose mouths issued flames and deadly gases,
became the symbol of terror and devastation.
The dragon shown in Fig. 62 has ever been an emblem
of the evil forces of the natural and moral world.
It com-
Walan
.
FIG. 62.
bines in its characteristics the litheness and repulsiveness
of the lizard and serpent, the swiftness of action charac-
teristic of various winged creatures, and the fierceness and


$ 6
47
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
5
f
belligerency of the carnivorous animals from the form of its
teeth and claws. To intensify its evil appearance, it is fre-
quently represented as belching flames.
There are numerous other animals of a mythical char-
acter that have their origin purely in the conventionalism
of some idea, and the reduction of numerous animal forms
to the conventional rendering is almost unlimited in its
application.
60. Difficulty of Adapting Animal Forms. In the
case of animal forms, it is not so easy to adapt them to the
requirements of ornamental design as it is the free and varied
growth of plants. The latter have a multitudinous repetition
of parts that enables the designer to adapt them without
violence to nature, while animal forms have a proscribed
and limited number of parts that narrows the limit of their
employment and presents difficulties in the way of their
successful adaptation. It is therefore necessary that ani-
mal forms should be analyzed in the same manner that
plant forms have been analyzed in this course of study,
in order to learn the characteristic lines of their compo-
sition and reduce them to a form capable of conventional
rendering
61. It is comparatively easy to draw accurately any
animal form, and yet such a form is likely to be utterly
unfit for decorative purposes, while a less accurate repre-
sentation may be highly suited to decorative work; and we
will find that the animal forms usually seen in the designs
of the more barbaric nations are better suited to ornamental
art than the realistic renderings of the later periods.
62. Birds and Running Ornaments.—Birds also may
be combined successfully with running ornament, as they
are not only graceful in themselves, but are pleasantly
associated with all plant growth, and they can be arranged
so that their lines flow with the lines of the ornament and
harmonize with it perfectly. Certain quadrupeds can thus
be treated also, but not always so readily.


i
49
$6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
63. Wings in Ornament. While we are considering
the introduction of bird forms it will be wise for us to con-
sider the subject of wings and the introduction of wings
in ornament. There are few details of animal form that
have been so extensively introduced in various convention-
alized forms, to represent both ideas and facts, as the wings
of birds and bats. Though the bird's wing is composed of
flesh and feathers, and the bat's wing is made up of a skele-
ton framework between the parts of which a thin skin is

7
.
Kuala
mon
FIG. 65.
stretched, the principle governing the outline of each is
practically the same, and, in addition to this, it might be
noted that the structure of wings and that of the human
arm is very closely allied.
At (a), Fig. 65, is shown the outline of a bird's wing,
while at (6) is shown the outline of a bat's wing, and at (c),
an outline of the bone construction of the human arm,
The relative arrangement of these details will show their
relation in structure, while Fig. 66 shows three forms of


50
$ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
bird's wing, differing materially in outline, owing to the
arrangement of the feathers, but based on precisely the same
skeleton construction as is shown at (a), Fig. 65.
64. Proportions of Wings.—At (a), Fig. 66, the wing
represented is that of a common sparrow, while (6) shows
the pigeon's wing, and (c), that of the sea swallow. It will be
observed that in the order they are named these wings are

(1)
(b)
1
(c)
FIG. 66.
from birds each of whose flight is more prolonged than the
former—the sparrow, flying but short distances; the pigeon,
usually capable of traveling a mile or more on the wing;
while the sea swallow is flying a majority of the time. The
relative extent of the outward extremity of the wing, it


Frank H. Ball
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT 86
$ 6
.
51
will be observed, increases with the flying qualities of
the bird,
In apply-
ing these wing forms
to design, it is fre-
quently necessary to
take these details into
consideration.

>
65. Application
of Wings. We have
already considered the
application of the wing
in the design of the
winged globe shown
at (6), Fig. 55, but its
application to other
forms we will consider
here. In Fig. 67 is
shown the character-
istic Egyptian hiero-
glyph of the goddess
FIG. 67.
Neith, who carries in each hand a symbol, and whose out-
stretched wings typify her
world-wide sovereignty.
In more modern applica-
tion, we find the use of wings
in the Greek sphinx, shown
in Fig. 68, where the treat-
ment is less conventional
than in the Egyptian style,
and the possession of the
wings distinguishes this sphinx
from the of Egyptian
design. Fig. 69 shows a still
modern application,
where, in a female figure,
the wings replace the arms
and are outstretched in the
one
more
FIG. 68.


52
$ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
position usually considered symbolic of untiring activity
or eternal protection.
FIG. 69.
66. Feathers. Besides the wings, in a total by
themselves, we have the individual feathers as a sub-
ject for decoration, and many designs are based on these
details. At (a), Fig. 70, are shown the ends of pea-


FIG. 70.
cock feathers, which have always been a favorite type
for ornamentation, while at (6) are shown various types
of feathers from the pheasant in different stages of
their development, with their characteristic spots and
markings.
At (a), Fig. 171, is shown a design for a border, the ele-
ments of which are derived from the peacock feather, while
at (6) are shown three designs based on the formation


6
53
$ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
FY
illustrated in the forms of the pheasant's feather shown at
(6), Fig. 170.

>
(a)
000


(6)
FIG. 71.
67. Insects in Design.—The use of insects in decora-
tive design is not as extensive as of birds, though the mark-
ings of the wings of some of them, particularly the butterfly,
are easily applicable in some characters of design, as shown
1


>
1
(a)
(6)
FIG. 72.
at (a), Fig. 72, where a border is designed on principles
taken from the butterfly's wing illustrated at (b), and the
simple mosquito, illustrated in a conventional rendering at


54
$ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
(a), Fig. 13, is easily applicable to a diaper ornament, as
shown at (6). There is no limit to the extent to which these

(6)
FIG. 73.
forms may be varied, or combined with plant forms, to pro-
duce any given variety of ornament.
68. Fishes in Ornament.—The use of fishes in orna-
mental art is somewhat limited. With the exception of the
dolphin, we have very few historic representations of this
class of animal; but, in order that there may be a thorough
understanding of the details that must be considered in the
designing of any fish-like form, there is illustrated in Fig. 74
a typical fish, with the
(a)
five principal fins that
exist in nearly every
(c)
example, though they
may be varied in form.
At (a) is the dorsal
fin; at (b), the ventral
fin; and at (c), the pec-
toral fin. The tail is technically known as the caudal fin, and
the fin between the ventral and the tail is termed the anal fin.
Each of these fins is developed to a greater or less degree
in different fishes, in some of which it is divided so as to pre-
sent two fins. For instance, it is not unusual to find two or
more dorsal or two or more ventral or anal fins on one fish,
and in rendering them for conventional treatment, it would
be well to bear in mind a certain type of fish from which to
study, and to preserve the characteristics of this fish in the
rendering
FIG. 74.


5
55
$ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
For instance, we have at (a), Fig. 75, a fish wherein the
pectoral fins are so enlarged as to appear almost as wings,
>
(a)
(c)
(b)
FIG. 75.
while at (6) and (c) are two conventional renderings typify-
ing the characteristics of this fish but reducing it to a purely
ornamental form.
69. Snakes and Lizards.-There is no limit to which
this can be carried, not only with fish
but with snakes and lizards, as the
latter sometimes introduces an ele-
ment of frivolity and relieves the
seriousness of a purely conventional
and constructive composition.
Ser-
pents have always formed a favorite
type for the design of all periods, not
only in flat-surface ornament but also
in the design of certain utensils,
where, as in Fig. 76, they are used to
form the handle of a ewer.
The combination of fishes and rep-
tiles gives, again, an opportunity to
1
Fig. 76.


56
SG
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
express conventionally the attributes of two animals, as was
done in the combination of reptiles and birds, or of birds
and animals, and the introduction of shells and shell-like
forms is not only highly appropriate in designs where ele-
ments from the sea are characteristic, but we find that shells
fit themselves admirably, with very little alteration in their
detail, to the purposes of the designer.
TIIE HUMAN FIGURE.
70. The Noblest Element of Design.--The human
figure is the highest and noblest of all the elements from
which the designer can draw ideas, and it is at the same
time the most difficult one to handle in any character of a
design. It does not lend itself to conventionalism and con-
ventional rendering as readily as do the vegetable and
animal forms, and the rendering of its proportion is more
difficult to learn than any other subject.
171. Proportions of the Human Figure. In order
that the human figure might possess uniformity in its pro-
portions, the Egyptians drew up a system by which different
members of the body could be maintained in relatively the
same ratio at all times, and it is believed that this same sys-
tem was adopted by the Greeks, although carried to greater
refinement. A Greek writer on the subject states that
"Nature has so composed the human body that the face
from the chin to the top of the forehead and roots of the
hair should be one-tenth the height, and that the palm of
the hand froin the wrist joint to the tip of the middle finger
should possess the same measurement; that from the chin to
the highest point of the head should be one-eighth the
height, and from the chest to the roots of the hair should be
one-sixth.”
Carrying out the measurements, and, at the same time,
calling the student's attention to a number of others, we
have the proportions as shown in Fig. 77. Here the fig-
ure is shown with one arm extended, drawn within the


$ 6
57
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
as
Els
ke
square a b c d, and the horizontal and vertical lines dividing
this square into sixteen smaller squares determine the posi-
tion of important parts of the body.
Thus, the distance be is one-fourth the height of the body,
and the line passes through the middle of the chest; the dis-
tance bf is one-eighth the height of the body, and the line
Is
ir
a
re
d
FIG. 177.
passes under the chin; the distance fg is one-tenth the
height of the body, and the line passes tangent to the chin
and through the roots of the hair; fh is one-sixteenth the
height of the body, and marks the distance of the eyes above
the chin; while fi is one thirty-second the height of the
body, and marks the dis nce of the bottom of the nose
above the chin. It will be here observed that the arms
extended horizontally measure the same distance across,


58
§ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
from the tip of the middle finger of one hand to that of the
other, a distance equal to the height of the body. The lines
across the elbow, thigh, knee, calf of the leg, etc. show the
breadth of each member in proportion to the height of the
body at the point marked.
It is not the intention of this description to give a com-
plete systematic set of rules for the drawing of the human
figure, but simply to indicate the general proportions by
which the student can outline a figure in a design and
keep it in relative proportion to the other elements of the
composition.
72. Harmony in Adaptation. In adapting figures to
design, it is of the utmost importance that they should har-
monize with the ornament, in its direction and line, with
which they are associated, as well as that the figures should
be so posed as to be in harmony with the space they are to
fill. Figures simply drawn to fill a space, without consider-
ation of their harmony with that space, have the appearance
of being stuck in the design instead of forming an integral
part of it. Therefore, to successfully handle the human
figure as an ornamental element, the student must not copy
his model exactly, but must idealize as much as possible, and
by constant study familiarize himself with the ornamental
lines that pervade the human structure.
The study of anatomy, to a general extent, will be of great
assistance but cannot be altogether relied on by the orna-
mentalist, as it is the surface forms and lines that concern
him mostly, and these do not altogether agree with the
under structure of the body.
The only way to become familiar with the details and
beauties of curves characteristic of the human figure is to
study them frequently and constantly and make drawings
from life. The general proportions and characteristics may
be learned by drawing from copy, but different poses and
arrangements can be acquired in no superficial study, and
the designer that finds the human form necessary in his
compositions must make a separate study of it and devote


86
59
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
nearly as much time to this branch as to all the rest of his
studies combined.
73. Fundamental Principles of Figure Design.-In
applying the human form in design, there are certain funda-
mental principles that must ever be recognized. For instance,
at (a), Fig. 78, is shown the outline of a figure resting the
>
7.
(à)
(6)
(c)
FIG. 78.
bulk of the weight on one leg, and it will be observed that
there is a general line of support, which is shown dotted
throughout the body, from the ankle to the neck, and that
about this line of support the body is disposed in almost
equal masses, as shown.
14. Another principle that must be considered is that,
in drawing the upper and lower limbs, one is likely to lay
too much detail upon their outline and shape rather than to
appreciate the value of these elements and the general lines
that govern their arrangement. For instance, though the


60
$ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
side view of the leg is composed of a series of convex lines,
these should not be given too much prominence over the
general proportion of the whole limb, as such a rendering
would give a result somewhat as shown at (a), Fig. 79; while
a closer observation of this whole member would lead to the
discovery that, notwithstanding the existence of convex
curves in the shin, the line in the front of the leg is con-
cave, as shown at (6), while that of the back is convex.
U
(
(a)
(c)
(d)
(e)
FIG. 79.
The same may be said of the forearm, which is frequently
drawn as shown at (c), Fig. 79, with the inside of the fore-
arm convex, in order to show the softness of the curves at
that point; but, as a matter of fact, if its general contour
were taken into account, it would be found to be concave,
as shown at (d), and a proper rendering of it would be more
as shown at (c).
The student should carefully analyze these details in
studying the human figure, not only as a guide to its truth-
ful representation, but also in order to study the details of
its conventionalism to arrive at a proper principle for its
general design--a principle that can be enlarged upon after
the main outlines have been established.
175. Difficulty of Free Rendering.–In considering
the application of the human figure to decorative purposes,
the same rules hold good as for decoration with foliage, but
its rendering is, of course, more difficult, as we cannot
handle it as freely as we do the plants. The human figure
has to be taken in its entirety, without exaggerating its


86
61
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
25,
he
le
пе
EX
1.
)
we
structure in any way (except for the purpose of caricature,
which does not enter into this course of study), and its
elementary lines must be thoroughly comprehended by the
student.
Details of the human figure have been combined with
animals, as has here-
tofore been shown
and illustrated, as in
the sphinx, etc., and
will presently
have occasion to give
other examples. The
combination of the
human figure with
foliage is character-
istic of many designs
of the Renaissance
period, where the
lower portions of the
body were permitted
to terminate in leaf-like forms and enter into the foliated
ornament of an arabesque or panel, as shown in Fig. 80.
FIG. 80.
76. This style of treatment probably grew out of a
development shown in Fig. 81, where at (a) is shown a half
figure that might appear more suitable to the filling of a
5
(®)
(0)
(c)
(0)
FIG. 81.
certain space than the full-length figure. The lower part of
the figure is covered by drapery, the elaboration of the folds


62
§ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
of which brings it to the form of a design shown at (6),
which further elaboration brings to a foliated form as at (c),
and subsequent renderings form a part of the figure as illus-
trated at (d). Attention is simply called to this here to illus-
trate a possible progress and growth and to show the ration-
alism of foliated terminations under certain circumstances.
7. Human Figures as Supports.—The use of the
human figure as a support in the place of a column, or occa-
7


ARQU
TATE
HEPSgeulABCTHUSIS EL REY
WILDL
ULVIN
MUMUM
TUTUMLAUMU
TWIN
XTUTVU
FIG. 82.
FIG. 88.
sionally, with artificial terminations, under brackets, is
shown in Fig. 82, which is taken from one of the caryatids


6
63
86
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
5.
used in the north porch of the Erechtheum at Athens,
while in Fig. 83 is shown a front and side view of the
Egyptian method of carving human figures as supports,
though, in the latter case, it will be observed that the figure
does not actually support any of the superimposed load, but
simply rests against a pier. The Greek artists, apparently
appreciating the inappropriateness of the human figure to
act as a column and permanently support something super-
imposed, increased the proportions
and gave them a
strong architectonic
feeling.
mem-
78. During the
Renaissance period,
the use of figures as
supporting
bers was very much
misunderstood, and
the combination of
these elements with
the attemptat grace-
fulness of line led
to such misconcep-
tions as shown in
Fig. 84, where the
curved dotted line
shows the real line
of support through
the figures, and, at
the same time, gives
expression of
weakness to the
detail as
FIG. 85.
tectural member.
A comparison of this with the Greek figure shown in Fig. 82
will readily illustrate the error made by the more modern
designers.
an
an archi-
FIG. 84.


64
§ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
The use of half figures, called termini, is characteristic
of the Renaissance period, an example of which is shown in
Fig. 85. No great load
should be superim-
posed upon them, in
order that their appli-
cation may be harmo-
nious.

9. Application
of Wings. In the
application of wings
and feathers to the
human figure, Egyp-
tian art usually at-
tached the wings
below the arms, as
shown in Fig. 67,
while the Assyrians
usually attached them
behind the shoulders,
as shown in Fig. 86,
and, although the latter method is the less rational one
from an anatomical structure, it is the one that survives at
FIG. 86.

درررررر
FIG. 87.


6
65
$ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
ic
in
id
the present day, and is usually used in modern work.
Fig. 87 is taken from Greek vase paintings, and shows the
Greeks' idea of wing treatment; while the Renaissance
example shown in Fig. 69 possesses an exaggerated outline,
the curves of which in no way appear to agree with the
hidden structure, though the development of the wings in
the place of arms is much more rational than the form
shown in Fig. 87.
i
1
2
s
80. Fabulous Creatures. Many fabulous crea-
tures—partly human and partly animal--have been created
during the periods of grotesque art, and to Greek art we are
indebted for most of these mythical creatures, as their cen-
tral idea was the glorification of the human form. Greek
mythology had so many
deities representative of
different characteristics
and ideas that separate
gods and goddesses, illus-
trative of separate con-
ceptions, were indispensa-
ble; and not only were lit-
erature, arts, and sciences
typified by a form of
human being, but the
seas, the rivers, the moun-
tains, the woods, the trees,
and the rocks were all
representatively depicted
in some ideal form, and
even the natural devices
and calamities of man-
kind had some symbol
FIG. 88.
in human guise.
When these, however, were insufficient to properly express
their ideas, the human form was combined with that of a bird
or animal, or some reptile, in order to complete the symbol-
ism as far as possible. Therefore, in their personification
1


66
§ 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
of the free untrammeled woodland life, they gave to the
figure of a man the legs and horns of a goat, to intensify the
idea of wild freedom, and as a result we have the mytholog-
ical forms of the satyr and Pan illustrated in Fig. 88.
81. Greek Sphinx.--The Egyptian sphinx, being sym-
bolic of the combination of intellect, wisdom, and power, is
represented with the human head and the lion's body, as
shown in Fig. 59; while the Greek sphinx differs in form
from that of the Egyptian, as it is usually represented as
being of the female sex and possessing wings. This sphinx
by the Greeks appears to have been adopted as the personi-
fication of malignity combined with mystery, and to her is
accredited the practice of propounding riddles to those that
visited her and tearing to pieces all that failed to solve them.
The gracefulness of the creature's form, however, caused it
to become a favorite as an ornamental element, and it is
used frequently in mural decoration and for the adornment
of bronze tripods
and other devices
purely of an orna-
mental character.

82. Centaur.
The combination
of man and horse,
called the cen-
taur, was repre-
sentative of a race
of warriors cele-
brated in Greek
mythology for
their horseman-
ship. Their skill
was so great that
the rider and horse
appeared as one; hence, the development of the idea shown
in Fig. 89. A similar device was the combined form of a
FIG. 89.
1


j
67
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
3
woman and a horse, or, more frequently, of a woman and a
deer, typifying the huntress, or a denizen of the forest.
83. Medusa.—The head of Medusa, shown in Fig. 90,
is emblematic and typical of the sensations of extreme fear
and terror. According
to Greek mythology,
Medusa was the most
celebrated of the Gorgon
sisters, who were origi-
nally priestesses of Athe-
na, but having broken
her vows of celibacy and
ultimately marrying Po-
seidon, she was punished
by the goddess Athena,
by having each of her
beautiful wavy locks
transformed into a ven-
omous serpent, and her
head thus assumed the horrible aspect depicted in the illus-
tration,
FIG. 90.
7
84. License in Designing the Human Figure.
Thus, the human figure is seen to have pervaded certain
classes of ornamental design throughout all ages, but has
been altered or modified in order to suit it to characteristic
purposes and places, or its details better arranged to har-
monize with other elements of ornament.
The restrictions that influence and largely govern the use
of certain ornamental forms in conventionalized design
must all be considered of equal importance in the applica-
tion of the human figure, and a truthful portrayal or
realistic rendering is permissible only under the rarest
circumstances of absolutely monumental work.


||


7
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN PRACTICAL
DESIGN.
1. The principles that are involved in the production of
good repeating patterns are repetition, contrast, and variety;
balance, symmetry, and unity; tangential junction; radiation
and proportion; and growth, stability, repose, and fitness.
2. Repetition.—Repetition in many respects is the most
important principle in textile design, as an all-over repeat-
ing pattern implies in itself the idea of repetition, and whereas
there are many all-over designs that do not repeat, they are
confined to hand work, such as rugs, embroideries, and other
products beyond the scope of the designer for the loom or
the press.
3. Alternation.—In connection with repetition we have
alternation, wherein the repetition consists of a form that
WOTE
FIG. 1.
duplicates itself alternately with another form, as shown in
Fig. 1. Alternation is very useful in some cases when it is
For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page.


2
§ 7
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
used to vary repetition and avoid monotony. It produces
a slight feeling of contrast combined with a feeling of con-
tinuous variation, but it must not be confounded with the
principles of contrast and variety, which are separate and
distinct.
4. Contrast and Variety.--The feeling of contrast is
best expressed in a design wherein the
linear elements meet or cross each other
nearly at right angles, as shown in Fig. 2,
and contrast is best effected by an arrange-
ment of lines that brings about this con-
dition, as shown in Fig. 3, which is an
ancient Greek pattern wherein this prin-
FIG. 2.
ciple dominates the entire design, all the
lines being arranged to join each other nearly at right
angles.
The feeling of contrast is not confined entirely to designs
Se

FIG. 3.
of a rigid character, and Fig. 4 illustrates an example wherein
this principle is carefully handled in a design of a soft and
flowing character. At a will be observed the main flowing


1
3
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
3
j
line broken by the scroll that crosses it at right angles,
and, therefore, stands not only in contrast with it but also
assists in giving a feeling of variety. Variety is the very
essence of a design and
the principle that gives it
brightness and prevents its
monotony, and though the
variety of design must not
be so extensive as to rob it
of its feeling of repose,
there must
be
sufficient
change to rest the eye from the observation of any par-
ticular form,

FIG. 4.
5. Symmetry and Balance.-Symmetry and balance
are principles that exist when the arrangement of ornament
is such that the details on both sides of a line or point are
FIG. 5.
FIG. 6.
exactly repeated or duplicated, as in Fig. 5, or are of equal
value, as in Fig. 6, the former being a symmetrical element,
the latter a balanced element.
6. Tangential Junction.—Tangential junction of lines,
as we already know, is a detail depending on the close
observation of nature, and is illustrated in several forms
in Fig. 7. Radiation is also a principle that we have


4
g
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
already considered, and whether that radiation takes place
from a point or a line is
a matter to be decided
according to the character
of the ornament. Growth
is another principle derived
from observation of plant
form, and the curves exist-
ing in long slender leaves,
such as that of the cattail
and flag, or even blades of grass, are expressive of this
principle.
FIG. 7.
17. Subordination is a principle that must be introduced
into certain parts of a design in order to prevent monotony;
there must be principal features and subordinate features,
and if every detail is brought into equal prominence there
will be neither contrast nor variety. In every good design
there should always be a principal feature, such as a bright
flower or group of flowers or of leaves, or of some other
striking object, and the rest of the design should sink into
the background and take a secondary place.
8. Fitness.—The question of fitness is simply the appli-
cation of a certain class of design to certain materials. Of
course, it is evident that the style of design that would be
suitable for a carpet would be utterly unsuitable for a printed
cotton goods or a velvet, and would be out of place for
printing on a fine silk. Then, there is always the considera-
tion of fashion-a subject that every designer is bound to
be familiar with and governed by, although his good sense
may at times be opposed to it; but designs are made for
commercial purposes and the designer must bow to the
prevailing fashions even though his artistic nature rebel.
Therefore, a design should always be thought out or men-
tally planned at first, and its style, scale, and character
suited and fitted to the material and purpose in which it is
to be carried out and for which it is to serve.


87
5
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
9. Proportion.-In connection with fitness we come to
the principle of proportion, which is most difficult to decide
upon, as, under it, the designer must make up his mind as to
the relation between the lengths and breadths of the repeats,
the scale of the pattern, etc.
1
10. Unity.—The last principle to be considered, per-
haps, is unity, and in this we must sum up all the previous
ones. However well the plan may be balanced and however
well the natural formations and growths may be observed
and adhered to, and thoroughly adapted though the design
may be in scale and proportion to the material in which it is
executed, it is of little value unless all these principles unite
in a characteristic whole that prevents any one of them
becoming unduly prominent or makes it appear that they
are not bound together inseparably.
>
PLANNING THE DESIGN.
11. Characteristic of a Design. It is always well to
have a clear idea of what the main characteristics of a design
are to be before the actual work of arrangement is begun.
These characteristics will be influenced largely by the mate-
rial purpose of the finished fabric as well as the trend of the
prevailing fashions. If, for instance, the design is to be
woven in tapestry or other hanging, then it may be bold and
rich, emphasized by the arrangement of strong and contrast-
ing colors. But, on the other hand, if the design is for a
dress fabric, it must be made to a much smaller scale and
the colors be much more subdued. In the case of a dress
fabric, it should always be borne in mind that the scale
must be kept down, as some one is going to wear it; and,
there being a comparative uniformity in the sizes of various
people, we have a definite scale to work to. It has been
shown that the most convenient size for a repeat in dress
patterns is about 41 inches, as the folds of the dress and the
numerous seams would destroy the effect of the repeat if it
were made much larger.


6
87
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
12. Geometrical Basis.-It must always be borne in
mind that it is absolutely necessary that the plan of any
design that is to be reproduced by mechanical means, such
as a printing block, must always have a geometrical basis,
and the repeat must be governed by a regular geometrical
figure. This figure is called the unit, and it is the govern-
ing shape of the unit of the pattern; it must always be
enclosed in itself, or in a multiple of itself, in a square or
oblong whose dimensions correspond with the dimensions
of the printing block from which the design is to be
reproduced.
This may be more clearly understood by reference to
Fig. 8 (a), where the unit of the design and the size of
T
(a)
(b)
:
(d)
(e)
Fig. 8.
the repeat are identical, the small dark square indicating the
unit after which the cards would have to be cut in weaving,
and the dotted exterior square showing the size of the block
from which the pattern would be produced in printing. At
(d), however, the lozenge shape contains the unit of the
design, and the complete repeat is composed of one whole
diamond and four quarters, which together, as shown at
abcd, are contained in an oblong, this oblong being the
repeat for which the cards would be cut in weaving. At (6)
is shown the manner in which this oblong would be treated


PRACTICAL DESIGN.
7 생
​in a square if it were intended to reproduce the design
by printing, the square there representing the printing
block; while at (c), (c), and (f) are shown the methods
of treating such forms as the triangle, hexagon, and ogee
shape, which are considered in the same manner as was the
lozenge.
}
1
13. Unit and Repeat. It is important that the student
should always keep clearly in his mind the difference between
the unit of a design and the repeat, and not confound one
with the other. A comparison of all the details of Fig. 8
will show that the units are always made up of regular
geometrical figures that fit together, leaving no interstices
between them. This, of course, is a necessary characteristic
that the unit must possess.
The diamond, the square, and
the oblong are the most useful shapes; but on general prin-
ciples the lozenge or diamond is the best of all.
14. Defective Design.—As said before, it is necessary
that a clear and definite idea should be possessed when a
design is started, on which the subsequent building up can
depend. In Fig. 9 are shown two renderings, of the same
style of ornament intended for the same purpose, though the
one at (b) in no way fulfils the conditions.
It is assumed that this is a design for a stripe in some
piece of goods, and an irregular wavy line is drawn, from
which spring a number of leaves and flowers, regardless of
any preconceived order, except that the design must repeat
beyond the lines ab and cd. The line, the leaves, and the
flowers have no apparent relation to one another, nor to the
border of the panel itself, and the three flowers at o acci-
dentally fall together and form a straight line across the
stripe, making a very awkward accentuation at the end of
each repeat-a characteristic of repeating designs that the
designer usually tries to conceal.
1
15. Remedy for Defects.-At (a), however, the same
elements are used and show that, by a little consideration,


8
87
PRACTICAL DESIGN
DESIGN.
an arrangement can be obtained whereby the same details
may be put together to form a satisfactory repeating pattern.
The main stem runs through the ornament in the form of a
wave line as before, and the repeating portion is limited
between the lines e f and gh arranged similarly to a b and

fa
6
g
d
(5)
FIG. 9.
cd of (6). The main stem at the points k and k is equi-
distant from each side of the border lines, and the scroll
springing from the main stem is drawn in such a way
that it will break this stem twice and thereby destroy its
monotony.
The flowers are placed on alternate sides and grouped in
bunches of three, and a similar grouping, though different
in its arrangement, is maintained in relation to the leaves.
Close study of the design will show that the leaves and
flowers ter inate about the same distance from the outside
border, and this detail, taken with the evenness of spacing
of the wave line, tends to give a solidity and steadiness to


$7
9
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
the design and adds to the impression that the floral orna-
ment could not readily be removed without impairing its
appearance.
16. The Parent Stem.-In Fig. 10 is shown a surface,
or all-over, pattern somewhat of the same character as Fig. 9,
the limitations of which are precisely the same as those of the
border. The principal line, or the main stem, is drawn first,
and once located, the designer must determine whether this
line is to form an essential detail of his design or simply to
be a starting element. In many cases, the parent stem is
inserted into a design solely to give some logical growth and
provide some element that the flowers and leaves can spring
from, but in no way forms an important part of the design
itself, and might be removed without impairing the design
in the least. In this case, however, the parent stem is one
of the most important factors and must be put in with care
and thought.
17. Principal Feature.--In all designs, or at least in
nearly all, there should be some feature that by its promi-
nent color, shape, or size is more prominent than the others,
and it should be so placed that it will immediately attract
the eye. Such being the case, it is necessary that the means
by which this attraction to the eye is attained must be con-
sidered before the design is started. A design without a
leading feature is uninteresting and tiresome, and it natu-
rally follows that if this leading feature is so important, it
is necessary that it should be the most beautiful and the
most interesting part of the design.
In the present case, the repeat is first decided on and the
wave line is carefully studied with the idea that it is to be a
prominent detail in the finished design. Its curve must be
graceful, of good proportions, and so arranged that it will
not interfere inharmoniously with its adjacent curves in
the other repeats.
The four large leaves in the corner of
each repeat being intended for prominent features, should
also be carefully drawn and placed in position. In general


10
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
practice it would be found advisable to sketch the design in
outline at first, as shown in Fig. 10 at (a), because it is likely
to be modified after the design is worked out and it would
be a waste of time to try and work out the finished details
at once.
The next detail in the preparation of the design is the
conventional flower in the center of the repeat; this should
go in next, and it would seem advisable to place the flower
at some point central between the four large leaves. The
necessity of placing this flower in a central position can be
readily seen by referring to Fig. 11, where the design is the
sanie as that shown in Fig. 10, except that the flower is not

لی
(a)
(b)
FIG. 10.
in the center but thrown to one side, over one set of the
leaves. The effect of this can be readily seen, that inas-
much as the flower is removed from the center, the character
of the pattern ceases to be of the all-over type, and resolves
itself into a series of stripes. This does not absolutely spoil
the design, as it would be considered all right if a striped
pattern were wanted; but when an all-over pattern is wanted,
this treatment is certainly all wrong.
After the flower is


$7
11
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
drawn in outline, the rest of the figure is blocked in as
shown in Fig. 10 (6).
1
18. Effect of the Repeat.-In all cases in laying out
a design, it is advisable to draw more than one repeat, as
the student can then judge somewhat better the appear-

60
>
FIG. 11.
ance of it when multiplied in the loom or the press. Few
but the most experienced designers can judge the prob.
able effect and know how to avoid faults that are likely
to appear, unless several repeats are laid out in each
direction.
2


12
§ 17
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
Having considered the preliminary arrangement of the
plan for the repeat itself, we will now take up the different
methods of securing this repeat, and consider the advantages
of each case.
DROP PATTERN.
19. Unit of the Pattern.—The drop pattern takes
its name from a characteristic that requires the unit to be
dropped one-half its length in order that adjacent members

FIG. 12.
may properly match, and it has been suggested that the
lozenge shape is best adapted as the figure constituting the
unit of any pattern. In fact, though this shape is used as


§ 7
13
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
i
the basis for nearly all repeating diaper patterns, it is
almost indispensable in the construction of the drop pat-
tern. Every practical drop pattern, if properly analyzed,
will be found with the lozenge as its fundamental form,
though, as a rule, this shape is concealed in the superfluity
of ornament.
In Fig. 12 the lozenge shape does not appear at all,
although it can be easily shown that it is the govern-
الكوسا
FIG. 13.
ing principle of this design. If we join the four central
points of the four large five-lobed leaves, the resulting
figure is lozenge-shaped, and a similar figure would be pro-
duced by joining any four repeating points in the design,
as shown in Fig. 13.
1


14
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
20. The Enclosing Rectangle.-Notwithstanding the
fact that this lozenge shape is the governing principle of so
many designs, it must not be forgotten that the practical
working out of the pattern in the loom, or the printing of
1
Wild
FIG. 14.
the pattern in the press, requires that the design shall be
enclosed within a rectangle, and the amount that has to
appear in the design will be one complete lozenge and four
quarter-lozenges in order to make up the rectangle. An
exception to this rule, however, will be found in center ties
and roll carpets, which will be considered later on.
21. Symmetrical Designs.-Where a design is sym-
metrical on both sides of a given center line, as shown in


cos
15
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
2
Fig. 14, it is only necessary to put half the lozenge on the
design paper, as it is possible to arrange the loom to produce
two symmetrical halves from
one set of pattern cards. For
instance, in Fig. 14, the actual a
amount of design worked out
would simply be the rect-
angle abcd, the other half
being produced automatically
through the arrangement of
the loom.
This is also applicable in
the weaving of fabrics whose
design is not based on the
drop pattern, but is of a
symmetrical character, as
shown in Fig. 15, which is
a Gothic design of the six-
teenth century,fand does not
drop in its repeat, the por-
tion abcd being the only
part of the design necessary to execute, its duplication and
reversing being accomplished when cutting the cards for
the loom.

d
FIG. 15.
22. Drop Pattern in Carpet Designs.—The drop
pattern is most advantageous in its application to roll
carpets. Different kinds of carpet are of different widths,
but 27 inches is the standard for most styles, and by using a
drop pattern it is possible to make the width of the repeat
twice this, or 54 inches. This can best be understood by
referring to Fig. 16, which is a carpet design in which the
drop pattern has been used.
The distance ab represents 27 inches, or one width of
the carpet, and the rectangle abcd represents the amount
necessary to be worked out in the design in order to cut
the jacquards properly, and includes one complete repeat.
In the center of the line bc we find the same repeat


16
$7
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
dropped at ef gh, this rectangle representing another
width of carpet roll that fits the first so as to make a
perfectly connected design. Thus it will be seen that the
same points do not repeat in this design in less than twice
the width of one roll, as may be seen at d and k, where

220
FIG. 16.
away from it.
the flower at d is completed in the section at k 54 inches
If the plan were adopted for a side-to-side
repeat, these forms would repeat every 27 inches horizon-
tally; but by means of the drop pattern we can, without
additional labor or expense, produce a carpet design of
apparently twice this width, and this same idea can be
carried out in wall paper.


§ ng
17
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
a
le
23. Waste in Cutting.–Another advantage in the use
of the drop pattern for carpets is that the chance of waste is
considerably reduced during the process of cutting and
fitting the widths together to suit the size of a room. This
can better be understood by referring to Fig. 17, where at (a)
the drop pattern is shown as its repeats would recur in a
3
ce
e
a
h
e
(a)
b
с
e
(b)
FIG. 17.
room; and at (b) the side-to-side repeating pattern appears
as laid out upon the same room. This room is assumed to
be 13 ft. 6 in. X 15 ft., the narrower dimension requiring just
six widths of 27-inch carpet to cover it.
It will be seen at (a), that, beginning at the upper
left-hand corner and cutting off from the roll what is
required for the length of the room, we will have four
complete repeats and a little over, and in replacing this
width to the right of this and laying off what is required
for the second length of the room, there will be a little
waste at each end, as shown at b and c.
In the saine
manner, the same amount of waste occurs at de and half
as much at fg, while the breadths between, at I and i,
are cut to exactly over the room in the same
the first one.
Looking now at the other arrangement at (6), we have the
manner as


18
$7
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
same space carpeted with a pattern that does not drop, but
matches from side to side, and it will be readily seen that
the waste, as indicated at bc de and f, is considerably more
than the previous case, amounting to very nearly 4 yards.
Of course, the proportions of this room are such as to make
this rather an extreme case; but the fact remains that there
is less waste with the drop pattern, because the repeats fit at
half the height, and the greatest possible waste ir. any one
room length of roll will be half the length of a repeat, while
with a side-to-side repeating pattern nearly a whole repeat
of waste is possible.
On this account it is advantageous to keep the length of
the repeat short whether the design drops or not, for with
a long repeat there is much more waste in cutting than
where the repeat is moderate. In Fig. 16 the repeat is
entirely too long for economy, and had the lozenge form
been turned to a horizontal position it would have been
much more advantageous, inasmuch as the effort has been
in the first place to make the repeat extend over two
widths of carpet, and there is no good reason why the
repetition in a vertical direction should be of any greater
extent.
24. Planning and Drawing the Design.-It is always
best to construct the lozenge shape so that its vertical and
horizontal dimensions are equal to the vertical and hori-
zontal dimensions of a full repeat, and then to sketch in the
principal details and general lines. The leaf forms can then
be filled in so that the upper right line of the lozenge will
cut these details in exactly the same form and position as
the lower left-hand line, and the same may be said of the
upper left-hand line and the lower right-hand line. In gen-
eral practice, the best way of doing this is to sketch the form
roughly on transparent paper or tracing cloth, with a soft
pencil. These forms may then be gone over with a harder
pencil on the reverse side and the pencil markings trans-
ferred almost exactly uniform to any part. In the frequent
references that we will make to tracing paper hereafter, we


$17
19
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
will in all cases mean simply the drawing or tracing of a
design on transparent paper and the transferring of the
design by means of that tracing to other parts of the draw-
ing. In this way the details of the general sketch may be
multiplied and extended freely in every direction. When
so multiplied and the forms appear to be well arranged
and distributed, an exact drawing can be made by means
of tracing paper and everything carefully drawn in its
proper place.
25. Striped Effect in Drop Patterns.-In the true
drop pattern, the drop is always considered as half the height
of the repeat; but it is not unusual to have a drop pattern of
less than this, as, for instance, one-third the height of the
repeat. This is shown in Fig. 18 at (a), while at (6) the

kdrop
(a)
(6)
(c)
FIG. 18.
an
drop is only one-quarter of the height; but the result is
never as satisfactory, as
even distribution is not so
readily acquired and the comparative width of the repeat
is greater.
The bringing of the principal elements so much closer
together is also likely to produce a striped effect as shown at


20
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
ab in Fig. 18 (a) and at cd in Fig. 18 (6); whereas in (c), where
the drop is half the height of the repeat, there is little or no
tendency to get a striped effect, as the principal elements of
the design are evenly distributed. The shorter the drop the
stronger is the tendency to produce a pronounced stripe and
increase the width of the repeat, and, therefore, the more
expensive to work out without any compensating advantages
regarded of value as ornament. For this reason it should be
borne in mind that drop patterns of less than half the repeat
are to be avoided if an even distribution of ornament is
desired, and the tendency of any part of the ornament to
run in stripes is to be obviated.
TURN-OVER METHOD.
26. Advantage of the Turn Over.—Another method
of planning a design is called the turn-over method, and
for many reasons is very desirable. With this method of
planning, faults can be avoided with greater certainty and
the design is given an appearance of greater complexity, as
the repeats alternating to the right and left are less evident
to the eye than when running in but one direction. This is
a most useful system of planning, and, when properly stud-
ied, a design can be executed in which faults are least likely
to occur; but the method is a most difficult one for the stu-
dent to master, because when the unit of one repeat is
reversed or turned over, the two units are likely to overlap
in some of their details.
27. Planning the Turn Over. -In Fig. 19 is shown
a turn-over design, with the geometrical constructions and
the main lines on which the whole is based. The first
consideration is the proportions of the repeat, shown at
abcd, containing but 1 unit and 4 quarter-units surround-
ing it. This constitutes the geometrical construction of our
design.
The next consideration is the character of the design itself,
and if we assume the ogee outline as shown in this case, we


$7
21
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
7
must divide the top corner of the repeat into four equal parts,
at e, f, g, h, and draw in the ogee line fh, in order to get any
degree of accuracy. In fact, all that is required of this line
is the portion from f to i, the other half being traced from
it, the two parts being exactly the same. The other four
portions may be traced in a similar manner.

2
o
FIG. 19.
Next, the large flower in the center of each repeat should
be placed in position, and care must be taken that each
alternate horizontal series of repeats is turned in a different
direction-one whole series toward the right, and another
whole series toward the left as shown—as no other arrange-
ment will produce the effect.
.


22
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
In the first blocking out of the design, much time will be
saved if the main features are sketched with a single line as
shown in Fig. 19, where the oval shape stands for the flower
in the center of the unit. When these oval shapes have been
repeated a sufficient number of times, the lines of the ogee
at k should be broken away from their regular direction,
and the small flowers in each unit drawn upon these
branchings.
28. Elimination of Faults.-By this time the design
has been advanced sufficiently to enable the designer to look
over it carefully and see that none of its details is likely to
overlap or go wrong in any way. It is, however, almost
certain that some detail will overlap another when the orna-
ment is first drawn and turned over on the adjacent dia-
mond, and if such overlapping occurs, of course the design
must be altered. If, however, the design develops satis-
factorily, the detail of the principal element in the center
may be repeated in the four corners, at a, b, c, and d, and
then the flowers distributed along the line kk may be
sketched in place.
Even now though the design is finished in the last detail,
it is wise to look over it thoroughly, as it is almost sure to
require some alterations, lest when turned over one portion
will come into conflict with another; and the line where
the first lozenge joins the four adjacent ones may be so
thickly ornamented as to appear heavy, or it may be so
sparse that it requires filling. It is always at the points
where these units join that the most skill is required in the
arrangement.
29. Turn-Over-and-Drop Patterns.-In some of its
details the turn-over pattern is not unlike the drop; it requires
1 unit and 4 quarter-units to make up the whole repeat, and
the unit contained in the whole lozenge is both turned over
and dropped, so that in making the design it is necessary
to trace off the first lozenge, reverse the tracing paper, and
drop it to the adjacent lower one. In fact, were it not for a


1
23
$ 7
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
be
needless lengthening of the name, this style of design could
better be termed the turn-over-and-drop pattern.
as
er
en
гее
se
30. Avoidance of Faults. — Turn-over designs are
liable to the same faults as are designs that go only in
one direction, but not to such a marked degree. This
partial avoidance of faulty lining is one of the advantages,
as the turning over of the unit causes a zigzag effect rather
than a line effect. An illustration of this effect is given in
Fig. 20, where at (a) a turn-over pattern is shown based on
the wave line, and its unit is indicated by the lozenge shape
In
to

ost
a.
En
is-
der
nd
be
Lil
,
to
on
-re
SO
Am
SO
(a)
(6)
ts
he
FIG. 20.
ts
ES
ad
in the center. Looking at this rectangular repeat, it would
be difficult for even an expert designer to predict that the
whole design, when printed and many times repeated, would
appear faulty; but this faultiness becomes very evident when
the design is executed and a large surface spread out before
the eye as shown at (6). If the design shown at (6) be held
at arm's length and the eyes half closed, a white zigzag line
will be perceived running systematically through the design
from top to bottom, as marked at a'aa, etc.
er
гу
d
a


24
şay
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
This could easily have been avoided by the addition of
another leaf in each blank, or by twisting around the little
spray of conventional buds at the top so that they would fill
In fact, if the design is worked out enough to
present such faults they can usually be easily remedied;
but they are very difficult to discern from one or even
two or three adjacent repeats.
the gaps.
2
OTHER METHODS.
31. Advantage of a Knowledge of Numerous
Methods.-In order that designs may have a variety and
that the work of each designer may not be stamped too
much with his personal characteristics, it is necessary that
he should be familiar with a number of different ways
of
planning a design, and whenever he sees the work of another
designer he should study the system and analyze the geo-
metrical elements of its construction. Having determined
upon the geometrical basis, he should look for the principal
spots, and then the secondary features, and the system of
connecting them.
32. Systems of Construction.—The choice of geo-
metrical systems of construction on which a plan can be
built are very limited, as for mechanical duplication it must
be either a square or other rectangle, or some geometrical
figure that will exactly fit inside a rectangle, and thereby
repeat. The latter condition permits us to arrange a plan
that is apparently irregular, provided we can fit all of its
repeat within the given rectangle; but care must be exer-
cised under these circumstances to avoid an irregular or
unsteady appearance. Thus, it is understood why the
square, rectangle, and lozenge shape are the fundamental
bases of nearly every design, and the endless variety of
every class of repeating ornament that we meet can be
traced to a rearrangement of these three simple geometrical
figures.


cos
25
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
f
1
0
l;
n
33. Selection of System of Design.-The selection
of the system of construction should not be made arbitrarily,
but should always be decided after mature thought as to
which would bring about the best result. The square pro-
duces a repeat in the same distance both vertically and hori-
zontally, and the rectangle gives us a repeat greater in one
direction than the other, according to which way it is turned;

IS
id
00
at
of
er
0.
of
бе
st
al
Y
11
FIG. 21.
CS
1
e
1
f
the lozenge can be made to produce repeats in the same
proportion as the square or rectangle, but produces an
entirely different effect, as shown in Fig. 21, where the same
design is worked out on the system of the square as is
worked out on the system of the lozenge in Fig. 22. The
former is much more severe than the latter, and the limits
of the repeat are much more definitely marked. There is a
tendency, too, toward the expression of a horizontal and
1


26
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
vertical system of lining in Fig. 21 that is not so apparent in
Fig. 22. It is therefore seen that for some conditions the

FIG. 22.
square might be preferred to the diamond shape, while for
other conditions the latter is preferable.
34. Variety Possible. - On these geometrical bases
an unlimited variety of designs may be developed from
a simple sprig or spray to most elaborate combinations
of interlaced wave lines and ogee forms. These may be
roughly divided into spots, powderings, connected forms,
or stripes, in which the repeats are made continuous by
structural lines though the pattern may be made up entirely
of geometrical forms.
35. Simple Spot Designs.-In Fig. 23 is shown a spot
design, the plan of which is based on the diamond, as is
very evident, and shows how valuable an arrangement the


şir
27
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
1
e
diamond form is to us when much ornament is not a neces-
sity. It should always be borne in mind that ornament
is intended to beautify a material, and if the material will
look better with very little ornament upon it and plenty
of ground or bare space, the designer must confine himself
to just so much ornament as the fabric appears to demand.
c0000
Whe
or
FIG. 23.
es
s
be
5,
y
y
Then, for some purposes, an elaborate design is unsuitable,
so that too much ornament will vulgarize and spoil a fabric
rather than enhance its beauty.
It is in such cases that
the spot character of design, as shown in Fig. 23, is most
useful, especially when the ground of the material requires
only sufficient ornament to break its monotony, or where the
material is to be used in small quantities.
et
s
36. Influence of Fashions. The prevailing fashions
influence this condition of design to a great extent, especially
in regard to wearing apparel. Sometimes the demand is for
3


28
PRACTICAL DESIGN

esour
03
0
|
|
3
3
M/
R
的
​23
FIG. 4.
FIG. 25.


PRACTICAL DESIGN.
29
It may,
spots, sometimes for elaborately figured goods, and some-
times there is an occasion for a medium between the two, as
shown in Fig. 24, which is a design based on an elaboration
of the spot, but giving a spot and powdered effect.
Fig. 25 shows a style of design that is used very largely in
dress fabrics; its simple treatment renders it very suitable
and to a large extent obviates the danger of faulty lining,
and the design is very effective and easy to construct. It is
arranged upon the diamond plan, as shown by the dotted
lines in Fig. 26, the largest
spray being drawn first in any
of the unit forms, and then
turned over and dropped as
before explained.
under some conditions, be suffi-
cient to trace simply the four
corners of the repeat and then
trace in the principal sprig to
fill the center of the lozenge
shape and occupy any bare
space that may appear. Under
these circumstances, it is wise
to turn the tracing paper back ),
and add the sprig to the larger
one and then insert the small
sprig in other repeats just as the large sprig was put in at
the four corners.
Where it is desirous that there should be but little of the
ground broken with ornament, a little running vine may be
used as the basis of the design, arranged in sprays somewhat
as shown in Fig. 27. The construction here is very simple,
and though the sprigs run in a lozenge shape, the pattern is
constructed upon the system of the square, as shown in
Fig. 28.
Olot
ro
FIG. 26.
37. Irregular Units.-A design in which the forms
are connected is of much more importance to the designer
than a simple sprig pattern such as shown in Figs. 25 and 27,


30
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
and is naturally much more intricate to execute. The struc-
tural basis of the design shown in Fig. 29 is an irregular
lozenge shape different from anything we have heretofore
considered, as shown in Fig. 30.
The simplest way of constructing this design is by means
of vertical and horizontal lines, the latter drawn at equal
FIG. 27.
distances, as at abc, Fig. 30, and the vertical ones alternating
with a large and small space as at de, ef, etc.
The two
large flowers may then be placed in the upper corner of a
rectangle of the repeat as at a and the other large flower at
the intersection of the vertical and horizontal line, below
this rectangle, as at h. The connecting lines and secondary
features may then be sketched in and drawn as shown. This


$7
31
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
1
design is a turn-over pattern, and though irregular, it is
constructed on the same principles as all turn-over designs,
and when completed its principal line is a vertical wave, as
may be seen in Fig. 29.
38. A Ball Pattern.-In Fig. 31 is what might be
considered a ball pattern, as the ball-shaped flower is one
N
V
1
L
FIG. 28.
of the most prominent features. The design is apparently
much more complicated in its effect than it really is. It is a
regular turn-over pattern, and where the skeleton outline of
the figure is shown it will be observed that there is a con-
tinuous flowing stem from which the flowers branch alter-
nately to the right and left. On these branches are arranged


gy
33
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
five clover leaves, and the main feature of the design consists
of the arrangement of these flowers and leaves in order to
give the impression of simplicity and at the same time pro-
duce an all-over effect, without expressing in a pronounced
degree the system of its arrangement.
39.
In Fig. 32 we have a turn-over pattern on the dia-
mond basis and it conceals the simplicity of its development
through the possession of three equally prominent features.

>
bil
bobook
lin
>
kos
obol
doch
FIG. 31.
The circular flowers, for instance, are arranged on the dia-
mond plan, and the other two features are intersected in a
regular order, while the stem oscillates from side to side,
sending off alternately to the right and left a scroll with a
bud or a blossom. The effect of this treatment, simple
though it is, is exceedingly pleasing and expresses the variety
that can be attained by the simple geometrical arrangements
that underlie it. Simplicity in the arrangement of a design
should always be the aim of the designer, as a pleasing effect


34
87
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
can be more easily developed thereby; while complicity alone
is never pleasing and is much more difficult to make so.
40. Fig. 33 is a design based on the parallelogram, the
corners of which are to be found in the centers of the four
similar flowers, while the conventional leaf form is placed
in the center. The design is peculiar in the fact that the

NE
FIG. 32.
arrangement of its wave line is such that it runs diagonally
across the repeat, making an ogee curve from corner to
corner with but one simple curve in each repeat.
41. In Fig. 34 we have a pattern based on the turn-
over design characteristic of the eighteenth century style


§
35
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
in Northern Italy. In this design there are two strongly
contrasting figures—the spray of flowers and the leaves-
and though the plan can be constructed on the diamond,
it is far simpler to plan it on horizontal and vertical
lines, as shown in Fig. 35. All the leaves that run in
the same direction are placed at the four corners of the
>

}
US
FIG. 33
repeat. The design is then traced and turned over on
the center, where the leaf extending in the opposite direc-
tion is traced in place. Circular forms representing the
flowers are then located and the figure arranged to follow
its course.
42. Introduction of Geometrical Elements. The
design shown in Fig. 36 is a combination of geometrical
interlaced strap work over which are superimposed various
foliated forms. The construction is on the basis of the
lozenge, and, owing to a duplication of various parts of


36
8 "
PRACTICAL DESIGN.

بع
72(
FIG. 34.
5 5
FIG. 35,


co
37
PRACTICAL DESIGN.

L2
12
SC
FIG. 36.
FIG. 37.
!


38
$7
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
the design on each side of a given center line, only one-half
of the pattern need be executed for weaving purposes, as it
can be adapted to a center tie. This example is particularly
interesting in showing the contrast of line, and it will be
observed by studying the elements of Fig. 37, which is a
skeleton outline of Fig. 36, that when one line crosses another,
in nearly every instance it crosses it at a right angle and
thereby gives to the design a sharpness and crispness that
characterizes it.
43. In Fig. 38 is shown a design based on the dia-
mond and arranged as a center tie. Its principal con-
struction lines are a pair of ogee curves that cross each

FIG. 38.
orna-
other, one of which follows the stem of the running vine,
and the other forms the governing direction of an
mental ribbon work that underlies the main decoration.
This introduces also a contrast between the ribbon and
the design itself that causes the latter to stand up promi-
nently and prevents the whole composition from appearing
monotonous.


PRACTICAL DESIGN.
39
BORDERS, CORNERS, AND STRIPES.
BORDERS.
44. Uniformity of Repeat.-In woven fabrics it is
impossible to consider the design for the border by itself
and apart from the filling, as usually when a fabric possesses
a border, both the border and the filling are woven together
in one piece, and it is essential for mechanical reasons that
the repeat of the border should be in line with that of the
filling. An example of this would be a stair carpet, which
has a border on each side. Then, if the repeat of the filling
is 18 inches, the repeat of the border must also be 18 inches,
or a divisor of 18, so that the border may repeat twice for
every repeat of the filling, or even three times. A repeat of
7 inches in the border would be impracticable, as it would
fail to work with the 18-inch repeat of the filling. However,
where a border is woven separately and afterwards sewed to
the filling, as in carpets, for instance, there is not this same
necessity for uniformity of repetition, but there should be,
even in a case of this kind, some definite relation between
the repeat of the border and that of the filling around which
it is to be stitched.
1
45. One-Piece Borders.—The weaving of borders in
direct connection with a falling design is confined to a
certain class of goods, such as damask, table linen, tapes-
try, velvet table covers, cotton quiltings, toilet covers,
handkerchiefs, lace, muslin, damask or tapestry curtains,
rugs, and carpets woven in one piece, such as Brussels
and Kidderminster squares. The presence of a border
on any fabric usually implies that it was woven in one
piece and that the fabric-
such as
a table cover — - not
only possesses the border on the sides but also at each
end. Therefore, we must consider, before dealing with
the ornamental details of the design of a border, the prac-
tical elements that underlie the requirements of their
weaving:
V


40
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
46. Size of the Repeat in Damasks.—First, we must
consider the size of the article, and in most instances a size
that is an even multiple of a quarter of a yard is found to be
convenient. Fabrics such as table covers and table linen, or
carpets, will always be found to be multiples of a quarter-
yard in both length and breadth. For instance, 10 quarter-
yards by 7 quarter-yards gives us 7 feet 6 inches by 5 feet
FIG. 39.
3 inches; and take a table cover of these dimensions as shown
in Fig. 39 and we have the setting out arrangement of the
repeats in which a very highly ornate treatment is given.
In this case, the size of the repeat is one-quarter of a yard
in each direction. This has the advantage of making the
design capable of fitting any size table cover, either in length
or breadth, that is desired, simply by increasing the number
of repeats.


$
41
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
The border around this, it will be observed, is the same
in design and dimension of its repeats both at the sides and
at the ends, and it may be readily observed that the secondary
repeats of the filling fall directly in line with the repeats of
the border not only on the sides and ends but also in the
corner.
This 9-inch square repeat is the simplest and least
1
FIG. 40.
expensive way of dealing with a fabric such as a table cloth,
and is suitable for some particular designs, but the designer
is in no way limited to this shape.
47. Unequal Repeats.—In Fig. 40 is shown another
design of identical dimensions with Fig. 39, in which the
filling repeat is oblong and the proportion of the oblong is
such as to make it similar to the entire oblong surface of the


42
şey
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
filling, thereby securing a sense of fitness in the design.
This, however, brings us against the proposition of having
the repeat of the side borders greater than the repeat of the
ends, and the corners are different in shape from the border
either at the side or end.
It is the corner of the border of this character that usually
requires the most skill in order to make it join properly with
e
d
FIG. 41.
the repeat in each direction, while retaining at the same time
an identical design in the four corners. This is sometimes
obviated by paneling off the corner by itself and introducing
here an isolated ornament that has no connection with the
border.
When it is desirable, however, that the border should
continue around the design without a break, the problem is


87
43
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
}
a troublesome one unless the design is similar to that shown
in Fig. 39, as it is a simple matter to design a corner to fit a
system of repeat that is uniform in the two directions. But
in running borders such as shown in Figs. 40 and 41, the
ornament must have a distinct development in one direction
and grow from itself continuously. In some forms of art
this is not difficult at all, but in a woven fabric it must be
borne in mind that the two side borders must be equal, the
top and bottom borders must be equal, and the corners each
the same.
48. In Fig. 40 we have a design of a border that is made
to connect around the corners without any break, while in
Fig. 41 we have at bc a design for a border that runs from
the center of the width around the corner to the center of
the length, where it is stopped by a rosette or other inde-
FIG. 42.
pendent device. This system of treatment, however, requires
that the repeat of the border and its adjacent filling shall
amount to one-quarter of the whole fabric, as shown at
bcd x, and that whatever comes in this quarter must reverse
and repeat above and on the other side; this system also


44
$ 7
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
permits us to treat the angles of the filling with separate
ornament, as shown at (e) in Fig. 41.
When a fabric is square it is sometimes convenient to
duplicate the design on each side of the diagonal line,
as shown in Fig. 42, where the square is divided into eight
equal triangular pieces
as shown at f g h, each
of which is symmetrical
but reversed from its
neighbor.
49.
m-
Lace - Curtain
Design. — Where cur-
tains are woven in one
piece, one of the most
popular schemes of de-
sign is to have a dado
treatment at the bottom
and a border on each
of the sides. This bor-
der can be of the same
width on each side or of
varying widths, accord-
ing to the circumstances,
or the design may be
such that the two bor-
ders and the dado con-
sist of one
scheme of
ornament varying in
width to
express the
proportion of each.
Much economy can be
effected, however, in the designing of curtains by having
the whole length worked out upon a symmetrical arrange-
ment so that the two halves each side of the center line
will be identical. This may be somewhat severe in
style, but is capable of producing the happiest of results.
In Fig. 43 is shown a symmetrical arrangement of design
FIG. 43.


PRACTICAL DESIGN.
45
duplicating on the center line y h. Only one-half of this
design would need to be prepared on design paper, ghkl
>
7
FIG. 44.
being the amount required for the dado, and klmn, the
repeat for the border and filling of the body of the cur-
tain; whereas in Fig. 44 just twice this quantity of design


46
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
would have to be executed, as the pattern extends the full
width of the curtain.
The severity of style which this plan is likely to produce
may be somewhat obviated by the use of a free center,
shown in Fig. 45, where the design on each side of a given
center line is exactly balanced and reproduced. The amount
of design worked out on paper in this case is shown at abcd
in the dado, and cdef in the upper portion of the curtain,
and when this is woven, the
opposite side is separated
from it a distance equal to
bg, and the free center
bghc in the dado, and
chk f for the repeat in
the upper part of the cur-
tain would require to be
drawn out separately on
design paper.
a
50. Classification of
Borders. — We have so far
devoted all our attention to
the application of border
designs to such textile
fabrics as they are
njost
generally used, but we will
now consider some of the
more typical details upon
which repeating borders
may be constructed. For
the purposes of classification, ordinary repeating borders are
termed link or vertebrate, according to the method by which
the repeats are joined, the former being linked together by
some conventional form that tends to give the appearance of
combining the units, and the latter being built about a straight
line that acts as a sort of backbone through the whole design.
In Fig. 46 are shown several borders built up of historic
ornament and illustrating the principles of this classification.
FIG. 45.


$7
47
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
It will be noticed that in nearly all of them there is a decided
tendency to vertical and horizontal arrangement, that the
ornament grows, or appears to grow, at right angles to one
of the edges or from both of them. For instance, the Greek
border at (a) appears to be perpendicular to the inner edge,
>

IT
(a)
(6)

(d)
र
(e)
(C)
FIG. 46.
while that at (6) is perpendicular to the outer edge, and at (c)
is alternately perpendicular to the two edges, each separate
element being connected by an S-shaped link. These designs
are all Greek in origin and express the handling of border
elements typical of the Greek style.
51.
Borders for Hangings and Table Covers.-It
should always be borne in mind that the position of the


48
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
goods or material on which the border is designed must
always be considered before the characteristics of the border
are decided upon.
Table covers and scarfs are usually seen
in such a position that the border assumes a perpendicular
position in relation to the outer edge, and for such a purpose
the design shown at (b) would be perfectly suitable. On por-
tiers and other hangings, the lower border is perpendicular
to the bottom line, while the side borders could be either
perpendicular to the outer or the inner line, and a combina-
tion of effect is obtained by using the pattern shown at (c),
where the border runs all the way around, or the one shown
at (d), where the border runs up and down the sides and a
straight dado is designed across the bottom.
52. Borders for Rugs and Floor Coverings.-Rugs
and carpet squares are usually observed from the center of
the room, and a border design is most satisfactory when it is
perpendicular to the inner edge of the border line, as shown
at (a) and (c), the latter being a design based on Arabian lines.
At (a) the link is parallel with the direction of the border and
turns up at each end to join the ornamental figures that
constitute the principal elements of the design. At (e) the
link consists of a number of semicircles, the ends of which
unite every other ornamental detail. At (f) it assumes an
S shape and lies in a horizontal position, while at (d) the link
travels from one side of the border to the other, as it does
also at (c), though in the former case each S runs in the same
direction as its neighbor, and in the latter case they are
made to reverse alternately.
53. Vertebrate Borders.—A11 of the above are link
borders, while those shown in Fig. 47 are vertebrate borders.
The chief characteristics that we observe in comparing these
two figures is that the link border seems more associated
with classic art, while the character of the vertebrate border
tends more toward the Middle Ages and Renaissance design.
At (a) is shown the simplest pattern consisting of a
straight line or backbone, with a series of leaves growing


87
49
PRACTICAL DESIGN.

h
(a)
(6)
20
1
(c)
se
(d)
co
(e)
(h)
å GEOS
(f)
(9)
FIG. 47.


50
87
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
symmetrically from each side; at (6) the alternate sides are
not symmetrical, as the repeats grow alternately above and
below the vertebrate lines. At (c) one of the boundary lines of
the border acts as the vertebrate line from which the details
of the ornament spring, while at (d) we have both boundary
lines acting as vertebræ and the ornament springing alter-
nately from each side. At (e) is shown an example of a
border based on the wave line, so that it miters well in the
corner without a material change in the character of the
design. This is based on the principle of a curved vertebra
instead of a straight one, as is also the form shown at (S),
which is a scroll vertebra clothed with conventional foliage,
the scroll itself having developed from the waye line. At
(8) we have the application of the Persian system, where
there are two wave lines, each carrying its own share of
ornament, in order to fill the space, and while in this example
the growth of the two vertebræ is in the same direction,
there is no authentic necessity for it, as many designs are
known to exist where one appears to grow in one direction
and the other in the opposite direction. At (1) is shown an
Arabian border, the vertebrate line of which does not appear,
but exists as an imaginary detail through the center. From
each side of this, there branches a conventional figure typical
of this style of ornament but printed in two shades, alter--
nating and interlacing with each other, though identical in
This example of ornament is best suited to a vertical
position, for which it was originally intended, while for hori-
zontal positions other designs such as shown at (d), (c), (f),
and (s) are better adapted.
form.
54. Corners.-In Fig. 48, examples of borders and
corners are given that are based on the vertebrate principle
but are laid out on less conventional lines. The style of
treatment suitable to certain classes of fabric is illustrated
in the design of the borders, where the character of the
ornament is more suitable to floor coverings than to table
covers, or hangings, inasmuch as the former lie flat and dis-
play the whole design, while in a table cover, or other


PRACTICAL DESIGN.
51
hanging, the corner is usually lost by the folding of the
cloth.
It should be borne in mind that the purpose of any angle

(0)
(c)
e
f
e
.
е
1
(a)
1
E,
m
al
11
E1
7
2
f
1
(d)
(e)
FIG. 48.
2
ornament is to break the crudeness of a sharp corner, but its
form and contour must be consistent so that it leaves a
pleasing effect. In the filling at (a) in Fig. 48 is shown the


52
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
outline of a rug in which the border and corner design shown
at (b) is used, and it will be readily seen that the style of
corner ornament shown at (6) is suitable only to a rug of
oblong shape, while the Oriental design shown at (c) is better
adapted to a rug with a square shape, though of course it
could be used in an oblong without any sense of incongruity,
whereas the form shown at (6) could not be used in a square
rug.
At (d) is shown a corner design that breaks into the bor-
der and causes it to stop abruptly at each side. This design
is symmetrical upon the miter line as shown in Fig. 42 and is
capable of reproduction on four sides of a square as described
in connection with that figure.
One other style of corner design is shown at (e) where
the border runs around the corner, and repeats itself utterly
independent of the corner ornament, and the corner orna-
ment is woven or printed within the border line entirely
independent of the border itself. This corner ornament is
not enclosed in any definite outline as were (b) and (c), nor
is it symmetrical on the center line as are (c) and (d). It
therefore requires separate consideration in design and
requires no calculations for repeat in unison with a repeat
of the border.
1
1
}
1
55. Stripes. ——The use of stripes in woven goods, of
course, applies almost entirely to the field where a border is
considered, or to the goods themselves exclusive of any con-
sideration of corner or border ornament, but the purpose
for
which the goods are to be used will govern the size, strength,
and direction of the stripe entirely. Stripes running verti-
cally tend to increase the appearance of height, while stripes
running horizontally tend to decrease the impression of
height. It is for this reason that short persons are advised
to wear dress goods with stripes running vertically, and in the
decoration of rooms with very high ceilings, numerous hori-
zontal lines are introduced to decrease the effect of height.
In Fig. 49 at (a) is shown a combination of a stripe and
powdered effect consisting of narrow straight stripes from



in
of
of
er
it
re
in
(a)
(6)
is
od



re
ly
a.
ly
or
It
nd
aat
BE
of
is
Alone
(c)
(d)

PE
X
h,
es
of
ed
WUM
Sve
ne
---
d
m
(e)
FIG. 49.
A


54
$7
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
which conventionalized flowers branch at an angle of 45°,
changing their direction at each alternate stripe. At (6) the
stripe consists of alternate wave lines with conventional
flowers growing in the broader spaces on and between them.
At (c) parallel wave lines are broken by systematic and con-
ventional ornament that grows from its sides alternately in
the same manner as described in the vertebrate border,
Fig. 47 (d).
At (d) the stripe crosses the ornament in a diagonal direc-
tion at an angle of 45°, and consideration will remind the
student that the direction of this stripe is governed by the
diagonal of the rectangle representing the repeat. If the
repeat were within an oblong, the angle of the stripe could
be made greater or less than 45°, according to the propor-
tions of the rectangle. At (c) is shown a more complicated
treatment of a striped design wherein three distinct styles
of contrasting stripe are used-a conventionalized floral form
alternating with a conventionalized geometrical form from
which it is separated by a heavy wave-line stripe.
56. Style in Historic Stripes.-In Fig. 50 we have
three examples of stripe ornament showing the characteris-
tics of historic styles. At (a) the straight stripe is relieved
of its monotony by an all-over pattern of sprigs, four of the
sprigs representing the four corners of a rectangular repeat
with the fifth sprig in the center. This might be considered
a combination of a stripe-and-spot pattern, the style of which
is characteristic of the old Italian brocades, this example
having been taken from a piece of Italian velvet.
The treatment given at (6) is entirely different from this
-a severely conventional design-being alternated with a
somewhat naturalistic rendering, thereby giving the effect
of a light stripe alternating with a dark one, a style of design
characteristic of the early Gothic period.
The pattern shown at (c) is from an old Spanish fabric
showing alternate light and dark stripes, each of which
heightens the interest of the other and both of which are
more or less elaborated with conventional floral designs.


stupet
55
clur
sta
DESIGN.
cond
PRÁCTICAL 
>
>
(a)
(9)
FIG. 50.


56
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
BOOK-COVER DESIGN.
EARLY BOOKBINDING.
57. Character of Book-Cover Design. The modern
designer of book covers, book plates, and other productions
of the printing press is confronted with a problem entirely
different from that demanding solution by the designer of
repeating ornament. Book-cover designs usually contain,
first, the title of the book, and second, some piece of char-
acteristic ornament that is in harmony with, or symbolic of,
something contained in the book itself, or the subject on
which it treats. A book plate differs from a book cover in
the fact that it is usually a part of the title page and its ele-
ments are more characteristic of the writer, publisher, or
owner of the work, than of any detail in the narrative. The
initial letters that are sometimes used to head the chapters
may partake of both of these characteristics, or they may
consist of simple abstract ornament in no way associated
with the chapter that they introduce.
It should be borne in mind, however, that while harmony
of idea is not demanded, discord must be avoided, and a
book the contents of which is suggestive of classic history or
art could not be printed with initial letters designed in the
Gothic style, except through a violation of the fundamental
principles of design.
58. Origin of Bookbinding.-It must be also borne in
mind that every device of a utilitarian character had at the
time of its origin a primitive form, and the associations of
this form, from its origin to the present day, have had more
or less influence on the character of its design. The old
methods of engrossing on parchment, facts for preservation,
made these documents very rare and valuable, and the scrolls
on which they were usually written were wound around a
stick and placed within a metallic tube in order to preserve
them. The makers of these metallic tubes, usually silver-


87
57
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
smiths and goldsmiths, therefore were in reality the first
bookbinders. In later periods, pages were engrossed, similar
to those in our paper books, and bound together to form a
volume not unlike our common books of today. But, still,
the binder was employed only to sew the pages together,
and the silversmith and goldsmith did the elaborate work of
designing and enclosing the cover. These volumes were a
very expensive lot of documents naturally, and could be
possessed only by the most wealthy.
The introduction of printing and the printing press brought
books within the reach of every one and revolutionized book
printing, bookbinding, and book-cover design.
59. Character of Early Bindings.—In the earliest
times of bookbinding, the work of the cover was in the hands
of the leather worker and the goldsmith, as the bookbinder,
as understood by us at the present day, was a craftsman that
had not then come into existence. Rare and beautiful
volumes representing hours and hours of laborious produc-
tions of the scribes and the artists were incased in befitting
covers of gold and silver or ivory, and frequently enriched
with precious stones. Such volumes were obtainable only
.. by the king, or, possibly, the library of a church or monastery.
When princes and nobles took an interest in matters liter-
ary, as they did at a subsequent time, manuscripts became
more common, and these costly bindings were superseded
by bindings of velvet and satin and, afterwards, by leather.
Then the invention of printing, making books producible in
a large quantity, made a still less expensive material desir-
able, and leather formed the binding material of nearly all
books, but the decorative work was carried out on its surface
in gold leaf and enamel colors.
During the time of Charles VIII and Louis XII in France
many books were collected by the royal library, and Anne
of Brittany, who was successively the wife of each of these
reigning monarchs, shared with them the love of literature,
and bought as well as ordered specially printed volumes for
her library.
1
2
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58
şay
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
11
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ti
60. Heraldry in Book binding.—It will be necessary
for us to consider only a few of these early bindings in order
that the student may obtain an idea of the great pains that
was put upon this class of work, and that he may understand
that the style of ornament prevailing in each particular period
influenced book-cover design more than did the contents of
the book itself. The fact that the books were bound as
individuals and not in numerous quantities led each king or
queen to stamp on the cover his or her coat of arms or
initials, and this serves to identify many volumes for us at
the present day.
This stamping by the king, or other royal personage, of
his coat of arms and initials upon the cover of a book, was
in reality the prototype of our modern book plate, for, as
pointed out before, the book plate stamped on or in a book
is usually there placed as a mark of ownership rather than
in any way relative to the subject bound,
fi
a
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t
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i
(
61. Tools.-In order that we may better understand the
character of early book-cover designs in leather and gold, it
must be borne in mind that the limits of the design were
governed very largely by the tools in use by the leather
worker. This term “tools” refers to the implements on
the end of which little devices or ornaments, were cut, each
of which was separately used to transfer the design to the
leather.
When leather was first used as a book-cover material,
most of the work was done in the monasteries, as there were
no regular binderies at that time. The designs that these
monks and craftsmen invented were made up largely of
motives borrowed from manuscript, initial letters, etc., from
carvings in wood and stone that they would naturally observe
in the various churches and monasteries.
62. Influence of Increase of Binding on Character
of Design. However, the love of learning and the spread
of books became so important that the monastery workshops
were unequal to the task, and leather workers of all sorts


PRACTICAL DESIGN.
59
were pressed into service to bind the numerous books that
were springing into existence. Saddlers, harness makers,
and even bootmakers were called upon to do the work, and
the new trade of bookbinding was influenced not only by
their skill as craftsmen, but also by the character of the tools,
that they had been using in their various crafts, and to a
certain extent by the designs that they had used for years in
the ornamentation of boots, Saddies, and harnesses for royal
personages.
The artisans themselves were humble men,
few knowing even how to read and write, and we therefore
find the earliest leather bindings stamped with devices that
are no way relevant to books or book work, but that have
become characteristic of bookbindings of the present day
simply on account of this original association.
The binder being familiar with the extent to which he
could interchange his tools, conceived the general scheme
of his cover decoration, then by a combination and repeti-
tion of the forms on these tools created his design. These
designs therefore varied according to the fertility of the
mind of the designer and the prevailing tastes of suc-
ceeding periods of time. It is necessary, therefore, that
familiarity with these tools should be possessed by the
student in order that a real understanding of book-cover
design may be attained.
63. Origin of French Tools. - In the period of
Louis XII of France, we find the forms of the tools used
were borrowed from Italian devices, wherein arabesque
figures were stamped in black upon white paper; but the
French worker soon learned that this heavy black mass,
though suitable to a white page, was utterly unsuited for
stamping in gold on the cover of a book.
It therefore was
usual to stamp the devices in outline, or sometimes in out-
line with the interior slightly shaded, or asured, as this
form is technically known, thus giving the binder not only
a means of varying the weight of his device but also a
variety by a combination of which strength or lightness
was acquired.


60
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
cha
Ft
64. Forms of Tools.—These tools in their three forms
are illustrated in Fig. 51, where at (a) are shown the tools
as derived from Italy in their solid form, at (6) their varia-
tion by simply the use of outline, and at (c) their further vari-
ation by the shading of the outline in order to give a little
more strength. The form of these devices is plainly bor-
du
A
6
(a)
para
(6)
(c)
FIG. 51.
rowed from the arabesques of Italy, and, separated from the
elaborate interlacings with which they were there associated,
show their outline to be distinctively of Oriental or Arabian
origin, from which they derived their name as arabesques.
These simple devices connected by a long line of scrolls and
interlaced bands formed the entire theme of book-cover
design during the first period of the French Renaissance.
65. Grolier.—The styles of book-cover design that
prevailed in different periods, unlike the style of ornament
that is characteristic of each period, usually take their names
from their designers rather than from the ruling monarch.
For instance, many of the book covers bound during the
reigns of Louis XII and Francis I we designate by the title
of the Grolier style, inasmuch as the art was introduced
into France from Italy by a great collector of books, named
Grolier, and the Grolier style includes both the prevalent


$7
61
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
character of binding found in Italy and a later style in
France,
66. The Aldine Press.—Grolier assisted in the pro-
duction of many volumes that were printed on the press of
Aldus Manutius, a celebrated Venetian printer, and in recog-

1
FIG. 52.
I
nition of his services many volumes were beautifully bound
for Grolier's own library. In the year 1545, Grolier obtained
the position of Treasurer-General in France, and held it until
his death, in 1565, thereby establishing his great library of
three thousand volumes of fine Italian bound books in the
heart of France, near Paris.


62
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
un
ac
an
67. Grolier's Bindings. — These books were mostly
bound in morocco, the finest skins for which were procured
from the Orient, though a few were covered with calfskin,
the earlier works possessing the characteristics of the Italian
Aldine press, the later ones being modified under the influ-
ence of binding in France.
68. Characteristics of Italian Bookbinding. — In
Fig. 52 is shown a binding in the Italian style on a book
printed in Venice in the year 1525. This shows the char-
pa
ta
tH

FIG. 53.
acteristics of this Italian work and the form of arabesque
patterns that were introduced into France during the reign
of Louis XII. Here are seen the impressions of the tools


$7
63
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
of the Aldine press, already pointed out at (a) in Fig. 51,
united with the scrolls and arabesque panel ornament char-
acteristic of the Italian Renaissance. In Fig. 53 is shown
another design from Venice bound for Grolier, whereon a
panel is left in the middle that subsequently might be used
to receive a coat of arms. Here the tools are still similar to
those lised on the Aldine press and give a fair idea of the
style of book design when first introduced into France.
69. In Fig. 54 is illustrated a book that was bound under
orders of Henry II for Diana of Poitiers to be placed in her

VOXXONOIAO'S DIEP! - YXPLOJ
All
De
* EI
FIG. 54.
library, and stamped on its cover are the interwoven initials
H and D indicative of these two names, while in the upper


64
§ ry
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
W
1
right-hand and lower left-hand corners of the central panel
are the three intertwined crescents of the coat of arms of
Diana. The cover of this book was of citron morocco and
is a characteristic binding of this period (1545).
10. The book cover shown in Fig. 55, bound in 1556
by Henry II, shows a type of ornament entirely different

CC
FIG. 55.
from the previous example, and in the center is a raised
medallion with a profile portrait of the king himself.
This cover was of brown morocco leather with painted
bands and giit trimmings, and no initials or other devices


ß in
65
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
were placed on the outside of it, except the portrait of
the king.
1 1.
The book cover shown in Fig. 56 was bound in
1562 for Catherine de Medici, and the coat of arms on its
center was that of her family. The back of the book


Be
!
R
K
KA
7
FIG. 56.
was ornamented in each panel with a crowned K, the
initial of her name, and the whole was executed in dark
blue, green, and gold on leather of olive morocco ; how-
ever, the central oval panel around the coat of arms was
painted red.


66
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
12. In Fig. 57 is shown a design executed in brown
morocco for Henry III, with gilt ornamentation inclu-
ding the cipher initials of the king and queen and the
coat of arms in the center. It will be observed that
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​FIG. 57.
the ciphers and fleur-de-lis forming the ornament on this
design partake of the character of a spot and powder
design limited at the angles by specially designed corner
pieces.
73. In Fig. 58 is shown a design executed in red morocco
for Henry IV, in 1604, the central ornament being composed


PRACTICAL DESIGN.
67
of his coat of arms; in the outer limits of the border surround-
ing it are found his initials intertwined with those of his
Queen Margaret of Valois.

H
H
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ET
le
FIG. 58.
174. The change in the character of design at this period
can now be readily compared by reference to Fig. 59, which
is a design in brown calf executed for Margaret of Valois,
twenty-seven years before that shown in Fig. 58. The tend-
ency throughout-simplicity rather than complicity-is very
graphically illustrated in these two examples.
175. Tendency of Early Bookbinding.–Thus, it will
be seen that the earliest efforts to enclose books in suitable


68
8
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
a
and appropriate bindings tended to make those bindings and
cover designs more characteristic of the owner of the book
than of the book itself, and each design being executed but
once and that on the book cover itself rendered it advisable
to spare no money, in order that the quality of the cover
C

1
FIG. 59.
should be suitable with the value of the work it protected.
At the present day, however, we have an entirely different
proposition; our books are printed in editions varying from
one thousand to ten thousand, and some limited editions
of a few hundred. Our cover designs must therefore be
reduced to the limitations of practical printing and at the
1


70
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
al
q
11
11
may be executed in black and white, in gold, or in color, the
only considerations necessary being the expense of produc-
tion and the handling of the material in a manner suitable
for the die press.
Certain classes of book-cover design require an imitation,
perhaps, of what has been done in the past, such as our
examples already shown; other classes may require the
enclosure of the cover in a border with corner pieces, in
which case the design may partake of the character hereto-
fore shown in Fig. 48; a simple design in appropriate historic
letters would also be perfectly proper without any ornament
whatsoever, or, possibly, this style of letter with a slight inter-
weaving of historic ornament. In any case, the desigrer is left
almost entirely to the dietates of his own ideas influenced by
the character of the book for which he is to design, and a few
suggestions is all that will be necessary in order that he should
learn to apply the principles of design to this class of work.
5
17. In Fig. 60 is shown a binding executed for Groiier,
in which the lightening of the tool effect by means of out-
lining is very apparent; a heavy black interlaced pattern is
stamped on the leather, the
background is powdered, and
the tools outlined in gold and
their interior powdered. The
Italian motto, “Io. Grolierii
et Amicorum," is stamped on
nearly all of Grolier's books
and, in reality, represents his
book plate.
FIG. 61,
178. Francis I Book Cov-
ers. - During the reign of
Francis I the influence of
French taste on bookbinding is
seen by the introduction of powdered devices for books. In
Fig. 61 is shown a powder effect wherein the dauphin device
and the fleur-de-lis are alternated vertically and horizontally,


PRACTICAL DESIGN
171
and this device in varied forms was very popular in subse-
quent periods, as may be seen in Fig. 62, which was a bind-
ing for Louis XIII, wherein the powder effect is secured by
means of the fleur-de-lis and the crowned L. Other devices

1
i
L L L'L
LTL'L
L
L LLL
I L'I
L LL
L' I* LL
LLL
L'L'LI
1
FIG. 62,
were used in powder effects and also interwoven in arabesque
design, as the double H of Henry II, the interwoven
crescents of Diana of Poitiers, and the H C, and L A for
Henry and Catherine, and Louis and Anne of Austria, in
their respective reigns.
19. Le Gascon and De Thou.—After the time of Gro-
lier, whose name is associated with all French bookbinding,


s
173
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
days of Grolier. Bear in mind that Grolier was a book collector
and not a binder and that through his efforts a style was devel-
oped that made a great binder like Le Gascon a possibility.
83. In Fig. 63 are shown the tools used in the execu-
tion of these fanfare covers, all of which, except the little
branches, it will be observed, are azured or ruled
with a light surface tinting.
Le Gascon developed
these tools into still lighter forms, not only by out-
lining them but by dotting their outline so as to
make it as delicate as possible, as shown in Fig. 64.
Le Gascon developed great individuality, but always
employed the stiff framework of the fanfare on
important bindings. His style gradually developed,
however, and the reduction of the Aldine tools
to the dotted outline is characteristic of the work
of Le Gascon and gives a remarkable brilliancy of
effect to the best of his
bindings.
84. Style of Louis
XIV.-At the beginning
of the reign of Louis
XIV, Le Gascon was still
binder to the king, and
this might be considered
the period of the highest
development of French
literature. In bookbind-
FIG. 63.
ing, however, it was liter-
ally a golden age, as the application of heavy stamps and
gilding rendered the bindings less delicate than their
predecessors and in certain instances positively vulgar in
their glitter. The royal arms were stamped on the covers
in exaggerated proportions, and heavy borders of gold in
geometrical patterns were printed around the edges. These
borders being printed from revolving wheels, were abso-
lutely uniform and lost the charm that is ever characteristic
FIG, 64,


74
$7
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
of purely freehand work. In some examples where the
courtiers followed the style set by the king, a simple border
was run around the book by means of one of these wheels,
varying in width from 1 to 3 inches. Sometimes there would
be two or three narrow borders, one within the other, usually
with a heavy corner piece to mark the return, but very fre-
quently without any attempt at a corner piece at all, allow-
ing the corners to take care of themselves where the ruled
work stopped. Sometimes the entire side of the book would
be engraved in this same incongruous style of repeating orna-
ment, making the bookbinder a mere machine without an
opportunity to exercise skill or taste and rendering all books
so alike in character as to make them appear commonplace.
As a consequence, we find no great bookbinder in France
during this period, and the reign of Louis XIV, grand as it
may have been politically and artistically, developed no great
book lover like Grolier or bookbinder like Le Gascon. The
tools used by Le Gascon (then called "tools of the seventeenth
century ") were still in use at this time and have remained
in use to the present day, and form the stock in trade of the
best binders at the beginning of the twentieth century.
85. Jansen Style.—It was due to this elaboration and
over gilding that the reaction known as the Jansen style took
place. This consists of soberly bound volumes absolutely
devoid of gilding on the sides, and depending for their beauty
on the character of the leather itself. These books were bound
better, in a technical sense, than the earlier ones, regardless of
the fact that as works of art the covers of the earlier books are
more interesting But the binders of books were giving more
attention to keeping the leaves intact and inclosing them in
a proper protecting cover than to shoving the leaves in a
haphazard manner into an elaborately decorated portfolio.
86. Mosaic Binding. — However, some binders were
still interested enough to keep up the traditions of Le Gas-
con, and shortly after the death of Louis XIV we find a new
style of leather binding springing into existence as the work
of Padloup. This is the mosaic binding and is certainly


§ 7
75
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
the most elaborate and remarkable of its kind. Its chief
characteristic is that it is in several colors formed by differ-
ent leathers inlaid within one another.
The bindings in Grolier's time, too, were of polychromic
decoration, but the colors were painted on them with somber
3

DE
JE:
FIG. 65.
tinted enamels. But it remained for Nicholas Padioup, in
the reign of Louis XV, to introduce the style of work shown
in Fig. 65, which has since become characteristic of him.
In this example, bound for the Duchess of Orleans, the
center quarterfoils were red on a ground of deep olive green
and the rest of the binding was a brown leather sharply out-
lined in bright gold.


76
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
87. The Deromes.—Contemporary with the bindings
of Padloup were those of the Deromes (a number of brothers,
"V
FIG. 66.
the most prominent of whom was known as
the younger Derome). The characteristic
binding of Derome is entirely different from
that of Padloup, and we might say that as
all the mosaics of this period were attributed
to Padloup, Derome gets credit for all bind-
ings wherein a tool is used representing a
bird with outstretched wings, thus giving
a lightness and vivacity to the design.
Derome's covers usually consisted of a lace-
like foliated border suggestive of wrought-
iron work, as in Fig. 66, from which he
undoubtedly borrowed ideas, as the seven-
teenth century smithery work had reached
a high scale in art in France.
work borders were heavily tooled, and the
motives borrowed from the ironwork of the
period were capable of immense variation,
so that of Derome's bindings it is not likely
that there are two exactly alike. The tools
used by Derome are shown in Fig. 67.
These open-
jente
88. Eighteenth Century Bookbind-
ing.- In the eighteenth century bookbinding
FIG. 67.


PRACTICAL DESIGN.
77
became heavy. Padloup and Derome had no successors of
importance, and while we find the introduction of a few new
tools, there is nothing of importance or interest in any of
them and they serve only as a key to the period of cer-
tain bindings, if the student chooses to so use them at the
present day. Thus we see the development of the book
cover from its earliest condition to its present form-
-a devel-
opment that we should endeavor to comprehend in order to
design book covers intelligently in the present period.
89. In bookbinding, as in everything else, one style was
evolved from another. The Aldine press in Italy, being the
pioneer printer of ornament, introduces a style that was
brought by Grolier to France and developed there into a
French style. Then followed the powdered styles and the
brilliant fancies of Le Gascon, which in turn gave place to
the mosaics of Padloup and the vigorous borders of Derome.
Throughout all these styles we have the key to the period
of each binding by the styles of the tools used; and a knowl-
edge of the characteristics of these tools, whether used in
the present day for an imitation of antique bindings or for
the study of antique bindings to locate their periods, is essen-
tially important.
90. Comparison of Bindings of Different Coun-
tries.—This historical branch of the subject of bookbinding
has been confined to French style, as the art of bookbinding
was developed to a higher point of excellence in France
than in any other country. True, it originated in Italy, but
Italy was soon outstripped by France in style and ingenuity,
and Germany, unequal to the task, attempted to do no more
than paste an ornamental book plate inside of a volume,
acknowledging thus her lack of skill to adorn the volume
externally. To Germany, therefore, we owe the invention
of the book plate.
Only one great binder appears in England during this
period and even he cannot be compared with his contempo-
raries in France.


78
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
MODERN BOOKBINDING.
91. Character of Modern Binding:-It must not be
supposed that the binding of books in individual copies, the
covers of which are ornamented with particular devices, has
been confined entirely to antiquity. It is quite customary at
the present day to bind books in individual copies with covers
to suit their owner or match the general bindings of his
library. In fact, nearly all French and German books and
a large number of the books published in England are not
bound in stiff covers at all, but in paper so that the purchaser
may have them properly enclosed to suit his own desires
within covers that satisfy his taste.
The designing of book covers, then, even at the present
day, may require a theme that can be either executed by
hand on leather work or duplicated on the press. As
the former case is a somewhat higher branch of the art
and is more closely allied with the practice of the past, we
will first consider that, but let us first look into the general
process of binding a book, as the designer of the cover must
be familiar with the details through which the volume passes
before it reaches his hands for completion.
92. Process of Binding.-In bookbinding there are
two separate and distinct operations usually termed "for-
warding” and “finishing.” Forwarding consists in the
assembling of the leaves and the preparation of the book for
its cover, the putting on of that cover and the completion of
the book ready for its exterior decoration. Finishing con-
sists in the decoration of the cover and of the back of the
book. Forwarding, therefore, is a mechanical process; finish-
ing, an artistic one.
It has been expressed as the opinion of one of the most
prominent binders of the day, that a book when neatly and
cleanly covered is in a very satisfactory condition without
any finishing or decorating, and that many people are in
accord with this idea is evinced by the fact that so many
books are bound in plain leather without any decoration
whatsoever on their exteriors except a device or title by


$7
79
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
which they can be recognized. It will be remembered that
the Jansen books, as described in Art. 85, consisted simply
of a well forwarded book with a minimum amount of gilding
on its cover, and in some cases none at all.
93. Securing the Sheets.-In modern bookbinding
the first operation of the binder is to refold all of the printed
sheets into a section and to gather these sections together in
regular order so as to form the volume. After this, the
sections are taken one at a time and placed in a frame to hold
them and then sewed with a continuous thread backwards
and forwards through their backs, thus uniting them and at
a
h
g
f
FIG. 68.
the same time securing them to upright strings that are
fastened in the sewing frame across the backs of the sec-
tions, as shown at a in Fig. 68. As a matter of fact, after
the completion of this process, the book is “bound," and all
that is subsequently done to it is for the purpose of protect-
ing this binding. The decoration of the latter part of the
work to make it beautiful as well as useful brings the element
of design into bookbinding.
The book is now ready for the forwarder, who completes
the work of binding, to the pasting on of the cover. The
back of the book b is made by him and rounded to shape,
and the millboards e that are to form the covers of the book


80
gy
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
are carefully squared and secured by means of leather or
cloth bands to the sheets that are sewed in.
94. Securing the Boards.—The sides of the volume
are thus protected by millboards, usually termed “boards,"
for brevity, which are themselves protected, as shown at f,
by a covering of leather, vellum, or silk, as of old, or of linen
or paper, in most modern work. The projection of the
boards beyond the edges of the volume protects them, and
the upper edge is then cut smooth, and sometimes gilded to
prevent damage from the accumulation of dust.
95. Classification of Bindings. This protecting cover
over the boards, and the extent to which it is subsequently
· decorated, determines the character of binding under which
the book is classified. There are four classes of modern
binding-cloth binding, half binding, whole binding, and
extra binding. In cloth binding the cover is made sepa-
rately from the book and encloses it after the entire book is
sewed. In half binding, the cover is made for each indi-
vidual book as before, but the boards are not entirely covered
with the leather, silk, or other material that protects it,
leaving the fore part of the board to be covered with some-
thing else.
Books bound in this manner are usually termed
half morocco or half calf, according to the material. In
whole binding, the boards are entirely covered with the
leather or other material of the binding and are commercially
termed full morocco or full calf. In extra binding, the
whole surface, or such a portion of it as is desirable, is deco-
rated in gold or enamel color. Where a book is to be extra
bound, the processes tending to the assemblage of its parts
are gone into somewhat more in detail. After the sections
are folded, the end leaves shown at g' at the front and
back of the volume are added to protect the most exposed
pages. Then the sections are sewed as before, and the
volume passes into the hands of the forwarder, who makes
and shapes the back of the book, attaches the boards, and
laçes them to the ends of the string a to which the forms have


87
81
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
been sewed. After the edges have been colored or gilded,
which is usually done at this stage, the head-band h is sewed
in at the head and tail, and the back k is lined with cloth or
leather to keep this head-band in place and strengthen the
back.
96. The Covering Material.-If leather is now applied
to cover the book, its edges must be carefully shaved off in
order to make no ridge at l where they fold over on the inside,
and after being pasted securely to the cover the depression
caused by the overlap is filled with an evenly cut piece of
paper so that it may be perfectly smooth to receive the first
or last end paper g', which is now cut to shape and pasted
down, leaving only the leather borders of the boards uncov-
ered. This completes the forwarding of the volume, and
the finishing on the leather consists of a decoration in gold
with tools heretofore described.
97. Decorating the Cover.—The method of operating
the tools and applying the decoration is very simple. The
pattern being drawn on paper, it is marked on the leather
after it has been washed with vinegar and water. Then
white of an egg, well beaten up and allowed to stand, is
carefully penciled over the pattern, after which it is gener-
ally wiped with oil. Gold leaf is now applied with a pad of
cotton wool, and the pattern, plainly visible through the
gold leaf, is pressed into the leather with the tools heated to
a temperature of a little over 200°, and the waste gold is
then removed by rubbing with an oiled rag.
98. Character of the Cover Design.-The design
must be one that can be executed conveniently with the
means at the finisher's command, that is, by means of the
tools with which he does the embossing. It is an unfor-
tunate fact that at the beginning of the twentieth century
nothing has been developed toward a new style of book-
binding characteristic of the present age. Grolier lived in
the sixteenth century and Le Gascon in the seventeenth
century, and even in the eighteenth century we have the


82
ſing
PRACTICAL DESIGN
mosaic borders of Padloup and the heavy lacework borders
of Derome borrowed from or inspired by wrought iron, and
yet the most beautiful bindings that we find executed in the
nineteenth century are simply imitations of those that pre-
ceded them. Even in France, where bookbinding was devel-
oped and flourished to such an extent, we have nothing
worthy of consideration during the past century, for the
French Revolution and the long succeeding wars prevented
further development of the art, and even the traditions dis-
appeared.
The foremost bookbinder of the nineteenth century was
Trautz, a German, and after him the French revived some-
what their former enterprise. The chief beauty of the work
of Trautz is its conscientiousness; he always did his best,
and being a student of ancient methods, revived the tools
of Le Gascon, Derome, and Padloup.
99. Modern Designs.-In individual bookbinding of
the present day, it is very hard to direct the student on what
lines to follow. Many binders are content to follow identi-
cally the styles of Grolier, Padloup, and Derome, but this is
altogether wrong as they are out of sympathy with modern
advancement. They may be more perfect in design than
anything that has recently been created, but to persist in
using them is as unreasonable as to confine our designs of
art and architecture to the early Greek, for a man's residence
today is a thing he requires for his modern wants however
imperfect it may be and is far better than the style of the
early Greek, unsuited to his purpose, though beautiful.
100. Propriety of Design.—It should always be borne
in mind that there should be some propriety of scheme in
the design of a binding, and though it is not necessary that
a volume on botany should be decorated with floral forms,
it is proper that there should be some association between
the title, the binding, and the interior of the book. One
expensive volume on the subject of glass making was once
bound in covers that contained glass panels enameled in


84
ging
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
1
bound in a material that is in harmony with this subject,
and a design after the pattern of Le Gascon, or the earlier
practice as seen in results from the Aldine press, would cer-
tainly be suitable to the occasion if not carried too severely
on the lines of the original. In the same manner, the mosaic
bindings of Padloup and the heavy wrought iron suggestions
of Derome could each be pressed into service to be appro-
priated on certain occasions and for certain purposes and
used intelligently in their places.
$
103. Cheaper Bindings.-Leather is very little used
for modern bookbinding, and, consequently, the designs for
book covers must, as a rule, take into consideration the
adaptability of another material. Stamped cloth is the more
common material for this purpose nowadays, and the old
leather-work designs have been superseded by free and tra-
ditional ornament in some way associated with the subject
of the volume. There is practically no limitation in the
execution of the designs, inasmuch as machinery has been
so improved that a pattern may be stamped on the side and
back of a book cover in as many colors as the designer can
use to advantage or the publisher is willing to pay for.
modern bindery with steam power is capable of binding the
entire edition of any one work—amounting even to several
thousand copies-in the course of 24 hours.
1
}
104. Hand and Machine Binding.—Here, then, is
one strong and essential difference between hand bookbind-
ing and machine bookbinding. In the former the book is
bound and then decorated by hand, while in the latter the
cloth or other material that is to form the cover is made and
decorated apart from the book itself and afterwards fastened
in place. The former is a slow process, and the latter a
rapid one; in the former the designer really executes the
design on the cover, in the latter he may never see the cover,
and simply designs the dies to be used.
105. Novelty of Design.-In the attempt to secure
novelty of design, a great effort has been made to find special
i
1


37
85
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
1
cloths for covering materials for special books, and canvas,
burlap, calico, and silk have each been used to advantage,
under some circumstances. The special fitness of the asso-
ciation of certain goods, or of the pattern of them, has been
used to advantage for certain bookbindings. A book entitled
"Gowns and Frocks in Colonial Days" was very appropri-
ately bound in the figured calico characteristic of that period,
while another book devoted to the interests of yachts and
yachting was bound in ordinary sail canvas on which was
imprinted a line of signal flags bearing the devices of the
different yachts of prominence described in its pages. Here,
at once, are suggested two styles of treatment—one, wherein
the binding material itself is suggestive of the propriety of
its use, and the other, where this suggestion is added or
increased by the printing upon the material of certain char-
acteristic devices, as the signal flags above referred to.
106. Paper Covers.-Paper-covered books are of two
kinds—the one where the edition is valuable and the paper
cover is simply put on to protect the volume until its owner
shall decide to bind it in leather or other permanent material;
other paper-covered books are usually so bound for cheap-
ness, and particularly books of the fiction class that are usually
read and tossed aside after one reading. From a commer-
cial standpoint, however, the covers of these latter are of
as much importance to the designer as the most elaborately
tooled leather cover designed in the style of the sixteenth
century.
1
107. Magazine Covers.--These paper covers, in the
case of a magazine, must be characteristic, so that the maga-
zine is readily recognized by its cover; in the case of a novel,
it must be striking in order to catch the eye of the purchaser
as it lies upon a stand; and in some cases it is highly impor-
tant that it should be symbolic, especially where the subject
treated is a religious or political one, in order that the person
interested may, from a glance at the design of the cover, form
some idea of the material within. In each of these cases, it


86
$7
PRACTICAL DESIGN.
lies entirely with the designer to decide and settle the
material, color, design, and treatment in each individual
case, and on the judicious decision of any one of these points
frequently depends the success or failure of the entire design.
The styles of design that publishers take to can only be
learned by experience, but in cost of production there is
little difference between one design and another, except
when color is used. A complicated design in black-and-
white will cost no more to print than a simple one, but if one
or more colors are introduced, this will require the entire
edition to go on the press a second time, and perhaps a
third, and requiring a separate die to be cut for each print-
ing, thereby multiplying the expense accordingly.


APPLIED DESIGN.
(PART 1.)
2
GEOMETRICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
1. Fitness.—In applying any form of nature to a surface
in order to produce a decoration, it must unquestionably
possess a quality known as fitness for that purpose for
which it is required. It is just as important that the decora-
tion should exactly fit the utensil as that the utensil should
exactly fit the purpose for which it is made. Mere applica-
tion of ornament to a space is not decoration, nor is it
applied design. It must be adapted to that space as per-
fectly as possible, and in any respect that it falls short of
this perfect adaption, just in that respect does it fall short
of being a proper decoration.
2. Influence of Shape. - In Fig. 1 are shown four
shapes or forms, and it will require very little study to
determine that no two of them could be rationally treated
from a decorative standpoint in exactly the same way, and
in decorating them the first question that arises is, in what
direction should the lines run on the surface that is to be
occupied by them.
Here let it be known that the lines forming the boundaries
of the figure should influence the direction of the lines laying
out the pattern. The leading lines should emphasize the
Tines of the boundaries, unless for some reason this cannot
be done, when the minor lines should be made to do so.
S8
For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page.


2
$ 8
APPLIED DESIGN.
This must all be done with perfect harmony and due care to
prevent monotony. Both of these principles can be observed
by paying particular attention to
the effects of contrast and variety.
10
(a)
on
3. Influence of Conven-
tionalism. — In determining the
(6)
directions that are to be taken by
the leading lines of our design,
it is of the greatest importance
that the character the design is
to assume should be considered,
whether it is to be a purely con-
ventional composition to be based
(C)
on conventionalism of general
ideas, or the realization of
some particular plant. In the
first case, we may assume any
ornamental lines we choose, so
long as they are suitable to their
surroundings; but if the design
(d)
is to realize some particular plant
form, the lines must be such that
they depict the growth of the plant and at the same time
are suitable to the space they occupy.
This limits our field of selection in the latter case, and we
must select our natural types with care, in order that both of
its conditions-adaptability of lines and adherence to plant
growth-- will be carried out. We must not let stiff growing
plants be designed in easy flowing lines, nor must we allow
the soft trailing aspect of running vines to be stiffened into
an unnatural appearance, for such would not be convention-
alism, but quite the contrary.

FIG. 1.
4. Emphasis of Structural Lines.-In Fig. 2 we have
the decoration of a surface similar to that shown at (a) of
Fig. 1. The first lines put in place here are the vertical
ones repeating and emphasizing the effect of the sides of the


$ 3
cas
8
APPLIED DESIGN.
oblong, but varying in length. Short horizontal lines are
then introduced, emphasizing the top and the bottom of the
figure; then the curved lines are brought in for contrast.
>
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3.
If, for any reason, the leading lines of our composition
cannot be made to follow the leading lines of the surface
that is decorated, our minor lines must be made to do this,
as shown in Fig. 3. Here we start with a diagonal line in
direct contrast to any of the sides of the rectangle. This
contrast is made strong, and variety is obtained by the
introduction of the spiral lines; then the short vertical and
horizontal lines are' introduced
secondary details, to emphasize the
sides of the rectangle.
as
VO
same
5. Emphasis of Curved Lines.
In Fig. 4 we have the circle, and
the
details apply here as
in the previous case. A central
vertical line stands in strong con-
trast to a boundary line, while the
curved lines are in harmony with it and emphasize the
circumference.
FIG. 4.


4
§ 8
APPLIED DESIGN.
In Fig. 5 we have a decoration of a spandrel between two
arches, based on the outline form shown in Fig. 1 at (c);
the arches between which this spandrel is introduced being
important features of this construction, the curved lines
FIG. 5.
forming its boundaries are given more emphasis, while
the vertical line separating them is introduced to present
contrast.
Then, again, in Fig. 6, which is based on (d) of Fig. 1,
the spiral forms and semicircle within the top emphasize the
outline of the figure, while both con-
trast and variety are produced by the
flowing lines from the center to the
sides.
6. Harmony of Secondary
Lines. It must be observed, too,
that while some of the lines used in
laying out the ornament are in accord
with the boundary of the surface,
the secondary lines must also be
influenced in their direction by the main lines, as shown
in Fig. 2, where the small branching lines from the ver-
ticals are influenced by the curves in the verticals them-
selves.
FIG. 6.


$ 8
5
APPLIED DESIGN.
2
17. Harmony of Lines in Nature.—This principle of
harmony and fitness in the direction of lines can readily be
studied by the observation of the veining of some leaves.
Take, for instance, the lilac leaf
shown in Fig. 7, and observe that
although in the beginning of their
growth the veins start almost in
direct contrast to the direction of
the edge of the leaf, they gradually
bend and assume a curve similar
to the marginal outline, and that
the secondary veins are in har-
mony with the primary ones. In
order to further secure this har-
mony and unity in composition,
it is necessary that lines should express a continuity in their
arrangement as well as a harmony with each other and their
surrounding outlines, and although they may be interrupted,
a common and united direction should be indicated.
FIG. 7.
2
2
8. Continuity of Lines. It is well that all lines
should express the feeling that if they were continued in the
same direction or on the
same curve from the point
where they stop,
they
would unite with some
other line. Thus, in
Fig. 8, we have a square
panel, the inside of which
is laid out on
a sym-
metrical arrangement, and
the lines a and b possess
such a
as would
bring them into unity if
continued shown by
the dotted line.
}
11
d
curve
2,
as
je
FIG. 8.
n
1-
9. Distribution of Masses. Another point to be
observed is the proper distribution of lines—a distribution
3


8
S8
APPLIED DESIGN.
12. Geometrical Basis of Surface Decorations.-
Wall-paper patterns are laid out on a geometrical basis, and
the adoption of different geometrical forms will lead to a
great variety of designs in the filling in. In Fig. 12 at (a) is
a pattern suited for wall decoration or textile design, where
the leading lines are vertical and horizontal, and the repeated


DA
Coco
&
(b)
Jedan
(c)
FIG. 12.
ornament consists in the joining of a number of decorated
rectangles. At (6) is shown a surface decoration where the
foundations of the geometrical construction are tangent cir-
cles, yet the pattern is so handled that the lines governing
its foundation principle are lost in the appearance of the
entire design, and a study of the circular design itself would


$ 8
9
APPLIED DESIGN.
show that the leading construction lines were set out in pre-.
cisely the same manner as in Figs. 2 to 8. At (c) the basis
for construction of ornament is the lozenge shape, and this
introduces oblique lines giving the pattern an entirely
different character from the previous one, while at (d) the
structural lines of the pattern being of a wavy or ogival
character, give rise to the production of still another variety
of surface ornament.
In all of these designs the principal lines are in harmony
with the form of the principal figure, and the filling in of the
figure is of a secondary consideration, although, of course, it
lies with the designer to limit the character of his decoration
simply to one figure or to run it into several figures, making
the design simple or complex as he desires.
13. Retaining and Abolishing Fundamental Geo-
metric Constructions.—Then, again, the designer may
retain the original form on which the design is based and
emphasize it, or arrange that it will be abolished altogether
when the pattern is completed, adopting his course according
to the purpose to which the design is to be applied. As a
suggestion, it may be said that if the design is for a wall
paper to be used on a dado, the constructive geometrical
forms are better retained, as they impart to the design a
stiffness and strong look that make it suitable for the pur-
pose; but if the paper is designed to be hung between the
dado and the frieze, the structural forms may be judiciously
dispensed with and the flowing, easy pattern of the ornament
left open that it may be more in harmony with the position
it is to occupy.
ARRANGEMENT OF DETAILS.
}
14. A method of evolving patterns upon the basis of
intersecting lines has already been shown; the ornament
formed on this principle has been analyzed as the basis for
new ornament. Starting from here, we will consider the
method of treating a surface according to the composition
and location of the ornament.


chiaper
diaper
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Checker

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(4)
(6)
(e)
m

.
(f)
(9)

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(0)
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9)
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7
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(6)
(k)
Striping & banding



(1)
(10)
paneling

(P)
(q)
FIG, 13.
spotting & yowdering


$ 8
11
APPLIED DESIGN.
1
15. General Arrangements of Ornament in Surface
Work. There are five general arrangements of ornament
in surface work—diapering, checkering, striping and banding,
paneling, and spotting and powdering. Assuming that we
have simply a number of square meshes laid out as was our
foundation plan in Fig. 21 of Elements of Ornament, we can,
by simply filling in each square with some form of ornament
and repeating the arrangement regularly, obtain the style of
treatment, known as diapering, shown in Fig. 13, where at
(a) and (b) the square forms are in a horizontal position, and
at (c), (d), and (12), they are at an angle, or in other words,
a lozenge shape. At (c) and (ſ) are shown the same design
as is used at (a) and (6), only the method of laying out the
design is to have the ornament occupy only every other
square, thereby producing the treatment known as checker-
ing. At (g) we have a combination of these two forms,
called checkering and diapering, wherein the design is
made lighter on every alternate square, thus giving a checker
effect, while each square is filled with ornament as in the
diaper effect.
16. In arranging our ornament in annexed squares, either
vertical or horizontal, and leaving spaces of one or more rows
of squares between, we get the effect known as striping
and banding, as shown at (i), (j), and (k); or by combi-
ning striping and banding in such a manner that the stripes
and bands enclose a certain amount of space, we get the
treatment called paneling, shown at (2), (m), and (n). An
extreme treatment of this gives 'uis the effect shown at (0),
sometimes called lining, where the space is divided by lines
of different weights converting the surface into a number of
small panels like a plaid. By extending the space between
the ornaments to a greater or lesser extent, we obtain the
effect known as spotting and powdering, as shown at (P),
(9), and (r).
The difference between spotting and powdering simply
consists in the relative area occupied by the different pieces
of ornament. Where the ornamentation and the background
"




TAX HRS
(a)
(9)




Z-
(e)
(f)
FIG. 14.


$ 8
13
APPLIED DESIGN.
are about of one area, or apparently so, the design is said to
be powdered, but where the ornament exists in small masses
with considerable space between, the effect is said to be
spotted.
17. Diaper.-We will now consider by itself each of
these systems of arrangement: First comes the diaper—this
consists of a pattern that regularly repeats itself so as to com-
pletely cover a surface without interyal, or in such a way
that any interval that exists will form a part of the pattern.
It is what is usually termed an all-over pattern—an arrange-
ment of a most systematic character wherein each detail of
the pattern is confined to an allotted space and does not
overrun its boundaries.
The forms on which the diaper is based may be of any
shape, and frequently different forms may be used in the
same diaper design alternating with each other both ver-
tically and horizontally. This is shown in Fig. 14 where,
at (a) and (b), the geometrical forms governing the
diaper are squares and lozenge shapes, and at (c), tan-
gent circles.
18. As the diaper developed historically, the pattern in
each geometrical section was permitted to extend over and
run into the succeeding section, thereby tending in a slight
degree to obliterate the apparent geometric formation as
shown at (d) and (e); and, finally, as it developed still more,
the boundaries became ornamented as well as the spaces
enclosed by them, and the diaper took a form shown at (f).
It was then but a short step to the time when the formal
all-over pattern developed itself, and arrived at what we
consider the ordinary diaper pattern of the present day,
which consists of a surface decoration that rarely shows its
geometrical construction no matter how regular that con-
struction may be.
In Fig. 15 are shown four designs, at (a), (b), (c), and
(d), wherein, after the geometrical guide lines have been
removed, it is a difficult matter to trace the character of
:


14
§ 8
APPLIED DESIGN.
the ornament. Each geometrical form shown dotted in
these designs contains the complete details of all the orna-
(a)
Comply
(d)
(c)
FIG. 15.
ment of the entire surface and they repeat in each direction
unlimitedly.
19. Fig. 16 shows additional patterns taken from pieces of
tapestry of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, whereon
the geometrical expression of the design has been empha-
sized for the purpose of illustration. At (a) the square is
the basis on which the design is constructed and contains
every detail of the entire pattern, but in two forms, one of




>
(a)
(9)


1
(c)
(d)
Fig. 16.


$ 8
17
APPLIED DESIGN.
which is the reverse of the other, forming what might be
considered a right-and-left pattern, so to speak. At (6),
however, the rectangle containing all the details of the
design is repeated without reverse both above and below
and on each side of itself. At (c), where the design is based
on the lozenge shape, the pattern consists of a simple repe-
tition of the lozenge form in diagonal directions on each of
the four sides of its origin, while at (d) the general design
is based on the circle, and the parts filled in, as well as the
parts between the circles, are emphasized in the design and
almost obliterate the geometrical basis of the construction.
From this it can be seen that the extent to which a system
of diapering can be varied is unlimited, and checkering is
so similar to it that we can readily see it also has no
limitation.
20. Checkering.-In Fig. 17, at (a) and (b), are shown
two systems of surface decoration by means of checker
work; at (a) the individual lines separating the checkers are
omitted from the design and the checker filling alone is
used, but at (6) the vertical lines of at least a part of the
checker work are maintained in the design, and the fillings
branch from either side of them in conventionalized floral
forms.
21. Striping, Paneling, Banding, Spotting and
Powdering.–The effect obtained by striping is shown in
Fig. 17 at (c), where the broad stripe down the center of the
panel is blended into the border to improve the effect, while
the space each side is broken by a single spot. At (d) the
stripes run diagonally across the panel and divide its surface
up into a number of bands At (e) is shown the appearance
of a panel decorated by spotting alone. Here a large cen-
tral spot forms a main feature and two smaller spots are
placed above and below, the whole being balanced by means
of vertical and horizontal lines. At (f) is shown the effect
in panel work of spotting and powdering, the whole being
arranged on a lozenge system of checker work, but destroyed
from a checker work effect by the powdered background.


18
88
APPLIED DESIGN.
APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT.
HANGING FABRICS.
22. Propriety of Design.-In applying ornament to
any surface the greatest consideration must be given to
the question of purpose. The style and method of deco-
rating a textile fabric may be very appropriate for itself
and altogether inappropriate when applied to a wall sur-

TOIDUBLICIDIOSO
QUILTEDILITIEI ILITO
ITILILLIGINI
TATTOLIUINONTA
0-000000
SISSE
SED
POSPALIO
Groen
960
gos
FIG. 18.
face.
For instance, even in the same class of goods, a
woven fabric that is to be used on a wall surface must
necessarily present a different problem in design from
one that is to form a hanging over a doorway - one is


$ 8
19
APPLIED DESIGN.
stiff, flat, and hard, from the surface it is called upon
to cover; the other is soft, movable, and flexible, and
uneven in surface when in use; and a design that is suit-
able for the one would surely be greatly out of place for
the other.
23. Here it must again be suggested that the method in
the style of design that will best accent the qualities desired
in each material will be the method most suitable in con-
structing the design. The wall must appear flat, and for
that reason a design that will not show any particular direc-
tion will be more suitable.
Vertical and horizontal stripes
must not form any part in
the decoration, and a scheme
based on diapering or pow-
dering, or an all-over system
of paneling, will be allow-
able.

பார்ப்பாய்
>
1
24. On the other hand, a
curtain that is hung from a
pole is suitable to striping,
and horizontal or oblique
stripes work in very naturally
for such a purpose, as shown
in Fig. 18, as through the
folds the stripes are broken
and the strongest effect of
the movability and softness
of the goods is brought out.
Vertically striped patterns are to be avoided as hangings,
as their design tends to confusion, emphasizing the folds
of the goods instead of harmonizing them, as shown in
Fig. 19.
Another point that should be considered in designing
hangings is the size of the pattern compared with the weight
and quality of the goods-a heavy material that will lie in
FIG. 19,
a
it
S


20
$ 8
APPLIED DESIGN.
bold round folds can support a pattern of large details and
vigorous design, but light goods that hang in delicate undu-
lations require a delicate handling in order that the pattern
may not appear incongruous or heavy for the goods.
WALL DECORATION.
25. Methods of Treatment. In the wall decoration
of large and important rooms, the figures forming the detail
of the decoration may be bold and heavy, but in small rooms
of less importance in character the figures of the decoration
should be sufficiently reduced not to attract the eye from the
other harmonies of the room.
Aside from the scale of the detail of the pattern, there
should be considered the order of its distribution, for when
we begin to divide a surface into its different sections we
must consider the value of each section and the relative
importance each is to occupy in the design. For instance,
should we divide our wall into dado, wall surface, and frieze,
and possibly subdivide these members by moldings and
borders, we are emphasizing an idea derived from a struc-
tural value—the pedestal, column, and entablature of an
architectural order—and the parts having the greatest struc-
tural value should, therefore, receive the inost severe treat-
ment, while those of less importance may have a delicate
and more picturesque treatment. The dado, being the
support of the wall surface, must therefore receive the
plainest and most dignified decoration, while the wall sur-
face itself may be freely treated with a diaper or spotted
decoration, and the frieze, with an elaborate though delicate
treatment.
26. Pilaster Forms of Treatment. Sometimes the
wall may be divided by means of pilasters so that it consists
of a number of panels; then it loses its character as an entire
wall surface, and the panels should be decorated individu-
ally, while the pilasters as structural members should receive
proper treatment of importance and dignity.


§ 8
21
APPLIED DESIGN.
There is a strong objection in some cases to using the
pilaster form of treatment as a surface decoration, inasmuch
as it has too much of a structural significance, but it is fre-
quently necessary to break the monotony of a long wall sur-
face, and if the actual pilasters cannot be built to bring
about the effect, a decorative pilaster may be used with per-
fect propriety, provided always that it is a conventional
representation of one and not a realistic counterfeit. It
is in this that the danger of using structural forms in
wall decoration exists. The pilaster may, and properly
should, suggest the idea of the forın of decoration with
which we effect the subdivision, but a false and painted
pilaster is most assuredly highly out of place as the divi-
ding member.
27. Effects of Vertical and Horizontal Decorating.
It will also be well to remember that the methods of wall
decoration have each a marked effect upon the general
appearance of a room. Horizontal divisions of the wall
increase the effect of comfort and coziness in an apartment
but reduce the apparent height of its ceiling, and if the
upper and lower divisions of the wall are overdeveloped
in order to get this horizontal effect, the cramped posi-
tion of the intermediate space will reduce the apparent
height of the ceiling almost to an exaggeration. On the
other hand, vertical divisions of the wall into panels or
by means of pilasters, tend to increase the apparent
height of the ceiling at the expense of the cozy and home-
like appearance of the apartment. Such treatment is per-
missible only in the more formal rooms of a building,
where great dignity and less familiarity of surroundings
are required.
3
3
i
е
e
:S
'e
28. In the preparation of patterns for wall decoration,
whether they are to be stencils, direct paintings, or designs
for the paper stainer, weaver, or textile printer, there are
always technical matters in each industry that must be con-
sidered, besides the mere handling of the design, and the
1-
те


22
§ 8
APPLIED DESIGN.
conditions by which each design is more or less limited must
be thoroughly understood by the designer if the artistic
element is to be carried to its fullest possibilities.
29. Wall-Paper Design. — Wall papers are printed
from blocks or rolls varying in size from 18 to 22 inches
square, though most English papers are printed from blocks
21 inches square; and to practically space out a design it
requires that the number of fundamental forms or repeats
must be so adjusted as to fit one of these blocks; otherwise,
perfect repetition in all directions will be impossible. It
must also be remembered that 'no matter whether the pat-
tern is based on the square, the rectangle, or the triangle,
the paper will be printed from a square block and in runs of
about 12 yards. The block may contain one repeat or more
than one repeat or even only a portion of a repeat, accord-
ing to the scale of the pattern, and in all cases the extension
of the repeat in a vertical direction is attained by repeated
printings from the block, while the horizontal repeats are
matters for the paper hanger to carry out when he places
the hangings side by side. The dimensions of the printing
block will therefore control, to a large extent, the size and
proportion of the pattern, and the pattern must always be
so adjusted that the repeat will occur with the utmost
accuracy in both directions,
30. Size of the Repeat.-For instance, suppose we
adopt the lozenge form as the basis of our pattern, as shown
in Fig. 20 at (a), and comparing it with the proposed design,
discover that it will yield a pattern far too large for the
character of the subject we desire to have printed; there-
fore, we make the block contain one and one-half of the
form for repeat as shown at (6); but this, while it reduces
the scale of our design, at the same time so alters the pro-
portions of our figure that we cannot readily handle it.
The arrangement of two lozenge shapes, as at (c), in the
same space that we originally attempted to put one, as at
(a), still further decreases the relative proportion between


$ 8
23
APPLIED DESIGN.
the width and the height of our geometrical form. There-
fore, if it is necessary that our pattern should preserve the
same proportion as our lozenge shape in Fig. 20 (a), we
must shorten the block somewhat as expressed at (f), or
adopt the arrangement shown at (e), which reduces our
-18 inches
KO am
>
(a)
(b)
(c)
(f)
(d)
(e)
FIG. 20,
repeat to one-half the size we started with at (a), and we
can therefore see that in adapting any form to suit a block
of a given size we are compelled to alter the proportion or
greatly reduce the scale.
31.
2
If the size of the pattern indicated in Fig. 20 at (6)
is satisfactory and if the change of its proportion is of no
great account, it will be found that the method of repetition
differs from that in (a), (c), and (c) and that it will not
repeat by being placed side by side on the same level, as in
Fig. 21 at (a), and therefore the horizontal repetition of the
pattern must be effected by lowering the pattern half a
block when placed side by side as shown at (6). Patterns
arranged in this way for hangings are technically known as
“drop pattern," because the decorator has to drop the paper
half the width of one block when pasting it on the wall.
The chief object attained in adopting the drop pattern is the
e
t
D
LBFA.
OTATE TEACHER COLLEC
SANTA BARBARA, CALIFORNIA


24
$ 8
APPLIED DESIGN.
avoidance of too small a scale, as can be seen in Fig. 20.
The largest possible scale that can be worked on this piin-
ciple, next to the full size shown at (a), is shown at (b), and
the arrangement shown at (d), though satisfactory for a
repetition horizontally by
dropping the pattern one-
third of a block, will not
repeat vertically and so can-
not be printed.
KX a
(a)
32. Proportion of the
Unit. Here is the first
problem that confronts us in
making a repeat pattern.
We have in Fig. 20 six
schemes of arrangement by
which to adapt the form
shown at (a) to a different
scale of pattern, each of
which is likely to present
certain unsurmountable dis-
(6)
advantages. The scheme at
(6) may be too narrow for the
height according to the work of the design; (c) is still more
so; (d) presents us with a smaller pattern than (a) in the
same proportion, but one that cannot be printed owing to
its lack of vertical repeat; (e) being but half the size of (a)
may be too small; and (f), though suitable in every respect
for a drop pattern, demands that the proportions of the
printing block be changed, which is not a convenient thing
to do. We therefore must resort to the printing of our
pattern in large scales as at (a), or reduce its proportions to
the forms shown at (6) and (e).
FIG. 21.
33. Bringing this down to a practical basis, we have in
Fig. 22 at (a) the diagram of a wall-paper pattern on a basis
of geomertrical figures and at (6) the method of dropping it
in order to secure the satisfactory repeats. This, however,
i


S 8
25
APPLIED DESIGN.
1.

..^
is not the only method of
securing repeating pat-
terns used by designers.
The plan of cutting the
paper into equal sections
after the first elements of
the design have been laid
out and then transposing
the pieces during the
process of design, has been
heretofore discussed and is
certainly more suitable for
designs where the treat-
ment is free, such as that
shown in Fig. 15 at (6).
By this method the artist
can work with greater
freedom and always be
sure of the accuracy of
his repeats.
1
D???
(a).
1
34. Coloring in Wall
Paper.-Another detail in
the manufacture of wall
paper that must always be
considered, is the question
of color, and the number
of colors to be used should
always be governed to a
certain extent by the scale
of the pattern.
If the
scale be small, several
colors may be used, as
the diminutiveness of the
details will cause the colors
to blend and show
effect of brilliant or dark
spots, which would appear
i
no
1
(6)
FIG. 22,
)


26
§ 8
APPLIED DESIGN.
in a wall surface where the pattern was large. In a large
pattern, however, the colors must be few, or so subdued in
tint that none of them is obtrusive.
35. Fitness of Pattern. In the character of patterns
that are suitable for wall papers, the law of fitness should
govern us always. The limitations of the processes of
printing affect our repetition, but not the growth and devel-
opment of our design. Patterns that are made up of a con-
ventional repetition of a given type are well adapted to block
printing, but patterns having the appearance of a natural
growth are but ill suited to this class of work, as the iden-
tical lines must occur again and again throughout the deco-
rated space, and the characteristic irregularity of nature is
thus violated.
36. The only way to present a naturalistic treatment of
a wall surface is by some process that favors the principle of
variety. Hand painting is the only means by which ever
changing variety may be attained to an unlimited extent.
Therefore, the fitness of methods to the realization of the
best designs justifies us in saying that conventional patterns
are best suited to the mechanically repeated process of print-
ing, and naturalistic designs must always be executed by
hand painting
37. Friezes.—We will now consider the subject of
frieze decoration, which bears the same relation to the wall
surface as the capital does to the column, or the entablature
to an architectural order, and it should be borne in mind
that inasmuch as the capital of a column is made more elab-
orate and interesting than is the shaft itself, just in such
proportion should the frieze design of the wall be elaborated
over the decoration of the general surface.
It should also be borne in mind that the scheme of deco-
ration of a frieze should be more complicated and interesting
than the wall, because it occupies a structural position and
also because it is removed beyond a point of danger from
damage from moving furniture, etc., but at the same time


88
27
APPLIED DESIGN.
1

(a)

(6)

(c)

(d)
FIG. 23.
I


28
$ 8
APPLIED DESIGN.
its elevated position requires that its decoration should be
simple so as to be easily understood at a distance.
1
38. There are four distinctively different ways in which
a frieze
may
be treated. It may contain a continuous run-
ning pattern as shown at (a) in Fig. 23—a system of treat-
ment in accord with the Gothic system of decoration and
observable in many of the carved friezes of Gothic art, but
unfortunately productive of rather a weak effect when used
for plain surface decoration.
A better method is by the introduction of a number of
vertical ornaments as shown at (6) somewhat after the clas-

MOMOMO MOMmmmmmc
FIG. 24.
sic method of frieze decoration as shown in Fig. 24, which is
a portion of a frieze from a Greek temple. Several separate
details of this character may be joined by horizontal running
ornament, as shown in Fig. 23 at (c), and this we might con-

Wh
FIG. 25.
sider somewhat more in sympathy with the Renaissance
system of treating this detail, as shown in Fig. 25.


§ 8
29
APPLIED DESIGN.
The fourth method, shown at (d), is by the introduction of
a number of panels, but this is only applicable where a
severe form of treatment is desired. The system of filling
a frieze with a few vertical ornaments is entirely in accord
with the structural conditions and recalls the vertical mem-
bers in the triglyphs of the Doric order, and the dentals in
the Ionic and Corinthian.
It makes no difference whether we lay out our frieze by
an arrangement of panels or by simple vertical elements, we
must bear in mind that it is always wise to accentuate the
structural lines, but the extent to which this is permissible
depends on the general scheme adopted. If the scheine of
design is severe and dignified, structural accentuation may
be carried out to a greater degree than if the treatment be
light and fanciful.
39. Borders.-Borders are used sometimes in wall deco-
ration to separate the frieze and the dado from the filling or
wall space, or are sometimes used as the boundaries of
panels. Their primary office in design is usually to prevent
the decoration of one surface from lapping over and imping-
ing on that of another; therefore, an elaborate border of
complicated design requires a separating element of a plainer
character in order to keep its design from mixing with the
design of the filling and thereby forming a part of the
patterns it is intended to separate. This is sometimes
accomplished by making a distinct contrast between the
character of the pattern of the border and that of the
filling This may be done in matter of color, or in the
arrangement of lines, allowing vertical lines to predomi-
nate one, and horizontal lines to form the characteristics
of the other.
40. Another use to which the border is put is that of
the enclosing of an ornament in order to confine it and give
it an expression of unity as illustrated in Fig. 3 of Elements
of Ornament. In the case of pictures, the application of a
border in the form of a frame is to separate it from the more


30
§ 8
APPLIED DESIGN.
conventional rendering of the wall surface on which it hangs
and confine the attention to that which is enclosed.
1
41. The treatment of the border depends entirely on
the space around it, and the character of the design must be
carefully studied in order that the border may not be of
more interest than the picture. Occasionally, when the
subject does not allow the enclosure a proper border, a
simple line around the edge to confine it to its apparently
allotted space is sometimes sufficient to satisfy the eye, but
this method should be but sparingly used and only when
some good reason warrants its adoption.
The character of the border, as said before, must be
studied relatively to the design surrounded; for instance, in
Fig. 26 is shown a panel of conventional design where at (a)

18%
(a)
(6)
TE
5
FIG. 26.
the simple line border is readily seen to be insufficient,
while at (b) a heavier border is introduced and suits its pur-
pose better.
There is no rule that requires the design of a



>
FIG. 27.
(a)
RUS
(b)
FIG. 28.


APPLIED DESIGN.
$8
border to be simply a band around its subject demanding
parallel lines, and in Fig. 27 is shown a design where the
inside of the border is not parallel with the outside, but con-
sists of a surrounding member of special design to suit its
particular purpose.
In Fig. 28 we have at (a) a panel of foliated ornament
surrounded by a border composed of details, the interest of
which is too great and consequently conflicts with the inter-
est in the panel itself; but at (b) the same foliated ornament
is reduced in the border to a conventional rendering, thereby
suiting its purpose exactly and enhancing the value of the
design instead of detracting from it.
42. Corners.—Besides the consideration of borders,
attention should be given to the consideration of corners
where borders turn around a frame or wall surface, and it
should always be remembered that a frame is structurally
formed in one of several ways, the three most prominent
of which are shown in Fig. 29, where at (a) we have the
(a)
(6)
FIG, 29.
miter joint, at (b) a square joint, and at (c) the joggled or
halved joint. The joint is always apparently the weakest
part of a structure, therefore the ornament should be added
in such a way as to apparently strengthen this part of it, and
in laying out a design it is advisable to start at the corner
and apply the ornament in such a manner that it will appear
to hold the corner in position and extend itself over the
vertical and horizontal pieces.
43. Pilasters.-Besides horizontal borders, there are
vertical elements that fulfil the same functions, and under


$
APPLIED DESIGN.
$8
this consideration may be included the decorative elements
of pilasters and other upright divisions of a wall surface.
Many lines used for horizontal borders have often been
used in the decoration of pilasters, subject to certain modifi-
cations in order to adapt them; but this course is not to be
commended, as there are four systems of pilaster decoration
that seem to have satisfied the wants of mankind in the best
periods of art without any general modification or improve-
ment.
44. In one of these the elements of the design are built
in stages and symmetrically disposed around a central stalk
as shown in Fig. 30 at (a). This method gives us the
(a)
(6)
(c)
FIG. 30.
impression of support and vertical feeling of stability charac-
teristic of the pilaster itself. The second method is where
the ornament is tied together in bunches apparently and
suspended over the surface of the panel of the pilaster by a


34
§ 8
APPLIED DESIGN.
cord or ribbon as shown at (6), and this treatment should
be used only when the pilaster itself is of vigorous design
and requires no element to apparently strengthen its ability
to support. A third method is arranged upon a succession
of spirals growing apparently in vine form from the bottom
of the pilaster or panel and neither adding to nor detracting
from its value as a structural member, as shown at (c). The
fourth method, shown at (d), is similar in effect to the first,
and is based on a series of wave lines crossing and recrossing
a central stem without in any way adding to its apparent
support.
45. In the treatment of these, designs (a) and (d), being
additions to the development of structural feeling, will
require a conventional rendering of their details.
The cen-
tral axis must be strong, and architectural elements can be
used in the subdivisions. On the other hand, the light delicate
treatment of (6) and (c) will permit of a naturalistic rendering,
and grape-vine, ivy, or morning-glory patterns, never suit-
able to the other surroundings, may form the type on which
the design is based.
CEILING DECORATION.
46. In every room there are two surfaces that require
consideration in connection with the architecture and deco-
rative treatment; these are the ceiling and the floor. The
first of these is usually the least decorated part of any
apartment, though in many historic buildings the conditions
are quite the reverse.
47. In decorating the ceiling it should always be remem-
bered that this detail of a room acts as a reflector of light
and should therefore be treated in such a manner that its
ornamentation will not render the apartment gloomy, and
particularly if the ceiling is low. It should certainly be
in harmony, both in design and color, with other details of
the room and particularly with the frieze or cornice with
which it is surrounded. Its design may consist of the most
simple treatment, limited to a border, with ornaments at the


36
SS
APPLIED DESIGN.
In Fig. 32 is shown a corner of a
ceiling in the style that prevailed
largely during the Elizabethan period
-a development of the elaborate
tracery of Gothic days, relieved with
spotted ornaments; while Fig. 33
shows a design for all-over treatment
suitable for a wall-paper pattern that
can be mounted on the ceiling as
other patterns are on the side walls.
FIG. 32.
L
de Sacom
Tank
han vaan
Gas
VUVU
Fig. 33.


88
37
APPLIED DESIGN.

a
d
ATATATALIALALTALA TALAYI
UTPATWIATIVTATI
TUVININIATIVTATYTA
AVALAVAL
LIIALT VAJALTALTALIATA
LAUALTATA TALL
writhvir
se
ch
UC
mt
as
VATAVAVAJAVAJAVATAVAVAZAT
YVYYYYYYYYYY
KAT
TAA
FIG. 34.


$ 8
39
APPLIED DESIGN.
>
The general practice of designing floor coverings to have
the appearance of an uneven surface is found more in carpets
than in tiles or parquetry, but this mistake will be found in
all materials. This can best be expressed by a few illustra-
tions.
For instance, in Fig. 35, at (a) is shown a simple border
pattern for parquetry, wherein the design appears to possess
an interlaced effect of one strap passing over and then under

WA
(a)
(c)

0)
(d)
FIG. 35.
another, which, if true, would make the floor uneven and
therefore undesirable. A better method of treating this on
the same lines is shown at (6), where the flatness of feeling
is preserved.
The same may be said of the tile-work pattern shown at
(c), wherein the arrangement of lozenge-shaped tiles is such
that it gives one the impression of a series of cubes standing
on their corners, which certainly is most undesirable. A
better treatment is shown at (d).
51. Softness of Outline.--In carpet designs, the pat-
terns usually take a less rigid form than in tile work,
mosaic, etc., because the nature of the material is such that,
besides the expression of flatness, consideration must be




(a)
(b)
FIG. 36.


$ 8
41
APPLIED DESIGN.
SIGN.
>
given to the flexibility of its character. Carpet usually pos-
sesses a soft and somewhat yielding surface and it is there-
fore proper that patterns woven in it should be made up
largely of curved lines that are more expressive of softness
and flexibility than are straight lines—symbolic of firmness
and strength.
Great contrast in a carpet design is undesirable, because it
is expressive of hardness and firmness, at variance with the
character of the material. For instance, in Fig. 36 at (a) the
appearance of the design is uneven and there is too great a
contrast between the tones of color used. The treatment at
(6) is better and gives a flatter appearance, but the outlining
of the pattern has increased the contrast of the general
ground. At (c), however, the tones are brought nearer
together and the entire appearance is flat and soft, so that
the pattern and the ground melt and blend into each other
in a harmonious manner entirely suitable to the material and
its purpose.
II. 3305-
UTENSILS AND VASES.
52. Origin.-A11 objects that are products of industrial
art have evolved by successive developments from some
simple form that was originally constructed to serve a utili-
tarian purpose only. The most elaborate forms of cups,
vases, furniture, jewelry, etc. each have a most elementary
origin, and various alterations, for reasons of convenience,
have been forced upon them, in accordance with the con-
stantly altering conditions of society.
Take, for instance, a cup; this vessel has its origin in the
desire of prehistoric man to provide himself with some vessel
of capacity in which to collect water to drink and for other
purposes. The earliest cups and bowls were doubtless
natural ones, consisting probably of gourds, shells, horns of
animals, etc., and these crude implements satisfied man's
requirements until a more cultivated period of society was
attained, and we find man manufacturing utensils of clay.
Nothing was more natural than that he should imitate
in clay the same forms and shapes to which he had been
!


42
$ 8
APPLIED DESIGN.
accustomed in nature, and we find the earliest vases and
vessels modeled on a form of the gourd, shell, drinking
horn, etc.
FIG. 37.
53. The earliest form of a vessel used for catching water
from a spring would naturally be a wide-mouthed bowl on
the sides of which were provided handles for holding it, as
shown in Fig. 37; but, although this is well conceived for
receiving dripping water, it is poorly
adapted to the carrying of it, because
the least motion would cause the water
to spill, it having so large a surface, and
for carrying purposes a narrow-mouthed vessel was far
superior.
Both conditions, however—that of receiving the water,
and that of carrying it—had to be provided for, and we thus
arrive at a vessel designed to suit the double purpose in the
form shown in Fig. 38. Here the wide mouth is still retained,
while the under part is narrowed down in
order to present a
small surface of water to
be affected by the oscillation of the body in
walking, thereby reducing the chance of
spilling. In this simple necessity we arrive
at the first form of vase, with its large
FIG. 38.
body, narrow neck, and expanding top, and
we find that its origin was due to necessity and not to
fancy.
54. Development of the Drinking Cup.–Now, let
us turn for a moment to the ordinary drinking cup that we
find in various forms. In Fig. 39 at (a) is shown a form of
cup that is common even at the present day and undoubtedly
had its origin in the section of some animal's horn, and it is
this form of cup that has received the greatest development
throughout successive ages of history.
Although this horn shape is decidedly serviceable in use,
it had a tendency to be easily overturned when filled with
liquid, and at the same time there was danger of its slipping
through the fingers when the exterior was wet, and a change
3


§ 8
43
APPLIED DESIGN.
in shape naturally resulted. The first of these difficulties
was overcome by expanding the base somewhat, in order to
give it a greater standing area, as shown at (6), while the
slipping tendency was counteracted by an alteration of the
I
>
(a)
(6)
(c)
(d)
(e)
ODDO
(g)
(h)
(j)
FIG. 39.
outline as shown at (c), or by means of raised rings as shown
at (d). The gathering of the part below these rings brings
us to the form shown at (e) and introduces us to the first
idea of a stem below the glass.
55. The parts of the cup then assumed specified names,
the extreme top being termed the lip, the lower part the


88
45
APPLIED DESIGN.
working. The precious metals, owing to their ductility,
were worked to a great thinness, and, consequently, became
so light as to be particularly flimsy; to resist the damage
the surface was likely to undergo from indentation, the
sides were usually bulged and beaten into various regular
forms in order to give them strength. This method of
working was soon adopted as a decorative feature.
58. Another method of strengthening the stem that
became a source of ornamentation was the adding of small
cast supports and braces at different parts of the stem, it
being believed that these would add stiffness to the whole.
They were, in the first place, adopted to overcome the tend-
ency of interior pressure on the vessel and to strengthen the
junction of the calyx and stem, and they not only gave sup-
port to the vessel but added a very pleasing effect and sug-
gested undoubtedly to the mind of some subsequent worker
the possibilities of an extended application.
59. Development of the Vase.—The development of
what is modernly known as the vase had for its origin the
water cup shown in Fig. 39. This was developed in various
forms, until we arrive at the perfected work of the Greeks,
where the surface was covered with ornamentation appro-
priate to its position, and moldings were carved with that
extreme skill for which the Greek was ever noted.
60. The Chalice.—Another form of cup is the chalice,
and it appears to have been developed from the primitive
bowl suggested in Fig. 37. Bowls of that character were in
early Greek times supported on a short stem, and the next
step—that of elongating the stem and suppression of the side
handles—became necessary when the cup was used for drink-
ing purposes only. This form of drinking cup is not the
one that was used for religious purposes, and extensive
changes were subsequently made in order to suit it for its
specific purposes.
The knop was added to the stem in order that it could be
more easily grasped, and the base was greatly extended over


46
S8
APPLIED DESIGN.
that of other drinking cups in order to minimize the danger
of upsetting. The base was afterwards made irregular in
shape, so that when the chalice was laid on the side to
drain, as it frequently was, it would not tend to roll in
one direction or the other, and
incidental with these changes,
the profile of the cup became
somewhat altered, until it
assumed generally the form
shown in Fig. 40.
61. The Jug and Ewer.-
The jug and ewer seem to have
been evolved by an entirely dif-
ferent process from that which
called into existence the vessels
we have already considered, as
these vessels have a long side
handle for lifting them, instead
of a stem. Ewers were prob-
ably derived from vases and
beakers, by repressing the stem
on one side and cutting the lip
obliquely downwards so as to make it more serviceable, at
the opposite side.
FIG. 40.
62. Handles.-In designing vessels with handles it is
important to give proper consideration for the position of
the handle with relation to the lips and spouts of the vessel,
in order that its contents may not act against the pouring
action. The point whereat a vessel can best be grasped and
turned to pour out its contents will be a little above the
center of gravity of the whole mass, and it is of the highest
importance to determine the point of the center of gravity
in order that the handle will be properly placed upon a
pitcher. This may be very easily done, graphically, by cut-
ting out, in cardboard, the form of a vertical section through
the center of the proposed vessel and drawing on this


S8
47
APPLIED DESIGN.
section the vertical center line. If the card section is now
hung, or supported, from any point on its upper edge, a
vertical line passing through this point and across the center
line will mark, where it crosses the center line, the center of
gravity required. This experiment should always be tried
in designing vases.
63. The tracing of the development of these forms thus
far shows conclusively that every detail has had its origin in
necessity—that the elaboration of these details has progressed
in harmony with man's inventive genius and general ability
through several ages. It is well to understand, though, that
up to the present time there is no reason why any two forms
should have been molded on exactly the same lines, or why
infinite variety cannot be obtained by working the changes
on these simple forms.
Too often the designer attempts to copy literally from
nature in the production of some object, an idea for whose
design he has drawn from a natural
source. Take, for instance, the acorn,
and assume that a vessel is to be
designed with this simple detail as its
model. To use the identical outline
of the acorn, imitate its cap at the
bottom, and raise it on a stem with a
bunch of leaves for a base, in direct
imitation of the original, is not design-
ing a vessel on the type of the acorn,
but making a metallic acorn suit the
purpose of a drinking vessel.
We should do better to borrow
ideas of outline and structure from
the acorn and produce a hanap of the style shown in Fig. 41.
Here there is no direct imitation of nature - no attempt
made to deceive the eye into the belief that this cup is an
acorn used for drinking purposes.
64. Suggestions From Nature.—There is no form in
nature that cannot, if intelligently used, be made to give
FIG. 41.


48
SS
APPLIED DESIGN.
suggestions for the design of vase and other forms. Take,
for instance, the human form and extract its subtle lines,
and one can readily, by repeating the soft curves on each
side of an axial line, at least get suggestions that may be
worked up into most pleasing forms.
In Fig. 42 is shown a vase or bowl, the governing outline
of which is formed by two profiles of the human face arranged
FIG. 42.
at such an angle that they suit the conditions exactly. Such
a design is suitable for execution in any wrought metal, but
preferably in silver on account of the delicacy of some of its
lines. The details of this design are associated with the sea,
the base being formed of scallop shells, while the stem con-
sists of groups of dolphins and other sea forms. The head
of the mermaid at the top of the bowl is raised on the sur-
face, and the locks of hair distributed in each direction as


§ 8
49
APPLIED DESIGN.
though floating on the waves of the sea give an irregular
outline to the top. The propriety of this distribution of
hair is evident from two points; first, it produces the hori-
zontal lines necessary to emphasize and apparently strengthen
the weakest part of the vessel, and, second, applies a type
of decoration consistent with the profile on which the out-
line is formed. The handles consist of dolphins reduced to
conventionalized forms according to the principles suggested
in the discussion of the animal elements of design in Ele-
ments of Ornament.
It is not necessary in a design of this character that the
entire profile should be used, or that it should be maintained
in this position or particular angle. It may be varied to
suit any conditions according to the artist's fancy, and is
used here only to illustrate that an interesting outline may
be applied to various widely differing objects, always caus-
ing a pleasing effect inasmuch as it is the proportions and
variations of the curves of these outlines that satisfy the
artistic eye.
When such an outline is adopted, whether it is the profile
of the human face, the curve of the neck, shoulder, or any
other portion of the body, or an established outline of any
other natural form, care should always be exercised that
the surface decoration accompanying it is in harmony with
the disposition of its various parts, and that members requir-
ing a treatment in horizontal lines are not handled in accord-
ance with the system of decoration that creates a wrong
impression. Each thing should be suited to its place; no
element should be applied unless it appears to be required,
and no ornament should be placed so that it will destroy the
effect of what is essentially an interesting outline or a well
proportioned surface.
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APPLIED DESIGN.
(PART 2.)
TEXTILE FABRICS.
7
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
1. Appropriateness of Design.-In making a design
for any class of textile fabric, the first object to be con-
sidered is, the use to which this fabric is to be applied.
This having been determined, the ornament of the fabric
can be considered either as part of the structure woven into
the fabric itself, or stamped on its surface, as in cotton
goods or in some silks. It thus appears that in the design
of textile fabrics we do not necessarily work entirely on
principles of art; but designate to the weaver, by means
of drawings, details that are to confine him to a certain
structure of goods.
2. Purposes of Fabrics.-The use to which a fabric is
to be put very materially determines its structure, and we
may divide these uses, purely from a utilitarian standpoint,
into two classes--coverings for the body to keep it warm, and
coverings for our walls and furniture, primarily, perhaps, as
a decoration, but, in reality, also to provide warmth. In
both cases, the goods will be called upon to fulfil one condi-
tion; that is, wear, and in this subject of wear we are con-
cerned entirely with the structure of the goods, its ornament
For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page.
S 9


2
8 9
APPLIED DESIGN.
affecting the wear only inasmuch as that ornament affects
the structure. Some goods must bear strain in one direction
to fulfil this condition of wear, others must be able stand
friction and general handling without apparent damage, and
others are likely to be called upon for both these qualities.
3. Textile fabrics may be generally described as a com-
bination of interwoven or interlaced threads, and the struc-
ture of that fabric consists of the method of interlacing these
threads in order that the fabric may serve all the require-
ments of its purpose. Now, the threads that go to make
up any woven fabric are divided into two sets—the warp
threads that run lengthwise of the goods on the loom and
are practically continuous throughout the entire piece, and
the weft threads that run crosswise of the goods and inter-
weave with the warp.
we liſt
wa
(А
4. Weaving.-This interweaving is effected in the loom
by lifting a certain number of warp threads and passing the
weft thread under them, after which another set of warp
threads is lifted and another line of weft thread is passed
under. If, in this system of weaving,
every
other
warp
thread and
pass the weft through, and then lift
every alternate warp thread between
and pass the weft thread back, we will
produce a weave of plain goods, such
as is shown in the diagram, Fig. 1,
where the warp threads with the odd
numbers 1, 3, 5, etc. are lifted and
the weft thread is passed through from
a to b, then the even numbered warp
threads 2, 4, 6, etc. are lifted and the weft thread is returned
from b to c, and so on, alternately, weaving a piece of plain
cloth the width of which remains constantly equal to ab, but
the length can be unlimited and is determined entirely by
the length of the warp threads that are wound on a cylinder
in the loom, called the beam.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
FIG, 1.


8 9
3
APPLIED DESIGN.
The structural design of any woven fabric depends entirely
on the arrangement of these warp and weft threads, while
its wearing qualities and utility may be dependent on the
character of the threads themselves, both as to the material of
which they are made and the manner in which they are spun.
1
}
1
i
5. Effect of Twist in Weaving.-It will be seen from
Fig. 1 that the twist of the thread, or yarn, in the warp
threads is at right angles to the twist of the threads in the
weft and that it will be necessary, therefore, that these
threads should bend around one another and, thereby, leave
small open spaces, instead of lying quite tight and close
together. The thicker the threads of which the fabric is
made, the larger will be these open spaces; and the thinner
the thread, the smaller and closer will be the weave. Other
conditions of the yarn will affect these perforations also, as
a thread that is soft and fuzzy will pack in rather closely
and will practically fill up the open spaces by the projecting
filaments of fuzz and make a piece of solid goods, so that in
the mechanical process of weaving we can press the goods
closely together and as the yarn springs out it will fill up
these small openings and produce a solid piece of goods.
On the other hand, if the yarn is twisted hard, so as to make
a firm, solid thread, it cannot be compressed as can the
softer yarn, and it will, therefore, be worked less closely
together, producing an open fabric, but, owing to the hard-
ness of the thread, a fabric that will
bear more wear from friction than
the previous one.
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6. Now, in Fig. 2 we have an
illustration of a fabric precisely the
same as that in Fig. 1, except that
the weft thread is twisted in its
manufacture in the opposite direc-
tion to that of the thread used in the warp, and it will be
observed that the lines of this twist are parallel in weft and
warp and that when the threads are woven together the
FIG. 2.
but
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4
APPLIED DESIGN.
individual filaments of one will fall between the individual
filaments of another and, thereby, mechanically produce a
quality of goods superior to that of which we have just been
speaking
It is therefore apparent that with the same quality of yarn
we can make a stronger fabric by using the method illus-
trated in Fig. 2 than by using that shown in Fig. 1 and at
precisely the same cost. This should always be borne in
mind in working out a design for any piece of goods,
whether it is to be ornamented or simply plain cloth, as one
method will produce a close weave naturally, and another a
close weave only by the use of soft or fuzzy yarn that can be
made to expand, after being driven into position, and fill up
the spaces.
7. Now, before we go into the conditions under which
different classes of goods are woven, we will consider the
material of which the threads of this warp and weft are
composed, and we can then more readily understand the
effect that will be, hereafter, referred to in different classes
of goods.
CHARACTER OF TIIE TIIREADS.
8. A thread is a filament composed of small fibers that
are either drawn out parallel to one another or twisted
together in order to make them more or less compact. The
fibers of which threads are usually made are obtained from
wool, cotton, silk, and flax, and each one produces a fiber of
a particular character that causes conditions to arise that can
be obtained with no one of the others.
9. Wool Fibers.-A lock of wool examined under the
microscope, just as it comes from the sheep, will show that
its fibers are wavy and crimped, that the waves are exceed-
ingly regular from end to end, and that the entire filament
is covered with a series of small scales forming rings
arranged around the filament and pointing from what was
the root of the hair toward the top. If a piece of wool fiber


§ 9
5
APPLIED DESIGN.
be drawn through the fingers from its root to its end, it will
slip quite smoothly, but if drawn in the contrary direction,
it will feel rough and present considerable resistance.
It is the scales on its surface and the crinkliness in
its length that gives to wool fiber its particular value, and
when this fiber is spun into thread it is arranged so that
these scales on its surface are opposed to one another as
much as possible and thereby interlock and hold fast to
one another, and the more the thread is spun the closer do
they engage one another and the stronger does the filament
become.
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10. Felting.-It is not only in the spinning that these
scales are of value, but after the goods are woven they can
be put through a process called felting, in which the fibers
are pounded together and the scales made to interlock so
firmly that the fabric becomes perfectly compact and homo-
geneous so that it is with the greatest difficulty that the
individual warp and weft threads may be discerned and
unraveled. The waves, or crimps, in the fiber are of value
in this operation, as well as the scales. The felting is
effected by wetting the cloth with soapy water and apply-
ing pressure. The result of this process is, that these
fibers are straightened out and the scales of the opposing
fibers engage, or lock in, with them, and when the pres-
sure is removed the natural spring or crinkliness of the
fiber causes it to return as nearly as possible to its origi-
nal position and draws all of the other fibers with it, caus-
ing compactness in the goods. This operation is repeated
several times so that the threads lose their individuality
and the cloth becomes a solid compact mass.
Where felt-
ing is carried out to its greatest extent, the threads must
be especially prepared; and any pattern that is intended
to appear in the weaving, through this process is seri-
ously impaired or may be entirely lost. Different classes
of wools vary materially in this quality of waviness, and,
therefore, some are better suited than others to this class
of work.
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6
$ 9
APPLIED DESIGN.
11. Cotton Fibers.- Under the microscope, a wad of
cotton appears materially different from a lock of wool.
Cotton is a vegetable fiber and, when magnified, appears as
a thin flat tube or ribbon considerably twisted, and these
twists in the fiber are what give the strength to the cotton
thread by interlocking with one another somewhat after the
manner of the scales on the woolen thread. The cotton
fiber, however, is soft and pliable and does not possess that
natural crinkly spring that we find in the wool; hence,
threads that we are able to spin from it are weak and
do not possess the ability to be felted as do the woolen
threads.
12. Silk Fibers.-Silk is obtained from unwinding the
filament from the cocoon of the silk worm and in reality is
not materially different from ordinary spider's web. Under
the microscope, it appears as a very straight, smooth, and
highly polished fiber, somewhat like a glass rod. It is soft,
exceedingly pliable, and lends itself readily to the forma-
tion of a thread, but it cannot be spun like wool and cotton,
as it has no peculiarities of surface that correspond to the
scales of the former or the twists in the latter, and silk
filaments can be made into thread only by twisting, a num-
ber of filaments being twisted together into fine threads and
then a number of these fine threads again twisted until a
final thread of proper weight is obtained.
13. Flax Fibers.-Flax is a vegetable fiber appearing
like long blades of grass. It is cylindrical in form, and has
knots at regular intervals throughout its length. These
knots act, mechanically, in the spinning of the thread in a
similar manner to the scales in the wool and the twists in
the cotton fiber.
14. Of each of these four classes of fibers we can make
two entirely different kinds of thread, and it is in the manu-
facture of this thread that we materially affect the orna-
mentation and sometimes the structural formation of the
fabric.


89
ny
APPLIED DESIGN.
SPINNING THE FIBERS.
5
15. In order to obtain a clearer idea of the effect that
spinning has on the fibers, the subject of wool spinning is
here considered. The entire process of preparing the
woolen yarns is given from the time the wool is taken
from the sheep's back until it is wound upon the bobbin or,
spool from which it is woven into the fabric.
The wool comes to the mill in sacks and is emptied upon
the floor and sorted, each lock being handled, examined, and
placed in a separate pile, according to the quality and length
of its fiber. It is then thoroughly washed, to free it from all
impurities, and the fibers are then separated and straightened
in a carding machine.
1
1
16. Carding Machine.-A carding machine is com-
posed of large rollers from which short wires project similar
to the bristles in a brush. These wires have slightly hooked
ends, and as they turn they lock into the fiber of the wool and
carry it around the drum or roller as it revolves. On their way
around the roller, the fibers come in contact with a similar
roller turning in the opposite direction, thereby engaging part
of the fibers and pulling them away from the others. Thus
the fibers are separated and reseparated on these revolving
drums, called cards, the wires on which become finer and closer
together as the wool fiber proceeds, until at the end of the final
drum it is scarcely rougher than a piece of fine sandpaper.
There is no attempt here to keep the fibers parallel.
They are simply separated and bunched together across the
end of a cylinder forming a long soft rope-like sliver that
possesses only tensile strength enough to support its own
weight as it is drawn into a round box, or can, from which
it is taken to the throstle frame, or to the spinning mule.
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YARNS.
1.
1.
17. There are two kinds of woolen thread-one, com-
monly known as woolen, and the other as worsted thread.
When wool is intended for the production of woolen thread,
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8
$ 9
APPLIED DESIGN.
it is passed through two or three of these carding machines
in order to reduce it to a finer quality.
18. Woolen Yarn.—The essential distinction between
woolen and worsted yarns consists of a difference in the
quality of the wool and of a difference in the methods of
spinning into thread. Generally, it may be said that woolen
yarns are made from shorter fibers than worsted yarns and
of fibers that possess the highest felting qualities, or in
other words, that are most sharply crinkled, and that the
yarns are prepared from the carded fibers more or less
crossed and interlocked vith one another with no attempt at
parallelism. Though these may be spun hard upon the
mule frame, they form a light fluffy yarn that is suitable,
when woven into cloth, to produce a partially felted goods,
which, in reality, is the distinguishing characteristic between
woolen and worsted goods.
19. Worsted Yarn.-Worsted yarns are generally
made of the long silky varieties of wool, and the fibers are
combed as well as carded, in order to bring them as nearly
parallel to one another as possible. The spinning of worsted
yarn is accomplished on a throstle frame and the thread is
smooth and compact and does not partake of the character
of felting in any part of its weaving.
In all varieties of worsted and woolen yarns there is a
tendency for each to partake largely of the characteristics of
the other, some woolens being made from longer wool than
are some worsteds, and worsteds. being made from short
staple wool, so that the actual length of the fiber has
nothing to do with the classification, but its felting quality
and method of conversion into thread forms the distinction.
20. Preparing Wool for Spinning.- When the carded
wool has passed through the third carding machine, it is in
the form of a continuous evenly distributed mat around the
last cylinder. To prepare it for spinning, it must be divided
into a series of equal strips or ribbons, and these condensed
into a round sliver sufficiently compact to stand winding on


1
9
$ 9
APPLIED DESIGN.
a bobbin. The condenser for doing this is attached to the
carding machine, and as the strips pass off the drum they
are acted on by a pair of rubbers that simply pinch the
sliver down to a smaller size by compacting the fibers with-
out twisting them. From this they pass to the spinning
mule and are drawn down to fine threads.
1
1
21.
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!
3
1
1
The Mule.—The mule frame on which this spinning
is effected acts in a similar manner, but on a larger scale, to
the old-fashioned spinning wheel. Large bobbins or spools
of the wool sliver are placed on the frame and their ends
drawn and attached to vertical spindles that revolve and
give a twist to the yarn as it draws it. The frame contain-
ing the spindles advances to the sliver spools and then
backs away from them, as the sliver is gradually fed out as
the spools revolve. The entire distance moved by the frame
is 6 or 7 feet, during two-thirds of which the sliver is fed
out as the frame recedes, but during the rest of the distance
the spools remain stationary and the sliver is drawn or
stretched, thereby becoming thinner, and at the same time
it is rapidly twisted by the revolving spindles into an even
compact thread. When this twist is completed, the mule
frame advances toward the sliver spools again, and the spun
threads just completed are wound upon the spindles as the
mule frame advances.
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22. The effect of this drawing and twisting at one time
is one of the characteristics of woolen thread. It is evident
that, in drawing, the stretch will not take place evenly and
that some portions of the yarn will be thinner than the
others; but it is also evident that these thinner portions will
be the ones that will be first affected by the twisting, or spin-
ning, of the bobbins and when once twisted become hard
and less subject to drawing, thereby causing the thicker por-
tions between them to be drawn out more. While the tend-
ency of this work is to equalize the thread, somewhat, it is
not sufficient to compensate entirely, and, therefore, woolen
thread is unequal and irregular in its thickness.
1
1
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1
1
1


10
$ 9
APPLIED DESIGN.
23. Knitting and Carpet Yarns.-While the technical
definition of worsted yarn requires that it be made of fibers
that are parallel with one another and it is restricted to two
methods of manufacture—of long wool, by the method of
drawing and combing, and of medium and short staple
wools that are first carded and afterwards combed—we have
a third class of worsted yarns, but in reality they are wor-
sted only in the sense that they are not meant for felting.
These are yarns for carpets and knitting yarns, each being
full and open in structure and prepared for spinning simply
by carding in the manner that woolen yarns are made. As
said before, we class them as worsted yarns simply because
they are not fit for felting.
24. Combing.–Before the slivers pass through the
operation of combing, they are put through a gilling
machine, for the purpose of making them uniform in size
and quality and at the same time making all fibers parallel
to one another. Several slivers are fed into the gilling
machine, and drawn into one; this process is repeated several
times, if necessary, in order to get a final sliver of uniform
quality throughout. It is then passed through a combing
machine, which removes the short fibers and leaves the
sliver even, compact, and uniform in quality and composed
almost entirely of long fibers.
As it is delivered from the combing machine the sliver is
into a ball on a bobbin that winds it up with an
oscillating motion, in order to wind the sliver up in a
diagonal direction alternately from end to end. The sliver
is then drawn out by passing it through sets of rollers, the
first pair of which revolves much more slowly than the next
pair, so that between the two pairs of rollers the sliver is
constantly being drawn or stretched out. Now, assuming
that the sliver is to pass through six such drawing frames,
six slivers may be fed into the first and drawn out to the
dimensions of one, and the same may be repeated in the
next five slivers that are put in. In this manner, a sliver
may be drawn out several thousand times its original length,
made up


$9
APPLIED DESIGN.
11
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.
eing
according to the quality and uniformity that is demanded in
the goods.
25. Throstle Spinning. After the yarn is drawn and
redrawn, the bobbins containing it are placed on a throstle
frame for spinning. In this process, the drawing is effected
in exactly the same manner as in the woolen yarn on the
spinning mule. The rovings, as the drawn yarns are
called, pass between pairs of rollers in which they are
drawn out by the difference of speed of rotation between the
front pair and the back pair, and as the cylinder cord is
delivered from the front pair of rollers, a spindle that is
revolving rapidly gives it the required twist.
These yarns or threads are known as singles. For some
uses they are twisted into two-ply or three-ply yarns on a
twisting frame where each single is drawn from a bobbin
and twisted with others into a two-ply or three-ply yarn, as
be.
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26. Characteristics of Worsted Thread.-In worsted
thread we have a yarn of great uniformity and evenness of
diameter, all the fibers being parallel and as nearly as pos-
sible of the same length. It therefore possesses the advan-
tage of uniformity in strength and is especially suited to the
weaving of fabrics where a pattern is to show in the finished
product as a result of the system of weaving. It will not be
suitable for milling or felting, because the fibers, being
parallel, will not lose their individuality. It will not resist
wear from friction to the same degree that woolen will,
because the threads will retain their individuality and
not become felted into the general mass; and thus the fabric
not being so compact as woolen, it will not possess, to the
same degree, the quality of retaining warmth.
On the other hand, the subsequent processes through
which the cloth may pass to finish it will in no way impair
the pattern, and a worsted fabric is always recognized by
the clearness of its pattern and the sharpness and smooth-
ness of its finish, both wool and worsted being possessed of
individual properties and advantages.


12
8 9
APPLIED DESIGN.
COTTON, FLAX, AND SILK.
27. Cotton Yarn.-Cotton is prepared by carding in
much the same manner as wool, but subsequent processes
are necessary to equalize the fiber, as was the case in the
manufacture of worsted. Cotton is sometimes combed
when a very high class of yarn is desired. It is spun into
threads in much the same manner that worsted is spun, and
the majority of cotton yarns partake of the mechanical
characteristics of both woolen and worsted.
28. Flax Yarn.—The two yarns prepared from flax
are linen and tow. Linen yarn is prepared similar to
worsted, but the machinery is essentially different on account
of the difference in the character of the fiber. Raw flax is
beaten, or crushed, in order to make it pliable; this is called
hackling. After that, it passes through a combing opera-
tion that, in linen manufacture, is called scutching.
Where the fibers are too long to work readily, as is fre-
quently the case, they are broken in a machine called a saw.
After scutching, the fibers are carded and the short ones are
converted into tow yarn, while the long ones are spun into
linen yarns.
29. Silk Yarn.-Silk yarn is different from any of the
previous fibers, the raw silk being obtained by drawing it
from the cocoon of the silk worm in one long, continuous
filament. Several of these filaments must be combined in
order to produce a tram, or an organzine, the former being
used for weft in weaving and is put together loosely with
little or no twist, and the other, used for warp silk, is
twisted firmly to make a compact thread. Both qualities
are composed of long filaments and are well suited for the
production of more or less elaborate patterns in the fabric.
There are many cases, however, where the cocoons are
damaged, and the filament cannot be wound from them in a
continuious thread. These cocoons are usually torn up and
the fibers are combed and laid parallel to one another in the
same manner as in cotton or worsted. The silk yarn thus made


§ 9
13
APPLIED DESIGN,
does not possess the freedom from fuzzy surface that raw
silk does, yet many of the combed fibers are of considerable
length and this makes a very strong thread well suited for
the weaving of ornamental patterns.
?
30. The object of this short discussion, the manufac-
ture of threads, is to enable the student to be familiar with
the materials that are to be woven into a fabric, the design
of which he is to execute. In the descriptions that follow
of the weave of certain classes of cloths, the student can
readily see wherein a knowledge of yarn or thread will be
of great value in the preparation of his design,
WARP AND WEFT.
+
31. Plain Fabrics.—In the fabrics shown in Fig. 1 we
have what is called a plain fabric, that is, one in which the
warp and weft threads are equal in quantity and diameter,
but we may alter this relation of warp and weft and by so
doing obtain an increase in weight of the goods; thereby
making a warmer cloth, if for wearing material, or an
increase of strength, where that is a requisite quality, or, in
other cases, an increase in ornamental value, if it is desired
to increase the effect of ornamentation by the weave.
32. Where the warp threads are heavier than the weft
threads, the weft will naturally bend around them and cause
ribs to appear lengthwise of the fabric; but where the weft
threads are the heavier, the warp will bend around them and
cause ribs to appear running across the fabric. The best
quality of fabrics, however, are those in which the warp
threads are the thinner and are arranged with a greater
number to the inch than the weft threads.
The weaving of these classes of goods is precisely the same
as the weaving of plain cloths, but the variations of the
relative quantities or thicknesses of warp or weft completely
changes the character of the fabric. In goods where the
weft threads are thicker than the warp threads and the warp


14
APPLIED DESIGN,
threads are packed closely together, the weaving binds the
warp threads so closely that it actually compresses them
between the weft threads and makes them occupy less space
than their true diameter. The warp threads being placed
close together and crossing one another around each weft
thread, or pick as it is technically called, it makes no differ-
ence how much tension be put upon the warp, either in the
process of weaving or after the process is formed, it will not
bend the weft out of line, simply because the spaces between
the warp threads are so small in comparison with the weight
of the weft thread that the latter cannot be bent in any
direction. Thus, a very firm goods is formed. Therefore,
in this class of goods, the closeness of the warp and the
strength of the weft give it the property of resisting wear
and retaining warmth.
33. Another system of weaving is to have the warp
threads and the weft threads alternately heavy and light,
thereby causing the thin threads of the warp to wind them-
selves around the heavy threads of the weft, and the thin
threads of the weft around the heavy threads of the warp.
A characteristic style of goods of this class is what is com-
monly known as repp, but in this particular fabric the weft
lies in perfectly straight lines and the warp winds around
both the thin and the heavy threads.
34. Twills.- In twilled fabrics there is an effect of ribs
running diagonally across the goods, not by varying the
weights of threads, but by varying the proportions of warp
and weft that come to the surface. In making twills, there
are two general objects sought-one, to increase the bulk of
the goods, and the other, to ornament its surface.
The essential difference between a plain weave and a twill
is, that in the former the warp and weft interweave alter-
nately, while in the latter the warp and weft interweave at
varying intervals so as to produce the desired fabric. For
instance, in Fig. 3 it will be observed that the weft thread
a b passes over the warp threads 1 and 2 and under the warp


16
APPLIED DESIGN.
interweaves again and in this way bind this number together
in close contact and crowd them into a much smaller space
than they would have occupied had they been interwoven
alternately. But as this increase in weight is produced by
the skipping of a greater number of threads, the fabric loses
strength, inasmuch as it may not be properly interwoven,
and a considerable amount of friction of its surface will allow
these long overshot threads to become broken and to weaken
the fabric by fraying.
37. The yarn of which the goods is woven is composed
of single fibers, and when overshot for considerable distance
these fibers are presented to a greater length than they may
possibly be able to bear, causing a weak but warm fabric.
The looseness of the fabric will also reduce its power to bear
strain, and although a loosely woven cloth may be propor-
tioned to its interweaving so that it will be stronger under
tension than one more closely woven, yet it will never be so
strong in proportion to the relative kind of material of which
it is composed.
38. It is possible to make another order or arrange-
ment in twills, wherein we abandon the idea of increasing
bulk or warmth and endeavor to weave in order to acquire
the greatest strength; when it is desired that the pattern
shall be ornamental as well as be strong or warm, it must
always be borne in mind that the character of the weave
affects all three conditions-strength, warmth, and orna-
mentation. The class of goods known as satins are twills
woven on a regular systematic basis; that is, the order of
interweaving two sets of threads does not follow consecu-
tively but at intervals.
In Fig. 4 is shown the system on which a satin is woven.
It will here be observed that the threads interweave at
every fifth end or pick and that the two succeeding picks
do not interweave with adjoining ends but at intervals of
two; that is, if weft a passes over No. 3 warp, weft b will
pass over No. 6 warp, and so on. Now, if it is desired to
>


§ 9
17
APPLIED DESIGN.
1
produce a fabric whose greatest strength is to be in the direc
tion of its warp, it would be made on what is termed a warp
surface. The warp threads will be laid in the loom as
closely as possible, and as the weft threads are inserted, one
of the warp threads will be withdrawn and bent around the
weft at the back. As the next pick
is inserted, another end will be with-
drawn, the first one returning to its
original place, but as the ends are not
withdrawn in consecutive order, the
weft does not bend around the warp
to any extent and is practically
straight, while the warp itself is
drawn out of its course.
the weft threads are not kept very close together but are
separated from one another by the thickness of the warp
threads. Therefore, there are a greater number of warp
threads to the inch than weft threads.

1
e
5
FIG. 4.
In this way
.
.
0
h
re
011
st
39. Now, if it is desired to produce a perfectly smooth,
unbroken surface on the fabric, the warp threads may be
placed so closely together that as one is withdrawn to bend
around the weft, those on each side of it will close over the
vacancy and completely hide the point where it is inter-
woven with the weft. In that case, the number of warp
threads will be increased in proportion to the number of
weft, and, consequently, the fabric will be capable of bear-
ing an increased strain in the direction of the warp and a
decreased strain in the direction of the weft. Moreover, it
should be borne in mind that on account of the warp thread
predominating, the fabric when handled possesses a glossy
or smooth surface in the direction of the warp and a rough-
ened surface across the warp.
ve
11.
of
il:
40. This same principle may be carried out with the
weft threads predominating and the warp threads set so
far apart that they will permit the weft threads to inter-
weave between them. The weft threads are inserted as
to


$ 9
13
APPLIED DESIGN.
to produce a figure and at intervals of several picks inter-
weaves with the other warp, thus tying the two warps
together and producing a double-faced goods where the
warp forms the prevailing material.
This is shown in Fig. 5, where at a are seen the ends of
the upper warp, at c the ends of the lower warp, and at b
5
e
u
FIG. 5.
one thread of the weft weaving through the cloth and
catching a pick of each warp. In this manner, we have the
warps separated from one another and a means of produ-
cing a very heavy fabric with great strength in the direction
of its length. The cloth itself is reversible, and one side
may be any color or check and the other perfectly plain, as
a lining.
i
43. In exactly the same manner that we made our satin,
as shown in Fig. 4, we can weave our double-faced cloth to
have the warp or weft predominate.
If the weft is to pre-
dominate, the conditions are reversed somewhat and the
greatest strength of the goods will be across instead of
lengthwise, as shown in Fig. 6, where at a is shown the
1
FIG. 6.
upper weft and at b the lower weft, while at c are the ends
of the single warp, the two wefts interweaving with this
warp alternately producing a very heavy cloth with two
wefts and one warp.
The ornamenting of the surfaces can
be carried on quite independently of each other, the only
considerations required being that the weaving of the


20
8 9
APPLIED DESIGN.
ornament must be such as will permit the interweaving of
the opposite side at certain fixed intervals.
44. Ornament Threads.-Still another way of orna-
menting cloth is by the introduction of additional threads,
threads that exist in the cloth for no other reason than to
produce ornament. If we conceive a plain cloth to be woven
double with a series of unused threads lying between the
two surfaces and these unused threads drawn to the outside
of the cloth whenever we want to produce an ornament or
design on the surface of the goods, we have a condition
wherein one quality of material is put into the goods to
stand wear and another quality is put in to give the orna-
mentation. Each one is entirely independent of the other
in quality and purpose, but both are interwoven to form the
desired article. In this class of goods we have plush and
velvet, and they come under the head of what is known as
pile fabrics. The term "pile" is applied to all goods
wherein the surface is ornamented by drawing up the
threads to form an extra surface, as in plush, velvet,
Brussels carpet, etc. This gives us an extensive field for
ornamentation, inasmuch as the threads can be brought so
closely together that they obliterate the warp and weft back-
ing entirely and produce an unlimited variety of design on
the surface.
45. Laying Out a Design.-In weaving all kinds of
cloths and carpets, the design for the weave is laid out on
a special kind of paper ruled off in squares, as shown
in Fig. 7, with a varying num-
ber of subdivisions to the inch
according to the goods and the
number of warp and weft threads
used. In this design paper each
series of vertical spaces usually rep-
resent warp threads, and each series
of horizontal spaces or squares rep-
resent weft threads. The design is
FIG. 7.


9
21
$ 9
APPLIED DESIGN.
expressed on the paper by filling in the squares where the
weft thread comes to the surface or falls below the surface,
as shown in Fig. 8, which is a design for a
twill composed of six ends, the weſt thread
coming to the surface over the warp thread
and then falling below the surface and
passing under two warp threads progress-
ively throughout the piece. Each of these
black squares represents a pick in the loom.
0
e
FIG. 8.
e
I
1
on
1
1
46. If the number of threads per inch of weft and warp
are the same, the angle of this twill will be 45°, because it
will move in each direction, progressively, at the same rate,
and the warp or weft in this particular pattern must pre-
dominate on the surface, as one side the weft passes
under twice as much warp as it passes over, and on the
other side the warp passes under twice as much weft as it
passes over. This is the first principle of ornamentation in
fabrics where color is not used and
represents the principle on which
ornamentation is attained in the
greater number of dress goods that
are of one color only.

FIG. 9.
47. This ornamentation may be
carried out in a checker pattern
somewhat after the manner shown
in Fig. 9, where the twills run
diagonally for twelve picks, and
the same amount of warp and weft are
on the surface. Then, for the twelve
additional picks the twills reverse in
direction, thus producing a checker
effect in squares each representing
twelve picks. There is no limit to
the amount of surface decoration that
can be obtained in this way, and the
student should bear in mind all these

FIG. 10


22
APPLIED DESIGN.
possibilities in the weaving of cloth fabrics before he con-
siders the subject of color.
A pattern of this character, where the
warp and weft are of different colors,
will produce goods running in diago-
nal stripes as well as diagonal ribs.
Figs. 10, 11, and 12 each show arrange-
ments whereby the pattern may be
varied on the system of the simple
twill, which is an economical method
of producing a variation of surface.
This is the principle on which most
woolen goods, such as are used for
men's clothing, are made.

FIG. 11.

FIG. 12.
48. Laying Out Ornamenta-
tion.-Figured fabrics present a prob-
lem that is different from that of any
of the twill systems that have so far
been discussed, inasmuch as the pat-
tern forms a fixed and definite design
all over the fabric, and our designs for these have been
designs for the whole fabric. If we now consider the orna-
mentation of a fabric where specific ornament is worked
out in spots, we must consider the appearance of these
spots on the design paper and the characteristic limitations
of their mechanical reproduction in the loom. For forming
this figure on the surface of the cloth we may either use
the material of which the cloth itself is woven, or, as already
suggested, we may introduce extra material, which exists
for the sole purpose of forming the figure.
In a plain cloth, additional warp or weft may be intro-
duced in order to weave the figure without in any way inter-
fering with the weave of the plain fabric, or the warp or
weft of the plain fabric may be caused to cease interweaving
regularly and to come to the surface in considerable quantities
in order to produce the figure. Usually, the figures woven
in a fabric are composed partially of the ground material of


$ 9
23
APPLIED DESIGN.
the fabric itself and partially of other material introduced
purely for ornamentation.
49. In Fig. 13 we have an example of a pattern for a
perfectly plain cloth on which a lozenge-shaped spot is
woven, and in Fig. 14 we have a seçtion
through that cloth where, at a, the ends of
the warp threads are shown and, at b, the
weft thread, interweaving regularly except
where it passes over the five warp
threads
to form the pattern in the center of the
lozenge-shaped spot, as at c d.
eral body of the cloth remains perfectly
plain, and the pattern is formed simply by the skipping of
a few threads. Of course, this affects the quality of the
goods somewhat and it is not so closely woven, but this

The gen-
FIG. 13.
0
d
a
FIG. 14.
defect will vary according to the size and number of figures
that are introduced.
50. In Fig. 15 we have an example of a piece of goods
woven on the principle shown in Fig. 14, and the number of
spots is distributed evenly over the
entire piece. Each spot must be
examined in its relation to each
pick and warp end, in order to
comprehend the pattern.
The
spots a each commence on the same
pick, and so do the spots b, c, etc.,
and, further, we can see that a and
c are also woven on the same warp
ends, as are also b and d, so that in
reality a is a repetition of c in the
direction of the warp, and b is a repetition of d in the
direction of the weft. Consequently, we can see that a
and b are the only two spots in the pattern, the others be-

FIG. 15.


§ 9
25
APPLIED DESIGN.
10.
let
10
...
DO
ce..........6
............
000
000 00
20
000
ba
..............
...........
................
same distance apart, and the order
of interweaving each respective pick
and end is equal. The appearance
of the finished cloth will be the same
as that of Fig. 15, but it will be more
perfectly constructed and certainly
more pleasing to the eye.
This system of weaving is very
simple and is based on what is called
an eight-end satin. In laying it
out, we must calculate the area of
the figure to determine tine number
of the ends and picks that will be re-
quired to produce it, and if this num-
ber does not conveniently fit in with
the number of hooks contained on our
Jacquard machine, then we must alter
it to suit as the case may require.

ft
ts
le
те
S
P
d.
.
5
t
...........oooo
S
2
1
.
@O
53. The Jacquard machine
consists of an apparatus that is sup-
ported above the loom, and by means
of a number of wire hooks extend-
ing to each thread of the warp in the
loom, it raises certain desired warp
threads and permits the shuttle with
the weft wound on it to pass under
the raised threads and over those that
lie below. In weaving any kind of
goods each throw of the shuttle is
preceded by a raising of certain warp
threads under which it is desired that
the weft shall pass.
These raised
threads are usually called the “shed.”
OOO
54. The design is punched on
cards similar to Fig. 17, where each
hole represents one of the squares of
FIG. 17.


28
S9
APPLIED DESIGN.
the ground at longer intervals, and is then cut as shown at
C, leaving the loose ends to stand above the ground warp
and form the surface. The pile must be well bound into
FIG, 21.
the cloth, or it will pull out of its surface and, in time, leave
nothing but the ground cloth.
58. In the formation of pile surfaces with warp pile,
we have a more convenient and useful fabric and a class
with which we are somewhat more familiar. In weft pile
there is one warp and two wefts in the fabric-one weft to
form the body of the goods, and the other to form the pile;
in warp pile there are two warps and one weft, the second
warp being solely to form the pile on the surface. Where
the pile is made up of the weft, the cutting of the pile takes
place after the goods are completed, but with warp pile the
cutting takes place with the weaving, if it is to be cut at all.
So that we have two forms of warp pile, commonly known
as cut and loop pile, or sometimes as cut velvet and terry
velvet, but whether the pile is cut or uncut the structure
of the cloth is absolutely the same.
59. Velvet is formed by pile warp issuing from the cloth,
passing over a wire, and then passing into the cloth again
where it is interwoven to secure it firmly. We can bring
the whole of the pile warp over this wire at once or we can
bring only a portion of it, but in either case it must be
firmly bound into the body of the goods when it returns.
60. The ornamentation of pile fabrics must be consid-
ered under two heads, the decoration of pile fabrics them-
selves, and the decoration of fabrics with pile. The first
system suggests the ornamentation of fabrics by the use of
colored pile. In ordinary velvet, color can only be used
under limited conditions and cannot be used in a general


-
29.
89
APPLIED DESIGN.
at
lp
to
way. The pile on the surface of the fabric covers the
ground cloth entirely and any ornamentation that is intro-
duced must be introduced into the pile warp. Therefore, if
we introduce a variety of colors they will naturally run in
stripes, and regular figures cannot be formed. The warp,
,
existing as it does of a number of parallel threads, should
we make them of different colors with a given number of
one color and another number of another color, when these
are woven into the fabric and form the pile on the surface,
they will introduce the same stripes exactly on the body
goods as in the pile and thus limit our ornamentation on
very narrow lines.
e
е
0
:
e
5
Another sys-
?
61. The ornamentation of pile fabrics may be accom-
plished by forming patterns with the pile itself without the
aid of color. We may form a pattern by varying the length
of the pile, but this will usually form a stripe across the
piece, because the different lengths of pile are produced by
the introduction of wires of different sizes.
tem of ornamenting the surface is by a system of cut and
uncut pile, the figures being formed in terry velvet. The
same warp can be used for the formation of both kinds, but
two kinds of wires must be used-one, a plain wire to form
the loop, and the other, a wire terminating in a knife at one
end that will cut the loops as it is drawn out.
>
62. Brussels Carpet.-Brussels carpet is a form of
terry velvet, the ornamentation of whose surface is accom-
plished by the introduction of extra material, and it is
necessary, in explaining the designing of these goods, that
considerable attention be paid the weave. The pile on
Brussels carpet is formed, in precisely the same manner as
terry velvet, by the insertion of wires under the pile
threads, but the selection of the threads to form the pile is
entirely different. In weaving the velvet, we bring all or
a given portion of the pile over the wires at one time, but
in Brussels carpet we have a series of duplicate ends in the
warp, each of a different color, and from these our Jacquard


30
$9
APPLIED DESIGN.
.
selects one, according to the pattern we require, brings it to
the surface and passes it over the wire. In ordinary velvet,
the pile warp returns to the ground and interweaves in
the same manner as the ground warp, except at the points
where the pile is formed; but in Brussels carpet, the pile
warp does not weave in any place into the ground, but lies
as a straight thread in the body of the carpet, where it is
not used in forming the pile.
63. Now this can be somewhat more clearly shown by
referring to Fig. 22, where the ground warp is represented
by the lines a, and the weft by the dots, while at b, c, and d
are three colors of pile warp that are to form the pattern on
the surface of the carpet. It will be observed that the
ground warp a weaves regularly and alternately throughout
the entire fabric from side to side, but that the colored
warps b, c, and d lie perfectly straight in the body of the
goods until they come to the surface in forming the pile
FIG. 22.
loops, as shown. The pile warp lies between the ground
weft and is intersected by the ground warp, so that where
no pile loops are formed there is a plain cloth with a stout
back in the middle, the threads of which are perfectly
straight and take no part whatever in the formation of the
cloth, except to give bulk to it. Between every pair of
ground warp threads, there is one thread of each color of
the pile warp that is to be used. When the pattern is
formed, one of each of these threads is raised between each
pair of ground picks, passed over the wire, and returned to


$9
31
§ 9
APPLIED DESIGN.
to
its
OS
the cloth. If it is again required, it again comes up, but
the threads are dormant and useless, except where they
appear in the figure. Thus, it will be seen that though
there may be four, five, or even six colors, and consequently
as many separate threads between each pair of ground
threads, only one of each is brought to the surface, accord-
ing to the color that is required.
This makes an expensive weave, but it produces a uni-
form surface and body of cloth, and the pattern is formed
by color, so that any amount or variety of it will in no way
affect the structure or quality of the goods. The colored
material forming the pattern is in the carpet at all times,
and is only brought to the surface where it is required.
d.
e
t
1
e
64. It will be apparent that these idle threads lying
straight in the carpet and forming loops at irregular inter-
vals, must be used in varying proportions, so that they
cannot all be wound on one cylinder or beam at the end of
the loom as is the ground warp. For instance, the ground
warp interweaves with the weft at every pick, whereas the
pile warp may remain as a straight thread through several
picks. Under these circumstances, a strip of ground warp
twice as long as that of the pile warp may be consumed in a
given number of picks, and it is evident that the two classes
of warp could not be wound upon the same beam.
>
1
2
65. So, in the manufacture of Brussels carpets, the pile
warp threads are wound on separate spools or bobbins, each
bobbin serving for a single color and the bobbins being
arranged in series on a frame. Each color has a frame to
itself, and this arrangement of the threads on frames gives
rise to the descriptive terms used in Brussels carpet trades,
such as five-frame Brussels. This term means that the
carpet contains five sets of pile-warp threads, each set hay-
ing been wound on bobbins and supported by a separate
frame. These frames make carpet looms very bulky
machines, but without them it would be impossible to
produce the goods.
f


32
89
APPLIED DESIGN.
66. In designing carpets, each square on the design
paper represents one loop of the pile. If the carpet is a
velvet carpet, where the pile is cut, then the square on the
design paper represents the two ends of the cut loop, and in
laying out the design this should be borne well in mind. It
should also be borne in mind, that the more colors that are
used, the more material there is in its body and consequently
the more expensive it becomes. The main divisions of
design paper used for Brussels carpet are in squares of
inch, but in moquette carpet they are as large as 4 inch.
Low ingrains have the squares 1 inch, but regular ingrains
are 1 x š inch. That is to say, the threads of warp and
weft are proportioned to run 7 to the inch in one direction,
and 8 to the inch in another...
67. In laying out circular or other curved figures on
design paper, it should be borne in mind that this design,
when woven, will present
a somewhat ragged out-
line, as it must be formed
in squares, and the scale
of the figure must be al-
tered to suit the size of
the square on the design
paper when it is pro-
duced. Fig. 23 shows a
curved figure that is too
small to be produced on
design paper of the size
shown, and the outline
loses its curved effect,
whereas in Fig. 24 the
enlargement of the same figure on the same sized design paper
shows that the effect of the curved lines can be readily carried
out. It is well to bear this in mind in all design work.

FIG. 23.
68. Brussels carpets are formed with two kinds of yarns,
the body or ground of the carpet being made of hemp or


$
33
8 9
APPLIED DESIGN.
Kesign
t is a
on the
linen yarn, while the pile is of wool. The methods of spin-
ning the yarns for this fabric, or any other class of goods, is
precisely the same as has been described. The wool that

at are
enth
75 of
Es of
-inch.
Tains
and
tion,
S 01
sign,
sent
out-
med
cale
e al
FIG. 24.
sign
010-
.
is a
100
01
size
ine
Oct
the
per
jed
forms the surface of the carpet is carded and spun in pre-
cisely the same manner as the wool that goes into a dress
fabric. It is dyed to the color desired to be reproduced and
28,
or
4


34
$9
APPLIED DESIGN.
wound on spools ready to go into the frame behind the
loom.
69. There have been many suggestions for economy in
the manufacture of carpets, and there are many carpets
manufactured that present the same general appearance as
Brussels but do not possess its great weight, owing to the
lack of goods in the body. One form of these carpets is
what is known as tapestry Brussels, wherein the threads are
not left idly inside the fabric, and exist only where the pile
is formed. In tapestry Brussels there is but one set of
threads of pile warp and that is printed so as to form the
pattern.
The printing of the pile thread is effected by
measuring out the length of a certain color required in a
certain place to form the figure and that length of the
thread is colored accordingly. It is then woven into the
cloth as in ordinary velvet, and its pile brought to the sur-
face. Following it on the same thread is another color
required to form the ground on another portion of the fig-
One printed thread thus serves for a number of col-
ored ones, and it certainly is a very, economical way of produ-
cing a colored carpet, but it is in no way so serviceable as the
body Brussels that it is attempting to imitate.
ure.
170. Wilton carpet is the same as Brussels carpet, except
that the pile is cut, and another formation of velvet carpets
is effected by setting the pile surface into the carpet in sec-
tions just as it is required. Rugs are also formed in this
way.
The pile threads are neither warp nor weft, but are
simply tufts set in where the figure is required. The colored
threads are wound on long thin cylinders or rollers, possess-
ing all the colors that are necessary to form one pick across
the goods. A short length of these threads is then cut off
and falls in place parallel with the warp in the loom, while
the weft thread passes over them and binds them into the
body of the carpet. They are then cut off and the roll
passes on its way and makes room for another roll to bring
the next set of threads. This makes a very bulky loom, as


9
35
S9
APPLIED DESIGN.
there must be a separate roll for each pick across the loom
for every repeat. In fact, there must be one roll for every
Jacquard and in weaving long rugs it is not unusual to have
three or four hundred of these rolls, each one of which is
used but once, to form the pattern.
171. The designing of all these goods remains the same,
however, the only difference being in the design papers
themselves, which must be obtained for the particular pur-
pose they are required. Ingrain carpet cannot be designed
on Brussels paper, because it does not run the same number
of threads to the inch, and when designs are laid out on
paper care must be given that the proper subdivisions of
the paper have been obtained.
e
st
ts
re
ed
ASS
off
ile
he
oll
ng
as


Y


HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL
DRAWING.
(PART 1.)
INTRODUCTION.
1. This branch of the instruction will treat entirely of
the application of the elements of design to the various
styles of ornament that have characterized certain races of
people or periods of history. The student by this time
should be familiar with the characteristics of each general
style of ornament, and also with the fundamental principles
that have governed the details of that ornament. We have
traced the development of ornamental design from its
earliest civilized period down to the present day, and have
found in all instances that, during the best periods of art,
the same general underlying principles have governed each
style.
In adapting natural forms to strictly ornamental work,
there has ever been a tendency to represent those forms
in a general, or, as we term it, a conventional way; but
the earlier influence of a strictly geometrical ornament is
always traceable through the natural forms. For instance,
in the Egyptian wave ornament, afterwards adopted by the
Greeks, we find a development of the old primitive straight-
line zigzag, and in the wall decorations of the Renaissance
period, wherein the fleur-de-lis and other strictly conven-
tional forms repeat themselves, we find the influence of the
For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page.
§ 10


8 10
3
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
3. Nearly all of these designs will be executed, at least
partially, with drawing instruments, and such of the work as
is freehand will be governed largely by mechanical measure-
ments that the student must lay out very accurately and
carefully, The success of all geometrical repeating orna-
ment depends as much on the draftsman's skill in the use of
his instruments as in his familiarity with any type of design,
and attention must be given in the division and subtraction
of a line to see that it is carried out according to instructions,
down to the minutest detail. In many figures, an error of
the minutest fraction of an inch will repeat itself to such
extreme proportions as to render it almost impossible to
make the figures close in and repeat.
DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: HISTORIC MURAL
DETAIL.
4. On this plate are given six examples of the style
of wall decoration characteristic of the Egyptian, Greek,
Roman, Medieval, Moresque, and Persian styles. They are
numbered in their order of antiquity as closely as possible,
in order that the relative values of each may be compared
with its predecessor, and no attempt has been made to
graduate the exercises on this plate to put the simpler ones
first, as all should be within the ability of the student at this
stage of his studies.
After drawing the border line to enclose a space on his
drawing plate of 13 in. x 17 in., the student will divide the
plate by a horizontal line 6 inches above the lower border
line. This line will form the bottom of the upper three
figures. In the middle of the plate, and above this line,
construct a rectangle 41 inches wide by 54 inches high, to
contain the Greek ornament; and in the spaces to the right
of this, and between it and the border lines, construct two
rectangles, 54 inches wide and 54 inches high, each inch
from side border lines, to contain the Roman and Egyptian
ornament.
2
o
S
h


6
$ 10
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
practice on a separate piece of paper not less than 14 inches
in diameter, in order to follow out closely these directions.
Having drawn a circle 14 inches in diameter, divide it verti-
cally and horizontally by diameters shown at a b and cd,
and then divide it again diagonally at an angle of 45° by the
lines e f and g h. Construct within the eye, on the points
€, & f, h, a square as shown, and at the points of intersec-
tion between the sides of this square and the diameters a b
and c d, construct another square as shown at k l m n. The
corners of this second square will form the centers from
which the curves of the volutes are to be struck. The sides
of this second square should be prolonged, as shown, to a
distance equal to about three times the diameter of the
volute, beyond its circumference, as shown at 1 k', ml',
ni m', and k ni'.
7. Now, returning to Fig. 1, we will assume that the
eye at the end of the radius pl is divided as shown
in Fig. 2, and that the diameter gh of the latter figure
is on the radial line pl of Fig. 1, with the center of
the volute at the intersection of the lines c1 and d 1
of Fig. 1.
Now proceed to draw the volute by placing the pin point
of the compasses at point k (see Fig. 2 of text), and with a
radius equal to k d, to the outside of the eye, draw an arc
from the point d to some point on the line 1 k', as 9, while
from the point 11, and with the same radius, draw an arc from
the point a to some point on the line k u', as r. From the
point in, draw, with the same radius from c, an arc to s on
the line il m', and from the point l, draw from b an arc to
the point t on the line m l'.
The centers from which we have drawn these arcs, and
the points to which we have drawn them, are shown by the
same letters in Fig. 3 of the text. Now go back to the
point k, where we started, and with that as a center and a :
radius kr, draw the arc r v, Fig. 3, and with the center at l
and a radius lq, draw the arc q w. With m as a center and
a radius mt, draw the arc † x, while with n as a center


$ 10
생
​HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
and ns as a radius, draw the arc sy. This brings us back
to k from where, with ky as a radius, draw the arc y 2, and
with l as a center, draw the arc va; with mas a center, draw
the arc w b; and with n as a center, draw the arc x c. This
completes the voluted form at
the intersection of the radial
lines pland jr of Fig. 1.
1
1
FIG. 3.
C
e
8. Another volute at the
intersection of the lines x n'
and k ;' will be precisely like
this one, but the two volutes
at the intersections of js and
xl', and pn and k r' will be
reversed in their direction;
that is to say, the lines that
are prolonged beyond the sides
of the square within the volute will be reversed as shown in
the text at Fig. 4. Now, having drawn the volute, shown
in Fig. 3 of the text, around the eyes at the intersection
of pl and jr, and k s' and x n', draw two volutes of the
reversed curvature, such as shown in Fig. 4, around the
eyes at the intersection of
lines kr' and pn, and j's
and xl', as shown in Fig. 1
of the text.
The curves joining the
ends of these volutes will
then be struck from centers
at j, x, k, and p with a radius
equal to jr. This will com-
plete one section of the
design, and the others are
drawn in precisely the same
manner, each fitting into its
neighbors as shown on the drawing plate, and forming a
completely interwoven composite whole. Observe that
every alternate figure, either vertically or horizontally, is
a
C
e
1.
е
1
0
d
е
е
FIG. 4.
a
d
I


§ 10
9
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
n
g
XC
or
text. Within each of the rectangles so described, a form
characteristic of Greek art is described on more or less geo-
metrical lines, and repeated in each of the other rectangles
with only such variations as are conditioned by its position.
The description of
one of these will
therefore suffice
for the entire lot.
Each figure con-
sists of a heart-
shaped device,
within which a pal-
mette brush-
work form is in-
scribed ; the
outline of the de-
¿
vice is the govern-
ing element, we
will describe that
first. The heart-
shaped form fin-
ishes at the bottom
Í
in two volutes,
forined on geometrical lines, similar to the freehand volute
shown in Fig. 16 of the Drawing Plate, title, Linear Ele-
ments, but, in this case, the volute is described by mathe-
matical means, and though the construction lines are the
same as before, the curves will be drawn by a compass
instead of freehand.
as
ho
17
FIG. 5.
es
he
US
ܪܶܐ
1
LI
IT
11. In order to describe these volutes properly, it will
be necessary to refer to Fig. 6 of the text, where the volute
is drawn on a larger scale, in order to familiarize the student
with its characteristics. Commencing with the upper left-
hand rectangle of Fig. 2 on the drawing plate, the student
will draw through its center, vertically, the line kl (see
Fig. 5), and on each side of this line portray half of the
ornamental form. Draw a vertical line, as shown at cd in
a
C:
is


10
§ 10
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
Fig. 6 of the text, 32 inch each side of kl, and 1 inch above
the line gh, draw, to the right and left of these vertical
lines, horizontal lines corresponding with b c of Fig. 6. From
the point c then lay out the geometrical construction of the
volute, as in Fig. 16, on Drawing Plate, title, Linear Ele-
ments; that is, bc :cd: de :: 61 : 51 : 41, or by actual meas-
urement bc will be inch; cd, inch; and de, inch;
p
20
o
im
u
9
FIG. 6.
ef i (deti bc), or 16 inch. From the points b, c, d, and e,
lines will be drawn at an angle of 45°, so as to form, near
the center, a rectangle as shown at g h ij.
The sides of this rectangle will then be bisected, and
within it will be described another rectangle klmo. The
side k l of the rectangle should be prolonged to p, the side


0
§ 10
11
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
1:
lm, to q; the side mo, to r; and the side o k, to s. These
four corners k, l, in, o will then form centers from which the
arcs of the volute can be struck.
With l as a center and a radius lp, describe the arc p9; with
m as a center and a radius in q, describe the arc qr; then
with o as a center and a radius or, describe the arc r s;
with k as a center and a radius ks, describe the arc st. The
arcs'tu, uv, etc. are then described, with one leg of the
compass at the same centers as previously used and with a
radius sufficient to continue the curve. The inner curye is
described parallel to the outer one, the thickness of the band
being 16 inch; therefore, with l as a center and a radius of
lw, id inch less than the radius lp, the arc w x is described;
and with m as a center and a radius in x, the arc x y is
described; and so on to the completion of the interior volute.
Then, by curves drawn freehand, the exterior and interior
lines of the volute finish in a point at k.
On each side of the axial line k l in Fig. 5, one volute will
thus be described, each like the other, except that they are
the rights and lifts; that is, in arranging the geometrical
outline, the line bc of Fig. 6 will extend to the left of kl
on the left of the center line, and to the right of kl on the
right of the center line, and the point r will be, in each case,
32 inch from the line k l.
D
i
12. The upper part of the figure is formed by placing
the compasses at some point on the line pk, prolonged in
each volute, and with a radius of 15 inches, drawing an are
from p through an angle of 45°, to the points. The center
of this arc is marked in Figs. 5 and 6 at y, and the radius
of the arc is extended from , through y; to x, a distance of
24 inches. Now, with x as a center and a radius of 21 inches,
finish the arc from sto n, as shown in Fig. 5. This will
complete one half of the enclosing outline in the upper left-
hand rectangle of Fig. 2 of the drawing plate, and the other
half is formed in precisely the same manner.
The interior
lines are formed from the same centers as the exterior, but
with a radius 1 inch less.
16
car
und
Che
ide


12
§ 10
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
sa
CO
lin
ma
re
ou
up
ing
th
fat
13. The interior of this heart-shaped outline is filled
with brush forms, with which the student should already be
familiar. The central form is described on the center line
kl, finch below the enclosing outline, and is inch in length.
Under this, a base is formed with a triangular top, at right
angles to which two other brush forms branch, whose under
sides conform to the contour of the volutes each side of the
center line.
Having drawn the vertical brush mark, sketch from its
uppermost point a curved line that will fall each side and
become tangent to the volute, as shown by the dotted line in
Fig. 5, and then draw the lower brush mark on each side.
In the space between the lower brush mark and the vertical
one, lay out two other brush marks, evenly spaced, so that
the whole will present a palmette form supported upon a
base between the two volutes, as shown.
Repeat this operation in each of the six rectangles consti-
tuting this figure. In doing this, it will not be necessary to
measure and proportion the guiding lines of each volute.
Measurements can be taken by means of a piece of paper,
on which the center lines and most important parts are
marked, and transferred to other sections so as to locate the
four centers from which the curves of the volutes are drawn.
When all of the volutes are drawn in place, the flatter curves,
with the 13-inch and 21-inch radii, can then be described,
completing the figures.
ma
is
gle
pe
CO
to
pe
ch
1 in
SU
as
m
m
fig
ar
va
81
ch
:
14. Where the points of two of these figures face each
other, as shown in Fig. 5 at 0, a small device is interposed in
order to fill up the space. This is simply a reduced example
of the main figure, measuring / inch across on its extreme
breadth, and inch in height, from the bottom of its volutes
apex
of its flatter curves. This latter figure can readily
be drawn freehand in each case, although its curves and out-
line are exactly in proportion to the figure in the larger
rectangles.
The brush forms in these smaller figures are also similar
to those in the larger ones, and the student will follow the
to the
a
W
be
R.
si


14
§ 10
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
while above and below extend younger growths of the same
plant. In the corners, we find a luxuriant development of
the acanthus leaf, flower, and tendril, which is not only
characteristic of this style of ornament, but also the prede-
cessor and prototype of a multitude of ideas that were
developed during the Renaissance period. In drawing the
vertical and horizontal members, the student has but to
sketch the simple outline forms, locating each detail by eye
measurement; but with the forms extending into the corners
it will be necessary to recall some of the instructions given
in the conventionalizing of the acanthus leaf.
17. The outline form of the leaf, as shown on this plate,
is drawn by means of a series of rectangles, as shown in
Fig. 7, and in each of the four rectangles the student will
m
o
S
k
FIG. 7.
lay out the design in the following manner: Divide the
rectangle abcd vertically and horizontally into five equal
parts, and through these points of division draw vertical and
horizontal lines, as shown, thus forming a number of smaller


§ 10
15
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
*
1
rectangles. Now observe where the lines of ornament cross
these lines and rectangles, and carefully sketch them in on
the drawing plate, as was done with Fig. 8 on Drawing Plate,
title, Flowers and Conventionalized Leaves. The general
outline should be sketched lightly, so that it may be easily
erased, until an evenly swelling contour is attained, within
which the individual lobes of the various leaves may be
described, and the veinings and other markings afterwards
drawn. Minor details, such as the tendrils, from which
spring the five-pointed flowers, and the side elevations of
the blossoms may be left until the entire figure is penciled
in, as they are simply inserted to fill awkward spaces, where
the absence of detail would attract the eye.
A careful study of the plate, together with the location,
by eye measurement, of every element of the design, will
enable the student to lay out all the parts with sufficient
accuracy. Afterwards he can clean up the superfluous lines,
strengthen those that he proposes to use, and prepare the
figure for washing in with color.
The rosette in the center contains six lobes, and is too
simple to require description. With its diameter known,
the student should be able to divide it readily into six equal
parts and to complete the device almost identically as shown.
1
18. Before taking up Fig. 4 of the drawing plate, it will
be advisable for the student to study the characteristics of
Figs. 1, 2, and 3. It will be observed in the Egyptian orna-
ment, Fig. 1, that the governing outlines can all be laid out
geometrically, and that the freehand element is comparatively
small; but, though the general design is governed closely
by details of the lotus flower, those details are so reduced as
to come within the limits of geometrical ornament. This
design is the most antique on this plate, and, consequently,
we find it more closely allied with the geometrical construc-
tions that are characteristic of all the earliest attempts at
ornamental design.
In the Greek design, we still find a geometrical element
governing the system, but with no such rigid rules as those


§ 10
19
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
parallel lines will divide the main rectangle into thirty
squares and six haif squares, and the intersections of the
lines thus dividing it will give the centers for arcs from
which the general form of the figures may be struck.
With k as a center and a radius kl of i inch, draw the
arc lr; and with l as a center and the same radius, draw
the arc kr; with in as a center and the same radius, draw the
arc w s; and with t as a center, draw the arc u s intersecting
the arc Is at s; in a similar manner, with n as a center, draw
the arc kv. It will be observed that the centers used
for these arcs are the corners of the interior square formed
by the divisions of the main rectangle, and before the radius
is changed to draw the larger arcs, it would be wise to fill
the entire figure with the single outline before proceeding
further. Then, with k as a center and a radius kw, or
[inch, draw the arc w x, and with l as a center draw the
arc y x; then, with m, n, and t as centers, draw arcs parallel
with kv, ls, us, etc.
This will complete the general exterior outline of the
figures. The inner border line 3 inch from, and parallel
to, the arcs kr, Ir, etc. is drawn from the same centers, but
with a radius of 3 inch. On account of the minuteness
of these dimensions, in order to secure accuracy, the com-
pass should not be changed during the entire operation of
drawing each set of arcs of the same radius.
23. These figures, whose outline is based on the pointed
arch of Gothic architecture, are then alternately filled with
animal and vegetable forms, as shown on the drawing plate.
The form of the lion shown in each alternate figure is pre-
cisely the same as that drawn in Fig. 11, Freehand Drawing,
on Drawing Plate, title, Brush Work, and may be propor-
tioned in the same manner. It is only half the size of the
one on the drawing plate, however, and all the dimensions
given for its previous rendering should be divided by two
when drawing it here. The vertical line of the triangle sur-
rounding it and forming a construction line may be drawn
1 inch to the left of the center of the pointed arch on this


20
8 10
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
plate, when the figure faces to the right, and inch to the
right of the center of the pointed arch when the lion faces
to the left. Alternating with this heraldic lion in the diaper
spaces are the vegetable forms, as shown; these may be
readily sketched in place without further instruction than
the guide lines in Fig. 8 indicate.
The rectangle containing Fig. 5 of the drawing plate is a
square measuring 54 inches on each side, and is placed with
its vertical center line directly under that of Fig. 2. This
is an example of Moorish geometrical ornament, and though
exceedingly simple in construction, and composed of the
most primitive and elementary forms, it is a very compli-
cated and difficult design to draw, as the least inaccuracy of
measurement will render it almost impossible to make the
parts work out evenly and in proper proportions.
24. In Fig. 9 of the text is shown the principle on which
this design is based. Here the rectangle abcd is divided
into three equal parts by the lines e f and g h. On the left-
hand side, in the rectangle a efd, we have a simple fretwork
design, very similar to some of the Greek compositions, con-
sisting simply of the intersection of a number of straight
lines at right angles to each other. In the right-hand rect-
angle bchg we have precisely the same arrangement of
fretwork, but reversed as regards the inclination of the lines;
and in the middle rectangle egh f we have a design pro-
duced by the intersections and combination of these two
arrangements, resulting in a design identical with that of
Fig. 5 of the drawing plate. The reduction of the ele-
ments of this ornament to their simplest form gives a zigzag
line, as shown in Fig. 10 of the text, where the length a b
is 14 inches and the length bc is 1 inch, and the two lines
constituting the width of the outline itself are } inch apart
and parallel, as shown. The accurate inclination of this ele-
mentary form, and the accurate spacing of the lines them-
selves, so as to be exactly inch apart, is the key to the
simple solution of this problem, and the slightest variation
in the angle of one or both lines, or the slightest inaccuracy


)
21
$ 10
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
of the spacing of the lines themselves, will throw the work
out so much that the figures composing the design, instead
of being regular and identical, will be unsymmetrical and
unlike.
The student, in drawing this figure, should observe that
the intersections of the right-hand and left-hand details of
the pattern take place exactly on the center line ij, which
a
e
k
t
;
{
d
h
}
}
FIG. 9.
S
t
should be drawn through the rectangle as soon as the lat-
ter is outlined. Then the points k and I should be located
2} inches below the points a and b, and the lines al and bk
drawn intersecting on the line ij. These two lines al and
b k form the base lines on which are drawn the two series of
squares that govern the outline of the geometrical figures,
and the entire rectangle abcd should first be divided into a
1
1


22
§ 10
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
series of small squares measuring ſ inch on each side and
inclining in the direction of either one of the lines al or b k.
Then complete one full set of figures, as shown by the heavy
outlines in the rectangle a e fd, and let this set design be
carried over the entire rectangle abcd. When these figures
are completed, the construction lines should be carefully
erased and a second set of squares, inclining in the opposite
direction with the line b k as a base, drawn in, observing
that the intersections of all important lines take place on the
center line i j.
When the intersections are all carefully drawn in, the
guide lines should be erased and the main construction
0
FIG. 10.
lines of the ornament strengthened with a hard pencil,
preparatory to the washing in with color. If the student
prefers, the outlines may be inked in with a fine line
instead of the hard pencil; but before the color is applied,
in either case, all vestiges of construction lines should be
carefully erased, as they mar the completed design if
allowed to remain.
25. In producing this, or any other design based on the
intersection and interlacement of two separate patterns, it is
necessary to observe that the common points of intersection,
as m, n, and o, of Fig. 9, take place on the same vertical and
horizontal lines, in order that the finished work may be
symmetrical and easy to repeat. A simple way to secure
this result is to draw the complete pattern, and then make a


24
§ 10
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
a
é
k
3
MIS
6
8
9
10!
within which to construct the design. The width of this
rectangle will be divided into ten equal parts, through which
will be drawn vertical lines as shown at a, b, c, d, e, f, etc.,
Fig. 11, and the height will be divided into twelve equal
parts, through which
6
h
j
will be drawn horizon-
tal lines, as shown
at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.
By locating the es-
sential elements of the
ornament as it crosses
these lines, the whole
figure may be readily
described, and the lines
of the foliated orna-
ment connected so as
to form a continuous
design. For instance,
the point of the gen-
eral outline under f is
the line f about
one-third the distance
between the horizontal line a and the horizontal line 1,
and sweeps to the right and left in a compound curve, so
as to nearly strike the line d about midway between the
horizontal lines 1 and 2. The interior line is parallel to, and
3 inch from, it. The main lines of the scrolls should be
proportioned, in the same way, and then the foliated line
from which the flowers spring, and, lastly, the flowers them-
selves. The foliated device formed in the corners of the
rug may be drawn within a circle inch in diameter, whose
center is on the line 1, two-thirds the distance from b
toward c.
The five-pointed floral devices that occur within the
squares bounded by lines de and 4-5 and on the center line
between lines 2 and 3, may be described within a circle
whose radius is inch, while the floral forms near the inter-
section of lines 1 and 8 may be described within a circle

11
12
on
FIG. 11.


§ 10
25
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
S
h
whose radius is į inch. This information is given in order
that floral forms similarly placed may be uniform.
Having drawn this figure in all its details, carefully
strengthen up all the outlines, so that they may be readily
followed in the subsequent operation of washing in. Clean
out all guide lines and again strengthen the outline where it
may have become pale through erasure, after which the plate
is ready to be finished with brush and wash work.
1
1
WASH WORK.
28. Before attempting to wash in any of the details of
this plate, it is necessary that the student should have before
him a diagram of shades and tints, in order that he may
intelligently comprehend the references we make to different
gradations of color in this and the next five drawing plates.
29. Making the Diagram of Tints. Stretch a piece
of drawing paper, not less than 8 inches square, upon the
board, and on it draw a rectangle measuring 6 inches on
each side. Divide this rectangle into thirty-six squares of
1 inch each, and ink in the lines bounding it, and separating
the smaller squares, with waterproof ink. Now mix a con-
siderable quantity of water and India ink, in order to lay a
very pale wash over the entire diagram, and allow same to
dry thoroughly; afterwards, a second wash should be applied,
but covering only thirty-five of the thirty-six squares of the
diagram, and this should be allowed to dry also. A third
wash should then be laid over thirty-four of the thirty-six
squares, and so on until the entire rectangle has been washed
over thirty-six times, each square receiving in its turn one
more wash than its predecessor.
These squares should now be numbered, in any con-
venient way, so that reference can easily be made to any
particular tint by its number, that is to say, No. 1 referring
to a single wash, No. 10 to the square that has received
ten washes, No. 36 to the square that has received thirty-
six washes, each of these numbers representing a tint
1


26
$ 10
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
corresponding to the tint on the reference diagram. This is
shown in Fig. 12, though the tints are not all numbered, but
those on the border have numbers in front of them repre-
senting the number of washes they have received, and the
intermediate ones can readily be counted up.
The student will keep his diagram as a reference for all
work in this part of the course, and, in preparing same, he
is cautioned not to make tint No. 1 any darker than that
shown in Fig. 12, nor to attempt to wash over any square or
squares until the previous tint laid is thoroughly dry. On
1
2
3
4
5
6

12
131
18
• 19
24
30
25
31
32
34
35
36
FIG. 12.
this account, it is advisable that the entire 6-inch rectangle
should not be covered at one sitting, but allowed to wait
from time to time while the student is engaged on other
work, in order that its result may be thoroughly satisfactory.
When it is finished, the student will write his name and class
number clearly on the bottom and send it in with his plate


§ 10
27
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
on Historic Mural Detail in order that it may be recorded
and criticized as to its quality, etc.
30. Before attempting to wash in Fig. 1, the student
will carefully ink in all the lines with waterproof ink and
then wash over the entire rectangle with a tint equal in
depth to No. 1 of his color diagram. The eyes from which
the volutes spring, and the straight bars that connect the
convex sides of the long flat curves from the volutes, are
tinted to a depth of No. 6 or 7 of Fig. 12, and the portions
between the bars and the flat curve of the volute should be
tinted to a depth of No. 12 to 14.
It should be borne in mind that it is not absolutely neces-
sary that these shades should correspond identically with
those expressed on the original drawing plate, as differences
in printing are likely to affect them, but the student must
maintain the same relative contrast between adjacent parts,
and these contrasts are expressed by the depth of his color
in accordance with the foregoing numbers.
It is not necessary, either, that these depths should be
obtained by repeated washes on the drawing plate to the
number of twelve or fourteen tints, but the color can be
mixed to the desired tint and tried with a brush on a separate
piece of paper, when, after drying, if too dark or too light,
it may be altered by the addition of water, or more ink, as
the case may require.
1
31. In the Greek ornament shown in Fig. 2, the entire
surface is washed over as before with the No. 1 tint, without
outlining the forms in ink, and the honeysuckle and palmette
forms are washed in with a tint equal in depth to about
No. 12 or 13, care being exercised to keep this tint perfectly
even, in order that one part of the figure may not be darker
than another. In order to do this, it is wise to use plenty of
color on each detail when the color is first applied and then
dry the brush out partially by drawing it across a piece of
blotting paper, and removing the surplus color from the
drawing with the point of the brush.
21
et B 比
​.
te


28
§ 10
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
cm
{
(
1
t
1
i
Fig. 2 is far more difficult to render with the brush than
Fig. 1, though the former has a greater variety of tints, and
the student is urged not to hurry his work, as all the pre-
liminary labor of drawing these designs may be wasted
through carelessness or hurry in the brush rendering:
Wash over the entire rectangle containing the Roman
ornament with one tint of light color, and then strengthen
the foliated ornament throughout with a tint corresponding
to No. 12. The darker portions of this foliated ornament
may then be strengthened with a tint equal to about No. 18,
and the eyes in the acanthus leaf, and small loops in the
central rosette, may be touched up to a depth of No. 24.
It will be observed in this that the greatest contrast in
light and shade lies between tints No. 1 and No. 12, that is,
between the background and the lightest of the tinted orna-
ment. This is done in order that the ornament may stand
out clearly and sharply against the ground, whereas the other
tints are simply shadings of the same material, or, in other
words, variations of the ornament itself. This is, in reality,
one form of spotting, as we are producing variety by means
of a variation of light and shade.
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32. The Gothic ornament in Fig. 4 is tinted in three
separate and distinct shades, the entire rectangle being
washed over with No. 1 tint, and the geometrical figures
that form those details of the surface decoration that are
without enclosed ornament are tinted to a depth of color
equal to No. 6.
The heraldic lions are also of this tint, while
the background surrounding the foliated ornament in the
other geometrical figures is tinted to a depth of No. 12.
An emphasizing shade line in No. 12 tint is also drawn in
the upper half of each of these geometrical figures after all
the other tinting has been washed in and dried.
1
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33. In the Moresque ornament there are but two tints
used—à No. 1 tint going over the entire background and a
No. 12 tint outlining the geometrical forms characteristic of
the design. In colored work, the contrast between the
1
م ه . بخ


§ 10
29
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
ground and geometrical figure is established by color, the
one usually being black and the other red. Here we arrive
at a similar effect by a variation of light and shade.
Each one of these irregular geometrical figures must
be colored separately with a small brush, and care must be
taken not to go over any figure twice, nor to use a paler or
darker shade of ink on one figure than on another, also to
have about the same amount of ink in the brush as each one
is washed; otherwise there will be a variation of tint between
the beginning and finish of the drawing that will be almost
impossible to overcome.
34. Oriental Designs.—The Persian design is washed
in four tints—a No. 1 tint for the entire background, a No. 7
tint for the curving arabesques of its surface decoration, an
intermediate tint for the fine ground line that must simply
be indicated rather than clearly expressed, and No. 36, which
is practically black, for the background of the corners and
the device at the bottom of the figure.
The foliated ornament against this background should be
outlined in waterproof drawing ink before the ground is
painted in, and if the student so desires, he may outline all
of the surface ornament with a very fine black line before
applying the color. He will find that the color will flow
more readily within the limits of the line than where the
pencil is used, but must not let this lead to carelessness in
handling, as a spreading of the color beyond the black out-
line will show much more plainly here than where the line
is simply in pencil. Fig. 3 may be also outlined if desired,
but care should be taken that the line is very fine and no
more obtrusive than that shown in the original drawing
plate.
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35. Mixing Colors.—In mixing the color for this plate,
and particularly for the preparation of the color diagram, it
is highly important that sufficient color should be mixed at
one time for the completion of any one figure or wash, as a
second quantity can never be mixed to match the first
of
he


§ 10
33
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
4
being the projection of the wall from the bottom, and the
line e' f completes the line of the shadow. This will com-
plete the outline of Fig. 1, and it is ready to be washed in
with color according to the directions hereafter given.
39. The student should carefully draw this figure on a
separate piece of paper and be thoroughly familiar with each
of its details before he attempts it on his drawing plate,
because frequent erasing in the latter instance will render it
impossible for him to lay his color well, and a little undue
haste or carelessness may spoil the entire plate. It is better
not to wash in any one figure until all of them have been
completed, as otherwise the ink is likely to be unequal in
color and therefore unsatis-
factory in its results on the
plate.
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40. Fig. 2 is an example
of the lotus capital, with its
characteristic polychromatic
decoration, as seen in ex-
amples of the best period of
K ㅏ
​Egyptian art. The line a b
(Fig. 14) is 4 inches above
the lower border line, and
extends 14 inches each side
of the center line of the col-
umn, and the top line of the
column neck cd is 2 inches
above the lower border line.
The width of the top of
the column across cd is 13
inches, and the sides of the
column ce and d f taper so
that they would meet on the
corners of the abacus, or top
block gh. This block is 16 inch high above the line a b, and
13 inch wide each side of the center line. The part of the
1
12
.
2
f
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FIG. 14.
to
1
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§ 10
35
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
number of equal parts, as shown. In order to do this, a semi-
circular half plan must be drawn over the top of the column,
as shown in Fig. 14 at a pb, and divided on the curve from a
through p to b into nineteen equal parts, each of which will
represent the width of one of the lotus blossoms at the edge
of the bell of the capital, and the lines projected from these
subdivisions to the line ab of the bell will mark the width
of each of the upper lotus flowers in the elevation of the
capital. The depth of these lotus flowers below ab is
finch, although their true depth, as painted on the column,
is much greater than this, as is shown at the edges, as br.
Draw a line lightly at rs, j inch below.ab, and then outline
the blossoms as shown, turning each one a little more toward
the right or left as their outlines approach b or a, as the
curve in the top of the bell shape causes them to lose their
perpendicular appearance as they recede from the center.
The ornament shown at the bottom of the bell shape,
representing conventionally the calyx of the flower, must
also be located by means of a semicircular plan of the column
on the line kg. This is drawn, for convenience, across the
upper part of the column as shown, and its circumference
is divided into eight equal parts, as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., from
each of which a perpendicular line is erected to locate, on
the line kq, a point of one of the petals of the calyx, as
shown at 1', 2', 3', 4', etc. on the bell.
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42. It will be observed that the extreme outside calyx
leaf of the capital and the one in the center under point 4'
are nearly tangent at their lower extremities to the center
line of the calyx leaf under point 2'. If, therefore, we
draw under 2' a vertical line parallel to kl and from 1 to the
line cd, curved to conform to the bottom of the bell, the
right side of the center leaf can be drawn as follows: With
a radius of 17 inches and a center at m I inch to the left of
the line of the column, and on a line with the bottom of the
first band, draw an arc from # to within 1 inch of cd, and
then round this arc to conform to the bottom of the capital,
freehand. The left side of the extreme right-hand leaf,
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211


36
§ 10
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
whose point is under the point k, may then be sketched in
freehand, as shown. The leaf under point 2' is then drawn, ,
extending its sides to the leaves already drawn and touching
them to inch below the top, and then the little that shows
of the leaves under points 1' and 3' is located, intersecting
the previous leaves & inch below the top.
Each one of these leaves consists of fourteen stripes, each
parallel to its neighbor and the outside of the leaf, as shown,
and the width of the leaf across the bottom must therefore
be divided into twenty-nine equal parts—one in the middle
for the little lozenge-shaped eye, and fourteen each side, for
the stripes above mentioned. The other leaves are similarly
striped, although those on the extreme right and left will
appear narrower than those in the middle, owing to their
altered positions.
A vertical line through the center lotus blossom, corre-
sponding to the center line of the column, will be properly
placed for the stem of this blossom, and a curved line at the
extreme right and left sides of the capital, parallel to the
outline of the bell, will represent in its proper place the stem
of the extreme right and left of these blossoms.
Between these extremities, lines will radiate apparently
from the top of the column with a greater or lesser degree
of curvature, according to their nearness to the outside or
the center of the column, and these lines must be carefully
sketched by the eye until they are uniform and accurate,
and, when equally spaced, the intermediate lines and con-
ventional flowers should be drawn with their stems located
by a similar system and in a similar manner, and then the
final hair-like appendages alternating with each set of
blossoms.
All this work must be carefully carried out in pencil, and,
when the capital is finished, the pencil lines should be well
strengthened in order that the subsequent washings with
color may not entirely erase them.
43. In Fig. 3 is shown a doorway from the Erechtheum
at Athens, which is essentially Greek in its design. The


§ 10
39
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
courses below the top of the lintel, the next to the last one
being inch wide and the other ones equally divided and of
equal width. The patere, or disks, equally spaced around
the door, are inch in diameter, and the lines of the mold-
ings on the inside of the door jamb measure, altogether,
1 inch across and are divided into seven members.
1
44. Fig. 4 is an Ionic capital from the south porch of
the Erechtheum at Athens, and its distinguishing character-
istics are the volutes and bands of the capital over the top
of the column.
To draw Fig. 4, it will be necessary for the student to first
draw the volutes of the capital and arrange the other details
in conformity with them. The outside curve of these
volutes extends 2 inches each side of the center line of the
column, and the lowest portion of the volute is 32 inches
above the lower border line. It has been observed else-
where in this course that these Greek curves are based on a
regular mathematical proportion, and the proportions of
these volutes are exactly the same as those we have drawn
in previous cases, namely: 6.1 : 5.1 : 41.
The student, having drawn the extreme outside and lower
lines of the volute, will now lay out the top line represent-
ing the top band across the column 15 inches above the
bottom of the volute. This will represent the depth of the
volute as 15 inches, and as the depth is to the width as
64:51, we have the width of each volute as 13 inches; and
as the depth of the inner curve of the volute is to the width
of the volute as 51:41, we have for that depth 1š inches.
In this way and by these proportions, we are able to lay out
each side of the volute as before, and calculations will show
that the width of the inner curve of the volute is fi inch
and that each of the other curves is just one-half the corre-
sponding outside member.
45. This may be somewhat more clearly understood by
reference to Fig. 17, where the line a b, 15 inches long,
represents the depth of the volute; bc, 13 inches long,


40
§ 10
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
represents the width of the volute; c d, 13 inches long, repre-
sents the depth of the inner side of the volute; and de
is i inch long, that is, i leftcd), ef being (ab), or
18 inch, f&, } (bc), or it inch, and gl, ž (cd), or 1 inch.
In the same manner, we find h i to be 3 1 inch, ik to be
13 inch, kl to be 11 inch, and Imn to be inch. In this
way we could go on continuously and wind the
volute up in as many convolutions as we chose.
Or, if we wished to enlarge it still more, we could
draw from a to the left a line equal to twice cd,
or 115 inches, and so on around.
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FIG. 17.
From a, b, c, and d, lines are then drawn at angles of 45°
with the side lines of the volute, intersecting to form at the
center a rectangle at w, x, J', and s, Fig. 18. The sides of
this rectangle are then bisected and the points thus located
form the centers of quadrants that are struck to contour the
volute. For instance, with o as a center, on the line x 2 and
with a radius equal to 0-1, the curve 1–2 is struck, Then


§ 10
41
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
l
1
with p as a center, on the line x y and with a radius equal to
p-2, the curve 2–3 is struck, the curve 3-4 being struck
from r as a center, and the curve 4-5 from s.
We now draw a new set of diagonal lines from the corners
l, f, g, and h, and form a new and smaller square in the
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FIG. 18.
center, by bisecting the sides of which we establish centers
for the next four curves, and, again bisecting the angles and
drawing diagonals from i, k, l, and m, we form a new rect-
angle, from the center of the sides of which we will strike
the remaining curves.
46. On this small scale it will be exceedingly difficult,
if not impossible, for the student to carry out these instruc-
tions exactly, and he is therefore urged to practice them a
half dozen times or more on a separate piece of paper before
he makes the first attempt to locate the details on his draw-
ing plate. Even then he may find it advisable to contour
only the first portion of the volute, that is, the curves
?
1


§ 10
43
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
7
outside band of the volute extends across the top of the
column 3 inch in width, and the space from it to the next
band below, measured on the center of the column, is inch.
The two bands then in the center are each 16 inch wide and
inch apart, while a space of 1 inch separates the lower
band, which is 3 inch wide, from the second of the middle
ones on the center line of the column. These bands dimin-
ish in width as they coil themselves up in the volute, the
two middle ones uniting to form one band before they have
taken the first quarter-turn, as shown at b. The location of
the bands immediately at the sides of the column as they
start to wind themselves into the volute may readily be dis-
tributed by eye measurement, as the outer curve of the
volute is already determined.
Whether the bands are drawn with a compass or freehand,
they should be carried around to the eye with a light, easy,
clean line, and the eye itself finally drawn with the com-
pass, 11 inch in diameter and tangent to the last curve of
the volute. Its center should be on the side lines of the
column.
47. The decoration of the neck, with the horizontal orna-
ment immediately below the ornate portions of the capital,
may now be sketched in very lightly, simply to locate posi-
tions for various details, as most of this work will be done
with the brush or pen after the design is washed in.
The sides of an Ionic column are grooved by twenty-four
flutes separated by fillets, and, in order to draw these, it
will be necessary to make a half plan of the column and
divide it into twelve equal parts, as shown under Fig. 19,
projecting each of these parts upwards to locate on the ele-
vation of the curved surface the lines where these flutes will
occur. Having done so, the middle fillets in elevation may
be drawn a trifle less than 16 inch in width, and the others,
in gradually diminishing widths, may be laid out each side
according to the position shown on the semicircular plan.
In the same manner, the curved or arched finish at the tops
of the flutes may be drawn with the compass for the three
o do
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44
$ 10
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
center ones, while those on each side, taking an elliptical
form as they curve away from the eye, must be contoured
freehand.
The abacus or little slab on top of the volutes is já inch
thick, and extends 14 inches to the right and left of the
center line. Its entire width is divided into sixteen equal
parts, each one of which contains the egg molding char-
acteristic of classical art, separated in each instance from its
neighbor by a small dart, as shown. The egg-and-dart
molding under the volutes is identically the same in form as
that on the abacus, but, being carved on a curved surface,
the apparent width of these details diminishes to the right
and left of the center.
Having drawn all these details of Fig. 4 and strengthened
up the principal lines in pencil, the student may now ink
in with a fine line the capital and top of the column.

POPVLVSOVEROM ANVS
VOGITODI TVESPZ SANE
FIG. 20.
48. Fig. 5 of the drawing plate is an elevation of the
Arch of Titus at Rome, and is characteristic of the
Roman style of architecture. The original arch still stands,


46
$ 10
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
Draw all of these details carefully, and ink in the figure
with a fine line, then carefully draw the lettering in the
tablet above, the style of which is the old characteristic
Roman now no longer used, except in its modified form,
which modern work titles French-Roman. This lettering
must be done in waterproof ink or it will run and spoil the
drawing plate when the figure is washed.
49. Fig. 6 of the drawing plate is an elevation of the
capital of a Composite column, the Composite being the
architectural order invented by the Romans for their most
2"
.
362
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far "
FIG. 22.
luxurious attempts at architecture, and is therefore typical
of their character and temperament.
The top of this column should be laid out 5 inches above
the lower border line, and it extends 2 inches each side of
the center. The width of the shaft of the column, imme-
diately below the capital, is 14 inches each side of the
center line, and the height of the various details between
the top of the shaft and the top of the capital is shown in
Fig. 22.


48
$ 10
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,
entrance, a No. 24 tint is used in Fig. 1, and a No. 18
tint in Fig. 3.
The shadows of Fig. 1 are then laid in a tint between 9
and 12, but this tint is gradually deepened to the depth of
No. 18 as the shadow nears the ground. In Fig. 3, the
moldings on the under side of the top and on the left side
of the entrance are emphasized as shown, by deepening to a
No. 12 tint. Careful study of the original will show about
what is required. The outlines of the stonework should not
be heavier than No. 6 in Fig. 3, and should be very even in
depth of tone, while in Fig. 1, a depth as deep as No. 12
will be permitted and the unevenness both of tint and out-
line--due to the raggedness required to represent age-
should be carefully studied. Each feather of the winged
globe, and the right and under sides of the disk and asps,
should have a shade line. In expressing the hieroglyphs,
they may be outlined very lightly with a fine brush or pen
charged with No. 12 or 18 tint, and the left and upper sides
should be emphasized in tone to show that the figures are
incised and not raised on the wall.
52. Fig. 2 is tinted evenly all over to a depth of No. 1,
and the abacus may then be darkened to a depth of No. 6.
The middle of the five bands around the neck of the column
should be about a No. 4 or 5, and the two adjacent bands
may be as dark as No. 12. The shadow on the bell of the
capital should be carefully sketched in and then tinted to a
depth of No. 12, and the blossoms under the line a b may be
tinted as dark as No. 24. The right and left sides of the
capital should be tinted slightly deeper than No. 1, in order
to give the expression of roundness, although this should be
a mere suggestion and had better be omitted rather than
overdone. Of the calyx leaves at the base of the bell, the
outside stripe may be left in No. 1 tint, the second stripe in
No. 5, and the fourth stripe in No. 12.
Very little contrast is needed in any of these parts, as the
lines are so well defined, and the student may shade in Figs.
1, 2, and 3 at the same time, working from one to another
1


§ 10
49
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
in order that each may get a chance to dry before it is worked
on a second time. The other three figures on the plate,
however, should each be treated individually.
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53. The entire surface of Fig. 4 should be washed over
with a No. 1 tint. The edges of the voluted bands, shown
at c, Fig. 18, should now be tinted to a depth of No. 3, and
immediately below these edges and on their right sides a
shadow is drawn to the depth of No. 18, and before the ink
of each one of these strokes or shadows has become entirely
dry, the brush should be thoroughly rinsed in clean water
and the edges of the shadows softened or blended off into
the light No. 1 tint that covers the whole surface. This
will produce the graded shadows as shown, and give the
surface the appearance of being rounded rather than abso-
lutely straight and square.
The student should tint all these details as directed,
giving close attention to the original plate after every stroke
to see that he has conformed entirely with both the direc-
tions and the example before him.
The under and right-hand side of all the eggs and darts in
the moldings may then be tinted with a single stroke of the
brush charged with color to the depth of No. 7, and the back-
ground or body of the column under the darts may be tinted
to a depth of No. 12. The point of high light, or, in other
words, the lightest portion of the column, is just to the left
of the center, and a shadow may be drawn inside of the
volute, beginning with the middle one, which should be
shaded only to the depth of about No. 4 and deepening, one
tint at a time, toward the right and left in order that the
outside may be darkest. The band immediately over the
volutes may then be tinted to a depth of No. 6, and the
shadow of the left-hand volute drawn across it in an elliptical
curve, as shown.
Complete all the details as closely as possible to the orig-
inal drawing, and mark the extreme high lights, where
necessary, with Chinese white. This may be done on the
upper left-hand edges of the raised ornament on the neck
1
1
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?


50
§ 10
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
and on the upper left-hand corners of the eggs in the egg-
and-dart molding.
The student is cautioned about using ink of too deep a
shade. It is far better to have your ink too light than too
dark, as the former can be easily remedied by the application
of another wash, while a dark shade must remain the tint it
dries, and contrast with it can be produced only by making
other tints much darker in proportion.
54. Wash in the entire drawing of Fig. 5 with an even
No. 1 tint, and then cast the shadows that are seen to the
right of the columns and pilasters in a No. 7 tint. The
spandrels, or spaces, immediately above the arch, should be
tinted all over with a No. 9, and the shadows shown thereon
should be cast in a No. 13 tint. Notice that these shadows
make the other portions of the drawing stand out. It shows
that the pilasters, marked c in Fig. 21, are raised above the
surface d and that the panel e is sunk below the surface f.
It also shows that the spandrels g are so deeply recessed that
the column shadow is wider on them than on the surface h,
where there is only the thickness of the column itself. The
small panels between the columns should be tinted, as shown,
in flat washes, care being taken to observe the emphasis
given the moldings in each case.
Now divide the surface up by lines that indicate the stone-
work. These lines should be drawn lightly with a brush in
about a No. to No. 12 tint. The different stones should
then be shaded so as to break the monotony of their sur-
face, and this shading should be executed in a No. 1 tint,
repeating same, if necessary, to get a proper depth. Fre-
quent reference to Fig. 20 will aid the student materially in
getting the effect he desires in this figure.
55. Great care should be exercised in washing over
Fig. 6, in order to keep the tints all light, otherwise it will
have a mottled or muddy appearance. An even No. 1 tint is
carried over the entire surface to begin with, and then the
right side of the left-hand volute is tinted to a depth of


§ 10
51
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
1
No.7, while the left side of the right-hand volute is tinted to
a depth of No. 4. Toward the left side of the abacus, which
is hollow on its face, a No. 18 tint is laid and gradually
blended off until at the center of the capital it is as light as
the No. 1, thus giving a curved effect. The under side of
the quarter-round molding, shown at c in Fig. 22, should be
tinted to about a depth of No. 18 and rapidly blended off as
it rounds out to the surface, while the same molding at d,
Fig. 22, should be tinted to a depth of No. 12 all over, and
strengthened to a depth of No. 24 on its under side.
7
56. The shadows of the lobes of the leaves at the
points where they turn over from the capital should be
sketched freehand and then tinted to a depth of No. 7,
while all the leaves under the right-hand volute should be
tinted to an even depth of No. 7, gradually blending off to
the left, the lightest point of the capital being between the
middle and extreme left-hand leaves, the left-hand leaves on
the edge being tinted to a depth of No. 5 or 6.
The bell or core of the capital, shown at e in Fig. 22, is
tinted to give it the round effect expressed on the drawing
plate, and this general curvature is again emphasized on
the moldings below, at a where, on the left-hand side, the
moldings are tinted to a depth of No. 19 and blended off
rapidly to No. 1 over the first three volutes, and deepening
again toward the right-hand side until it approaches a full
depth of No. 19 again over the third volute from the right
and blends off to No. 1 at the extreme right-hand edge.
Note all these little details in variations in shading ; they
are all important and require close study and attention to
fully appreciate them.
The little eyes or cyelets formed by the lobes of the
various leaves may be expressed in black, and the extreme
corners under the volutes and between the volutes and
capital may approach very nearly to black, although it is best
not to have them entirely so.
This will complete the drawing and washing of the figures
on this plate, and the student may draw his border line and


52
$ 10
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
letter the title with his T square and ruling pen. The
name, date, and class number and letter should then be
placed below, as usual.
There is nothing on this plate that the student is asked to
do that he has not already done; it is a very intricate plate
to draw, but requires patience, care, and study more than
anything else. Each figure should be drawn at least once
on a separate piece of paper and entirely finished before it
is attempted on the drawing plate, and if the first drawing
of it is in any way unsatisfactory to the student himself, he
should draw it two or three times before making the draw-
ing plate, as the plate he sends to us is supposed to represent
the result of repeated trials during which he has honestly
endeavored to do his best.
1


1
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL
DRAWING.
(PART 2.)
THE DRAWING OF DESIGNS.
>
INTRODUCTION.
In
1. Woolen Fabric Designs. We will now take into
consideration the drawing of designs that have been executed,
or are suitable for execution, in some woven fabric. The
essential difference between a design painted on a wall or
carved in stone, and a design woven in a soft fabric, is that
the former will always maintain its rigid outline, uninfluenced
by any change of position, except so far as that change of
position will change the effects of light and shadow.
woven fabrics, however, the goods will frequently hang in
folds, thus presenting a portion of the pattern on a convex
surface, another portion on a concave surface, and perhaps
another portion on a flat surface. Geometrical patterns con-
sisting of straight lines and regular geometrical figures are,
therefore, not suitable for this class of work, as the nature
of the material will destroy the precision of the geometrical
outline. Therefore, broad, bold patterns are necessary in
the heavier goods, and more delicate patterns in the fabrics
of lighter weight. The importance of these details will be
pointed out as we progress with the drawing plates.
For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page.
$ 11


2
§ 11
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: TEXTILE PATTERNS.
2. In this drawing plate we have, in Fig. 1, a modern,
and, in Fig. 2, a comparatively ancient design showing the
variation of motive as expressed in designs for textiles of
different qualities. The hard, even curves and well defined
outline of Fig. 1 renders it suitable for stamped silk or
other light flimsy fabric wherein the surface will be sufficient
to preserve the continuity of outline even though the goods
lie in folds and irregularities.
Fig. 2 is taken from a damask pattern of the fifteenth cen-
tury. The peculiarity of damask patterns is that the weave
is arranged in such a manner that the figure appears light in
color upon a dark ground on one side of the goods, and dark
upon a light ground on the other side, making a complete
reversal, so far as light and shade is concerned, on the oppo-
site sides. The goods in which this pattern was executed
were rather heavy and necessitated a bold, broad pattern,
the outlines of which were not confined with any degree of
rigidity. The rendering of the floral forms is severely con-
ventional, but not so geometrical as in Fig. 1, and the stu-
dent will observe that in both Figs. 1 and 2 the relation of
pattern to surface has been very carefully studied, there
being just sufficient ground showing behind the pattern to
set it off and the pattern and the ground so happily arranged
that neither seems to predominate over the other.
3. To execute Fig. 1, the student will first draw a per-
pendicular line 41 inches to the right of the right-hand
border line, and a horizontal line 64 inches above the lower
border line. From the point of intersection of these two
lines he will lay off to the right and left, on the horizontal
line, a distance of 2 inches, and above and below the hori-
zontal line he will lay out on the vertical line 37 inches.
The four points thus located will mark the four angles of a
diamond or lozenge shape, as shown in Fig. 1 of the text.
This lozenge shape determines the area of the repeat of
the pattern, and the system in which the design is carried
out is known as the drop system or drop pattern, as each


§ 11
3
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
element of the repeat of the goods is dropped one-half its
height in order to fit the adjacent details, as shown in Fig. 1
of the text. Here the rectangle bc de represents one repeat
of the goods in which the pattern is executed, and it will be
observed that in order to have the side c d match the side
1
X
-f
1
1
FIG. 1.
be, it will be necessary to drop the pattern one-half a repeat,
so that the line dg of one piece of the goods will correspond
with the line fb of the adjacent piece. For certain classes
of goods, such as carpets, wall papers, etc., there is much
cconomy in this system of design.
4. It will be observed from the measurements given in
Fig. 1 that the thickness of the two outside leaf blades is
32 inch, while the next ones within are but 2 inch wide at
their widest part, and 32 inch from the outside leaf. The


§ 11
5
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
?
r
2
7. Each detail of the pattern may be sketched in pencil,
and it will be observed that the key to the whole situation
lies in the curve of the large outside leaf blade as it comes
up over the lily. The convex side of this curve not only
fills a portion of the space in the next lozenge shape but it
also establishes the degree of curve for the bottom of itself;
that is to say, the curve of the top of the large leaf blade
governs the curve of the bottom of the large leaf blade next
above it, and indirectly influences the curves of all the other
blades, which are spaced simply to fill the void satisfactorily.
The short brush strokes shown at a in Fig. 2 represent,
conventionally, the turning over of the leaf or blade, and in
sketching them preparatory to outlining the
figure for inking in, the student should bear
the fact in mind and represent them as shown
in Fig. 2. He will then avoid any distortion
that might occur if he simply considered each
of them as individual strokes and not as parts
of another leaf.
When this is all sketched in, the student
should carefully cover over this half of his
drawing plate with a piece of paper, to protect
it, and proceed to draw Fig. 2, after which both
can be washed in and tinted with opaque color, as described
hereafter.
8. The center line of Fig. 2 is 44 inches from the right-
hand border line, and the design is planned on what is known
as a turn-over pattern; that is to say, the pattern is sym-
metrical on each side of a center line, and only one half of it
would need be worked up in the design, the weaver being
able to arrange the loom so that it will weave the pattern
symmetrically to the right and left of the center line.
9. In Fig. 3 of the text is shown the rectangle abcd
within which one complete element of the repeat may be
drawn. It will be observed here that this pattern does not
"drop," as in the previous plate, as the rectangle constitu-
ting its repeat is arranged so that the bottom continues over
1
FIG. 2.
e
e
0
t
e
1
3
1
i


6
§ 11
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
the top, and the right side is the reverse of the left side of
the pattern without extending horizontally beyond the limits
of the repeating rectangle.
The pattern thus virtually resolves itself into a stripe,
inasmuch as it is continuous and interwoven vertically but
independent and separate from any overlapping in a hori-
p
S
u .
n
1
po'
ca
FIG. 3.
zontal direction. In fact, such is the case, and the effect of
stripe in the woven goods may be materially increased by
increasing the scale of the repeating rectangle in a horizon-
tal direction, without increasing the scale of the enclosed
design, thus leaving a broader ground space between the
elements of the stripe. The effect of this treatment can be
seen in Fig. 4, where the pattern is shown on a reduced
scale in order to get the effect of three widths, while in
Fig. 5 the scale of the rectangle is increased as suggested


8 11
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.

>
1
FIG. 4.

2013
FIG. 5.


8
§ 11
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
above, and the effect of stripe thereby emphasized. If it
were desired to produce this design as an all-over pattern so
as to avoid this effect of the stripe, it could be accomplished

FIG. 6.
by making it a drop pattern, as shown in Fig. 6, where it
has been necessary to change the governing line of the pat-
tern but slightly in order to make it conform to the new
conditions.
10. To draw Fig. 2, the student will construct on each
side of his center line a rectangle 3 inches wide by 6 inches
long, the bottom of which will be 316 inches above the
lower border line. These two rectangles will each represent
one repeat. In Fig. 3 of the text is shown the left one of
these rectangles with the design sketched in. It will first be
necessary to draw through the rectangle the parent stem or
guiding line ofe, the point o being about į inch above the
point c, the point f about half way up the height of the rect-
angle, and 23 inches from the line bc. The guiding line


$ 11
9
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
;
then curves in toward b, as shown by the dotted line, but
reverses its curve and passes out of the rectangle again at e
11 inches to the left of b. It is well to continue its course
beyond the rectangle, because that will give us the location,
direction, and contour of the line e' p' in the lower part of
the rectangle, e' p' being the same curve as ep beyond the
rectangle at the top.
These dimensions have not been given exactly, because
this is essentially freehand work and we do not wish to give
the student directions for copying this design, but rather to
instruct him how to execute a design of this character and
at the same time to preserve his own individuality.
2
11. The parent stem or guiding line oe being drawn,
the student will roughly outline on each side of it the foliated
forms as shown. In doing this, he will observe that there is
no material difference between the sketching of these foliated
forms and the sketching of the forms for the brush strokes
on his Drawing Plate, title, Brush Work. These general
outlines are simply the outlines of brush strokes, and the
points at q show in a general way the appearance of a brush-
stroke leaf after it is turned over and shows its under side.
12.
t
The floral form in the center of the design may be
drawn within a kite-shaped figure shown by the dotted lines
hlk, the point h being about 1 inch below the point b, and
the lines hl and Ik being 11 and 21 inches in length, respect.
ively, and the angle at I a right angle. The petals of the
upper part of the floral form are brush strokes, the points
of which are all in contact with lh. The brush strokes
of the lower part bear little relation to the line lk, but
are governed on top by the arc of a circle whose radius is
24 inches and whose center at n is 14 inches above c, The
lower strokes shown at r are drawn to fill in the space
between the main feather-like stem and the central figure.
h
S
e
it
of
je
DI
le
13. Having drawn this form complete, it will next be
necessary to notch the edges of the foliated forms and reduce
it to the conventional outline shown in Fig. 2 of the drawing
t-
le


10
§ 11
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
plate. The process of doing this is precisely similar to the
process in the drawing of the acanthus leaf on Drawing
Plate, title, Flowers and Conventionalized Leaves. You
have here the general lobe forms to be notched into finer
forms, as you had in the previous case, and, by repeatedly
referring to your drawing plate, you can study all the detail
that will be developed in the final rendering.
14. The foliated forms occupying the spaces at s and s'
may be sketched in after the rest of the work is complete, as
their only function is to fill the space that would otherwise
exist above and below the leaf c' p'. The parts of the figure
above and below this repeat, as shown on the drawing plate,
represent simply the continuation of the pattern above and
below, and so far as they show, they are precisely similar to
the part already described.
Having completed the drawing, the student will proceed
to wash in and tint the plate as follows:
15. After carefully outlining all details of the two
figures, the paper should be thoroughly cleaned with a soft
rubber and the figures strengthened with a hard pencil so
that the first wash may not so remove the pencil lines that
they will be indistinct or invisible. If there are any parts
of the plate that are inclined to be in the slightest degree
greasy from the hands, it is well to sift a small quantity of
powdered chalk on the plate and rub it into the paper, in
order that the color will flow evenly.
16. Mix a considerable quantity of ink (not waterproof)
and water in a cup and have it so diluted that a wash of it,
when dry, will be no darker than tint No. 1, of Fig. 12,
Historic Ornamental Drawing, Part 1. With this pale tint,
wash evenly the entire rectangle of Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, being
careful not to carry the wash over the edges, but to spread
it evenly from the upper left-hand to the lower right-hand
corner in a flat wash. Use the largest and softest brush that
you have, but not a Japanese brush. Dip the brush into the
color and apply it repeatedly to the drawing plate, until


$ 11
11
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
o the
=wing
l'ou
finer
atedly
quite a puddle of color is in the upper left-hand corner of the
rectangle, as shown at e in Fig. 7. The board should be
tilted somewhat so that the corner a will be the highest and
the corner b the lowest; and the brush being repeatedly
dipped into the color, should be drawn in a slightly curved
line under a, as shown by the dotted lines, thereby extend-
ing the wash gradually toward the corner b. If the brush is
not large enough to carry the entire puddle across from the
side to the corner, as shown by the dotted line from c to d,
detail
ands
a
a
zte, as
erwise
figure
plate,
re and
ilar to
roceed
e two
a soft
cicil so
es that
parts
legre
tity of
per, i1
FIG. 7.
proof)
of it
,
g. 12,
e tint,
being
it should be dipped into the cup and drawn part way from
c toward d and then dipped again and drawn from d toward
C; but the line cd must have a long puddle of color at the
bottom of it in order that the tint may be even. Repeat
these curved strokes until the wash is carried all the way
down to b, and then drying the brush on a piece of blotter,
tilt the drawing board still more and remove the surplus
color as it flows down into the corner b.
There is nothing difficult about this, the main points to be
observed being that the portion of the plate that dries to
form the tint must be drained, not with the brush, but by
spread
-hand
h that
to the
uintil


$ 11
13
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
lace
the
ina
in to
ittle
pard
his
Chinese white used anywhere on Fig. 1 except for the
stamens in the center of the lily. If after the entire plate is
finished there are a few points where the color has run over
on portions that should have been left, a little clear Chinese
white may be laid over the damaged part, which, when it is
dry, may be tinted with the very palest suggestion of wash
in order that it may match the background.
ing
mpt
itest
don
20. In Fig. 2, however, the veining of the leaves is so
intricate that it would be practically impossible to leave the
ground to show for them, and they may be drawn in with a
pointed brush, using Chinese white tinted with a pale wash
of ink until it corresponds in color with the ground. Many
of the regular lines, however, such as the petals of the calyx
in the central figure and the points where the serrated edges
of the leaf forms lap over other leaf forms, may be easily
and advantageously left the color of the ground when the
work is painted in.
hite
caus
ness
the
aked
rent
shal
age.
rait-
cir it
enly
In a
in it
n to
21. If the distemper color has at any point run over the
outline of the figure, the best way to remove it is by a gen-
tle scraping with a sharp knife: If the wash has run over
the edge of the rectangle, it may be removed with an ordi-
nary ink eraser, first protecting the drawing surface itself
with a piece of ordinary writing paper, along the edge of
which the eraser may be applied so that it does not rub out
where erasure is not required. Do not attempt to erase any
part of the work, however, until the entire plate is finished,
as the application of an ink eraser to the paper will render
it porous, and when ink or color is applied it will spread into
the pores of the paper to such an extent that it cannot after-
wards be eradicated.
The student will now place the title at the top of the
plate, as shown, in letters inch in height, the outlines of
which may be drawn with triangle and T square after they
have been sketched in pencil. The name, and class letter
and number, and the date on which the plate is finished may
then be placed in their respective corners, as usual.
it to
2. of
do,
te.
Oin
i no


14
$ 11
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: CERAMICS AND
LEATHER.
22. In this plate are given six characteristic designs
each illustrating an example of a natural form applied to
some specific purpose. Figs. 1 and 2 are plate borders suit-
able for designs in chinaware, although with slight modifica-
tions they are equally applicable to fan borders. Figs. 3
and 4 are designs in stamped-leather work executed as book
covers, and Figs. 5 and 6 are also stamped-leather work in
designs for wall decoration.
The style of Fig. 1 is Arabian, and the connection of this
pattern with a natural form can be easily traced by a refer-
ence to Elements of Ornament. In fact, the theme of this
design is based on identically the same type as that illus-
trated in Elements of Ornament, the only difference being its
elaboration in order to make it more suitable to its present
purpose.
23. To draw Fig. 1, the student will strike a semicircle
whose radius will be 2 inches, and whose center will be
31 inches to the right, and 32 inches below the border line.
This semicircle may be divided into eight equal parts by
FIG. 8.
lines radiating from its center, as shown in Fig. 8. Begin-
ning with the center one of these lines and then with each
alternate line to the left and right, the student will draw
the general outline of the foliated form as shown at abc in
Fig. 8, the point a being 24 inches from the center, and the


18
$ 11
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
feeling of additional strength are weakened by the broken
and uncertain ending of the design.
(6)
4
(c)
Fig. 10.
28. In Fig. 11 (6) the same design exactly is changed to
suit the purpose of the utensil in which it is executed. The
border around the rim of the plate is reduced to a series of
links, not very elaborate in themselves, but suggestive of
binding the rim of the plate together and certainly strength-
ening its form. In the center a rosette formed by the com-
plicated geometrical work suits its place exactly and shows
that it was intended for the place where we see it and not
somewhere else.
29. Fig. 2 should be washed over with a No. 1 tint in
the same manner as was Fig. 1, and then the general design


$ 11
19
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,
Token

:
(9)
FIG. 11.
3
ed to
The
les of
re af
com-
hows
| not
sign


20
§ 11
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
may be executed in a No. 6 tint and shaded with darker
tones to give expression to the general idea. No distemper
will be used in this, as the forms are much more freely ren-
dered and are not composed of as many flat tints as in the
previous case.
In both Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 a light tint may be laid so as to
indicate the portion of the plate that rounds away from the
border or rim, the depth of this being of little importance,
as it is a shadow line and forms no element of the design
itself, except in so far as it emphasizes the plate border and
limits the area of decoration.
30. Fig. 3 is an example of a book cover in stamped
leather, the style being that of about the middle of the six-
teenth century. The original was olive-colored morocco,
whereon the white outlines were executed in gold. The
heavy black scrolls on each side of the center (medallion) were
a deep purple, while the lighter scrolls of a similar outline
were a light green. The background of the coat of arms on
the oval was royal red, and the coat of arms, which is that
of Katherine de Medici, was executed on the left with gold
fleur-de-lis on a blue ground, and on the right with red and
blue devices stamped on a gold ground. The back of the
book was stamped with four golden K's, being the initial of
Katherine, each one of which was crowned as shown.
31. To draw Fig. 3, construct first a rectangle 33 inches
wide and 53 inches high, located 2 inches to the right and
43 inches below the border lines. This rectangle will rep-
resent the entire front or top of the book cover, but within it
three other rectangles must be constructed 31, , and inch to
the left of the right-hand side. The first of these rectangles
will measure exactly 3 inches in width, and its upper and
lower lines will be the same distance from the upper and
lower lines of the enclosing rectangle, as on the right-hand
side; the other rectangles within this will be parallel to it all
around.
The inner one will be divided as shown in Fig. 12,
and from the location of the ornament as it crosses the lines


§ 11
21
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
in Fig. 12, the student will be able to sketch in the design
and then strengthen it up for his coloring.
The back of the book, shown to the left of the top view,
is 16 inch in thickness, and the ridges are į inch in width

Matututunut
FIG. 12.
against the back but only 4 inch at their extremities. The
first one is located Å inch below the top, and the last one
Å inch above the bottom; between these the others are
spaced equally.
32. The student, after sketching in all his ornamenta-
tion carefully, will strengthen it with a hard pencil and then
wash in the entire book cover to the depth of about tint
No. 12. His pencil lines of ornament will show through
this tint, and they can be gone over with a fine pen charged
with Chinese white. The tinting of the scrollwork where
it is lighter than the ground, and also the light portions of


$ 11
23
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
35. Fig. 5 is an example of stamped-leather wall deco-
ration from the Château de Blois, in France, and is the same
decoration that was illustrated in Figs. 78 and 79, Historic
Ornament, Part 3. Considerable liberty has been taken here
with the coloring, in order to express in black-and-white the
strong effect of the design itself. In the original, the entire
background was a deep, olive green, and all the black por-
tion, rich royal red. The white lines and surfaces, as in the
previous examples, were executed in gold.
The rectangle bounding this design is 5 inches wide by
5} inches high, and is inch to the left of, and inch above,
the border lines. To draw the design, the student will con-
1
th
a
m
d
r
1
he
he
he
Ti
14
of
is
w
to
ced
8
ale
lis-
the
2011
n
f
FIG. 13.
his
hat
ted
struct a rectangle as shown at abcd, Fig. 13, and divide it
through the center vertically and horizontally by the lines
ef and gh. At the point of intersection of these central ver-
tical and horizontal lines, a circle will be drawn the radius
of which will be 14 inches, and within this circle is drawn
as
iny
LIBRARY
BTAPE TEACHERS COLLEGE
MAMTA NAAMA EKLIFORNIA


24
§ 11
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
and st,
a square the angles of which will be on the vertical and hori-
zontal dividing lines, as shown at ijkl. A distance inch
within each of the bounding lines, vertical and horizontal
lines may now be drawn as shown at mn, op, qr, and
their points of intersection will furnish the centers for the
circles within which the royal initials H and C are to be
drawn. The inner of these circles will have a radius of
4 inch and will govern the width of the panels above and
below them. The outer circles will each have a radius of
1 inch, and the space between them will be filled in solid
with waterproof black ink, as shown. These solid black
circles govern the widths of the enclosing border to the
panels between them and also the straight line connecting
them with that panel border.
36. The leaf forms between the circles containing the
initials and the central square are drawn within triangles as
shown, the longer sides of which are formed by a line drawn
from k to u, and the shorter sides measuring 14 inches from
u to v and 14 inches from k to v. The point x where the
stem crosses into this triangle is 13 inches from k. The
other details may now be sketched in freehand. The leaf
form may be outlined within the triangle as shown, and the
stem sketched to pass gracefully from x and approach the
line e f, without touching it, across the lower end of the tri-
angle near u and extend below the line st before it curves
upwards to pass about the same distance from v that it did
from e f but outside of the triangle. It crosses the center
of the panel at w, and this is an important part, inasmuch as
it must be so balanced that it will cross the stem from the
neighboring panel at the same point.
These guiding lines are the same on all four sides of the
central device, the only difference being that they reverse
for the one immediately above and to the side of them.
Take careful note of the crossings of these lines on qr and
st as well, and observe carefully the branchings of the pecul-
iar conventional leaflets that spring out alternately on oppo-
site sides.


$ 11
27
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
*
line
ab :
om
THE
the
instruments where necessary, and then after all pencil lines
are erased, the entire surface may be washed over with an
even No. 1 tint and the ground rendered in distemper to the
depth of No. 6. The student will now ink in his border line,
place the title at the top of the plate, his name and class
letter and number in the lower right-hand corner and the
date in the lower left-hand corner, as usual.
3
DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: LIGHT TEXTILES.
40. The two figures on this plate are taken from exist-
ing examples of French and Italian designs. Fig. 1 is a
wall decoration the original of which was executed in stamped
felt, the figure being left in relief and the background
slightly sunken and forced to a smooth surface by means of
hot iron dies. The design is characteristic of the Renais-
sance style and is suitable as a drop pattern for wall paper
or any textile where a vertical figure is desirable.
41.
1
Tel
In drawing Fig. 1, the rectangle containing it is
85 inches wide by 11] inches high, and it is placed inch to
the right and above the border lines. Two center lines a b
and cd should be drawn, each passing through the center of
the unit of the pattern, as shown in Fig. 15. The design is a
drop pattern falling one-half the length of a repeat in order
to match from side to side; the scrolls enter the rectangle at
€, thus forming a continuation of the scroll leaving the
rectangle at f. In woven patterns, only one-half of this
design would have to be worked out on design paper, the
other half being duplicated by the center ties in the loom.
The entire figure should be worked out by the student as
a problem in design, not as an effort to copy his drawing
plate. He should now be familiar with the handling of con-
ventional-leaf work similar to that which was applied to
ornamental ironwork in one of the earlier plates of this
course. The rendering of the various styles of foliage and
ribbon is no different here from other pencil and brush work
that the student has passed over, and with the vertical and
ete
alli
care
Cu:
This
Tic.
11
ing


28
§ 11
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
horizontal center lines as guides and the outline of the rect-
angle as the limit of surface covering, he should start in
and scheme out a design based on the motives above set
FIG. 15.
forth. This is not a problem in drawing but a problem in
designing, and as such it will be considered and criticised.
42. The student must apply all the practical information
he has received on his previous plates in the execution of the
general outline of this work. Remember to keep a balance
between the design and the background. Emphasize the
lapping over of one part on another by means of fine white
lines as was first done in the border on the Drawing Plate,
title, Applied Design. When the whole design has been out-
lined satisfactorily, strengthen with a hard pencil the lines
that are to become permanent, clean the plate with a soft rub-
ber, and wash in the entire rectangle with a tint equal to No. 1


$11
29
$ 11
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
on the color chart prepared heretofore. The figure is then
laid in with distemper or opaque color mixed so that it will
dry to the depth of about No. 12. By this time the student
should be able to go all over his work evenly and not be
reduced in any place to the necessity of using Chinese white
to touch up points of the background.
>
43. Fig. 2 of this drawing plate is an Italian silk design
and its unit is a hexagon. The rectangle containing the
design is the same height as the previous one, but is only
63 inches in width and is located i inch to the left of the
border line. The figures in this are extremely conventional
but are all grouped around generally arranged lines that
give them a feeling of unity in the general design.
For instance, in the center of each hexagon forming the
repeat there is a single device surrounded by six radiating
leaves and the whole enclosed in a foliated form nearly
circular in shape. This really constitutes nearly all the
material of one repeat.
I in
1
101
the
44. To draw the figure, the student will construct within
the rectangle one complete hexagon 54 inches in diameter,
and interlocking with this other partial hexagons, as shown
in Fig. 16. The governing lines of the composition may
then be sketched in, using an ogee line instead of a hexagon
as the center line, each side of which they will repeat. This
ogee line must be of such a character that it will fit or inter-
change with itself quite as well as the hexagon; in order to
do this, the corners of the hexagon may be rounded off, as
shown at a in Fig. 16. The arc on which the roundings of
these corners must be effected will have a radius equal to
that of a circle described within the hexagon, and for the
purpose of sketching the design, the hexagon may be aban-
doned entirely and the outline be carried out on the ogee as
at b; but it should be borne in mind that it is the hexagon
that forms the unit of this design although it is apparently
ignored in the blocking out of the design. The background
and surface coloring of Fig. 2 are precisely the same in tint
nce
the
nite
ate,
out-
nies
ub.
01


$ 11
31
HISTORIC ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.
Detail and Architectural Elements, we tested his ability to
handle his pencil, pen, and brush, and at the same time
taught him to use them in the first elements of design work,
The Drawing Plates, title, Ceramics and Leather, and Textile
Patterns, brought him still further in contact with the theory
and practice of designing, and now with light textiles we
expect him to put into practice all that he has learned, and
he will find in the problems on this plate applications for all
of the details that were introduced in each of the preceding
plates.
This synopsis of the course up to this point is introduced
here in order to remind the student that we are leading him
to a point of independence, and if he does not find all that
he thinks he requires in the instructions for this last plate,
he is to look up his past suggestions in the directions for
executing other plates, before he asks for further instruction.
1
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|


2
§ 12
COLOR HARMONY.
standard of some kind to go by at all times, and if we take
clear sunlight as a standard and call that white light, we
have a standard with which we can make comparisons.
3. Shadow.--Shadow is produced by varying the degree
of light. If an object is equally illuminated on all sides it
possesses no shadow, but where the light falls upon it from
one direction some parts of it are illuminated more than
others and the object, if opaque, interferes with the passage
of light and casts a shadow. Shadows vary in degree from
a slight diminution of the power of the direct light to utter
darkness.
4. Relation of Light and Shadow.-The relation of
light and shadow to color is a very important one, and it
must be borne in mind that color is a sensation produced by
certain conditions of light and outside of those conditions
does not exist at all. To make this clearer, let us assume
that we have a red card hanging in a room. Now, as long as
that room is illuminated, no matter in how slight a degree,
the card remains red, but as soon as the room is in utter
darkness the card is no longer red because the sensation of
the red color is produced by the reflection of the light from
it, and if there is no light to reflect, there is no color there.
5. Analysis of White Light.--An analysis of white
light will show that it is composed of a combination of
seven separate colors, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow,
orange, and red. These colors vary in quantity to form white
light, and colored lights can be mixed in such proportions
that they will produce white light. An illustration of the
analysis and decomposition of light may be seen in the rain-
bow, where the sunlight passing through drops of rain is
refracted and broken up into its several colors. A more
satisfactory decomposition of light can be obtained by means
of a glass prism, when the colors appear much clearer.
6. Artificial Color.—The only method that we have
of producing the sensation of color with any degree of


:
3
§ 12
COLOR HARMONY.
je
le
ee
it
permanency is by means of pigments or dyes. If we stain a
piece of paper or fabric with a certain dye, or if we paint on
its surface with a pigment, we produce on that paper the
sensation of a given color. This is due to the fact that the
pigment or dye has the mechanical or chemical quality of
absorbing all the color rays that compose the white light
except the particular color that it reflects back to the eye,
and thus produces that sensation. If we paint on the paper
with red and set it in the light, we know that the pigment is
absorbing the violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, and orange
rays and is reflecting back to the eye only the red, hence, the
sensation of red.
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m
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of
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PRIMARY COLORS.
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ze
as
ee,
cer
of
7. The Spectrum.—The seven colors mentioned above
are called the spectrum, which varies with different kinds
of light, such as sunlight, gaslight, lamplight, etc. That is
to say, that the seven colors composing them vary in pro-
portion, but are constant for the same kind of light. It is
found that green, violet, and orange can be produced by the
mixture of other colors, and if we subtract these from our
spectrum, as well as the indigo of which we will learn more
later on, we will reduce our colors to three—red, yellow,
and blue. These three colors are termed the primary
colors, inasmuch as they cannot be divided into any other
colors and exist by themselves as a standard from which all
other colors and shades can be theoretically made. Red
and yellow make orange, blue and yellow make green, red
and blue make violet.
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8. Formation of Colors of Spectrum.-Now, it may
be assumed that when we paint on a card or surface with
green paint, that card absorbs all the colors of the spectrum,
except the yellow and the blue and these it reflects to the
eye, producing the sensation of green. The proportion of
each of these colors, yellow and blue, that is reflected will
determine the quality of the green that appears on the sur-
face. For practical purposes it can be assumed that the
те
of


4
§ 12
COLOR HARMONY.
colors of the spectrum are really red, yellow, and blue, and
that the colors orange, green, and violet consist of an admix-
ture of the adjacent colors, inasmuch as the orange occurs
between the red and yellow and the green between the
yellow and blue. Therefore, we will confine our studies to
these three colors for the present.
9. The ancients seemed to possess a very practical idea
of these colors and their harmony with one another, inas-
much as all the earliest, and from an artistic standpoint,
highest quality, of ornament and decoration were executed
in the three primary colors, and the secondary, or mixed, colors
were not introduced until the art of the various periods began
to decline.
.
SECONDARY COLORS.
10. The secondary colors are green, orange, and violet
and they vary in shade or tint according to the proportion
of the admixture of the two colors composing them, whereas
the primary colors are standard and do not vary. A mix-
ture of two secondary colors gives us what we term a
tertiary color, or one composed of four primaries. This
may seem somewhat obscure at first, inasmuch as we have
but three primaries, but in a tertiary color some one of the
primaries must exist twice. If we mix green and orange
we will get a brown tint in which there is nearly twice as
much yellow as there is of either of the other primaries, and
while it contains nothing but the three primary colors we call
it a tertiary color because it is in reality composed of four
ingredients.
POSITION OF COLORS IN CHROMATIC SCALE.
11. Blue and Yellow.-Of the three primary colors
blue possesses that quality that is technically known as
scoldness" in color, and if we adopt a chromatic scale, that
is, a color scale, wherein the various colors are related to one
another in the same manner that the various degrees of
light and shade are related to one another from most


6
§ 12
COLOR HARMONY.
14. Green.—Green in the general scale of colors, so far
as relation of light and shade are concerned, occupies the
middle position, but in the secondary colors it is second. It
is composed of the extreme primaries yellow and blue. A
perfect green consists of three parts of yellow and eight
parts of blue in equal intensities and this perfect green will
neutralize a perfect red in the proportion of 11 : 5. Of all
compound colors green is the most effective, distinct, and
striking, and contrasts beautifully with the other primaries
and secondaries and is the most abundant color found in
nature, Mixed with orange it produces the tertiary citrine,
and mixed with purple it produces the other extreme of
tertiary, olive.
15. Purple.-Purple, the third and last of the secondary
colors, is composed of five parts of red and eight parts of
blue. Such a purple will neutralize a perfect yellow in the
proportion of 13:3. As said before, with green it produces
olive, and with the other tertiary, orange, produces russet.
It is the coldest of the secondary colors and nearest black in
respect to light and shade.
It is a receding color and pos-
sesses many of the qualities of blue in this respect. Next
to green, purple is the most pleasing of the contrasting
colors. It has long been emblematic of royalty, probably
on account of its rareness in a pure state in nature. Purple
when inclined to red takes the name of crimson, and falling
back toward blue becomes violet.
16. These six colors constitute the entire gamut or
chromatic scale with which all tints and shades are repre-
sented.
As said before, mixed with black they form semi-
neutral tints. If we consider a color scale beginning with
the palest yellow and ending in the darkest blue, we have
the extremes of light and shade producible by pure color.
On the other hand, if we have a parallel scale beginning
with the purest white and ending in the deepest black, we
have the extremes of light and shade producible with all the
colors, or in other words, producible with white light.


§ 12
y
COLOR HARMONY.
NEUTRAL TINTS.
1
17. Formation. - In nature we have several neutral
tints that are produced by reducing the intensity of light on
the color. It may be that the object that presents a neutral
tint to the eye does so by absorbing the seven colors of the
spectrum to a certain extent and reflecting only a small por-
tion of the ingredients necessary to give it its tint. This
has the same effect on the eye as though the object were in
shadow. If we take a tree trunk the bark of which is
brown, we can assume that only a portion of the red, yel-
low, and blue constituting that color is reflected, and that it
is in reality the same as the tertiary color russet in deep
shadow.
11
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.
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1
18. Use of Black. As black is our means of producing
the effect of shadow, we can produce the semineutral colors
by mixing black with the secondary and tertiary colors. By
doing this, we simply are mixing shade with them and in
this way get a new series in the scale of color compounds,
having black for its basis. These same neutral tints are
termed brown, maroon, and gray. They are far inferior in
point of color to any of the primaries or their direct combi-
nations, but they are of the greatest value inasmuch as they
exist in nature in so large a proportion that they serve as a
background against which the more brilliant colors contrast.
t
8
r
2
PRODUCING HARMONY.
19. Necessary Proportions of Colors.-In decorative
effects all colors must be mixed so as to neutralize one
another, and reducing all colors to the perfect primaries, we
find that where these three colors exist they should be in the
proportion of three parts of yellow, five parts of red, and
eight parts of blue. It will be remembered that yellow is
the warmest of the colors and blue the coldest and that red
lies intermediate between them. It will be evident from
the above proportion, too, that on a given surface it requires


8
§ 12
COLOR HARMONY.
as much blue as there is red and yellow combined to produce
harmony.
20. Importance of Proper Proportions.-These fig-
ures are of vast importance in color harmony, although in
general practice it is not possible to mix them in these abso-
lute proportions, but it is possible to train the eye so as to
appreciate proportions when the color appears on a surface.
If we have a figure or a decoration on which it is desired to
express three colors, it can be divided according to the area
of its several parts and the three colors laid in the propor-
tion of three parts of yellow, five parts of red, and eight
parts of blue, thus producing harmony. Or, if there are but
two colors, such as red and green, the green should be such
a mixture of blue and yellow as will give us the necessary
contrasting color with red. The aim should be at all times
to keep this mathematical proportion and to vary the tint or
intensity of one of the colors in order that it will harmonize
with the other two.
21. It will be remembered that the Moors in decorating
their walls with the elaborate geometrical color devices char-
acteristic of their art practiced this color harmony with the
greatest of skill. They reduced the quantity and intensity
of red in their decorations, because yellow was replaced by
gold leaf and the gold leaf had a reddish tinge. In the same
way, the modern artist, where he uses a combination of a
primary and a secondary color or of two secondary colors,
reduces those colors as nearly as possible so that in the
entire general surface of the decoration there will be the
proper relation of 3, 5, and 8 in the yellow, red, and blue.
There are many ways of accomplishing this, and it depends
in each case on the design to be executed as to how it can
be best carried out.
22.
The student first studying the subject of design
practices “spotting ” or “space relation” by dividing up
surfaces in order that he may become skilled in judging the
amount of light and shade that is required to produce the


§ 12
9
COLOR HARMONY.
ce
J.
most pleasing effect. When he advances to color work
he must bear in mind the spotting, inasmuch as a red
figure on a green ground has the effect of a spot, but the
shade of his red and the quality of his green must also be
considered, in order that the entire surface covered will be
harmonious in the admixture of his color.
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MAKING A COLOR CARD.
23. In order to appreciate this proportion, the student
should draw on a sheet of paper a number of small squares,
each about į or 1 of an inch on the sides, as shown in Fig. 1,
and then paint in his three colors, yellow, red, and blue, and
uit
ch
01
tr
FIG. 1.
FIG. 2.
le
a
S.
ie
le
3
is
streak or stripe over each set of squares so that the relative
proportion of 3, 5, and 8 of each color is maintained, as
shown in Fig. 2. In this way he will associate in his mind
the relative value of each color to the other.
He should then construct three squares similar to Fig. 3 that
bear the same relations to one another that the three lines
do in Fig. 2. This can be done approximately; by making
the middle square 14 inches on each side, he will give it
an area of very nearly 3 square inches. The next square
should be 27 inches on each side, in order that its entire area
may be 8 square inches, and the circumscribed area around
the center square should be 5 square inches. The extreme
outside square must be 8 square inches larger than the one
within, or 16 square inches in all, and 4 inches on each side
11
11
P
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e


13
13
§ 12
COLOR HARMONY.
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The location and proportion of the individual parts are
shown in Figs. 8, 9, and 10, of the text, while Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7,
es
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FIG. 8.
-2"-
2"
FIG. 9.
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FIG. 10.
fa
of the text, are the outlines of Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4, of the
drawing plate.
1:11.


16
§ 12
COLOR HARMONY.
background is composed of the same ingredients as the lower
part of Fig. 4, but is slightly darker. In any case, do not
get it any darker than is shown on the original drawing
plate, as it will be less of an error to make it lighter than to
make it darker. The red in the strokes of the Greek orna-
ment is very nearly a pure red, but it has a slight addition
of yellow, bringing it toward the scarlet, but the student
should bear in mind that the orange background already
contains some yellow and this will affect the color. Experi-
ments should be made with this on a separate piece of paper
before these strokes are put in. The blue is a greenish blue
produced with the slightest suggestion of a yellow admix-
ture. The outlines of the details of this figure should be
drawn sufficiently strong in pencil, so that when the back-
ground wash is put on they will show clearly and enable the
student to follow them closely.
33. Fig. 6 is a Moorish design constructed on geomet-
rical lines, as shown in Fig. 9, of the text. Its three colors-
red, gold, and blue—are very nearly pure colors, although
the blue contains a slight suggestion of yellow carrying it
somewhat toward the green, but not as much yellow, even,
as the blue in Fig. 5. Yellow is also added to the red, inas-
much as the gold, which takes the place of yellow in this
design, is of a reddish tinge, and the addition of yellow to
the red background produces a harmonious effect.
34. Fig. 7 is a Gothic design wherein the background is
composed of two shades of an orange red. The color should
be mixed to the lighter tint and washed rapidly and evenly
over the background throughout all portions except where
the green exists. While the paper is still wet, the darker
portion should be washed in so that it will cloud away into
the ground and will not show any distinct or sharp outline.
The green is a yellow green produced by the addition of
blue to a medium wash of yellow and should be applied in
as even a tint as possible so as to show a sharp, clear outline
and contrast with the red background. The white flowers
may be put in with Chinese white after the ground is dry,


$ 12
17
COLOR HARMONY.
1
as well as the yellow blossoms by means of Chinese white
tinted with pure yellow or a light orange.
>
35. The essential characteristic in Fig. 8, which is a
Byzantine design, is the background, as the Byzantine blue
is a very difficult shade to produce. It is a greenish blue,
but depends for its quality not only on the quantity of yel-
low that is mixed with the blue to give it the greenish tinge,
but also on the thickness of the wash. The student should
make repeated trials of this color on separate pieces of paper
©
100
or
1
ESTE
FI
1
FIG. 11.
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until the desired tint is obtained. The green of the leaves,
and the upper part of the design, may be carried out with
the same color as was used for Fig. 7, and the red is the
same red that was used in Fig. 3. The last color to be
applied should be the gold, and care should be taken that
this does not overreach on any of the color work so as to
impair the quality of the outlines. The dimensions for out-
lining Fig. 8 will be found on Fig. 11, of the text.
1
2
1


18
$ 12
COLOR HARMONY.
36. Fig. 9 is a Gothic design taken from a stained-glass
window, and although the general dimensions are given in
Fig. 12, of the text, the student must lay out the greater
part of it freehand. The background of the figure is the
same as in Fig. 1. There are several shades of red, blue,
orange, and green in this figure, and care should be taken
-15
1
OQO
Tá
FIG. 12.
to represent each color with a separate wash as simple as
possible. Mix the red and blue to the proper tints first
and then paint in the red portions of the design. Both
of these colors will require a slight addition of yellow to
give them the proper tinge, as neither of them is abso-
lutely pure. The green is a yellow green and therefore
should be produced by the mixture of an excess of yellow
in the color.
37. In working with water color the student will find
that he depends very largely on the white drawing paper


20
§ 12
COLOR HARMONY.
coloring is done. After inking in the border line, the
student should place his name and class number and letter
Erik
thin
MOUNT
FIG. 13.
in the lower right-hand corner of his plate, and the date in
the lower left-hand corner, as usual.


§ 12
23
COLOR HARMONY.
still wet, thus causing it to shade in and blend itself into
the general tint. Details a, b, c, and d of Fig. 4 should be
washed in in absolutely flat tints corresponding to the body
tints in Fig. 3.
;
28
hi
42. Fig. 6, the dimensions of which are shown in Fig. 16,
is rather more difficult to render; the principal color, however,
is a yellow orange, which can be obtained by making up a
wash of yellow and mixing with it the slightest suggestion of
red. The dark portions of the wings of the insect may be put in
with rather a heavy wash
of brown mixed in the
same manner as the brown
for Fig. 1. Or, if unsatis-
factory results are ob-
tained from this method,
a wash of black, or India
ink may be introduced,
although the latter method
is entirely unnecessary as
a very dark brown may
be obtained by mixing the
three colors liberally and permitting the blue to dominate.
The blue spots in the lower portions of the wings may be
produced by laying a wash of blue over the yellow that
already forms the body wash of the figure, the spots being
a greenish blue, and the wash of
pure blue on top of the yellow
being sufficient to produce the
desired tint.
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ed
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FIG. 16.
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FIG, 17.
The
43. In Fig. y we have
dragon fly whose outline is
shown in Fig. 17. Its color
is a blue green composed of a
mixture of yellow and blue in proportions that can be
best determined by experiment. The shaded portions of
the wings are produced by the addition of a brown wash
the
the
ul is








ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. .
(1) (a) In the application of wings to the human figure,
where did the Egyptians attach them? (6) Where did the
Assyrians attach them? (c) Which of these methods sur-
vives at the present day?
(2) Make a sketch of (a) Maltese cross; (6) Greek cross;
(c) cross of St. Andrew; (d) Latin cross.
(3) Sketch a conventionalized form of Greek foliated
ornament and the natural growth from which it is derived.
(4) What is meant by unity in design?
(5) In drawing the human figure, how should the masses
be disposed ?
Į (6) Describe the dragon and its combined characteristics.
(7) What is included under industrial ornament ?
(8) What three principles in design are represented by
the oval?
(9) What are the supposed characteristics of the Greek
sphinxes ?
(10) What were the general measurements of the human
figure according to Greek proportions ?
V
(11) What is the simplest form of geometrical elements ?
For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page.
$ 6


ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
3
(25) Why is conventionalism necessary in decorative
design?
(26) (a) Describe the head of Medusa. (6) What is the
legend concerning this head ?
(27) Draw a conventionalized border composed of insect
forms, or ideas derived from insect forms.
V
(28) What was the origin of the cartouch ?
(29) Draw a leaf and a flower, the outline of which shall
be based on a geometrical figure.
(30) What is included under architectural ornament ?
(31) What abstract form seems to pervade all nature ?
(32) What is included under animal ornament?
(33) (a) What two kinds of conventionalism do we find
in historic ornament ? (6) Describe each.
(34) (a) Describe the imaginary animal known as the
griffin. (6) What does it symbolize ? (c) Describe the dif-
ference between the conventional idea and the convention-
alized facts in this figure.
1
(35) Describe the principles of symmetry and radiation.
(36) (a) Under how many divisions can the elements of
ornament be classified ? (6) Name them.
(37) Make sketches about 2 inches high illustrating
bisymmetry, trisymmetry, and multisymmetry.
1
(38) In designing an iron railing, what characteristic
should greatly influence the form and proportion of its lines ?
ៗ
(39) What two faculties of the mind lie at the origin of
decorative art ?
(40) Make a sketch of a cartouch and also of the form of
the sheet of metal necessary to produce it.
1


1
|


PRACTICAL DESIGN.
(1) Describe the bookbindings of Henry II and Henry III.
(2) What is a drop pattern?
(3) Make a sketch, 2 inches square, the design of which
repeats on each side of the diagonal and consists of an
arrangement of eight equal triangles.
(4) Make a drawing of a rug where the corner ornament
merges into and is continuous with the border.
(5) Who was Padloup ?
(6) Make a design for a book cover associated with the
style of Louis XIV.
(7) What were the characteristics of the Italian bindings
in the early part of the sixteenth century ?
(8) What is the difference between repetition and alter-
nation ?
(9) What advantages are obtainable in the application of
drop patterns in roll carpets ?
(10) What consideration must be observed as to the char-
acter of borders used (a) on table cloths ? (6) on rugs ?
>
(11)
Who were the first bookbinders ?
(12) Who was Le Gascon ?
ST
For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page.





APPLIED DESIGN.
(PART 2.)
(1) (a) In a plain weave where the weft threads are
heavier than the warp, what will be the effect in the finished
goods ? (6) Why?
(2) Describe in detail the method of weaving Brussels
carpet.
(3) What is the direct effect of the twist of the threads in
the texture of the goods in a woven fabric ?
(4) What is a twill ?
(5) What yarn is used in the body, or ground, of Brussels
carpet?
(6) Describe the process of making woolen yarn.
(7) Describe the system on which satins are woven.
(8) Describe the method of weaving tapestry Brussels
carpet.
(9) What is the difference between wool and worsted ?
(10) Make a sketch of a cross-section of a double-faced
cloth with one warp and two wefts.
(11) What is Wilton carpet ?
(12) What are the characteristics of (a) wool fibers ?
(6) silk fibers ?
S 9


APPLIED DESIGN.
$9
(13) (a) Make an original design on squared paper for a
simple twill. (6) Make a sketch of a cross-section through
this design, the second pick from the top.
(14) What is the Jacquard machine ?
(15) Describe the method of making (a) silk thread;
(6) linen thread.
(16) Make a sketch of a cross-section of the goods woven
according to the pattern in Fig. 12, (a) on the fourth pick
from the top; (6) on the fourth pick from the bottom.
(17) On what is the warp wound in the loom ?
(18) What is accomplished by the use of the carding
machine?
(19) (a) Make an original design for a spot pattern.
(6) Make a section showing the weave of the goods through
the center of the spot. (c) Make a section showing the
weave of the goods between the spots.
(20) On what does the wearing quality of a fabric depend ?
(21) Describe the operation of the spinning mule.
(22) Make a section showing the weave (a) through
Fig. 19, five picks from the bottom of the spot; (b) through
Fig. 20, four picks from the bottom of the spot.
(23) What are the first considerations in laying out a
design for a textile fabric ?
(24) Describe the spinning of carpet yarn.
(25) (a) What is the gilling machine ? (6) What is its
purpose ?


viii
INDEX.
Italian ...
" flat
4
65
in .........
66
66
66
7
66
66
Sec. Page.
Sec. Page.
Book plate, Invention of..
7 77 Cartouch, The..
6 39
Bookbinding at the present day 7 68 Catherine de Medici, Book bound
Characteristics of
for......
7 65
7 62 Ceiling decoration....
8 34
Early..
7 56 Ceilings, Treatment of arched .. 8 38
Tendency of 7 67
8 38
Eighteenth century 7 76 Centaur..
6 66
Heraldry in
7 58 Ceramics and Leather, Drawing
Modern.....
7 78 plate
11 14
Securing
Chalice..
8 46
the boards
Character of book-cover design 7 56
7 79
7 81
Securing
early bindings..... 7 57
the sheets
modern bookbind.
in
7 79
ing
7 778
Origin of
7 56
threads..
9 4
Process of modern 7 78 Characteristics of a design
7 5
Bookbindings, Mosaic.....
7
Cheap bindings for books.... 7 84
of different coun-
Checkering.
8 11
tries, Compar-
8 17
ison of..
7
Chimera, The...
6 46
Henry II....... 7 64 Chinese white, Mixing..
11 12
Books, Paper-covered.
7 85 Christ, Monogram of..
6 41
Border and filling, Uniformity of
Chromatic scale, Position of col-
repeat in......
7 39
ors in......
12 4
applied to picture in
Classification of borders...
7 46
form of frame..
8 29
" elements..
6 34
Borders, Classification of..... 7 46 Cleaning up drawing plate, Tex-
corners, and stripes.... 7 39 tile Patterns.
11 10
for hangings and table
Cloth binding, Definition of
7 80
covers.
7 47
Plain, ornamented with
rugs and floor cov-
lozenge-shaped spot..... 9 22
erings..
7 48 Cloths, Double
9 18
8 29 Color, Artificial
12 2
Greek
77 47
card, Making a..
12 9
Link.
7 46
Harmony
12 1
One-piece..
7 39
Mixing, for textile-pat-
Vertebrate.
7. 46
tern designs..
11 10
Botanical principles in design... 6 42
Nature of.
12
Brocades, Italian.......
7 54
9 29
Use of, in pile fabrics....
Brush decoration of pottery
6 23
Colors, Contrast of.
12 10
Brussels carpet.
9 27
Importance of proper
9 29
proportions of..... 12 8
Body.
9 34
Mixing.....
10 29
Tapestry
9 34
necessary to neutralize
one another, Propor-
C.
Sec. Page.
tions of ..
12
Carding machine.
9 7
of spectrum, Formation
Cards, Jacquard..
9 26
of..
12 3
Carpet, Brussels..
9 29
Primary
12 3
Designing of.
9 35
Relation of
6
designs, Drop pattern in 7 15
Reversion of.
6
Softness of out-
Secondary.
12 4
line in
8 39
Tertiary.
12 4
Width of repeat
Coloring in wall paper:
8 25
in
7 15 Combing.....
9 10
Waste in cutting
7 17
Comparison of bookbindings of
9 34 different countries..
7 77
66
16
wall paper.
(6
66
66
CG
CG
4
Wilton ...


INDEX.
ix
3
31
>>
TE
11
1
66
66
66
4
3
66
4
1 unit.
66
!1
17
66
2
21
>
66
Sec. Page.
Composition .....
6 1
Consideration of purpose in de-
sign
6 32
Construction allied with beauty 6 35
of design, Selection
of system of...... 7 25
Systems of
7 24
Constructive origin of decora-
tive art.......
6 17
Continuity of lines...
8
Contrast and variety..
7 2
of colors..
12 10
variety, and repetition 6 13
Conventional ornament....
6 28
treatment of na-
ture..
6 31
Conventionalism and realism... 6 30
Egyptian ....... 6 25
Explanation of 6 12
Greek ........
6 25
in ancient art.. 6 25
Influence of.. 8 2
Kinds of...
6 25
Necessity of... 6 12
of facts....
6 25
principles or
6 25
Taste in...
6 32
Conventionalizing a plant form 6 30
animal forms 6 44
Corner ornament...
77 42
7 50
Corners
8 32
borders, and stripes... 7 39
Cotton fibers..
9 6
yarn
9 12
Cover design for books, Char-
acter of
7 81
Covering material in modern
bookbinding..
7 81
Covers, Magazine..
7 85
Creatures, Fabulous
6 65
Cross, Greek.
6 41
Latin
6 41
Maltese..
6 41
Saint Andrew's.
6 41
Curtain design, Lace.
7 44
Curved lines, Emphasis of... 8 3
Cutting carpets, Waste in.
7 18
4
>
CC
4
ideas......
0
Sec. Page.
Decoration, Floor
8 38
Surface..
6 3
Geomet-
rical basis
of........ 8 8
Decorative art, Constructive ori-
gin of......
6 17
Defective design..
77 7
Defects, Remedy for..
7 7
Definition of bisymmetry..
6 15
" cloth binding .
7 80
extra binding.. 7 80
“ half binding..
7 80
16 inflorescence..
6 43
16 inventive ornament
6 13
multisymmetry....
6 15
trisymmetry
6 15
7 6
“ whole binding. 7 80
Deromes, The ....
7 76
Design based on the diamond
and arranged as a cen-
ter tie
7 38
based on the parallelo-
gram
7 34
Botanical principles in.. 6 42
Characteristics of a...... 7 5
Defective...
7 7
Enclosing rectangle of a 7 14
Evolution of
6 17
Field of, unlimited in
book covers.....
7 69
for fabric, Appropriate-
ness of..... 9 1
Laying out.. 9. 20
Human figure used
in..
6 34 -
in hanging fabrics, Pro-
priety of...
8 18
Natural forms in.
6 28
Nobiest element of,
6 56
Novelty of .....
" 84
of the sixteenth century,
Gothic.
7 15
Planning the.
7 5
Practical
7 1
Principal feature in a.... 7 9
Principles involved in
practical....
7 1
Unity in...
6 1
Wall-paper...
8 22
Designing, Advantage of numer-
ous methods in..... 7 24
of carpets..
9 35
Designs, Drawing of.
11 1
for book covers,
Modern 7 82
Simple spot..
26
Syınmetrical
14
66
66
܀
1
10
1
10
29
60
66
66
CC
D.
Sec. Page.
Damasks, Size of repeat in.
7 40
Decorating book covers...
7 81
Effects of vertical
and horizontal..... 8 21
Decoration, Adaptability of..... 8 38
Ancient pottery.
6 15
Ceiling
8 35
$
10
ܨܢ ܘ ܕ ܢ ܕܢ ܕܢ
16
66
66
71


INDEX.
ху
U.
66
Sec. Page.
Unequal repeats..
7 41
Union of natural with geomet-
rical ornament.
6 24
Unit and repeat.
7 7
Definition of.
6
of pattern..
7 12
Proportion of.
8 24
Units, Irregular..
7 29
Unity......
7 5
Assemblage of details to
secure...
6 3
in design.
6 1
Utensils and vases, Origin of.... 8
41
66
6
66
66
T.
Sec. Page.
Table covers and hangings, Bor-
ders for
7 47
Tangential junction of lines..... 7 3
Tankard
8 44
Tapestry of the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries....
8 14
Taste in conventionalism..
6 32
Termini...
6 64
Tertiary colors.
12 4
Textile fabrics, General consid-
erations in..
9 1
Patterns, Cleaning up
dra w i n g
plate....... 11 10
Drawing plate 11 2
Thickening of stem at points of
departure....
6 42
Thread, Characteristics of
worsted.
9 11
Threads, Character of..
9
Ornament.
9 20
Warp
9 2
Weft
9 2
Throstle spinning.
9 11
Tinting figures on dr a wing
plate, Archi-
tectural Ele.
ments .........
10 47
on
drawing
plate, His
toric Mural
Detail..
10 27
Tints, Making diagram of, for
wash work...
25
Neutral ...
12 7
Tool effect, Lightening of, by
means of outlining...
7 70
Tools.
7 58
Forms of.
7 60
Origin of French.
7 59
Tram.
9 12
Trautz
7 82
Treatment, Reversion of, in orna-
mentation....
6 8
Trisymmetry, Definition of.... 6 15
Turn-over-and-drop patterns...
7 22
method, Advantage
of the.....
7 20
Elimination
of faults
in.......... 7
in design,
Planning
the........ 7 20
pattern based on the
diamond..
7 33
Twills..
9
Twist, Effect of, in weaving... 9 3
V.
Sec. Fage.
Variation of surface by the pla-
cing of lines.....
6
Variety and contrast..
7 2
of designs from same
elements...
6 11
possible on certain geo-
metrical bases...
7 26
repetition, and contrast 6 13
Vase, Development of the....... 8 45
Profile of human face used
to form design for out-
line of vase...
S 48
Vases and cups, Suggestions
from nature for
design of......
8 48
utensils, Origin of.... 8 41
Vegetable forms..
6 41
ornament..
6 31
Velvets and plushes..
9 27
Vertebrate borders.
7 46
Vertical and horizontal decora-
ting, Effects of..
8 21
Volute scroll...
6 37
66
66
10
66
66
66
W.
Sec. Page
Wall decoration.
8 20
Methods of
treatment in 8 20
paper, Coloring in..
8 25
design..
8 22
Size of repeat in.... 8 22
surface, Naturalistic treat-
ment of..
8 26
Warp and weft in different col.
ors, Effect of..
9 22
pile fabrics.
9 28
threads
9 2
Wash, Applying, to large surface 11 11
Removing....
11 13
work on drawing plate,
Historic Mural Detail... 10 25
Waste in cutting carpets..
7 17
Waves of light....
12


xvi
INDEX.
Sec. Page.
6 45
9 4
Wivern.
Wool fibers...
for spinning, Prepar-
ing....
Woolen yarn...
Worsted thread, Characteristics
of
yarn
9
9
8
8
9
9
11
8
66
Sec. Page.
Weave, Basket....
9 15
Weaving....
9
Effect of twist.
9 3
Weft pile in fabrics..
9 27
threads....
9 2
Whole binding, Definition of.. 7 80
Wilton carpets...
9 27
Wings, Application of.
6 51
to human
figure... 6 61
Assyrian method of
attaching, to human
figure...
6 61
Egyptian method of
attaching, to human
figure...
6 64
in ornament..
6 49
Proportions of..
6 50
66
Y.
Yarn, Cotton...
Flax..
Silk..
Woolen.
Worsted
Yarns...
Knitting and carpet.
Yellow....
Sec. Page.
9 12
9 12
9 12
9
9 8
9 7
9 10
12 4
66
66
1
4


26
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