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51
Univ. of III. Library
'11:;








INTERNATIONAL _
LIBRARY OF TECHNOLOGY
A SERIES OF TEXTBOOKS FOR PERSONS ENGAGED IN THE ENGINEERING
PROFESSIONS AND TRADES OR FOR THOSE WHO DESIRE
INFORMATION CONCERNING THEM. FULLY ILLUSTRATED
AND CONTAINING NUMEROUS PRACTICAL
EXAMPLES AND THEIR SOLUTIONS
HISTORIC ORNAMENT
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT
PRACTICAL DESIGN
APPLIED DESIGN
SCRANTON:
INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY
56


Copyright, 1901. 1904. 1905, by INTERNATlONAL TExTIIoox COMPANY.
Entered at Stationers' Hall. London.
Historic Ornament: Copyright. 1900. by THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY.
Elements of Ornament: Copyright, 1900. by THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY.
Practical Deslzn: Copyright. 1901. by THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY-
Entered at Stationers’ Hall. London.
Applied Design. Part 1: Copyright, 1901. by THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY.
Entered at Stationers‘ Hall, London.
Applied Design, Part 2: Copyright, 1901. by INTERNATIONAL TEXTuoox COMPANY.
Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.
All rights resen'ed.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES. 6!


'qulil‘i .
Hm
PREFACE
The International Library of Technology is the outgrowth
of a large and increasing demand that has arisen for the
Reference Libraries of the International Correspondence
Schools on the part of those who are not students of the
' Schools. As the volumes composing this Library are all
printed from the same plates used in printing the Reference
Libraries above mentioned, a few words are necessary
regarding the scope and purpose of the instruction imparted
to the students of—and the class of students taught by—
these Schools, in order to afford a clear understanding of
their salient and unique features.
The only requirement for admission to any of the courses
offered by the International Correspondence Schools, is that
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\,}to write it sufficiently well to make his written answers to
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Tselected. The students themselves are from every class,
{trade, and profession and from every country; they are.
_1 almost without exception, busily engaged in some vocation,
'Yand can spare but little time for study, and that usually
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Q desired is such as can be immediately applied in practice, so
0Qthat the student may be enabled to exchange his present
\yocation fora more congenial one, or to rise to a higher level
Tin the one he now pursues. Furthermore, he wishes to
tain a good working knowledge of the subjects treated in
	he shortest time and in the most direct manner possible.
in


iv PREFACE
In meeting these requirements, we have produced a set of
books that in many respects, and particularly in the general
plan followed, are absolutely unique. In the majority of
subjects treated the knowledge of mathematics required is
limited to the simplest principles of arithmetic and mensu-
ration, and in no case is any greater knowledge of mathe-
matics needed than the simplest elementary principles of
algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, with a thorough,
practical acquaintance with the use of the logarithmic table.
To effect this result, derivations of rules and formulas are
omitted, but thorough and complete instructions are given
regarding how, when, and under what circumstances any.
particular rule, formula, or process should be applied; and
whenever possible one or more examples, such as would be
likely to arise in actual practice—together with their solu-
tions—are given to illustrate and explain its application.
In preparing these textbooks, it has been our constant
endeavor to view the matter from the student's standpoint,
and to try and anticipate everything that would cause him
trouble. The utmost pains have been taken to avoid and
correct any and all ambiguous expressions—both those due
to faulty rhetoric and those due to insufficiency of statement
or explanation. As the best way to make a statement,
explanation, or description clear, is to give a picture or a
diagram in connection with it, illustrations have been used
almost without limit. The illustrations have in all cases
been adapted to the requirements of the text, and projec-
tions and sections or outline, partially shaded, or full-shaded
perspectives, have been used, according to which will best
produce the desired results. Half-tones have been used
rather sparingly, except in those cases where the general
eflfect is desired rather than the actual details.
It is obvious that books prepared along the lines men-
tioned must not only be clear and concise beyond anything
heretofore attempted, but they must also possess unequaled
value for reference purposes. They not only give the
maximum of information in a minimum space, but this infor-
mation is so ingeniously arranged andcorrelated, and the


PREFACE v
indexes are so full and complete, that it can at once be
made available to the reader. The numerous examples and
explanatory remarks, together with the absence of long
demonstrations and abstruse mathematical calculations, are
of great assistance in helping one to select the proper for-
mula, method, or process and in teaching him how and when
it should be used.
Four of the volumes composing this library are devoted
to the subject of architectural and decorative design. This
volume is devoted entirely to the principles of general
design without regard to any specific application of those
principles. Considerable space is devoted to the study of
Historic Ornament, as a training in what has been done in
past ages in the way of creating new ideas and adapting
older ideas to more modern purposes. The Elements of
Ornament treats of the fundamental elements on which his-
toric ornamental forms are based. Practical Design treats
of the reduction of natural and elementary forms to a prac-
tical basis wherein they can be applied as ornament to
various objects, and Applied Design treats of the necessary
alteration in form, proportion, and character that various
elements of ornament must undergo in order to conform
to the requirements of the material and purpose to which
they are applied.
The method of numbering the pages, cuts, articles, etc.
is such that each subject or part, when the subject is divided
into two or more parts, is complete in itself; hence, in order
to make the index intelligible, it was necessary to give each
subject or part a number. This number is placed at the top
of each page, on the headline, opposite the page number;
and to distinguish it from the page number it is preceded by
the printer’s section mark (§). Consequently, a reference
such as § 16, page 26, will be readily found by looking along
the inside edges of the headlines until § 16 is found, and
then through § 16 until page 26 is found.
INTERNATIONAL Tnxrnoox COMPANY.






CONTENTS
HISTORIC ORNAMENT Sedion Page
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1
Ancient Ornament . . . . . . . . . . . 3 9
Primitive Ornament . . . . . . . . . . 3 9
Egyptian Ornament . . . . . . . . 3 14
Assyrian Ornament . . . . . . . . . . 3 45
Classic Ornament . . . . . . . . . . . 3 49
Greek Ornament . . . . 3 49
Etruscan Ornament 3 71
Greco-Roman Ornament 3 72
Roman Ornament . . . . . . . 4 1
The Five Orders of Architecture . 4 2
The Greek Orders . . 4 2
The Roman Orders 4 17
Romanesque Ornament . . ' 4 33
Byzantine Ornament . . . . . . . 4 39
Asiatic Ornament . . . . . . . . . . 4 59
Chinese and Japanese Ornament 4 59
Indian Ornament . . 4 64
Arabian Ornament . . . . . . . . 4 69
Turkish Ornament . . . . . . . . . 4 76
Persian Ornament . . . . . . . . . 4 78
Moorish Ornament . . . . . 4 80
Western Art 4 95
Celtic Ornament . . 4 95
Gothic Ornament . . . . . . . . . . 4 99
Renaissance Art . . . . . . 5 1
Italian Renaissance . . . . . . . 5 4
French Renaissance . . . 5 24
German and English Renaissance . . 5 51
iii


iv CONTENTS
HISTORIC ORNAMENT—~Cont1'nued Section Page
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 56
Historic Lettering . . . . . . . . . . . 5 61
Antique Egyptian Alphabet . . . . . . . 5 63
Light Antique Egyptian Alphabet . . . . 5 65
Heavy Antique Egyptian Alphabet . . . 5 69
Medieval Roman Alphabet . . . . . . I. 5 69
Light and Heavy French Roman Alphabet 5 71
Gothic Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 75
Old English Alphabet . . . . . . . . . 5 79
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT
Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1
Surface Decoration . . . . . . . . . 6 3
Conventionalism . . . . . . . 6 12
Ornament . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 15
Natural Ornament . . . . . . . . . 6 24
Conventional Ornament . . . . 6 28
Classification of Elements . . . . . . 6 34
Geometrical Elements . . . . . . . . . ‘ 6 34
Architectural Elements . . . . . . . . . 6 35
Industrial Elements . . . . . . 6 4O .
Natural Elements . . . . . . . . . 6 41
Animal Elements . . . . . . . . . . . 6 43
Human Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 56
PRACTICAL DESIGN
Principles Involved . . . . . . . . . . 7 1
Planning the Design . . . . . . . . . . 7 5
Drop Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 12
_ Turn-Over Method . . . . . . . . . . . 7 19
Variety of Methods . . . . . . . . . . 7 24
Borders, Corners, and Stripes . . . . . . 7 39
APPLIED DESIGN
Geometrical Considerations . . . . . . . 8 1
Arrangement of Details . . . . . . . . 8 9
Application of Ornament . . . . . . . . 8 18
Hanging Fabrics. . . . . . . . . . . . 8 18


CONTENTS v
APPLIED DESIGN- Continued Sedz'on Page
Wall Decoration . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 20
Ceiling Decoration . . . . . . . 8 34
Floor Decoration . . . . . . . . . . . 8 38
Utensils and Vases . . . . . . . . . . 8 41
Textile Fabrics . . . . . . i. . . . . . 9 1
Character of the Threads . . . . . . . . 9 4
Yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 7
Cotton, Flax; and Silk . . . . . . . . . 9 12
Warp and Weft . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 13
Double Cloths . . . . . . . .' . . . . . 9 18
Jacquard Machine ._ . . . . . . . . . . 9 25
Carpets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 29





HISTORIC ORNAMENT.
‘ (PART 1.)
INTRODUCTION.
1. Meaning of “Ornament.”—The term ornament in
its more limited sense is applied to such elements of decora-
tion as are adapted or derived from natural forms. These
differ from what we consider the geometrical elements, inas-
much as they are organic, and suggestive of life and growth. I
They depend for their expression on the general arrange-
ment of their branches, leaves, and blossoms, while the
- geometrical elements owe their expression entirely to their
geometrical form and arrangement relative to one another.
When simply drawn on paper and in no way applied to any
object, or used for any purpose other than the expression of
itself, one of these elements of decoration may be considered
simply as an ornament. It does not become an element
of decoration until it is applied to something, and in the
abstract, the term ornammf should not be confused with the
term a'rroralz'on, which is distinctly applied ornament.
2. Meaning of “ Decoration.”—The term decoration
signifies the application, or the result of the application, of
ornament to objects or surfaces. It does not mean the
simple “ sticking on” of an ornament to a surface, but con-
veys the idea of the adaptation of an ornamental form to
suit the requirements of its position and the purpose of the
object to which it is applied.
§ 3
For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page.


2 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
The elements of decoration consist of geometrical lines,
natural foliage, artificial objects, animals, and the human
figure. All these may be considered as ingredients or com-
ponents that may be mixed and applied in various propor-
tions according to certain standard and acknowledged rules
termed principle The rule by which any one mixture is
accomplished determines the style or class of the design.
3. Principles of Decoration.—The principles of
decoration, considered separately and distinctly from the
elements thatare used to make up the design, are dependent
on, and in harmony with, the rules of architectural propor-
tion. This may be illustrated by considering the subdivision
of a wall surface into three horizontal bands—the dada, the
wall, and the frz'czv—in the proportion of the pedestal,
column, and entablature of an architectural order. True,
there are styles of design where these proportions are at
variance with any architectural order; but, with few excep-
tions, these will be found to exist in styles or periods of
historic art wherein the orders of classic architecture were
unknown or misunderstood, as will be considered hereafter.
This general division of a wall surface, however, may exist
by the simple placing of horizontal lines to mark the
heights, this subdivision being purely geometrical. The
decoration may be extended by applying to the subdivisions
such natural foliage as leaves and running vines; artificial
objects, such as the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians; or
animals, and the human figure, as seen in the Gothic and
Renaissance work; or a combination of these forms. In
each case, however, the main subdivisions are in accordance
with general rules; and the surface covering, though gov-
erned by less restrictive rules, is, at the same time, sub-
servient to a definite proportion of ornamented to plain
surface, different under different circumstances.
4. Elements of Decoration—Whatever the theme of
decoration—whether it be the expression of the invention of
a new idea, or only the arbitrary adoption of some familiar


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3
form—two elementary conditions will always be found to
exist: first, a decoration produced by an arrangement and
joining of dots and lines, or by a combination of geometrical
figures in accordance with the laws of rhythm, regulation,
and symmetry; and sz‘Olld, a decorative effect arising from
the attempt to represent objects from the external world.
The elements nearest at hand for imitation are found in
organic nature with its plants, animals, and the human form;
but inorganic nature also furnishes models, as in the forms
of crystallization, such as snowflakes, and various phenom-
ena, as clouds, lightning, waves, etc.; besides which there
are rich resources open in'artificial objects fashioned by
man himself, as vases and utensils of daily use.
5. Combination of Elements.——It may now be more
readily understood how all kinds of elements may be com-
bined. Geometrical may be united with natural forms, and
details and ideas suggested by natural forms may be com-
bined with creatures of the human imagination to form
eccentricities that do not really exist in nature, but that man
has always delighted in adopting as representative of some
higher or supernatural power. Illustrative of these, we have
the sphinx, so identified with Egyptian art; the centaur
and the mermaid in classic art; and the animal bodies with
human heads, and the combination of beasts or fishes with the
wings of birds, or with plant life and foliated terminations,
prevalent in many details of Gothic and Renaissance art.
6. Symbolic Devices.—In heraldry and armorial bear-
ings, with which the decorations of the Middle Ages and
following centuries are replete, there are a number of devices
with definite names that depend entirely on the combination
of different characteristics, borrowed from different classes
of animals, in order to combine in one figure the attributes
of several natural beasts. For instance, we have the dragon,
with the body of a serpent and the head of a carnivorous
bird, and the wings of a bat, combining in the one animal
the stealth and treachery of the snake, the cruelty and


4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
passion of the vulture, and the uncanny and silent secrecy
associated with the nocturnal habits of the bat.
On the other hand, we have a variation of the form or
characteristics of an individual animal, in order to emphasize
those characteristics for the purpose represented. In many
of the armorial devices of Great Britain is found a represen-
tation of a lion—never in the true form of the lion, as we are
in the habit of thinking of him in the jungle, but a lion
with along attenuated body, generally with one or both fore
paws raised from the ground, and always with his mouth
open and protruding tongue and teeth. The lion is indica-
tive of power and strength, and, consequently, of sover-
eignty. The attenuation of his body increases the feeling
of litheness associated with animals of the cat tribe, while
the expression given his face and forefeet is indicative of
firmness, and power for aggressiveness, offensiveness, or
defensiveness, as the case may require.
7. Influence of Architecture.—-Decoration is applied
art, and the forms used in decoration become varied accord-
ing to the purpose for which they are used. Decoration, as
applied to architecture, consists of the ornamentation of the
structural features of a building—of the variation in color,
or proportion of diiferent surfaces that are adjacent, and of
the introduction of familiar symbols, or objects, to convey a
definite historical or religious idea.
To a certain extent, all decoration partakes of the same
characteristics as architectural decoration. Wall decoration
is architectural, and consists of the variation in color or
proportion of adjacent surfaces, or of the same surfaces
divided. The decoration of silks and tapestries, either in
the weaving or printing, is a variation of surface that must
be further considered in its architectural relation, when they
are hung on the walls, over the doors, or around the windows,
and seen, not as plain surfaces, but in folds. The treatment
of furniture is an architectural decoration, both in the orna-
mentation of its structural features and in the application of
symbols to portions of its surface. In fact, in all periods of


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5
art, it will be found that any attempt at ornamentation is
governed directly or indirectly by the prevailing tastes in
architecture and the sister arts.
8. Conditions Influencing Architecture.—Though
ornament and architecture have been steadily progressive
from the days of earliest Egypt to the close of the nine-
teenth century, there is little resemblance between the
characteristic ornament or architecture of any two periods,
except where there has been a deliberate revival of a certain
style of art. Where the artists of a nation or locality have
been left to their own devices and originality, they have
produced a style of ornament suitable to their purpose, their
period, and their relations, that is in no way connected
or suited to other surrounding conditions. Although the
influences that have affected the style and character of the
ornament of different periods are many, the religious and
geographical influences are probably the strongest. Political
influences determine, to 'a certain extent, the character,
according to the government and relations of the people,
and also the profusion and elaboration, and, to a certain
extent, the quality of execution, of ornament; for the richer
a nation becomes, the more she expends on her monuments
of public utility and beauty, and the more elaborate her
citizens become in the taste and decoration of their house-
holds. In fact, we find no art progress in any country until
it begins to show signs of amassing wealth.
9. Influence of Religion.—The effect of religion in
ornament can be traced through all periods, and those.
nations with whom religious belief was more closely inter-
mingled with the civic and domestic duties of the day,
expressed in every detail of their ornament some tribute to
a superior being. During the laxity of morals and general
religious fervor toward the close of the Renaissance period,
we find few religious forms woven in the fabric of any class
of ornament, except the pagan forms that were borrowed in
ignorance from an antique religion and an ancient art.


6 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
This free use of symbolic forms, both ancient and modern,
gives us an unlimited field for combinations in ornamental
design, which, though practiced through fifty centuries, has
not exhausted the possibilities for originality.
10. Decorative Art.-—A11 decoration and decorative
art, whether carved, painted, or modeled, is the expression
of the wants, facilities, and sentiments of the age in which
it is created. All products of decorative art should possess
fitness, proportion, and harmony of both form and color, in
order that the result may express what we term repose; and
beauty results from that repose that the mind feels when
the eye, the intellect, and the afiections are satisfied, and
free from any sense of want. As in architecture, construc-
tion' may be decorated, but uuder no circumstances can
decoration be constructed. Decoration must always form a
part of the purpose or object with which it is associated.
It is useless to try to deceive the eye and intellect by
carving a natural vine on a stone tablet. N o right-minded
person will ever take the imitation for the real vine, and
the highest tribute that can be paid to it is that the carver
was skilled with his chisel and hammer,'and the designer
had failed to undeistand and appreciate his material. If
the vine is to be a stone vine, let it be reduced to a form
that is suitable in stone; if it is to be a woven vine in a
fabric, let its form he reduced to the limitations of results
obtainable from the loom; if it is a vine to be painted on a
wall surface, let it be a painted representation of the char-
acteristics of a certain vegetable growth, and not a picture
or portrait of an object that if real would be highly out of
place where represented.
11. Conventionallsm.—This proper representation of
a familiar form according to the position it is to occupy, or
the material in which it is to be executed, is called conven-
tionalism, and is the first detail of applied art that the
designer must learn to comprehend. An old axiom states,
“That which is beautiful must be true," and we may add


§ 8 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 7
to it conversely, “That which is true must be beautiful,”
and on this axiom depends all the beauty of ornament in
architecture, decoration, and the allied arts.
Ornamental design is not portrait painting—it is not the
faithful portrayal of the details of nature for purely pictorial
purposes. The skill of the artist in this branch of art is
applied to making something of simple utility an object of
beauty; whereas, the portraitist is engaged in rendering on .
canvas, or other surface, an absolute portrait of the subject
before him.
12. Consistency in Designing—The decorative de-
signer must have in mind the constructiOn or fabrication of
a useful article, with the value and utility of which he com-
bines his art. The figure portraitist, landscape portraitist,
or floral portraitist, if we may so distinguish _them, has
before him a subject thathe intends to translate in paint to
a surface that shall have nothing associated with it in the
mind but the figure, the country, or the flowers it repre-
sents. If the decorative designer takes the same subject,
he does not represent it with the same fidelity, because it is
applied to a utensil, and the object of the utensil must not
be lost sight of; and if he decorates the surface of a utensil
or dress material with a design that claims to be an absolute
portrayal of the flower or other device itself, he states in his
decoration that this is nothing but the representation of a
flower and he draws the mind away from the fact that it
really is a utensil; this is not true, and, according to the
foregoing axiom, the result cannot be beautiful.
13. If, in the weaving of a carpet, or other floor cover-
ing, the designer attempts to portray natural bunches of
roses and rose leaves, he is suggesting to the observer that
this is a picture or portrait of a bunch of roses, executed
entirely to please the senses as a portrayal of the flowers
.themselves, which is not true; for, if it were, we should
hang it near the level of the eye, separating it from any
sense of utility, other than the conveying of a feeling of


8 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §3
satisfaction and delight to the affections and to the intellect;
whereas, as a matter of fact, it is a floor covering decorated
_ with an out-of-place design.
14. General Rules.—In the decoration of a surface,
the general form is first cared for and subdivided or orna-
mented by general lines; the interstices may then be filled
withornament and may themselves again be divided and
fully enriched for closer observation. But all ornament, no
matter how minutely carried out, should be based on a
geometrical, system of construction, as a true proportion will
be found to exist between all members so based.
In all surface decoration, a rule to be observed is that all
lines should be traced back to their branchings from a general
parent stem, so that each detail of the ornament, no matter
how distant, can be traced back through its branch to the
root. This makes the design rational, but the connection
with the parent stem and root must not be so marked as to
dominate the spirit of the design. Another rule requires
that all junctions of curved lines with other curved lines, or
of curved lines with straight lines, should be so made that
they are tangent to each other at the point of junction, if
they are intended to express parts of the same design. And
a third rule says that flowers and other natural objects
should not be used as ornaments in their natural forms, but
should be conventionalized or reduced to geometrical princi-
ples that convey the idea of their representation without
purporting to be a likeness of the original, for the reasons
heretofore set forth. -
15. Color may be used to assist in the development of a
form or idea, or to distinguish objects or parts of objects, ‘
one from another; or color may be used to assist light and
shade, helping undulations of light and form by the proper
distribution of several different tints. Color should never
be used, however, where the exigencies of the case do not
positively require it. Every design should depend for its
intrinsic beauty on its form and its proportion, and these


§ 3 _ HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 9
may be enhanced by combinations and relations of color;
but the design is a poor one that depends entirely on color
for its attractiveness and beauty.
With this understanding of the facts, let us now consider
what has been done by our predecessors in the field of orna-
mental design.
ANCIENT ORNAIVIENT.
I PRIMITIVE ORNAMENT.
16. Under primitive ornament, we will consider those
efforts at ornamental design observable in the works of the
savage tribes. These peoples had no written history of art
from which to draw ideas, no theory or rules of proportion to
govern their conceptions, and, consequently, the expression
of art as exhibited in their decorated utensils can be con-
sidered pure and untrammeled.
1 7. Influence of Nature.—Fr0m the testimony of trav-
elers in but partially explored countries, it would appear
that there is no place on the face of the earth where some
attempt is not made at ornamentation, no matter how crude
a state of civilization the people may be in. The desire for
ornament is present in every race, and it develops and
' increases in importance directly in proportion to their prog-
ress in civilization. Man appears everywhere impressed
with the beauties of nature that surround him, with the
mysteries governing the growths and phenomena that he
cannot understand; and he seeks to imitate, within the
limitations of his power, some of the works of his Creator.
The earliest instinct of man is to create something; no-
matter how powerful he may be as a warrior, how dis-
tinguished he may be as a tribal leader, or how wealthy he
may be in the possession of earthly goods, he recognizes his
inability to explain the phenomena of nature, and naturally
attributes it to a being higher than himself. It is at all times


10 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
apparent that this being, whom he in his primitive way may
worship as a god, creates, by some undefined power, devel-
opments and appearances that inspire him with mystery and
. awe. Consequently, he endeavors, in his own simple way,
to call into existence creations of his own that shall impress
those fellow men whom he considers his inferiors as much
as he is impressed by the works of his mysterious Supreme
Being.
18. Origin of Tattooing.—In some savage tribes, this
desire is expressed in the attempt to increase the facial
expression by which he expects to strike terror to his enemies,
rivals, or inferiors, or to create what appears to him a new
and mysterious beauty. This he accomplishes by tattooing,
or sometimes merely with paint. It is a remarkable fact
that hideous as this practice renders his visage, it is, in most
cases, exercised with the greatest care that the lines shall be
so placed as to increase the facial expression and dew/0p, to
the greatest extent, the eccentricities of his natural features.
Trivial as this detail may at first appear, it lies at the bottom
of the fundamental principles of decorative design. The
savage warrior does not obliterate his own expression and
cover his face with paint and tattoo marks to create a new
one, but simply arranges the lines to emphasize the details
-of severity that he already possesses and with which he
expects to inspire an impression of terror.
19. Origin of Set Styles—It can be clearly shown
throughout all history that in certain periods, an individual
mind, stronger than those with which it is surrounded, will
impress itself on a generation and carry with it a host of
other minds of inferior power. These inferior minds imitate
what they know to be better than what they can create, but
do not imitate so closely as to destroy their own individual
ambition to originate. It is to this tendency that we owe
the birth and the modifications of styles.
The efforts of the people in the earliest stages of civiliza-
tion are like those of children, though lacking in power of


(‘IIJ
3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 11
expression, they possess a grace and originality rarely found
in middle age, and never in manhood's decline. The same
may be found in the infancy of any art, which we will
endeavor to point out as we go along. When art struggles
for an existence, it succeeds by creating for itself new forms
and new ideas, but, when reveling in its own successes, it
fails.
20. Effect of Traditional Styles.—The pleasure we
receive in contemplating the crude attempts at ornament of
the most primitive tribes arises from our appreciation of a
difficult accomplishment. (We are interested in the evidence
of the intention, and are surprised at the simple and child-like
rudeness by which the result is accomplished. In fact, what
we seek in their work of art is the evidence of mind—the
evidence of that desire to create to which we have already
referred. This evidence of mind, strange to say, is much
more readily found in the rude attempts at savage ornament
than in the innumerable productions of a highly advanced
civilization.
When art is manufactured by a combined effort, instead
of being originated by the efforts of an individual, the true
instincts, which constitute its greatest charm, are lost. By
this we mean that the art of the present day is the result of
the combined efforts of artists and artisans through centuries
of development, whereas the art of the savage tribes is the
expression of the mind of an individual warrior, untram-
meled by tradition.
21. Expression of Taste in Savage 0rnnment.—In
Fig. 1 is shown a reproduction of a cloth pattern, the original
of which came from the savage tribes of the Samoan Islands.
It is made from thin sheets of bark stripped from a peculiar
species of tree, and is beaten out and united so as to form
one long parallelogram of cloth. Certainly nothing could
be more primitive as a method of manufacture, yet the pat-
tern shows the existence of taste and skill, and an ingenuity
of design rarely found in many of our woven fabrics of the


12 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §3
present day. The pattern is executed by means of small
wooden stamps, and the work, though rude and irregular in
its execution, conveys the intention at every point. There is
a skilful balancing of the masses and a judicious avoidance of
{A _ I lines that would tend to cause
the eye to run in one direction.
This is done by opposing each
set of lines with others of
opposite tendency; There are
many styles and patterns of this
work, all of which show posi-
tive genius in their arrange-
ment and development.


22. Decorative Theory
Exhibited by the Savage.—
The next development in this
7‘ _. primitive art is found in the
‘\ :1 \ attempts at wood carving, and
,_ r the most likely place to look
for it would be on the weapons
used for the defense of the tribe,
or in the chase of animals for
food. The bravest or the most
skilful of the warriors or hunters
would desire to distinguish him-
self somewhat above the others
by the possession of a weapon,
not only more useful, but, in
his eyes, more complicated, and more beautiful. The best
shape for the weapon he has already determined by experi-
ence, and the enriching of its surface by carving naturally
follows.
The eye of the warrior being accustomed to the geometrical
forms and details of the stamped cloths, his hand attempts
to imitate them in the handles of his wooden utensils by
means of knife cuts, and the paddle shown in Fig. 2 illustrates
how faithfully this representation has been carried out.
\
\_
\
\&\ ‘
‘1 it"? i i‘ l§-§~ . e- i I Q";
I
I
if, /
it
w ‘ '
Y I Lil/2‘ *.


g3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 13
This instrument is from New Zealand, and the taste exhibited
in its carving would bear favorable comparison with the art
a ' works of the highest state of civiliza-
tion. There is not a line on its sur-
face misapplied; the general shape is
most graceful and elegant, and the
decoration is applied everywhere to
best develop the form.
The New Zealander's instinct taught
him that his paddle should be strong,
not only in reality, but in appearance,
and his ornament is so disposed as to
give an appearance of strength greater
than it would have had if the surface
had remained undecorated. The band
in the center of the length of the
blade is continued around both sides,
binding the border that extends around
the edge, and this latter appears to
hold in place all the other bands. Had
these bands run out like the center
one, they would appear to have a tend-
ency to slip ofif, as the center one is
the only one that can occupy its posi-
tion around the end of the paddle
with repose.
23. Value of the Study of His-
torlc Ornament-.——These few facts
have been pointed out in the prece-
ding pages, so that the student may
fully appreciate that beauty of orna-
ment does not depend on the fidelity
with which ancient ornament can be
copied. The natural tendency of the
mind will produce good results in
the application of ornament in nearly
all cases, if it is allowed to work


14 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §3
logically and without influence from stereotyped or his
torical forms.
The study of historic ornament is practiced to familiarize
the student with what has been done heretofore, to point
out to him such parts of the ancient works as have been
done Well, and to show him why they are considered to be
done well, and also to render him familiar with other works
of celebrated art periods which, though they may be beauti-
ful in themselves, are not, as a matter of fact, as high a
grade of art as our New Zealander’s paddle, because of the
lack of expression of mind in the designs, and the tendency
to imitate the works of what was believed to be a superior
mind, rather than to develop a new style along new lines.
24. How to Study 0rnament.—From what has already
been said, it will be easily understood that the ornament of
a people carries in itself the characteristics of that people.
It must be interpreted, however, by the aid of the history
of the people as expressed in their monuments. The sub-
ject of historic ornament should therefore be studied, not
only with regard to its grace and beauty, but as a key to a
portrayal of the qualities, characteristics, and disposition of
the people to whom it belonged.
In the consideration of the ornament of a country, we
must first investigate all the details that are likely in any
way to affect the art, in order that we may better under-
stand why certain characteristics exist in the ornament of
one people and are entirely absent in that of another.
EGYPTIAN ORNAMENT.
25. Influence of the Nile on Egyptian Ornament.
It seldom or never rains in Egypt, except in the delta at the
mouth of the River Nile, and nature has provided for the
fertilizing of the land by an annual overflow of the river
that brings down mud and alluvial soil from the mountain
regions, and deposits it on top of the old soil, thus enrich-
ing it. For three months the water slowly rises in the Nile


§3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 15
Valley, and, for three months following, the river slowly
subsides and then remains a narrow stream for the rest of
the year, bordered by green fields of cotton and grass. The
phenomenon of this yearly inundation of the Nile, Fig. 3,
slow, majestic, and munificent, naturally impressed the early
Egyptian with a feeling of mystery and awe. In fact, in
this inundation lies the key to the wealth of ancient Egypt.



_ "-4
r“
FIG. 8.
Dwelling during the dry season on what would appear to
be a barren plain, the Egyptian saw the provision of a
Supreme Being working for his good when the waters of the
Nile gradually overflowed, fertilized the soil, and then slowly
subsided, leaving him to plant his seed. It is not strange,
therefore, that the Nile and everything associated with it
should be sacred. In all Egyptian ornament, we find some
symbol or detail that reminds us of this great beneficence of
Providence and favor to the Egyptian. The Egyptian was
an appreciative mortal, and in his art and architecture every-
where placcd some reminder of the fact that he could do
nothing and would be nothing without the care and watch-
fulness of this supreme power.

26. Antiquity of Egyptian Ornament. In study-
ing Egyptian ornament. however, we cannot begin at the


16 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
beginning, as we can with other styles, inasmuch as we have
no historical records of any beginning. A peculiarity of the
Egyptian over all other styles is that the more ancient the
ornament, the nearer perfection is the art. Architectural
monuments, erected 2,000 years before the Christian era, are
built of stones taken from the ruins of much more ancient
buildings that were really more perfect. We are therefore
compelled to study Egyptian art during a period of its
decline, but can accept the style as absolutely original, inas-
much as we have no record of the existence of an earlier
nation from whom they could have borrowed it.
In Egyptian art, there are no traces of infancy, nor of for-
eign influence, and it is safe to infer that the Egyptian artist
drew his inspiration directly from nature. The types of his
ornament are few but perfectly natural, and in theearliest
period of Egyptian art, the representation is but slightly
removed from the type; but the later we descend in history,
the more we find the original types receded from, until it
is difficult, in many cases, to discover from what original
idea the ornament, by successive mental efforts, has been
developed.
27. Influence of Religion—Although the Egyptians
decorated every article of utility that was in any way asso-
ciated with their civil, domestic, or religious duties, we
depend for examples of their ornament almost entirely on
the designs and writings executed in connection with their
complicated form of religion. '
The temples, tombs, and other sacred monuments of the
most ancient inhabitants afford us the most rational and pro-
gressive examples of ornament, and it is from these that we
derive nearly all the information that we have of the man-
ners and customs of the early Egyptians. In the temples
are preserved certain stone tablets and other devices, on
which are records of certain ceremonies in connection with
their religion, and these records are always executed in their
peculiar form of hieroglyphs. The word Izz'eroglyp/z, being
literally translated, means sacred writing, but in its specific


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 17
sense is used to indicate the peculiar pictured descriptions
of the Egyptian religious ceremonies that are found carved
and painted on the walls of their tombs and temples.
28. The Egyptian temple consisted of a small sanctu;
ary, or sc/cos, as it was called, that was reached through a
large columnar hall known as the 11a]! of assembly, or some-
times the lzyposty/e 11:11], the latter term meaning covered
over on columns. In front of the hypostyle hall was a
large open court, surrounded by high and massive walls and




entered between two tower-like front walls, called pylons.
Each of these parts was varied slightly in different structures,
some having two .courts in front of the hypostyle hall, known
as the outer and inner court, and in many of the temples the
sekos was surrounded by a number of smaller apartments.
On the outside of the temple, the entrance was approached
through a long avenue—often a mile or more in extent—
lined on each side with colossal sphinxes, and occasionally


18 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
ending in a large monumental gateway advanced before the
main entrance to the temple, as shown in Fig. 4. This
gateway was called a propylon, and it stood alone before
the main entrance like a silent sentinel. The example shown
in Fig. 4 is from the temple of Rameses III, at Karnak, and
from this a fair idea of the magnitude of these great archi-
tectural details may be obtained. The faces of the propylon
were always decorated with elaborate hieroglyphic devices
as shown, and over the top was carved the winged glow, of
which we shall have occasion to speak hereafter. Beyond the
propylon stand the two great pylons that form the outer front
wall of the building, and the entrance between these two
masses is similar in detail to the gateway advanced in front.
A better idea of this arrangement can be obtained from
Fig. 5, which shows a portion of the avenue, the entrance,
and pylons of the temple of Edfou, in Upper Egypt. In


FIG. 5.
this case, the propylon is omitted, and at the end of the
long avenue of sphinxes stand two great obelisks—one on
each side of the entrance. The walls of the pylons them-
selves are decorated in hieroglyphs, the design at the bottom


§3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 19
representing a group of prisoners, taken from Palestine,
about to be executed by the king.
29. Interior of the Temple.—On the inside of the
temple, these pylons are sculptured in much the same man-
ner, though the lower part of them is largely covered by the
roofed passageway around the edges of the court. Fig. 6 is


a reproduction of a photograph taken in the inner court of a
temple on the island of Philae, and shows the appearance of
these pylons on the inside, and a portion of the columns
supporting the roof on the right side of the court. The
pylons were massive structures, and contained, in their in-
terior, a number of secret rooms accessible only to the
priest and members of the royal family.
An entrance to the interior of one of the pylons is seen on
the left of Fig. 6, and it will be observed that the general
treatment around the door and over it is precisely the same,
but on a smaller scale, as the main entrance to the temple


20 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. a
and the general character of the propylon illustrated in
Fig. 4.
A better idea of the massiveness of these pylons may be
obtained from Fig. 7, a photograph of the temple of Edfou,
showing the taper of the walls from the ground upwards, a
characteristic of all Egyptian architecture. This illustra-
tion is taken from above the side walls of the temple, so



FIG. 7.
that the entrance columns of the hypostyle hall at the
rear of the court may be seen, and by comparing Fig. 7
with Fig. 5, both being illustrations of the same tem-
ple, a fair idea of the state of preservation of this great
edifice may be obtained, Fig. 5 representing it in its
original form and Fig. 7 being a photograph of it at the
present day. '
At the top, the walls of the pylons flared out, forming a
simple concave cornice, above which gleaming cressets at
night and fiaunting banners by day were carried on long
iron stocks or staffs, which, combined with the highly
colored decorations on the walls, gave the building an effect


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 21
of mysterious grandeur, perfectly consistent with the com-
plex system of the ancient Egyptian belief.
The iron stocks carrying the banners, etc. were inserted
in the recesses shown on each side of the entrance.





Flo. B.
30. Obelisks.—The obelisks in front of the temple are
in themselves characteristic of Egyptian art. Each of these
consisted of a tall stone shaft, quarried in a single piece,


22 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3

and sculptured on four sides with elaborate hieroglyphic
ornament. A photographic reproduction of one of these
interesting details is shown in Fig. 8. This was one of a
pair of obelisks known as “Cleopatra's needles," and is
shown as it stood in the city of Alexandria, Egypt, for
nearly 2,000 years. It is 67 feet in height, and 7 feet
7 inches square at the base. It originally stood with its
companion before the entrance of the temple at Heliopolis
in Lower Egypt, but was removed to the city of Alexandria
after the defeat of Anthony and Cleopatra by the Roman
emperor Augustus, just before the beginning of the Chris-
tian era. In the year 1878 it was removed from Alexandria
and transported to New York City, where it now stands on
a mound on the east side of Central Park.
31. The temples differ widely in size and elaboration
of plan, but the general scheme of arrangement is the same
in all cases, whether the example is taken from Northern
Egypt or Southern Nubia. Between the years 1600 and
1100 B. C., the greatest temples were built. The Pharaohs


FIG. 9.
wanted eternal dwelling places for their deities, and built
their temples entirely of stone, laid up in blocks '50 massive
and so well fitted that they have withstood the ravages of
time down to the present day.
In Fig. 9 is shown the plan of the Ramesseum, a temple
built by, and named after, Rameses, one of the kings of
Egypt, who reigned about 1500 B. C. Here the sanctuary


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 23
is shown at A, surrounded by a number of smaller apart-
ments a, which were used by the priests and members of
the royal family, both as places for their mysterious devo»
tions and as royal residences; the king and his immedi-
ate relatives being considered earthly representatives of
the gods. The sanctuary contained the shrine, and was
entered through either of two portals, one from the hypo-
style hall B and the other communicating with one of the
sacred apartments 12’.
At B is shown the hypostyle hall, the roof of which was
supported by two sets of columns, the central ones being
. l3?
“ . ‘ l
in“: ' ll ~ - I"


Flo. 10.
longer than those on each side, in order to provide a clear-
story for the admission of light and air.
This is more clearly shown in Fig. 10, which is an illus-
tration photographed from a restored model of the great
hypostyle hall in the temple at Karnak. At a is seen the
double row of long columns, which are connected longitu-
dinally by the stone lintels b, in order to receive the edges of


24 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
the stone slabs c, which form the roof over the nave, or cen-
tral portion of the temple. On each side of these are the
shorter columns 1!, which are connected transversely by the
lintels c, and the inside row longitudinally by the lintel f,
to support the roof slabs g in the same manner as over the
nave. An open space I: is thus left to admit light to the
interior of the hall, and form a clearstory similar to the
same detail in our more modern cathedrals, of which we
shall learn later on.
The spacing of the supports being governed entirely by
the length of lintel the builders were able to quarry, the
columns are exceedingly close together. For this reason,
large apartments were never entirely roofed over in the
Egyptian temples, but were open to the sky, either wholly
or in part, as shown in Fig. 9 at C, which is the inner court
of the temple, from which the hypostyle hall must be
entered.
On each side of this inner court is adouble row of columns
supporting a roof extending from the side walls, while at the
back is a single row of columns 5, and a row of square
piers d, which carry a portion of the roof that extends over
from the hypostyle hall. Another row of square piers e car-
ries the roof over the front end of this inner court, which,
with the other partial coverings, surrounds the court with a
narrow projecting roof on all four sides.
32. The effect of this treatment must have been very
imposing in itself, but, to add to the imp'ression, colossal
statues were carved on the inside faces of the square piers,
and flights of stone steps led up to a gallery at the level of
the hypostyle hall, the floor of which was considerably above
the level of the inner court. The outer, or entrance, court D
was a comparatively plain enclosure, with columns on each
side and a single flight of steps up to the floor of the inner
court above. It was entered through a narrow portal f,
flanked on each side by the massive pylons E, and served
merely as an entrance court- preparatory to the grandeur
and solemnity of the more sacred apartments beyond.


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. ’ 25
33. The earl}r Egyptian statues were usually colossal in
size, and there was no attempt at economy or saving of time
in any structure that was erected for the purpose of religious
ceremony or the burial of their dead. The pyramids (see
Figs. 3 and 11) were erected as tombs for the kings, and
give a very fair idea of the patience and persistence of this
ancient people, that would work 100,000 men for 20 years on
a tomb for the body of their king, at a cost of over $40,000,-
000. It is a mystery to this day how the stones were quar-
ried and transported with the primitive tools and machinery
in use 3,000 years before the Christian era, for this great
pyramid of Cheops, 800 feet square at the base, and 450 feet
in height, is the largest structure in the world today.
34. The Great Sphinx.—Next to the pyramids in
massive grandeur comes the Great Sphinx at Gizeh. This
is a statue of the Egyptian god Harmachis, carved out of
solid rock, making a figure 146 feet long, 65 feet high, and




34 feet across the shoulders. The body, which has the form
of a crouching lion, is now entirely buried in drifted sand,
but the human head, measuring 28 feet from chin to top,
and the broad, massive shoulders, are still visible above the


26 ‘ HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 8
sand drifts, as shown in Fig. 11. Between the forefeet of
the body is excavated a temple where the god was wor-
shiped, and, if built at the same time as the sphinx, this
temple is the oldest architectural monument on record, as it
antedates the pyramids over 1,000 years.
35. Types of People—There were two types of people
among the Egyptians, varying decidedly in physique and
intellectual appearance. One type of aristocratic origin
possessed a refined face, with a moderately high forehead,
aquiline. nose, rather full lips, and rounded chin; the other
type was from plebeian stock, with low forehead, short nose,
heavy jaws, and very thick lips.. The former was serious
and thoughtful, grave, dignified, and religious; the latter
gay, pleasure loving, light hearted, and good natured. These
two types are represented in many of their hieroglyphs and
wall paintings, and are often used as symbols of the very
attributes we ascribe to them. The lower type have been
used to express some degraded or inferior people, and the
more refined type have been used to represent royal person-
ages and the gods.
The kings and royal families in Egypt being considered
earthly representatives of the gods, had privileges in the
complicated system of Egyptian religious rites that the
priests themselves did not enjoy. An offering to a king was
equivalent, under certain circumstances, to an offering to
one of the gods. The Egyptians worshiped many gods, but
the chief ones were Osiris, Isis, Horus, and Thoth. They
also paid religious regards to animals. Cats, dogs, cows,
hawks, beetles, and monkeys were sacred throughout all
Egypt, as will be seen hereafter.
36. The Lotus and Papyrus—The most conspicuous
type in Egyptian art is the lotus (Fig. 12), a plant growing
on the banks of the Nile, somewhat resembling our pond
lily, but differing from it in coloring. The lotus leaves float
on the surface of the water at the end of a long stem, in the
same manner as do the pond-lily leaves, but the blossom


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 27
stands on a stiff stalk high out of the water, and is of a bril-
liant purple color on the border petals, with a heart of deep
orange. The lotus was a sacred flower, and as an offering to
the gods was conspicuous in the highest forms of worship.
It is easy to understand the importance of the lotus in
Egyptian religious theories. The deified lotus stands repre-
sentative of the homage rendered to the beneficent action of
water and sun on the sleeping earth. It is the symbol of the
annual evolution of the seasons, causing generation to sue-
ceed generation, and the return of life, where everything had
seemed barren in the immobility of death.
The papyrus plant was also used largely in Egyptian art
and associated with the Nile on whose banks it grew, but not
to such an extent as the lotus. From the papyrus plant a


FIG. 12.
kind of paper was manufactured on which the Egyptians
wrote many of their sacred legends, and it is from the name
of this plant that the modern word “paper” is derived.
37. The Winged Disk—The sun itself was also the
object of direct worship, the ceremony of which was varied
by the priests in order to make it penetrate more deeply
among the masses. The disk, as representative of the sun,
is used in many Egyptian hieroglyphs, and received acertuin


28 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
share of homage owing to its relation to agricultural devel-
opment after the Nile had completed its inundation. A
combination of the disk and feathered forms produced an
ornament generally known as the winged disk, or the winged
globe (Fig. 13). This consists of the solar disk, supported


on each side by an asp (the royal symbol of Upper and Lower
Egypt), and the wide outstretching wings symbolize the
untiring activity of the sun in its beneficence; hence, adivine
protecting power. It is emblematic as a whole of the tri-
umph of right over wrong, and an inscription at Edfou says
that Thoth, the god of speech and wisdom, ordered that this
emblem should be carved over every door in Egypt. It is
everywhere apparent in Egyptian sacred painting, but varies
slightly in detail according to the place where it is used.
Wherever it appeared carved over the doorway of a temple,
painted on the walls of a tomb, or woven into a fabric of the
vestments of a priest or king, this emblem was a monument
I of the Egyptian’s religious sincerity and
appreciation of benefits derived from
his god.
38. The Seambteus.—The scara-
baeus, or beetle, Fig. 14, was identified
with the rising sun, and typified creation
and resurrection, or new birth. Its
exact significance is somewhat com-
plicated, as are in fact all Egyptian
emblems; but, owing to the habits of the beetle, slowly
developing from a grub through various stages to a full-
grown insect, it is emblematic of progress and evolution.
In the tombs and ruins of the Egyptian temples are found


FIG. 14.


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 29


thousands of models of these beetles that seem to have been
worn as amulets.
39. Consistency of Egyptian 0rnament.——Another
type of Egyptian ornament is the palm, from which canopies
were made, and also the fans and shades that were held over
the heads of royal personages during ceremonies, to protect
them from the sun. These few types form the foundation of
an immense variety of ornament with which the Egyptian
decorated the temple of his gods, the palace of his kings, the
covering of his person, and his articles of luxury, as well as
those articles of more modest daily use, from the wooden
spoon that fed him in infancy to the mournful boat that
carried his embalmed body across the Nile to its final resting
place in the Valley of the Dead. Following these types in a
manner so nearly allied to the natural form, they observed
the same laws that the works of nature'ever displayed, and,
no matter how conventionalized their ornament ever became,
it was always true. The Egyptian artist never violated a
natural principle, and, on the other hand, he never destroyed
the consistency of his conventional representation by too
close an imitation of the type. A lotus flower carved in
stone, or forming the graceful termination of a column, or
painted flat on the walls as an offering to the gods, was never
a lotus portrait, and never impressed the beholder as one
that might be plucked, but was always the architectural rep-
resentation of it suited to the material in which it was cut,
or the colors in which it was rendered.
40. Conventionalism.—A good idea of the simple eon-
ventionality of their forms can be obtained from Fig. 15,
where at (a) is shown the conventional representation of the
lotus blossom, the outside leaves of which, in colored work,
were usually painted a deep green. The first row of petals
was also green, but of a lighter shade, while the innermost
petals were red. The space between the petals was painted
a deep yellow. At a distance from the eye, the red and
yellow seemed to blend together and form a deep orange


30 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
hue with a suggestion of surrounding green, characteristic
- of the general appearance 'of the lotus fiower.
The transition from (a) in Fig. 15 to the form shown at
(12) is by no means a difiicult matter, the omission of the
innermost row of petals being the only radical change.
From (d) to (c) is a simple development wherein the calyx


(b) (0) (d)
Flu. 15.
of the conventionalized flower has become larger in propor-
tion to the petals, and from (r) to (d) is but a step in orna-
mentation, showing the gradual growth of design from the
conventionalized rendering of the blossom itself to a device
that is purely ornamental and derived from, though in no
way representative of, the Egyptian lotus. The further
development of this form in Assyrian and Greek art will
show the importance of this line of study.
41. Classes of Egyptian Ornament.—Egyptian orna-
ment may be divided into three classes: that which is 2011-
sfrm'tir'r, or forms a part of the monument itself; that which
is n‘prrserztafir/c, but is at the same time conventionally
rendered; and that which is simply driroratz'z'e. In each
class, the ornament is always symbolic, and the few types
mentioned, upon which it is founded, we find are but slightly
changed during the entire period of Egyptian civilization.
42. The student of historic ornament should familiarize
himself with the difference between the terms style, rlass,
and type. The term style is used to indicate the period or
nationality of the ornament, as the Early Egyptian style; the
term class is applied when we wish to indicate a subdivision
of some style, as the constructive class of the Egyptian


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 31
style. The term type is used to refer to the natural form
from which the ornament is derived, as the lotus type of
Egyptian ornament.
43. Constructive Ornament.—— Of the constructive
ornament are the columns and their terminations, and the
crowning members of the walls. The column base was fre-
, '. L
v 7;" v Y- .
{/1 tum/1,1,, '
viii”
Q.
1 ‘\ ',_' \ {\Y ’/‘// " ' i" 3'
‘ ‘1 Y VH7 /, vi'L/fi,’ , \_.,'/_ni7'g ‘
‘1,


“I‘M
.\ I.







FIG. 10.
quently molded to represent the root, and the shaft was
rceded in representation of the stalk, while the capital was
carved similar to the form of a bud or full-blown lotus
flower, as shown in Fig. 16, where at (a) is seen the bud


32 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §3
capital, and at (b) the capital derived from the full-blown
flower. All this was symbolic, as the lotus meant much to
the Egyptian.
In Fig. 17 are shown two square columns standing in the
ruins of the temple of Karnak, the one to the left being dec-
orated with a lotus flower carved in high relief, while the
one to the right 'is similarly decorated with the papyrus

.,t ,,
t'.
5;.
*2?




plant. The plain, severe treatment, so characteristic of
Egyptian art, is forcibly illustrated here.
Another form of column flares out at the top, and has for
its original type the papyrus or palm tree, as shown in Fig. 18.
This style was usually placed in the center of the halls of
assembly, with the lotus-bud columns on each side, as shown
in Fig. 10. All columns were richly colored and sometimes
decorated with hieroglyphs.


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 33
Feathers were held by the Egyptians as emblematic of
sovereignty, and the cornices of their temples were usually
decorated with ornaments derived from
a combination of feathered forms.
44. Representative Ornament. ‘4‘
The second class of Egyptian ornament
results from the conventional repre-
sentation of commonplace things upon
the walls of their temples and tombs.
In this kind of ornament each repre-
sentation is not only a detail of the
wall decoration but is a hieroglyphic
record of a fact. Sometimes it was
carved in the surface of the walls, and
sometimes merely painted; and occa-
sionally, it was both carved and painted.
It was always most conventional, and
certain details, such as the lotus and
papyrus, were represented in the strictest
geometrical arrangement, usually show-
. ‘\‘&‘,,I$W7)WWE ingthebud,blossom,
and fruit in regular
\ .' order, typifying the
C
development of the
" entire plant.
In Fig. 19 observe the straight, stifi
stem and trumpet-shaped blossom, the
sharp-pointed petals of the calyx, and
the geometrical arrangement of the
entire plant, with all its distinguishing
characteristics emphasized to produce
I conventionalism.
Egyptian carved ornament of this
character is nearly always in low relief,
and is sometimes merely incised or outlined in the sur-
face of the wall, as shown in Fig. 20. On work executed
in a later period, the background is sometimes cut away,






FIG. 18.
Flo. 19.


34 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
leaving the carved ornament and figures in full relief, as
in Fig. 21.
This figure represents a statue of the queen, Cleopatra,
upon whose head is supported, bctWeen the two horns of the
sacred cow, the disk, emblematic of the sun. The head-dress
consists of a representation of the blizzard, a sacred bird,
whose head protrudes from the fore part of the head-dress,
and whose wings reach down on each side, as though pro-


FlG. 21.


tecting the wearer. The panel or cartouch in the upper
left-hand corner contains the hieroglyphic characters spelling
the name Cleopatra. From this figure, a characteristic
example of Egyptian ornament of this period, we can obtain
a good idea of the contemporary head-dress, of the habit and
method of wearing beads and necklaces, and, to a general
extent, the cast of features and countenance of this race of
people. It must be remembered, however, that these carv-
ings are not always portraits, but symbolisms drawn to
represent the characteristics of the person portrayed.


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 35
45. Decorative Ornament.—The third kind of Egyp-
tian ornament, that which is purely decorative, is found
mostly in paintings on the walls of tombs, on mummy cases
and sarcophagi, on dresses and utensils.
46. The Egyptians believed in the immortality of the
soul, and also that the soul would return after death and
reoccupy the body; hence, they took every means to preserve
the body in order that it should be in a fit condition for the
reception of the soul at the time of its resurrection. Death
was not regarded by the Egyptian as a
great calamity, as he looked on his earthly
life as a mere temporary existence during
which he made elaborate preparations for
the preservation of his body after death.
This accounts for the massiveness and per-
manency of the tombs, some of which
were the life work of those that expected
to occupy them.
The body was embalmed with great
care; a scarabaeus was fastened to the
breast, and the mummy wrapped in cloths
or bandages bearing hieroglyphic inscrip-
tions. In some cases, particularly with
the wealthier classes, the mummy thus
wrapped was placed in a wooden box,
carved inside to fit the form, and generally
shaped to conform to the lines of the
body on the outside, as shown in Fig. 22.
The box was then carefully sealed and
the outside painted, or often gilded, and
covered with elaborate and complicated
hieroglyphs describing the life and deeds
of importance connected with the earthly
existence of the body within.
The mummy case was then deposited in the tomb,
frequently in a standing posture, and the walls and columns,
and other architectural details of the particular chamber


36 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
where the mummy was placed, were painted with rich
ornament and inscriptions. The sarcophagus, or stone box,
in which the mummy was sometimes placed, was richly orna-
mented both with painting and carving of the same general
character as on the walls, and it is from examples of this
kind that the following illustrations are taken.
In Fig. 23 is a painted wall ornament from the temple of
Seti I, and it represents the sacral bar/c, the ceremonies
connected with which were an exceedingly complicated but
important branch of the religious devotions of the priests.
This device frequently appears in the sculpture and paintings




of the tombs, and usually represents the funeral of one of
the gods. Everything is arranged in a most orderly man-
ner, as will be observed, and every detail is placed to convey
a certain significance. It would be impossible here to go
into all the explanations connected with Egyptian hiero~
glyphic ornament, and the illustration in Fig. 23 is given to
show how completely the walls were covered with an illus-
trated idea.


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 37
47. The Ffet.—-Fig. 24 is a fret design, sometimes
called a labyrinth, and is stated by some to have been sug-
gested‘by the plan of a building known as the labyrinth that
was erected in ancient Egypt about 4000 B. C. This was
'%
., AB









supposed to have been a very complicated structure of many
hundred rooms, out of which it was practically impossible
for one to find his way without the assistance of a guide.
The rosette alternating with the labyrinth pattern was prob-
ably derived from the full-blown lotus flower. This orna-
ment is found on many
mummy cases, and is even
used for surface decoration,
for it can be repeated in any
direction simply by continu-
ing the lines, as shown at a,
to form a new pattern above l“) m
and below similar to this one.
48. It may be said here
that the rosette form shown
1
in Fig. 24 is but one of many c) Q 6
observed in Egyptian orna- Q 7
ment. In Fig. 25 (a) is I shown a simple circle with a Q
an inner circle, and the space
(a)
between them is divided (0!
by straight lines into eight
equal parts. The transition from this form to the form
shown at (b) consists merely of a notehing of the edge of the
FIG. 25.


38 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
outer circle where the lines intersect the circumference;
(c) is the same as (b), except that the dividing lines are made
in pairs, thus making each segment independent and by
itself. From (c) to (d) the segments are made narrower,
until they are very nearly the size of the spaces between
them, and at (r) we reach the extreme limit where what
might be considered the petals of the floral device are sepa-
rated from the center and from one another entirely, and
become independent elements of the design. Observe that
the central circle has been becoming smaller in the evolu-
tion of the device from (a) to (e), and the design has worked
itself from a purely geometrical form at (a) to a purely floral
form at (c) and back again to a purely geometrical form at
(r), entirely different from (a). This principle should be
borne in mind, as it is of much importance in the tracing of
the Egyptian style in European art.
49. In Fig. 26 is shown a border wherein the scroll is
made use of simply as an ornament, in distinction from its
character, as emblematic of the waves of Me Nz'le. The
lotus also appears at the springing of each scroll line, but,
in this case, purely in a decorative sense, and in no way



FIG. 28.
suggestive of a hieroglyphic record. Below is a stiff conven-
tional row of lotus buds and blossoms, so arranged as to
form a conventional border and a part of the design above,
purely for decorative purposes! In the hieroglyphs, the
symbol for the word water consisted of a simple jagged line


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 39
suggestive of waves, as shown in Fig. 27 (a). This symbol,
when used under certain conditions, was
W indicative of the Nile also, and in some
(a)






FIG. 27.
of the hieroglyphic ornament it is elaborated into what is
called the wave border as shown at (b).
50. In Fig. 28 are shown two borders where the lotus is
eonventionalized, very much on the lines of Fig. 15. It is

“iii—J In,“ _||,|WIIHIIIIIII.




(a)


:
Pro. 28.
used here purely for decorative purposes, and in Fig. 28 (a),
where the side leaves of the flower intersect, a bud is


40 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
drawn in order to fill up the intervening space, while at (b)
the flower is placed in a horizontal position and shows
another application of the lotus to a border that requires
little or no explanation, simply being the conventional
rendering of the lotus blossom applied in repetition on the
border of a wall surface, and completing the simple geo-
metrical forms above and below.
51. Fig. 29 shows an application of the scroll without
the lotus, while below is a simple serrated band, the type of
l
1i.
1
D“ '


which is suggestive of the hieroglyphic representation of the
Nile, though its derivation from this origin is by no means
certain. These few borders show the immense variety of
detail that the inventive Egyp-
. ml . ' , tian secured from a few simple
r‘ “t ' ' types. When he carried his
m“ "“ i“ “‘ design further, to make 00111-
- plete surface decorations, he
did not complicate his designs
by adding to them any new
forms.
52. Fig. 30 shows a wall
decoration from a tomb at
Thebes. Here the scroll, simi-
lar to that used in Figs. 26
and 29, is applied as a repeat-
ing ornament in four directions, and, in the space enclosed
between the lines of the scroll, conventional representations
of the lotus petal are drawn, thereby simply suggesting the


§3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. _ 41
existence of an idea of lotus origin. It is not a representa-
tion of the flower, nor is it intended to be; it is simply a
wall decoration, the lines of which, though abstract, owe
their origin to the Egyptian ever-present association of the
Nile and the lotus with every-
day details of importance.
53. In Fig. 31 we have a
border, also taken from a tomb
at Thebes, wherein the lotus is
used in a most conventional
manner, but, at the same time,
not greatly removed from its
original type. The border above
and below is a simple rendering
of bands varied sufficiently from
one another to destroy the
appearance of stripes in either
direction, and at the same time so arranged as to blend with
the whole general effect and not attract the eye to any cer-
tain point.



54. The Scroll.-—The use of the scroll as a wall deco'
ration, repeating only in two directions, is shown in Fig. 32.
Compare this figure with
Fig. 30 and observe that the
materials used to create the
patterns are identical in both
designs. We have the scroll
and the lotus, and the lines
’ of the scroll run from one
end of the pattern to the
other, and between the lines
the space is filled with a
design from the lotus. Not-
withstanding this fact, could
any two designs be more
unlike? The fact that the


42 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
scroll lines in Fig. 32 extend and repeat only upwards and
downwards, would tend to give the pattern the appearance
of running in stripes vertically; this is, to a certain extent,
offset by reversing the directions of the scrolls, giving each
a letter S pattern, thereby preventing any vertical lines from
appearing one over the other.
As an additional element to destroy this feeling of stripe,
the coloring of the lotus flower has been so arranged that
the darkest portions will all blend and give the appearance
of stripes in a horizontal direction, although really no stripes
exist there. Observe that in each reversed lotus flower, the
horizontal line that cuts it olf at the bottom of the petals is
about on a level with the lines of intersection between the
individual petals of the next flower, and this, continued,
gives a dark stripe alternating with a lighter stripe, running
in a horizontal direction throughout the pattern. This in
effect destroys the vertical element. The same result is
obtained in Fig. 30 by the changing of the direction of the
figures. Each individual element of the design is placed at
right angles to the one above and below, or to the one to
the left and right of it; a feel-
ing of continuity is thereby








".i i i shown in Fig. 33, wherein the
. wall surface is divided by a
, ’ number of circles, from the
i 1 a} . center of each of which spring
/' , FT four ornamental forms whose
' outline is based on the three
,, outer leaves of the lotus.
' Another pattern based on a
Fm'w combination of the circle and
the square is shown in Fig. 34. The wall surface is cov-
ered with tangent circles, exactly as in the previous case,
but from the centers of these circles spring four leaves in
~' , e I avoided.
1‘51 /" ~ e _ I
\ '1. 55. Another combination
of lines based on the lotus is
._ , _ .


§s ' HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 43
vertical and horizontal directions, thereby suggesting rectan-
gular forms connecting the centers of the circles. Other
foliated forms, in the quadrants of the circles embraced by
each pair of these leaves, outline the three petals of a lotus
II
“a










vWu", I
., I














. ‘u I Hi u" N" " if] t4


FIG. 84.
as before, in each quarter of the circle, while the spaces out-
side of the circumference of the circles are ornamented with
a figure smaller than, but almost identical with, the one
springing from the centers.
A careful analysis of Figs. 33 and 34 will again show that
the elements, types, materials, and forms of both figures are
as near identical as it is possible for any two patterns to be,
and yet no two designs could I
be more unlike in appearance. ‘

56. Referring now to
Fig. 35, we have a wall deco- ‘ ,
ration composed of the wave 1
lines associated with the Nile,
running in different direc- '
tions. Trace any one of
these lines out and you will
see that it simply runs across the pattern‘in a diagonal
direction from top to bottom, or from bottom to top. The
line that intersects with it runs practically at right angles


4.4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
to it and intersects at every wave. The small irregular
figures thus enclosed in the wave line are colored distinctly
in alternate stripes, and a contrasting figure identical with
the figure drawn outside the circumferences in Fig. 34 is
then stamped in them.
57. Fig. 36 might be at first considered a double render“
ing of Fig. 35, but, strictly speaking, such is not the case.
The heavy black lines of Fig. 36 in general direction run
vertically and horizontally, and the spaces enclosed by each
pair of verticals are painted alternate colors, the effect of
which is not to give that of
Q o 5. o O o stripes, but of a general blend-
. ' ‘ " ing of wall surface. Observe
,5 C" 1.; "g .5 that the colored or shaded
V ‘ ‘1 I " i i . ' Y portions of the pattern are
broad, alternating with a con-
. O / .c-‘P ', 1 ° necting link of narrow color,
I " ' ; ,< while opposite this connecting
7 link, on each side, are the broad
portions of the contrasting
color. A study of Fig. 36 in comparison with Fig. 30 will
show that the effort to prevent continuity or the effect of a
stripe is the same in each case, and the principle by which
this appearance is prevented is identical in each case, though
the patterns themselves are utterly unlike in principle, type,
and manner of execution.





FIG. 36.
58. In Fig. 37, taken from a tomb at Thebes, we have a
combination of the scroll and the lotus as the running ele-
ments of the design, and the scarabaeus and lotus rosette as
surface elements or inlays. In this design, five sets of scroll
lines spring from each center, the two upper ones branching
out to form the top of an enclosing panel and to form the
continuity from one scroll to another, while of the three
lower ones, one connects in a horizontal direction the th
lower scrolls, and the other two serve to form a bottom of a
panel and preserve the line of continuity to the scroll below.


§3 ' HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 45
Simple as this arrangement is, it illustrates the ingenuity
of the designer. From every springing point, the three
characteristic petals of the lotus flower are exhibited, while
from the bottom of each pair
of scrolls the spreading petals
of the full-blown blossom are
used to fill the space. In each
alternate panel, both vertically
and horizontally, the scara-
baaus appears in its character-
istic hieroglyphic form, and in
each alternate panel between
is a rosette based on the lotus
blossom.


59. ' It will be unnecessary
to describe all the character-
istics of the design in Fig. 38; the student will simply observe
that the scroll here consists of but four springing lines, and
these are apparently made to serve the same purpose as five
in the previous case. The panels enclosed between the lines
of the scroll are of a different
character, and, though filled
with devices similar to the
ones in Fig. 37, the general
appearance of the design is
totally different. We have
one element in this design,
however, that differs from
any of the previous ones dis-
cussed, and makes a portion
of it belong to the second
class of Egyptian ornament.
heretofore deseribed; that
is, the hieroglyphic represen-
tation of a fact, the little devices in alternate spaces being
hieroglyphic writings descriptive of some of the acts and
doings connected with the life of the person to whom the


I
xii.
Q


46 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
tomb was erected. All this ornament was richly colored,
and the effect of it on the walls was due as much to-its
system of coloring as to the design itself.
60. It is impossible here to express in each case, without
means of color, the characteristic appearance of each design,
but the main point is to exhibit the ingenuity and invention
of the Egyptian artist in his portrayal of a multitude of
different designs, all based on exactly the same idea, and
using less than half a dozen different forms. In spite of
their simplicity, a careful study of each one of the designs
here illustrated will always bring forth a new point so subtle
that, though when once discovered it appears most promi-
nent, it has for a long time previous remained undiscovered.
61. Egyptian Coloring.-In general effect, Egyptian
ornament was brilliant and many-colored. The reason for
this must be borne in mind: the interiors of the Egyptian's
temples and tombs were pervaded by a deep sepulchral
gloom fittingly symbolizing the mysterious character of his
religious belief, and, in order that the decorations on the
walls should stand out amidst this gloom, it was necessary
that the brightest of colors should be used, or the decoration
would fade into insignificance.
While the Egyptian ornament may be said to be thoroughly
polychromatic, there are many cases where it depended as
much for its expression on carving as on painting. How-
ever, Egyptian ornament may be considered, in a multitude
of cases, as being painted ornament. In their rendering, the
Egyptians used no shades or shadows, and laid their colors
in flat tints only; yet they found no difficulty in conveying
to the mind the identity of each object they desired to repre-
sent, without a suggestion of shade or shadow.
62. The palette of the Egyptian artist contained seven
depressions for seven colors, arranged in the following order:
white, yellow, green, blue, red, dark brown, and black.
There were two kinds of yellow—a bright yellow and yellow
ocher. There were three kinds of blue—an azure blue, a


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 47
greenish blue, and a dark blue. The reds were made of
burnt ocher, and the general tone of Egyptian ornament
seems to have inclined more to yellow than to any other
color. Green was used less than red, yellow, and blue.
The Egyptian oriental blues are more greenish in hue than
a strictly normal blue, and their reds partook of an orange
tinge. They appreciated the fact that colors were affected
much in their appearance when in juxtaposition to one
another, and they made use of this detail to emphasize 0r
detract from the strength of some particular hue.
‘ ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT.’
63. Development.—Although the early architecture of
Western Asia is_ of little importance so far as its direct
influence on the styles of later periods is concerned, it must
be given a certain amount of consideration in order that the
development and growth of certain subsequent forms may
be properly understood under the different conditions.
64. The ornament of Assyria was probably borrowed
from Egypt, as there are many points of resemblance in the
two styles. The sculpture of the Assyrians seems to have
been a development of that of the Egyptians, but descended
from it rather than advanced in scale of perfection. Egyp-
tian sculpture degenerated toward the end of the fourth
century B. C., as it expressed an unnatural swelling of the
limbs that was at first but lightly indicated and gradually
became almost exaggerated—the conventional having been
abandoned for an imperfect attempt at the natural. In.
Assyrian sculpture, the attempt was carried still further,
and, while the general arrangement of a subject and the pose
of a single figure was still conventional, an attempt was
made to express the muscles of the limbs and the rotundity
of the flesh to an extent that destroyed all conventionalism.
In all art, this is a symptom of decline. Nature should be
idealized, not copied.


48 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
I 65. Assyrian ornament is not based altogether on the
same types as the Egyptian, but is represented in the same
way. In both styles, the ornaments appear in relief, as well
as painted, in the nature of hieroglyphic diagrams. With
the exception of the pineapple, and the adaptation of the
Egyptian lotus, Assyrian ornament does not seem to be based
on any natural type, and the natural laws of radiation and


tangential curvature that we find in Egyptian ornament are,
in the Assyrian, observed more as a traditional or borrowed
idea rather than an instinct of the people themselves.
Fig. 39 shows an example of Assyrian sculpture supposed to
illustrate a scene where the king on horseback is hunting,
attended by his servants and arrow bearer. The pose of the
figure and the character of the work is strongly suggestive
of Egyptian origin, but the attempt to express in stone the
muscular roundness of the limbs and other parts is indicative
of a decline in art.
66. The Assyrian religion differed widely from that of
the Egyptians, and, though their combinations of forms


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 49
resembled, somewhat, certain of the Egyptian deities, the
style in which they sculptured them was below the standard
of art and practice in Egypt.
Fig. 40 is an example of this work representing the winged
deity Asshur, in which may be seen the excessive effort to


represent the rotundity of muscular developments. The
attempt to represent the muscular characteristics of this
figure is exceedingly inartistic, and, though the attempt to
present an appearance of power and strength is well carried
out, it is done with much less delicacy and refinement than
we would expect if the work were an example of Egyptian
art. Asshur was the supreme deity in the Assyrian group
of gods, and in the conception of his form there is much that
is suggestive of Egyptian origin. The hawk head and wings


50 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
are surely borrowed from Egypt, and the pose of the body
and limbs is strongly suggestive of Egyptian ideas. The
position of the hands seems to be repeated in nearly every
example of Assyrian ornament where the figure representsa
deity, and is similar to certain Egyptian productions of the
kind, except that the limbs are clumsy and the molding
possesses much less refinement.
67. In Fig. 41 is shown the Assyrian rendering of the
Egyptian lotus, and, in fact, this border, which comes from





Persepolis in Assyria, might easily be considered an attempt to
copy the example of Egyptian ornament shown in Fig. 28 (a).
Fig. 42 shows another example of lotus ornament from the
same city in Assyria, wherein the detail is almost identi-
cal with Fig. 41, but the lotus bud between the two blos-
soms is replaced by a device repre»
senting the pineapple—a fruit that
was sacred in Assyrian art. The close
resemblance of these forms-to those
seen in Egypt is almost indlsputable
evidence that they
were derived from
the latter country,
and the rosette form
shown in Fig. 43,
while it appears fre—
quently in borders
of Assyrian orna-
ment, must undoubtedly have been developed or adapted
from the Egyptian device shown in Fig. 25 (d). A still


FIG. 44.


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 51
cruder adaptation of the Egyptian lotus to carved ornament
in Assyrian work is seen in Fig. 44, wherein the surface of
the petals is simply indented in a harsh, crude manner,
and the outline is carved into seven pointed terminations
of the leaves. The use of this ornament in borders, in
combination with another crude ornament, is shown in
Fig. 45, wherein‘ the outline of the lotus-derived figure
shows a little more refinement, as its lines are more grace-
fully curved, but wherethe connecting lines between it
O‘ O


FIG. 45.
and the interposed device are arcs of a circle, making
the entire composition crude and ina'rtistie. The circu-
lar forms with the three-leaved blossom on top_ may be
representative of pomegranates, the designs of which were
used largely in Assyrian decoration. ‘ However, it is of little
importance in itself what types were used in this art. The
lotus and rosette were undoubtedly borrowed from Egypt;
the latter, both as shown in Fig. 43 and modified in
Fig. 45, are easily traceable to designs seen on the banks
of the Nile.
68. These few ornaments will sufl‘iee to trace the
art of Egypt into Asia Minor' and show in subsequent
styles how their altered introduction into European coun-
tries was able to harmonize with the style already
existing.
U. 0F ILL UB.


52 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
CLASSIC ORNAIVIENT.
GREEK ORNAMENT.
69. Greece and Egypt Compared.—Before entering
on the study of the characteristics of Greek ornament, let us
for a moment compare the conditions and surroundings of
Greece with those of Egypt. Although modern Egypt
covers a considerable extent of country, ancient Egypt
included only the section that bordered on the Nile. In fact,
as we have already suggested, it may be considered simply
as the country that was watered by the annual inundations of
the Nile. The climate here was mild, there being but two
seasons—spring and summer—and there was very little
variety in the daily life of the inhabitants, except what may
have been experienced in the celebration of some national or
religious festival.
70. Greece, on the contrary, presents entirely different
conditions. It is on the sea, and throughout its long broken
shores, the tide ebhs and flows and penetrates far inland
through the long clefts in its coast. Greece has many moun-
tains, too, and this affected her climate inasmuch as they
served as watersheds, carrying the rains down and fertilizing
the valleys. 'The country, however, is far enough south to
receive a tropical sun, and, although its climate ranges from
severe cold in winter toa fierce heat in summer, the majority
of the time its temperature is warm and comfortable.
71. Character of the Greeks.—The people of Greece
were brave, active, and athletic; their Olympian games were
world renowned. Their bodily culture was extremely fine,
but did not compare with their intellect, which was more
developed than that of any other nation. The Greek lan-
guage is rare and complete in structure, and Greek literature
is unsurpassed. The Greek religion was polytheistic, but
the Greeks did not devote as much attention to the worship


§3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 53
of their gods as did the Egyptians. True, they erected vast
temples and costly monuments to Athena, Apollo, Zeus,
Erectheus, and other deities, and these temples, exquisite
in form, proportion, simplicity, and perfect harmony, are
examples of the finest architecture that the world has ever
seen. Notwithstanding this mark of reverence to- their gods,
the Greeks did not embody into every branch of their art
some detail or reminder of their religious duties and inclina-
tions as did the artists of Egypt. The form of the Greek’s
worship was, in some respects, almost as complicated as that
of the Egyptian, but his intellect seemed to be more
advanced and he was bound less by a superstitious interest
in the future condition of his soul, and his fancies naturally
sought ideas that in themselves were beautiful to think of
and to look at, rather than suggestive of gloom and forebo-
dings concerning an uncertain future existence.
The development of Greek art then takes place along an
entirely different line from that of Egypt, and though it goes
as directly and intelligently to a point of climax, the result-
ing forms are' totally different in their character, meaning,
and influence on subsequent styles.
72. We have seen, how the Egyptian artists derived
their ideas for ornamental design directly from nature, that
their types were few, and that they remained unchanged
throughout the entire course of Egyptian civilization, except
in the degree of perfection of execution; and, in this detail,
the greatest perfection existed in the most antique examples.
We have studied that the Assyrian was a borrowed style
and possessed no characteristics of an inspired art, but
appeared to have been suggested by the art of Egypt, and
that the suggestions borrowed from the Egyptian style were
during its decline, and the Assyrian artist, instead of advan-
cing on the style, carried that decline still further. With
Greek art, however, we find a vast difference. It was
undoubtedly borrowed from both Egypt and Assyria, but
was developed in an entirely new direction, and, unre-
stricted by any complicated religious laws, as both Egyptian


54 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3
and Assyrian art seem to have been, the Greek adoption
rose rapidly to a high degree of perfection. Though the
influence of Egyptian and Assyrian art can be traced in
many details of Greek designs, those influences are entirely
subordinated to the Greek feeling applied in their introduc-
tion. Neither the art of Egypt or Assyria can be considered
to play an important part in the styles of subsequent gener-
ations, but the art of Greece pervades all subsequent history.
73. It must be considered, in the study of the Greek
styles, that the remarkable development was due to their
introduction into Greece at a critical period of the art devel-
opment of that country. Greek art carried the perfection
of pure form to a point that has never since been reached,
and the abundant remains of Greek ornament compel us to
believe that refined taste was universal, and that the country
was overflowing with skilled hands and minds so trained as
to enable them to execute these beautiful ornaments with
uncrring precision and truth.
The beauty of Greek ornament, however, lies almost
exclusively in its symmetry and form. It is lacking in one
of the greatest charms that should always accompany orna~
ment, viz., synzbolzkm; and, despite the pleasure we experi-
ence in its beautiful gradations of form and color, Greek
ornament is meaningless, purely decorative, never repre-
sentative, and in few cases it is, in the stricter sense, hardly
even constructive.
74. Architecture.—In the architecture, the various
members of a Greek monument presented exquisitely
designed surfaces to receive ornament, which at first was
simply painted and in later times carved and painted, but
the ornament formed no such essential part of the construc-
tion as did that of the Egyptians. It could often be
removed and the structure remain unchanged.
On the Corinthian capital (Fig. 50), the ornament is
applied to the surface and is hardly constructed as a part
of the capital itself. Remove the scrolls and foliated


.iw,.




FIG. 46.


56 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
ornament and there still remains sufi‘icient substance and
material for the pier to carry out its purpose. On the Egyp-
tian capital, however, Fig. 16, the whole capital is an orna-
men t, and to remove any portion 'of it would be to destroy both
the ornament and structural purpose of the column itself.
.75. Sculpture.—In addition to the skill of the Greek
artist as a designer, his unerring truth in the use of his
chisel renders the work of the earlier periods remarkably
interesting to us, but the monumental sculpture of the
Greeks frequently went beyond the bounds of ornament.
For instance, in the frieze of the Parthenon, Fig. 46, though
comp0sed of a series of groups of draped figures, the orna-
ment was so far above the eye that it became a mere diagram
—an ornamental band around the top of the building, the
beauties of which are simply astonishing when observed
more closely. Every detail of each of the panels was as
minutely wrought as though it were to receive the closest
inspection. The folds of the garments and the molding of
the limbs, even on the side away from the eye, that could
never be seen unless the panel was removed from the menu-
ment itself, are as carefully modeled as those most prom-
inently in sight. -
Conscientious as this treatment may appear to be, sys
tematie and honest as is the execution of a design that was
dedicated to one of their gods, we are bound to consider
this an abuse of means as a work of art design, and that the
Greeks were, in this respect, inferior to the Egyptians,
whose system of broad conventionalized ornament for mom-
umental sculpture served its purpose to better effect.
76. Representative Types. The examples of Greek
representative ornament are f cw. In the earlier wall paint.
ing, there is a wavy ornament—a fret, somewhat similar to
the Egyptian, used to distinguish water from land and a
few conventional renderings of trees, but nothing of impor-
tance was done in this line in the later history of Greek art.
In the decorative ornament of the Greek vases, however,
_ there is abundant material to assure us that we have examples


§ 8 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 57
of every type of Greek ornament in all its phases. The
types are few, but, in their conventional rendering, are so
far removed that it is difl‘ieult to recognize any attempt at
imitation. An examination of the wall paintings and vases
leads to the belief that the forms
of the leaves of the Greek flowers
are due more to the limitations of
brush work than to any direct imita—
tion of the natural flower.
The six forms shown in Fig. 47 PM 4,
constitute about all the leaf strokes
that are found throughout Greek ornament, but these six
forms were applied to a variety of purposes, the extent of
which is almost past belief.
'77. The Three Great Laws of NaturaéThat the
Greek artists carefully observed the principle on which cer-
tain plants grew, and carried that principle out conscien-
tiously in the execution of their designs, cannot be doubted.
They were close observers of nature, and although they did
not copy or attempt to imitate or make true portraits of any
natural forms, they never violated a natural principle. The
three great laws of nature—radialion from the parent slam,
the proportionate distribution of arms, and {/10 tangent/in!
curwalure of the lines—are always obeyed; and it is the
unerring perfection with which they are carried out in the
most humble works, as well as those of the greatest impor-
tance, that fills us with astonishment at the conscientious
scruples of ,the Greek artist.
Before we analyze examples of Greek ornament, we must
first consider the architecture. The Greek, like the Egyp-
tian, spanned his architectural opening with a lintel, and
though the width of the opening was, like that of the Egyp-
tian, governed by the length of the lintel that could be con-
veniently quarried, the Greek’s knowledge of statics and
his highly intellectual mind rendered him more inclined to
develop artistic proportions, between the support and the
material supported, than is found in any Egyptian work.
IIIIVERSHY N
‘JNDIS UN
in mun-came“


58
§3
HISTORIC ORNAMENT.
78. Orders of Design.—-As before stated, the capitals
of the Egyptian columns Were of but three styles—the lotus
bud, the lotus blossom, and the palm. These were varied
more or less in different locali-




FlG. 48.
of a pair of scrolls,
or volutes, supported
upon a thumb mold-
ing similar to a (limin-
ished form of the Doric,
as shown in Fig. 4.0;
and the Corinthian
order, Fig. 50, whose
capital has been before
referred to. In the
last named, the top of
the column is swelled
out into a bell shape,
not unlike the palm
column of Egypt, but is
decorated with leaves
and vines and scrolls,
and other forms based .
on from the
types
ties, but all being the devel-
opment of a single principle,
can hardly be called different
orders of design from one
another.
In the Greek, how-
ever, we have three distinct
orders, or systems, of design,
the distinguishing character-
istic of each being the capital
of the column; these orders
are the Dorie, whose column is topped with a capital con-
sisting of a simple slab over a thumb-shaped molding, as
shown in Figs. 46 and 48; the Ionic, whose capital consists














!
l

\11. “I‘m
(
FIG. 49.

3
vegetable world. The volute, or scroll, of the Ionic capital
some authorities endeavor to trace back to the lotus blossom;


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 59
other authorities claim that its origin'is in Assyria or Persia,
certain forms of column there being treated with the scroll.
However, it matters little whence came the idea, inasmuch
















FIG. 50.
as it is so elaborated as to bear scarcely any resemblance
to its original type. The bottom, or foot, of each of these
columns differs somewhat from the Egyptian type also.
79. Bases—It will be remembered that the Egyptian
column was usually rounded olf so that it was smaller at the
bottom, and painted or carved, representative of the root of
a growing plant. The Doric column sits flat on the ground


60 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
or plinth without any molded base whatsoever, and its sides
are cut in channels, or grooves, each pair of which meet in
an edge, or arris, that extends all the way to the capital.
These may have been derived from the reedings of the
Egyptian columns, imitative of the reeds of the growing
plant. In fact, it has been practically conceded by nearly
all authoritiesthat the Doric column is a development of
a certain form of Egyptian column; but, as said before,
though the Greeks borrowed ideas from the Egyptians, they
carried them to a higher state of perfection, and in nothing
is this more evident than in the columnar elements of their
architecture.
The bases of the Ionic and Corinthian columns are regu-
larly molded, and though it is difficult to trace any direct
origin to the system of moldings that appear so uniformly
on these bases, it is simply necessary to bear in mind the
fact that, in the three orders of Greece, two of the columns
possess bases, and one of them—the Doric—is without that
detail. The mathematical proportions of these orders we
will consider later, when we can compare them with their
Roman modifications.
80. Classic Moldings.—In Greek architecture all of
the moldings are profiled on the curve of some conic section.
Before analyzing the outlines of these Greek moldings and
the methods of contouring them, let us first give our atten-
tion to the conic sections from which they seem to have been
derived. I
81. In Fig. 51 are shown two similar cones a be and
ade, which are in contact with each other at their vertexes
a, and whose bases (3 c and de are circular and at right angles
to the axes a f and a f’. If either of the cones be intersected
or cut by a plane, which is parallel to one of its elements or
sides, as be, the line of intersection will be a parabola, as at
g]: i; but, if, instead of being parallel to the side be, the
cutting plane makes an angle with it, the curve formed by
the intersection will be either an ellipse or a hyperbola,


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 61
according to the angle. It will be an ellipse when the cut-
ting plane is more nearly parallel with the base of the cone
than it was in the case of the parabola, and passes through
both sides as at jk; and the line of intersection will be a
hyperbola when the cutting
plane is more nearly perpen-
dicular to the base than it was
in the case of the parabola, as
shown at [m n and 0 p g.
82. In the case of the
hyperbola, the plane will
always cut both cones, thereby
giving two branches to the
curve_ and these branches will
be farther apart as the cutting
plane recedes from the axes of
the cones. The nearer the
plane approaches the axes of
the cones, the straighter will
become the sides of the inter-
secting curve, and as the plane
recedes from the axes, the rounder and nearer circular will
be the intersection, though no matter how closely the curve
of intersection may approach the arc of a circle, it can never
become absolutely circular in form.
The hyperbola becomes two intersecting straight lines
when the plane passes through the vertex; these two lines
are most divergent when the plane is parallel with the axes
of the cones, and gradually become closer together as the
plane approaches a position parallel with the side of the
cone, where the hyperbola reaches its limit in a straight line.
This straight line is the common limit of both hyperbola and
parabola, as any deviation from it will produce one or the other
of these curves, according to the direction of that deviation.



83. As the plane of the ellipse becomes more nearly
parallel to the base of the cone, the ellipse approaches the


62 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
form of a circle, which it finally becomes, when the axis of
the cone and the cutting plane are perpendicular to each
other, as at r: t, and as the plane of the ellipse approaches
the vertex of the cone the ellipse diminishes in size until it
reaches its limit in a point. From a point to a circle, then,
is the limit of curvature of the ellipse.
84. In Geometrical Drawing, methods are given in
examples 23 and 25 for drawing an ellipse and a parabola of
any desired proportions, and it is only necessary to add here
the method of contouring the hyperbola.
To draw a hyperbola of a given width and height, the axis
ab, Fig. 52, is laid down perpendicular to the width cd, in
the same manner as for the parabola, and the rectangle c d f e
is constructed with 60' equal to the base of the hyperbola,
and the height 00 equal to the
axis (11). Divide one half the
base and also each side into any
number _of equal parts, and con-
nect the points of division on the
sides with the vertex a by means
of the lines a 1, a2, a3, etc. The
points of division on the base are
connected by lines to some point x
on the line of the axis a [1 extended;
the points of intersection of these
two series of lines will determine
points on the hyperbolic curve,
taking the lines in the order as
they recede from point e; x can
be at any distance above a, and
the curved lines ac and ad will
_ approach more nearly the curves
of the parabola as the point 1 becomes more remote. On
the other hand, the nearer the point .r is to the vertex a,
the more ac and ad will approximate to a straight line,
and when points x and a coincide, the line ac will be a
straight line.


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 63.
85. To draw a tangent to any point of the hyperbola,
first draw a line from the desired point g perpendicular to
the axis a b, and on the extended axis a 1', describe the semi-
circle akx, with a radius la equal to .} ax; then, with a
radius equal to g I ll, describe the semicircle lk/z intersecting
aim: at k; draw kz' per-
pendicular to a x, and
connect ig; then ig m will
be the tangent required.

A
A:

86. There are, gener-
ally speaking, eight mold-
ings used to separate
different members and
surfacesfrom one another,
and these eight are shown
in Fig. 53. The fillet A
is simply a square-edged
band used to separate
individual members of a
group of moldings. The
(yum room B is more
commonly known as a
crown molding, as it is
' used in the uppermost
portions of a composition;
at C is the gum reru'rsa,
the contour of which is
the direct opposite of l)’;
at D is the media, or hol-
low molding ;‘ at E is the
a/zz'nus, or egg-shaped
molding, at F is the bead,
a small molding similar in use to the fillet, but with a
round, instead of rectangular, section. At G is the scolia,
the contour of which is practically the reverse of the echinus;
~and at H= is the torus molding, used almost exclusively
around the bases of the columns, as shown in Figs. 49 and 50,
g,

aghast
new
FIG. 53.


64 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
wherein the bases of the Ionic and Corinthian columns each
consist of two torus moldings, separated by a sauna and
fil/els. In Fig. 48, the principal molding at the top of the
Doric column, it will be observed, is the echinus. The
application of the other moldings will be discussed as exam-
ples of them occur.
87. Doric 0rder.—As seen in the illustration of the
Parthenon, Fig. 46, there is little carved ornament in the
Doric order, except such as appears in the sculpture of
figures and animals, and, though in the Ionic order there are
a few examples of relief ornament, it is in the Corinthian
order we find the greatest relief and broadest demonstration
of surface work.
88. Ionic Order.—In Fig. 54 is shown a frieze from
the principal Ionic temple in Athens, the Erechtheum, the
style of which is typ-
ical of this class of relief
ornament throughout
Greek design. It is
plainly a development;
‘ in relief, of the brush
forms shown in Fig. 47;
and the addition of
scrolls at the bottom,
and leaves, from which
the forms appear to
spring, is due to a conventionalization of the acanthus leaf,
which first makes its appearance in art through its introduc-
tion into Greek architecture.



89. Corinthian Order.—In Fig. 55, however, is shown
a section of ornament from the choragic monument of Lysic-
rates at Athens. This is the principal. structure of Greek
origin designed in the Corinthian order. Fig. 55 is an orna-
ment from the top of the above monument, and shows not
only the elaboration of ornament characteristic of this order,
but also a principle of ornamental design that is of the


§3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 65
utmost importance in its relation to the lack of invention of
new forms and the restraining influences of certain art
periods. It will be observed here that the various parts of


FIG. 55.
the acanthus scroll grow out of one another in a continuous
line. This is a principle of design that originated with the
Greeks, and was continued by the Romans, after which, as
we shall see, it was abandoned, and the abandonment of this
simple principle was sufficient to gen-
erate an entirely new order of forms
and ideas.
In Fig. 56 is shown a form of
the acanthus leaf taken from the
Tower of the Winds at Athens. It
is purely conventional in form, pos-
sessinga broad, bold treatment, nec-
essary for its execution in stone, and
following closely the principles of the
growing -plant, as do all other developments in Greek
ornament.


FIG. 56.


66 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
These few examples of Greek constructive ornament
are most important just now, as they contain the principles
from which certain later forms were developed, though they
are of no great importance in subsequent history, except so
far as they were developed and extended by the more
voluptuous though degraded art of Rome.
90. Surface Ornmnent.—Of the surface ornament,
purely decorative in character, we have a great variety in
Greece, though all of it is based on a few simple types, and
restricted almost entirely to variations of the brush forms
shown in Fig. 47. The first exceptions to this, however, are
the fret forms used extensively both in the architecture and
—
(a)


(b)
' ‘ FIG. 57.
ceramics, of which Fig. 57 (a) and (b) are typical examples.
The meandering line of Fig. 57 (a) is continuous and forms
the entire pattern, while in (b) the pattern is composed of
two lines that are carried through the fret parallel, to its
center, where they cross each other and retrace their steps
out of the labyrinth.
91. In Fig. 58 is a portion of a repeating border consist-
ing of a number of brush strokes in the form of a palmcflz' or


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 67
ant/zemz'on, and then enclosed in a single stroke, by which it
is joined to a repetition of the same form. This is typical in
certain classes of Greek pottery, and is
usually executed in a reddish color on a
black ground.
92. Anthemion.—The anthemion is
one of the most characteristic of Greek
forms. It exemplifies most perfectly the
beauty of radiation, of tangential union,
and of the proportionate distribution of
areas. In Fig. 59 is shown at (a) an
ornamental form occasionally met with
in the earliest examples of Greek work,
whose identity can be readily traced
back to the lotus by comparison with
Fig. 15 The Greek development of
this form into Fig. 59 (b) is not hard to
comprehend. The radiating leaves are
made larger and fewer. The calyx, from
which they spring, is diminished to a couple of conventional
scrolls, and a sweeping out-
line encloses the whole device.
The figure is sufficiently like
that in the design shown in
Fig. 58 to establish the origin
of the latter; and, in fact,
numerous cases of the appli-
(b) cation of the anthemion or
palmette ornament, both in
sculptured and painted work, will be met throughout the
study of Greek art.


FIG. 58.


FIG. .59.
93. Greek Lily.—In Fig. 60 is shown another pattern
‘ where the palmette is formed of brush strokes in black upon
a reddish ground, with a form somewhat resembling the
Greek lily betWeen each pair. The palmette form in this
figure is rather more densely drawn than the anthemion in


68 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
Fig. 58, and is representative of the class of ornament usually
termed the Greek lwnrysucklc. The conventional form
between these anthemions just referred to—the Greek
NQ/a’Ne/aNe/a


I


FIG. 60.
lily—is traceable back to the old Egyptian lotus form, as
are many other Greek details.
Fig. 61 shows at (a) an outline form of the lotus seen in
many of the hieroglyphs. Variations of the form shown at
(b) are seen in both Egyptian and Greek work, while at (c)
(a) (b) (0)
FIG. 61.
is the brush-stroke device, usually distinguished under the
name of the Greek lz'ly.
The foliated form between the palmettes in Fig. 60 is
undoubtedly an adaptation of the lily to fit around the brush
strokes of the intermediate figures, and the reaching of the
outward leaves back toward each other is suggestive of
the treatment of the lotus flower, both as used in Assyria,
Fig. 41, and in Egypt, Fig. 28 (a).


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 69
94. In Fig. 62 we have a rosette pattern, repeated at
intervals in reddish color on a black ground, that is almost
undoubtedly of Egyptian origin, as shown in Fig. 25,
although its developmeflt on a similar line of thought may


FIG. 62.
have been reached in Greek art. It is painted around the
necks and bases of many vases, however, and is used so
much in Greek ceramics that we associate it very largely with
that style of art.
95. Fig. 63, another pattern undoubtedly of Egyptian
origin, brings us to the consideration of the scroll in the
surface decoration of Greek work. This pattern must cer-
tainly have been borrowed from the symbol of the Nile seen






FIG. w.
in the Egyptian hieroglyphs, and though there has been
little change in the idea, we find a refinement of its propor-
tion and lines, and an improvement in its details from an art
standpoint, even though it has lost all its symbolic character.
96. Fig. 64 is another adaptation of an Egyptian idea, as
may be seen by referring to Fig. 26, wherein the scroll is


70 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
repeated as growing out from a device of the same kind, and
a foliated form, slightly suggestive of the lotus, fills the
space between each pair. The rosette, similar to that shown
in Fig. 62, is also used as a termination of this scroll, and




Flo. 64.
this combination of the scroll growing out of the scroll and
terminating in a rosette or flower, is of vast importance in
Roman art, although on this simple vase border is the first
place we find it among the Greeks.
97. Gullloche.—In Fig. 65 is shown an interlaced
ornament used almost entirely in carved work on the torus
run/dings at the base of a column. It represents, supposedly,
the woven bands around the bottom of a shaft composed of


FIG. 65.
a bunch of reeds, and serves to bind them together. The
name of the ornament is a gullloche, and different forms
of it, varying in complexity, are found throughout Greek
art.
98. Fig. 66 shows examples of raised or relieved orna-
ment, as seen in the details of the temple of Athena Polias,


§3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 71





‘ -.l MW} MM“












Mi ruin


FIG. 66.
all»...A'it'hMi'lii!iii!lh'ii '
in the Erechtheum at
Athens. The enrichment
on the cyma recta j is
thelotus-flowerornament,
and is carved in very low
relief; that is, cut so as
to be raised slightly above
the surface of the mold-
ing, and not sunk into it,
as was customary with the
Egyptians (see Fig. 20).
As we examine later
monuments of Greek
architecture, we find the
relief of the carvings
increasing, until, when we
reach the Greco-Roman
period, the stems and
stalks are in many
instances so under-cut as
to be almost clear of the
molding.
The waterleaf carving
on the cyma 'reversa
occurs three times in this
entablature, and is of
varied form, according to
its location. Up under
the corona at a, where
the shadow is deep and
dark, the waterleaf is cut
broad and bold, but imme-
diately below the cyma
at b, and above the upper
facia at r, the lines of the
leaf are drawn longer and
narrower, so that the
.moldings appear in more


72 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
delicacy of outline, where the full strength of the light
strikes it. The same thing may be said of the bead mold-
ings under the corona at d and under each of the two lower
cymae reversa: at e and f. The one in the shadow of the
corona, as at d, is cut into long beads, while the one above
the corona, as at e', is divided into much more minute
divisions; and the one on the top of the upper facia, as
atf, being in the strongest light of all, is turned into
forms where the bead is simply a tiny sphere between
two pairs of disks of the same diameter. The egg-and-
dart ornament of the ovolo occurs here above the corona
of the entablature at g and under the guilloche and volutes
of the capital, the only difference in these two examples being
that the one above the corona is carved upon a straight ovolo
extending along the top of the corona, while the other is
carved in the circular echinus surrounding the top of the
column. The honeysuckle ornament cut on the neck of the
column is in low relief, the same as that upon the crown
moldingj. The guilloche immediately under the lines of
the volute is carved as a thin strap, loosely braided, around
the top of the column, and the same ornament is cut on the
upper torus of the base.
99. 'Poiychromy is the term applied to the ornamenta—
tion of sculptured and architectural works by means of colors.
In ancient buildings these colors were made to cover both flat
surfaces and architectural details, while in statues or individ-
ual portions of the human figure and drapery, and in other
products of plastic art, separate features of a sculptured
ornament were colored in a manner characteristic of the
subject.
Egyptian polychromy, on columns, bases, capitals, entab-
latures, wall spaces, and, in fact, almost everything of an
architectural character, expressed itself in a series of highly ‘
colored designs in low relief, consisting mostly of figures and
hieroglyphs, and often of purely decorative ornament.
In Greek architecture a complete system of color had been
developed at an early period, particularly as applied to Doric


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 73
temples, upon numerous remains of which traces of this
colorin'g are distinguishable.
The principal use of color in architecture is to bring out
decoration. Surfaces may be relieved bya rich play of color
without actual relief,
and ideas may with
facility be expressed by
colors, when the object
they embellish calls for
the widest possible
range of imagination
and fancy. Still, color
has its own province,
and to a certain extent
its own series of forms,
and must therefore be treated in its
own manner. A harmonious inter-
play of colors, with correct propor-
tion in the distribution of each, is
characteristic of a fine work of art.
In truly artistic periods, color has
never been made use of to produce
artificial shadows or to bring out
artificial depths and reliefs; nor has
it in any way been employed as a
makeshift for them.




100. Figs. 67 and 68 showa num-
ber of examples of Greek painted ornament in which the fret and the
lotus and honeysuckle ornament are I ' ' ’
both prominent. Red, yellow, blue, '
and green were the principal colors
usedby the Greeks in these decora-
tions, but they were so toned down and softened that the
glare and harshness of such brilliant colors were blended
into one delightful monotint as one viewed their struc-
tures from a distance. Fig. 67 is a portion of the capital.





FIG. 67.


74 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §
entablature, and pediment of the Greek Doric order, vwith
the characteristic polychromatic ornamentation. The fret-
work on the abacus at a was usually executed in a dark
red or black, while the groundwork was pale yellow or
orange. The egg-and-dart ornament on the echinus of the
capital 6 was generally printed in red on a dark-blue
ground. The triglyphs c were nearly always blue, and any
ornament e on them was executed in red. The metopes f
were generally red, and the sculptured figures with which
the metopes were ornamented were painted in tints that
represented the color and texture of their garments.
The fret drawn on the twnia, or fillet, gand those on the
corona and epitithidas, as at /l and a’, were usually executed
in gold, though occasionally in red. The regula: j were
blue with red drops, or guttae k, as were also the mutules l,
.. V - but the soflit of the corona
m, shown in Fig.‘68, was
red. The small moldings
11 forming the finish to
the corona were generally
painted in light colors,
such as red and blue, with
spaces of white alternating
between. The honeysuckle
or lotus ornament, usually found on the cyma recta or ovolo 0,
shown in Fig. 67, when either was the top molding of the
pediment, was carefully outlined in gold, and was always
drawn very lightly and delicately when used to embellish
this top member of the entablature.


FIG. 65.
101. In Fig. 69 we arrive at a more complicated pattern
of the honeysuckle ornament, taken from the temple of
Theseus at Athens. In this example, the palmette forms,
composed of nine brush strokes, were executed in green,
and the scrolls and connecting fine lines between members
of the pattern were worked in gold. The intermediate
blossom between the palmettes, or conventionalized floral
form, was in red, and the whole executed on a creamy


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 75
ground. The effect was naturally very brilliant, the red
and green colors standing out very sharply on the creamy
ground, and contrasting beautifully with each other.
Wig
DIWOJDDOIDPIDIDIDIOJDI
L'I' I M" I "




In their colored ornament, the Greeks appreciated the
strengthening effect of placing one color beside another, and
in much of their work made use of this combination of red
and green on account of its superiority of effect.
In Figs. .70 and 71 are two panels taken from the ceiling
of the Parthenon. \Vhile these at first seem somewhat sim-



//l7/////fi'/i7////é7/7//WIM '-
/, . .



\ “sm-sfifi.“ >‘~t$\i\\\‘t>s\\\\







FIG. 70. FIG. 71.
ilar in appearance, and though both are plainly executed
with purely brush forms, a second examination will show
i


76 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
that they are entirely different as a whole, and unlike in
their detail, except the form of their individual strokes.
The lines of the pattern itself were executed in gold, that of
Fig. 70 being on a red ground with a blue border around it,
while the pattern in Fig. 71 was on a blue ground with a
red border. This difference of coloring emphasized not
only the difference in pattern of the two panels, but, at the
same time, clearly marked the dividing line between them.
102. In Fig. 72 is shown a frieze ornament wherein the
entire design is executed in the contrasting colors of red
and green on a ground of cream. The central stroke of the
honeysuckle ornament and of the figures on each side are
green, and each alternate
brush stroke from them is
green also, with intermediate
strokes of red. The genera-
ting line, which encloses the
honeysuckle ornament and
curves into the base of the
intermediate figure, is green,
but the triangular stroke at the base of the honeysuckle is red.
This design, like the two previous ones discussed, is depend-
ent entirely on the limitaflons of brush work for the char-
acter of its form, while the contrast of color in the different
strokes of its composition gives to the design the brilliancy
of effect in no way obtainable in a pattern executed in a
monotint. -




FIG. 72.
103. Antcflxm.—Rcferring back to Fig. 46, it will be
observed that all along the edge of the roof are a number of
small vertical ornaments. These are antefixre, and are so
placed to close the end of each row of tiles with which the
roof was covered. Though they were carved in marble,
and designed to fit the end of the tile, they were modeled
after the palmette, whose characteristics were governed, as
is so much other Greek ornament, by the capabilities of the
brush stroke.
a


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 77
In Fig. 73 is shown one of these antefixae, the scrolls and
vertical strokes of which were green, and the space between
the two scrolls and each alternate stroke
above them were painted red.
104. Endless examples could be
recalled exhibiting one or more of the
numerous characteristics of Greek orna-
ment, but, like the Egyptians, their.
types were few, and it is the repetition
of a single idea, or its combination with
not more than one other idea, that lends
what variety there is to Greek ornament.
There are one or two forms used in later art that undoubt-
edly had their origin on Greek soil, but they were developed
to so much greater extent in a later period that their details
will be considered in the later style.


FIG. 78.
ETRUSCAN O RNAM ENT.
105. The Etruscans were a people inhabiting the middle
part of Italy from a period of most remote antiquity. It is
probable that they came originally from the same Asiatic
race as did the Greeks, and their occupation of Italy seems
to date from about the same period as the settlement of
Greece. Their language has never been translated, how-
ever, and we therefore have no written history to verify this
belief.
106. In the settlement of Rome, the Etruscans played
an important part. They were a highly artistic people, while
the early Roman was a warrior and had no art taste what-
ever. The Etruscans introduced the arch into the construc-
tions of public utility, and in that way it found a place in the
architecture of Rome. Besides their skill as builders, the
Etruscans were particularly deft in ceramics and goldsmith-
cry, and, though the character of their designs bears a strong


78 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
resemblance to those of Egypt and Greece, their style was
unique, and was developed on independent lines. In designs
and workings for jewelry, they were original and skilled, and
Etruscan jewelry was much sought even in artistic Greece.
Under their skilful hands, every conceivable object was
worked into the design. Flowers, fruits, figures, vases,
cornucopia, rose work, crescents, ellipsoidal balls, and chains
of all sorts and sizes found a place in their jewelry designs.
They used the emerald a great deal more than any other
of the precious stones, on account of a superstition that it
possessed medical qualities, but pearls, glass paste, cameos,
and intaglios were used also, and the variety and taste in
this line of ornament exceeded that of any other nation.
107. 'There are many objects of Etruscan design that
are still considered masterpieces of art; and diadems, crowns,
necklaces, ear drops, bracelets, hairpins, and rings are still
designed on the lines originated by the Etruscan goldsmiths.
Scarabaei are very frequently introduced in these designs,
and are sometimes used as a link to unite two parts. In
fact, this device appears so frequently in their jewels, uten-
sils, sword hilts, etc. that it would appear probable that the


Etruscans worshiped this insect, or associated it with some
superstitious idea. The scarabaaus of the Etruscans differed
materially from that of the Egyptians, inasmuch as it was
usually carved of precious stone, or metal, whereas the Egyp-
tian device was most frequently painted, though many of
them were worked in metal and worn as rings and jewelry.


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 79
108. In Fig. 74 is shown a necklace, the centerpiece of
which consists of an elaborate piece of goldsmith's work, set
with precious stones, the central stone being a large emerald
carved in the form of a face. The connecting links of the
chain are designed in gold with intermittent precious stones.
This is characteristic of all Etruscan ornament, and only one
illustration is introduced here, as it is simply necessary to
consider Etruscan art briefly, in order to preserve the thread
of history, that we may better understand the influence of
these people on the art of Rome.
GREGG-ROMAN ORNAMENT.
109. Historical Relations.—-In the year 146 B. C.,
Greece was conquered by Rome, and the progress of pure
Greek art suddenly ceased. The invasion of Greece and her
_ colonies, by Roman workmen, caused the art,after this period,
to become more and more tainted with the unrefined taste
of the conquering nation. On the other hand, Greek artists
executed vast works on Roman soil, and the subjected nation
became the leaders of fashion in matters of art.
The subtle refinement of the Greek, however, became lost
in the extravagant demands of Roman taste, and the result-
ing Roman art possessed none of the finer characteristics of
the Greek style. Greek art was delicate, refined, and poetic
——Rornan art was voluptuous, vulgar, and extravagant.
Greek art was an expression of pure beauty—Roman art was
an ostentatious display. '
110. During the period of transition when Greek forms
were undergoing degradation at home, and conquering
Roman art abroad, the style assumed a peculiar form that
was neither Greek nor Roman. This style we will now con-
sider under the name of Greco-Roman, though in modern
times it is more often termed Pom/man from the fact that
we derive the bulk of our information concerning it from
the recently excavated city of Pompeii, which was destroyed
through an eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in the year 79 A. D.


80 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
111. After Greece came under Roman dominion, the
(Ever increasing introduction of Greek art into the Roman
school caused the productions from Etruria to assume pecul-
iar characteristics, as the local works of art yielded entirely
to the influence of the conquered country. The ancient
Romans possessed nothing of their own worthy of the name
of art. In their earliest period, they borrowed ideas from
the Etruscan builders, and it is from them that the use of
the vault and arch are introduced for the first time in archi-
tecture. This introduction of a new architectural principle
naturally wrought a change in the character of the ornament,
and the workmen from Etruria, under the influence of, and
association with, the workmen from the Greek colonies,
naturally combined the art of Greece with the structural and
engineering devices of their native country. When the gen-
erals of the Roman army returned from conquered Greece
and brought back as plunder the objects of art that decorated
Greece and her temples, they converted Rome into a museum
of Greek antiquities, the presence of which changed and
directed the Roman taste.
112. Mural Painting—In decorative painting, par-
ticularly that applied to the walls of dwelling houses, the
Romans borrowed everything they could from Greece, and
Greek art became the ruling fashion of Rome. We know
little of the plan of the Greek residences, and nothing of
their decoration, but it is safe to assume that the decorations
of the houses of Pompeii and Herculaneum were patterned
after the decorations of the Greek dwellings seen by the
- Roman generals in their campaign in that country. These
two cities were suburbs of Rome, and possessed much the
same character as a modern summer resort. The decora-
tions of the walls, ceilings, and pavements are totally differ-
ent from anything we find in Rome, and, at the same time,
show elements that must undoubtedly have originated in
Greece.
These wall paintings are not all of the same value, and a
number of them seem to have been executed by inferior


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 81
artists, but the beauty of others has led to the belief that
they were copies and repetitions of Greek work of great
celebrity.
113. Besides decorative painting at Pompeii, we find a
more or less imperfect polychromatic coloring in mosaic.
This branch of Roman art, therefore, became subjected to
serious modifications, The Romans already possessed a rudi-
mentary knowledge of mosaic work and they now received
examples of it from the hands of the Greeks, in a more
advanced state; but the inherent love of luxury in wealthy
Rome, and the general contempt for matters of expense,
caused the taste for mosaic work to increase and acquire
real progress.
The Romans, however, were not long perverting the nature
of the art that the Greeks had transmitted to them. The
exquisite taste possessed by the Greeks, and displayed in
their distribution of ornament, together with their advanced
imitative science, would have enabled them to have realized
charming conceptions in mosaic, and the Greeks would never
have attempted to place mosaic in competition with the high-
est prerogatives of painting.
114. The Greeks are supposed to have designed the
compartment of their own paved floors to represent such
ornaments as branches, scrolls, festoons, and interlacings,
and Possibly passed onwards from these capricious forms—
somewhat of the nature of arabesques—to more significant
symbols and attributes, such as griffins, chimeras, tragic and
comic masks, signs of the zodiac, birds, fruits, etc. It may
even be inferred that the idea must have occurred to them
to inlay a scene in the center panel of some of their richer
pavements. At any rate, whatever the Greeks saw fit to
work in their mosaic, must certainly have been designed in
temperance, good taste, and with the highest artistic feeling.
115. It was characteristic of the Romans to carry every-
thing to excess; and, as the Romans admired mosaics, they
wished to have them everywhere '


82 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 3
They were no longer satisfied to floor their courts and
lower rooms with them, but inserted them in the sides of
their walls, in the soffits of their arches, and in their ceil-
ings. In fact, it is probable that they made more use of
them in the latter positions than in the floors, as they soon
became to be deemed of too great beauty and value to be
trampled under foot.
Now, with the introduction of mosaic pictures in the side
walls, ordinary pebbles, stones, natural or colored marbles,
paste, and terra cotta were unable to contend with the bril-
liancy of paintings, especially as the taste of painters seemed
to be impelled by a mad love of gaudy color and richness,
so they introduced red, purple, and azure pigments, and
metallic gold and silver to produce a deceptive glitter and
striking contrast. Mosaic consequently demanded fresh
resources, and various precious stones, such as agate, jasper,
carnelian, sardonyx, emerald, turquoise, and lapis lazuli, were
pressed into service, in order to produce the required effects.
Thus, Roman mosaic work became an ornamental untruth.
Its productions claimed to be portraits of various objects,
executed solely to please the eye, and of materials best
suited to the purpose; while, as a matter of fact, they were
incapable of portraying natural forms, and the materials
were more suitable for pavements than for side walls. The
idea was false, and even if the mosaic worker had had more
shades at his command, and the painter had had fewer colors,
the strife would certainly have been much in favor of the
latter. Mosaic could never rationally supersede painting.
1 1 6. Pompeian Ornament—The system of Pompeian
ornament was carried to the very limit of caprice, and almost
any theory of coloring and decoration could be supported by
authority from Pompeii. The general arrangement of the
decoration of the walls in the interior of a Pompeian house
consisted of a dado about one-sixth the height of the room,
on which stood broad pilasters half the width of the dado,
thus dividing the walls into three or more large panels. The
pilasters were united by a frieze at the top, varying in width,


§ 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 83
but usually about one-fourth the height of the wall. The
space above the frieze was frequently left white, and always
subjected to most delicate treatment, representative of clear
sky or open air; and on the background were painted fan-
tastic architectural buildings that form a component part of
the character of the style. In the best examples there was
a gradation of color from the ceiling downwards, ending
usually with black in the dado; but this is far from being a
fixed law.
117. The colors used were mostly yellow, green, red,
and black, and these were used almost indiscriminately for
the various parts. Black or blue was occasionally used for
the panels, but, as a rule, these colors were confined to the
dado. Pilasters of yellow or green seemed to be the more
popular tints, and red, green, and blue, with an occasional
example of black, predominated in the panels. The most
effective arrangement seems to have been a black dado with
red pilasters and frieze, and with yellow, blue, or white
panels, the upper part above the frieze being white with
colored decorations on it. The best arrangement of color
for ornament on the ground appears to have been masses of
green and blue, with sparing use of red and yellow on the
'black grounds; white in thin lines and yellow in masses on
the blue grounds; and white and blue in thin lines on the
red grounds, with a limited use of yellow, as this color is
not very effective on red. The Pompeian yellow approaches
orange in hue, and the red is strongly tinged with blue.
The neutral character of the colors thus enabled them to be
used violently without discord. ' i
118. The whole style of this system of decoration is so
' capricious that it is beyond the range of true art, and strict
criticism cannot be applied to it. It generally pleased the
eye by its novelty, but, though it was not‘ absolutely vulgar,
it oftentimes approached vulgarity, and owed its greatest
charm to the light, sketchy, freehand manner of its execu-
tion, which is quite impossible to render in any modern
drawing.





HISTORIC ORNAMENT.
(PART 2.)
CLASSIC ORNAMENT.
ROLIAN ORNAMENT.
1. Comparison of Roman and Greek Art.~-The real
greatness of the Romans seems to be expressed more in their
theaters, public baths, aqueducts, and other works of a
public character, rather than in the decoration of their tem-
ples. The latter were but the outward expression of a
religion they had acquired largely from the Greeks, and in
which they had little faith, and therefore showed a corre-
sponding want of earnestness in the art worship. In the
Greek temple, it is more than apparent that the great
struggle was to attain a perfection worthy of the gods. In
the Roman temple, the aim was self-glorification. From the
base of the column to the apex of the pediment, every part
of the structure was overloaded with ornament, tending more
to dazzle the eye by the quantity than to excite admiration
by the quality of the work. True, the Greek temples
when painted were as elaborately ornamented as those of
the Romans, but with a, different effect. The ornament
was arranged so that it threw a colored bloom over the
§4
For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page.


2 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. * §4
whole structure, and in no way disturbed the exquisitely
designed surfaces that received it.
The Romans ceased to value general proportions and con-
tours, and destroyed them by elaborate surface modeling,
and extensive'molded ornament. The chief fault of this
system of decoration lies in the fact that it does not seem to
grow naturally from the structure, but is applied directly to
the surface in the same way that was suggested in connec-
tion with the foliage on the Greek-Corinthian capital, only
in the present case it is exaggerated to a greater extent.
THE FIVE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE.
THE GREEK ORDERS-
2. Classic Architecture.—The orders heretofore re-
ferred to furnish us with a standard of proportion with which
we can measure all the classic monuments, and by which the
work of the Renaissance was, and much of the modern archi-
tecture is still, proportioned.
As we have already seen, the structures of the classic ages
were nearly all columnar—either with lintels connecting the
tops of the columns, as the Greeks built, or with arches,
according to the Roman custom. Now, the architects of the
classic ages had reduced to an exact system the proportions
of lengths to thickness in columnar work, and down to the
present day we have been unable to improve on their pro-
portions. This system is universally known as the “ Five
Orders of Architecture," and it embraces every combination
of lines and masses seen in the classic monuments.
In it we find the fundamental principles of proportion,
and only by the most careful study of these principles
can we appreciate the importance of architecture as a
fine art.
3. Archltectural Meaning of 0rder.-—In its archi-
tectural meaning, the term order refers to the system of


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3
columniation practiced by the Greeks and Romans, and is
used to denote the column and entablature together—that is
to say, the upright supporting piers, and the horizontal roof
beams or trabcatz'an supported by them. These two divisions
constitute an order, and so far all orders are alike; but the
form and proportions of the subdivisions of both the col-
umn and the entablature make it necessary to divide the
original Greek orders into three classes, and when these three
were adopted by the Romans, they again divided two of them,
making five in all. Hence, it has become customary, in
referring to the Five Orders of Architecture, to mean the
Roman forms. The three original orders of the Greeks are
the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, as explained before. Each
order is an assemblage of parts subject to uniform, estab-
lished proportions, and is regulated by the office each part
has to perform. This so called “assemblage of parts” refers
to the base, shaft, capital, architrave, frieze, etc., while the
“ uniform, established proportions" are the comparative sizes
of these parts to one another in the same order. “The
office each part has to perform " governs its size, shape, and
position, and thus completes the expression of character in
the order.
4. Greek-Dorlc 011101‘.—Th6 general character of the
Greek-Doric order is expressive of grandeur, dignity, and
simplicity. Hence, we find it used almost exclusively in
temples dedicated to the most revered of the Greek deities,
such as the Parthenon, at Athens. This is the most ancient
of all the classic orders, and the proportions of its parts vary
considerably in the different periods of its history. However,
it reached the zenith of its perfection in the Parthenon, as
shown in Fig. 46 of Historic Ornament, §3, and it is from
the portico of that temple we take the example illustrated in
Fig. 1. It has already been observed that the Greek-Doric
column consisted only of the shaft B filling the space between
the stylobate A and the capital C. The latter is composed
merely of an ec/zinus molding under an abacus, which is the
plain square slab upon which the architrave D rests. The


4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
Greek-Doric order never possessed a base, but stood upon a
stylobate A, which is the substructure or foundation usually
disposed in three steps or divisions that extend entirely around
the building, and by spreading the ground line of the structure,



















>- m;


Flo. 1.
give a proper feeling of solidity and support. In the outline
of the column, we first observe contraction and then expan-
sion; the former where the echinus converges to the neck of
the column, and the latter where the column swells out to
form a firm and substantial support at the bottom, which is


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5
larger than the top. With few exceptions, the column of
the Greek-Dorie order is fluted; that is, its surface is
grooved perpendicularly by a series of concave channels that
touch each other and form a series of ridges, or arrz'srs, upon
its surface—a mode of decoration that is the direct opposite
of that practiced by the Egyptians, some of whose columns
exhibit, not channels, but a series of convex ridges, like a
bunch of reeds or stems bound together. In the Doric order,
the number of channels is either sixteen or twenty, though
in the other orders there are usually twenty-four. The
number varies, but it is invariably divisible by 4.
Doric flutings are much broader and shallower than those
of the Ionic or Corinthian orders—broader for two reasons,
first, because they are fewer in number, and therefore
divide the circumference into larger parts; and, second,
because there are no separating fillets between them. The
shallowness of the Doric flutes is due to the fact that the
arrises, or edges where the flutes come together, would be
thin and liable to breakage if the flutes were deeply cut.
This manner of fluting Doric columns, leaving arrises
between the grooves instead of fillets, has been retained in
modern practice as one of the characteristics of the order.
In the Greek-Doric, every detail is marked by its breadth or
flatness, or by its sharpness. There are no curved moldings
or surfaces except the epitz't/n'das (a term given to the upper-
most member of the corona) and the echinus, the latter
being almost flat on its under side and finished with a sharp
turn‘against the abacus. The breadth and shallowness of
the channels, and the flat curves in which they are formed,
are therefore in perfect keeping with the style, as are also
the sharp arrises between the flutings, which are expres-
sive of a severe simplicity. The horizontal rings, or annu-
ll'ts—mere grooves cut around the neck of the column
to form lines of separation between the capital and the
shaft—are again expressive of the most extreme simplicity,
and are in direct contrast to the projecting astragal, or
convex molding, of the Doric capital as modified by'the
Romans.


6 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §4
The echinus is a simple convex molding, and, from its
shape, is often called a thumb melding. Its form is sug-
gestive of strength, as it expands to connect the dimin-
ished upper end of the column with the overhanging
abacus.
5. Doric Entabluture.—The entablature of the Doric
order is, like the column, the embodiment of'dignitfy and
simplicity. Its lowest division, the arc/zitrave' D, is a plain
beam, whose height, including the taania, or fillet, is a trifle
less than the upper diameter of the column. The middle
division, or frz'e’sz’ E, constitutes a very characteristic feature
of the Doric order, being invariably ornamented with its
trlglyphs and metopes. The former of these consists of
upright blocks about one-half the width of the mean diam-
eter of the column, having their faces grooved with two
V-shaped channels, and their edges chamfered off with
two half channels, thus making three channels altogether,
from which the ornament derives its name of triglyph,
or three-channeled. A portion of the triglyph, called
the filly], extends below the taenia 0f the architrave, and
depending from it are six drops, or guttae, which repre-
sent the heads of treenails or pins used in the early'wood
construction.
In regard to the arrangement of the triglyphs, one was
placed over every column, and one or more over the space
between each pair of columns, but always so spaced that the
metopes, or spaces between the triglyphs, should be exactly
square; in other words, the height of the triglyph was
always equal to the distance between them. In the best
Greek work, there was only one triglyph between each pair
of columns, and this arrangement is usually called monotrz'-
glyp/n'c, or single-triglyphed intercolumniation. A peculi-
arity of the Greek-Doric frieze was that the end triglyphs,
instead of being, like the others, in the same axis, or cen-
tral line, as the columns beneath, were placed quite up
to the edge or outer angle of the frieze. This is accom-
plished by making the extreme intercolumniation less by


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 7
one-half a triglyph than the intermediate ones, thereby
imparting an expression of strength to the angles of the
building.
The triglyphs are thus seen to govern the spacing of the
columns, and as the --
spacing or intercol-
umniation governs
the diameter, and
the diameter gov-
erns the height, etc.,
we see that nearly =— ~W~WL fl . a
all the Proportions of a Doric temple , - 12‘3"“:
can be traced from
the size of its tri-
glyph. There is one
exception to this,
however, and that
is the little choragic
monument of Thra-
syllus, on the south
slope of the Acrop-
olis, at Athens. This
monument has no I
triglyphs, but a
series of wreaths
ornament the frieze in their stead. The guttaa are never-
theless retained, but, instead of being grouped at intervals,
they are continued across the lower side of the taenia unin-
terruptedly, as shown in Fig. 2.















FIG. 2.
6. The Cornice.—The third and last division of the
Doric entablature, the cornice F, though extremely simple,
is strongly characteristic and boldly marked. It is in height
about two-thirds the height of the frieze, and it is divided
into three principal parts, the wrona, with the mum/rs
beneath it, and the alarms above it. The mutules are thin
plates or tablets worked on the soflit, or under side, of the


8 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
corona, directly over each triglyph and each metope. With
the former, they correspond in width, and their soflits, or
under surfaces, are set with a rake, or slant, which makes
them parallel with the_ line of the pediment. They repre-
sent the under side of the wood roof beams that extended
over the eaves in the earlier construction. Three rows of
guttz, or drops, somewhat conical in shape, ornament the
soffits of the mutules, each row corresponding in number
of drops with the guttae on the triglyphs beneath. The
corona. is merely a boldly projecting fiat member, not much
deeper than the abacus of the capital, and examples exist
where it is even less.
The uppermost member of the entablature, the epz'tz'z‘lz-
idas, was sometimes a cymalz'um, or rum/y molding, con-
vex below and concave above, or it was—as in this exam-
ple—an echinus similar in profile to the echinus of the
capital. The cornice is to the entablature what the capital
is to the column, the crowning member of the composition,
completing and ending it in a very artistic and pleasing
manner.
7. The proportions of these architectural orders are
measured in terms of the diameter of the column. Thus,
the diameter of the column in its thickest part is divided
into two portions, called modules, and the proportions of
the order are then measured as being so many modules high
or wide. A module is then divided into 30 subdivisions,
called parts, for the convenience of smaller measurements.
These terms are usually abbreviated to m for modules and p
for parts, and are so designated on the drawing. For
instance, in Fig. 1, the height of the column from the stylo-
bate t0 the architrave is shown to be 11 modules (that is,
51} diameters) and the top step of the stylobate is shown to
be 17% parts in height, while in the cornice F is shown
23 parts; that is, 1% of one-half the diameter of the column.
8. The Ionic Order.—The Ionic order is lighter and
more delicate than the Doric, being expressive of grace and


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 9
refinement rather than of grandeur and dignity. It was
used by the Greeks in temples dedicated to deities repre-
senting the more worldly settlements, such as the temple


FIG. 3.
of Victory and the porch of the temple of Athena Polias,
shown in Fig. 3. '
Although the capital is the distinguishing characteristic,
every detail of the order differs entirely from the Doric.
Besides having the addition of a base, the shaft is taller and
of more slender proportions, and much less tapering. The
example of the Ionic order shown in Fig. 4 is taken from the
porch of the temple of Athena Polias, and shows the order
in the zenith of its perfection. The capital D is not only


10 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
I
more complex, but also more irregular than the Doric capital,




1.15p—
T—
b__ r__._ __ 713m
>—dJi-—T_. _ ._____.r_ __/,,,
>-.u fp— ‘1



m #2," _ _ ..
WW, .
v \‘OU‘MU
xii/‘1 x'L-u'c’



/-;
v
A


FIG. 4.
as it has two faces, or fronts, parallel to the architrave above
it, one of which is shown at D, and two narrower bolster


§4
HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 1]
sides beneath the architrave, of which one is shown in Fig. 5.
This irregularity is considered by
many a defect, which can be obviated
only by turning the volutes diago-
nally, as in some Roman and modern
examples, or by curving concavely
the faces of the capital, instead of
making them planes, thereby obtain-
ing four equal faces.
Ionic capital, as used in the Erech-
theum and in the temple of Nike
However, the





FIG. 5.
Apteros, or \Vingless Victory, on the Acropolis at Athens,
suits its position as well, and is as perfect an architectural
feature as is the Doric order in the Parthenon.
The only objection to the Ionic capital is that in the end
columns of a portico it exhibits an offensive irregularity,


FIG. 8.


because, on the return side of the
building, the bolster or side of the
capital shows itself beneath the
face of the architrave; yet even
this is of no great consequence,
unless the colonnade is continued
down the sides of the building,
and the capitals at the extremities
present their bolster sides to the
observer, while the intermediate
ones show the voluted face. The
Greeks, with their usual inventive
ingenuity, gave the capital at the
angle two adjoining 'voluted faces,
so that it should agree with the
other columns both on the front
and on the flank of the building.
This was accomplished by placing
the volute at the angle diagonally,
so as to obtain there two voluted
surfaces placed immediately back to back, as shown in
Fig. 6, which is an angle capital from an Ionic temple


12 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §4
on the IliSsus River, near Athens. At a in the elevation
(a) is the angle where the volutes
are turned back to back, shown at b
in the plan (b), and in Fig. 7 is
shown a view of these two volutes as
they would appear looking directly at
the corner. We therefore have two
volutes and two bolsters, as in any
Ionic capital; but the volutes are on
two adjacent sides c, d, Fig. 6 (11), while
the bolsters are on the two opposite
adjacent sides 0, A voluted face
was thus kept to the outside on both
sides of a corner, and the columns could be continued entirely
around the cella.
The Ionic order possesses a base that differs in outline and
moldings according to the locality where the example is
found. The best examples existed in Attica—the state of
which Athens was the capital—and the most artistic base,
and the one best adapted to the order is found here, and is
known as the A the [3456, shown at B in Fig. 4. It consists
of two heavy torus moldings, separated by a scotia molding
and resting on a square plinth, or stylobate. The upper
torus is sometimes carved with a guilloche ornament, as
shown, or is left perfectly plain.


9. The shaft C of the column is grooved by tiurrztyfour
flutes, each pair of flutes being separated by a fillet. These
flutes extend from the apophyge, or swelling of the column
shown at a on the base of the shaft, to the astragal, or fillet,
around the neck. The neck is enriched with a carved honey_
suckle ornament, which is carried entirely around the column.
Above the neck is a fillet and bead, and above this is a small
echinus, which is carved with an egg-and-dart ornament.
Resting upon this echinus is a small torus that separates the
echinus from the cushion-like capital, the ends of which are
terminated by the valulz’s. A number of bands are run
across the face of the cushion and rolled up on each side.


§4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 13
The abacus is a flat slab whose molded edge is carved with
an egg-and-dart ornament.
The Ionic entablature, as expressed in modules, is greater
than that of the Doric order; but in proportion to the
length of the column, the Ionic entablature is less than the
Doric. For example, the entablature of the Parthenon
is about 3% modules high, while the Ionic entablature is
about 4% modules high; but 4% modules of a column 18 mod-
ules high equal one-quarter the height of the column, while
3;- modules of a column only 11 modules high equal about
one-third the height of the column, thereby making the
Ionic order lighter and more delicate than its dignified
brother, the Doric. -
10. The Ionic Architrave.—The Ionic architrave does
not differ materially from that of the Doric. Its average
height is equal to the upper diameter of the column, and it
is usually divided into three surfaces, or courses, called facz'as,
which very slightly project one over the other. There are
a few examples where the architrave is left plain, as in the
Doric order, and, in such cases, the moldings are not so
heavy as in this example from the Erechtheum. The Ionic
frieze, being devoid of triglyphs, and having no other char-
acteristic member substituted for them, becomes a mere
plain surface, interposed between the architrave and the
cornice. This plainness may be relieved by carving thereon
figures in bas-relief; but as sculpture of that kind does not
belong to'the character of the entablature, it is never taken
into account in describing the details of the order. The
' Ionic cornice is a simple affair, especially in the Athenian
examples, being merely a corona, with a cyma rccta
above it and some narrow bed moldings beneath it. The
soffit of the corona is hollowed out as shown by the dot-
ted 1ine, and the bed moldings above referred to are left
when this soFfit is so cut, and are here shown dotted
under the corona. Between the corona and the cyma
are two small enriched moldings, a bead, and another
echinus. - ' '


14 HISTORIC' ORNAMENT. § 4


FIG. 8.
11. The Greek-
Corlnthian Order.—
The Corinthian order
is the lightest and most
delicate of the three,
but it is almost impos-
sible to determine for
what class of builders
the Greeks considered
it best adapted, as there
is but one perfect
example left for us to
judge at the present
day, and that is the
choragic monument of
Lysicrates, at Athens,
shown in Fig, 8. Like
the Ionic, the prin-
cipal characteristic of
the Corinthian order is
its capital—tall, bell-
shaped, and richly foli-
ated, as shown at C,
Fig. 9. As was said
with regard to the
entablature of the Ionic
order, the capital of the
Corinthian column is
higher in proportion to '
the diameter of the
column than is either
the Ionic or the Doric;
but, as the shaft is
longer and more slen-
der than either of
the others, it is able
to carry a higher
capital.


§ 4
HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 15
12. The Corinthian capital has two rows of leaves,
eight in the upper row, and sixteen in the lower row, so dis-




















e
2,112.51)”.






20m













FIG. 9.
posed that, of the taller ones, composing the upper row, one
comes in the center, beneath each face of the abacus, and
the lower leaves alternate with the upper ones, coming both


16 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
between and under the stems of the latter, so that in the
first, or lower, tier of leaves there is, in the middle of each
face, a leaf between each two leaves of the upper row, and
also aleaf under the stem of the central leaf above them.
Above these two rows is a third series of eight leaves, turned
so as to support the small volutes, which in turn support the
angles of the abacus. Besides these outer volutes, which
are invariably turned diagonally, as in the four-faced Ionic
capital, there are on each face of the capital two other
smaller ones, termed caulz'rulz', which meet each other
beneath a flower on the face of the abacus.
The abacus itself is different in shape from that of either of
the other two orders. In the Doric, it is, as we have seen,
merely a thick slab resting on the echinus beneath it, and
left absolutely plain; in the Ionic, also, it is square, but the
sides are molded and sometimes carved, while the Corinthian
abacus is, strictly speaking, not even square, except in
general form. True, it has four equal sides, but instead of
being straight, they are deeply concave in plan, and the
acute point that would be formed by the meeting of these
concave sides is usually cut off straight, thus making the
abacus an eight-sided figure, four of whose sides are short
and straight, while the other four are long and curved.
13. The base A of the Greek-Corinthian column is of
the Attic type, almost the same as that of the Ionic order;
and the shaft B, like the Ionic also, has twenty-four flutes
separated by fillets, but these flutes and fillets terminate at
the top very differently from the way they do in the Ionic.
Here we have a row of leaf-like ends curling out from the
column, with the fillets forming their central ribs. The
edges of these leaves intersect in an angle, and this angle
gradually flattens out until it disappears entirely in the
surface of the flute. Above these leaf-like ends, and below
the lower row of leaves in the capital, is a groove, cut
entirely around the column, to emphasize the starting
point of the capital, and which is said to have originally
served as a receptacle for a braided band of bronze laurel


§4 ’ ’ HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 17
\
leaves, contrasting beautifully with the white marble of the
monument. '
The entablature is very similar to that of the Ionic order,
with the exception of the cornice, which is larger and some-
what richer than the uppermost member of the order from
the Erechtheum. The architrave is divided into three facias,
as in the previous order, but their surfaces are not perpen-
dicular. On the contrary, the faces are battered back so
that the three arrises, or edges, are perpendicular over one
another, and the offsets are formed by the batter. The
molding at the top of the architrave is a simple cyma reversa,
rhsting on a bead and surmounted by a rather heavy fillet.
The frieze is shown here with the carved figures in relief, as
it appears in the original monument, although, as said before,
this carving does not form a component part of the order itself.
Above this frieze is a small torus and an ovolo supporting the
dentil course. These den-tils are small rectangular blocks,
spaced about two-thirds their width apart, and, in all proba-
bility, are the stone representations of projecting ceiling joists,
which existed in an early system of wooden construction.
Above this dentil course is a cyma recta, supporting a
cyma-reversa bed molding under the corona. The corona
projects more in the Corinthian than it does in the Ionic
order; and the crowning member, instead of being a cyma,
as in the previous order, consists of a series of antty‘inz sup-
ported upon a serrated band, which is separated from the
corona by a small echinus. -
This completes the general description of the Greek
orders, a description that has been here given somewhat in
detail, in order that the student may fully comprehend the
liberties that were taken with these orders when the Romans
converted them to their own uses.
TH'E ROMAN ommns.
14. The Five Orders of Architecture, according to the
Italian architect and writer, Vignola, will now be analyzed
and described, and the attention of the student is called


18 HISTORIC ORNAMENT.
§~l


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 19
particularly to the unrefining influence of the Romans
expressed in their interpretation of the Greek art forms.
The Romans were not an imaginative race, and had few
original ideas in architecture. Their early works were
copied from the Etruscans, and their later efforts were bor-
rowed from the Greeks. In nothing is this fact more evident
than in the first of the five Roman orders, namely, the T us-
can, Fig. 10. ~
15. The Tuscan order is but a modified form of the
Greek-Doric, or, perhaps, more strictly speaking, it is an
undeveloped form of the Roman-Doric. It takes its name
from the Etruscan people, who are supposed to be its orig-
inators, though it is not improbable that the Etruscans
received their ideas from the same source as did the Greek-
Dorians, both nations having emigrated from Asia about the
same time. One thing is certainly true, the Tuscan column
and entablature bear a closer resemblance to the proportions
of the Greek-Doric than they do to the Roman-Dorie, which
was admitted to be more or less copied from it; and the
Roman-Doric resembles more the Tuscan column and entab-
lature than it does the Greek order, whose name it bears.
Hence, we see that the Tuscan is a sort of connecting link
between the Greek and the Roman orders. It contains many
Greek details that the Roman-Doric does not, while, on the
other hand, the Roman-Doric possesses many Tuscan fea-
tures unheard of in the Greek. The characteristics of the
order are its crqdcness and p/az'mzcsr, combined withits heavy
moldings and lack of refinement in outline. It has, like all
other Roman orders, a regularly proportioned and molded
pcdcstal B, which, though not a specific part of the order
I itself, is generally drawn with it when the order is shown
alone.
16. The pedestal is simply a square block B, with an
apophyge, or escape to the fillet, resting on the plinth A at
the bottom, and with a cyma reversa and a fillet at the top.
Upon this stands the base of the column I), which consists of


2O HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
a torus and a fillet resting upon a square plinth. The capi-
tal F is in some respects similar to the Doric, but lacks both
the refinement of the Greek-Doric and the delicacy of the
Roman. It consists of an abacus, ovolo, and necking. The
abacus is square in plan similar to the Greek-Doric, and is
composed of a fillet resting upon a plain facia that has an
apophyge, or curved escape to the fillet. The ovolo is a
plain molding, often referred to as a quarter round, as its
section is exactly a quarter of a" circle. '
The entablature is subdivided into an architrave G, a frieze
H, and a cornice I, in proportions nearer to the Greek-Doric
than is the Roman order of that name. But the triglyphs
and mutules so characteristic of the Doric order are omitted
entirely, while the moldings are large and heavy and out of
proportion to the surfaces they are intended to ornament.
The shaft of the Tuscan column is never flutcd, and no carri-
ing or enrichment of its moldings or surfaces is er'e'rpracticcd.
1 7. Comparison of Greek and Roman Orders.—
Before making a comparison of the Greek and Roman orders,
let us first consider some of the conditions that made alter-
ation necessary, before the art creations of the Greeks could
be adopted by the Roman builders.
The distinguishing characteristic of all Roman architecture
is the persistent use of the arch. The Greeks spanned their
openings with lintels—simple stone beams laid across from
one column to another—and the width of the openings they
could thus span was limited by the length of the stones they
could conveniently quarry. But, by means of the arch, the
Romans could span 'any width desirable; but the pressure of
'the arch at the abutments was in the character of a hori-
zontal thrust, which would overthrow any ordinary column,
and especially such columns as were used by the Greeks, laid
up in several courses and devoid of mortar or cement.
Heavy masonry piers laid up in strong mortar with securely
bonded courses, became necessary, therefore, to withstand
this thrust, and the Romans, having no structural use for the
Greek orders, applied them as ornament to their masonry


§4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. ' 21
abutments. T 112': is a wry impartant point and should [)6
remembered.
The orders, thus backed up by heavy piers, did not require
that appearance of sturdy independence that the Greeks
instilled into their supports, and they were consequently
drawn out longer and thinner, and embellished with much
carving and enrichment, as though endeavoring to attract
the attention to their false beauty, while the piers and
arches did the real mechanical work of holding up the
building.
This will, perhaps, be more clearly understood by refer--
ring to Fig. 11, which is a portion of the facade of the Thea-
ter Marcellus, at Rome. The arches resting on the piers
support all the mason work
above them, while the col-
. umns and the entablatures are
applied to the structure sim-
ply as ornament. Strip these
columns oif, and the building
will stand as well as with them,
but in appearance it will be
simply a structural edifice,
entirely utilitarian, and in no
way esthetic.
Greek designers made their
architecture beautiful by orna-
menting the construction itself
—remove the column, or en-
tablature, and you. remove the
essentials of the structure—
but the Romans designed the structure entirely apart from
the ornament, and the latter might easily be removed with-
out injury to the strength of the fabric.


FIG. 11.
18. Description of the Roman-Dorie Olden—The
Doric column, as used by the Greeks, was from five to seven
diameters in length, and the bottom of the shaft, being of
the greatest diameter, it required no base to stand on, and


22
g4
HISTORIC ORNAM EN T.









5w”.









H
l
|
l
l
l

Flt]. 12.


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 23
was beautiful in its simplicity. The Doric of the Romans,
as shown in Fig. 12, was, on the contrary, eight or more
diameters in height, and the bottom of its shaft was so
small in proportion, that a regular molded base became
necessary to give it an appearance of stability. There are
instances where the column was used without a base, and
the first story of the Theater Marcellus, at Rome, Fig. 11,
is a most excellent example of the struggle to apply the
Tuscan details to the Greek form. The lower order of the
Theater Marcellus'presents the Tuscan entablature with
triglyphs in the frieze and guttae under the teenia, while
the mutules are omitted entirely, and a row of dentils
and bed moldings is inserted under the soflit of the corona.
It will also be observed that in this case the column is
not fluted, and stands upon the stylobate or plinth with-
out a base, while the capital is molded after the Tuscan
model. '
19. In the typical Roman-Doric, Fig. 12, the pedestal
is higher in proportion to its width than the Tuscan, and its
base exhibits more moldings than does the latter. The
addition of a subplinth serves to raise the die B above the
ground line without producing too broad a band under the
base. The cornice moldings of the pedestal are much like
the members of the Tuscan entablature, and show another
point of resemblance between these two orders. The base
of the column D is almost identical with that of the Tuscan
order, with the slight addition of a bead molding between
the torus and the fillet. The column is fluted with shallow
grooves that meet in an arris, as in the Greek order, but,
unlike the latter, they die out or terminate below the line
ad, which marks the apophyge of the shaft at the base.
The capital F of the column is decidedly more Tuscan than
Greek. It is separated from the shaft by a projecting fillet
and bead, which in this position is called an astragal.
Instead of the annulets beneath the echinus, as in the Greek
capital, we have simply three projecting fillets, and the
echinus is rounded out until it becomes in section a mere


24 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
quarter circle. The abacus is square, but has a crowning _
_member, and it has panels sunk in the corners of its sofiit,
as shown by the dotted lines.
20. Doric Entablature.—There are, in fact, two dis-
tinct systems of grouping the members of the Roman-Doric
entablature: one, as in the Greek, with mutules in the frieze,
and the other—an entirely Roman invention—with a course
of dentils under the corona.
The mutular Doric is the order shown in the drawing
plate; and, as will be at once observed, its entablature bears
but a slight resemblance to the Greek model. The archi-
trave G is divided into two facias, the upper one projecting
slightly over the lower one, somewhat in the manner of the
Greek-Ionic. The triglyphs of the frieze H are always cen-
tered over the axes of the columns, and, consequently, the
metopes, which were always square in the Greek order, are
often oblong in the Roman, with the longer axis set either
vertically or horizontally.
The mutules, which in the cornice of the Parthenon were
set over each triglyph and metope, existed over the tri-
glyphs only in the Roman-Doric structures, and the soflit of
'the corona between them was paneled as shown by the
dotted lines.
The cornice I is lighter and more delicate than in the
Tuscan order, and its epitithidas is a cyma recta instead of
an echinus.
- 21. Roman-Ionic Orders—The result of the Roman-
izing of the Ionic order is shown in Fig. 13, and is scarcely
more successful than the Doric. The Romans never seemed
to understand the possibilities of the order from the Erech-
theum, and, as a consequence, only three accredited exam-
ples of the-Roman-Ionic column are known in Rome today.
These are the temple of 'Fortuna Virilis, the temple of Con-
cord, and the second story of the Theater Marcellus. The
first of these is by far the best, its volutes retaining much
of the Greek character, while the last is the simplest and


§4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 25_

7 plainest, and also
7 the smallest in its
""l proportions; but
the second is remark-
able for its ugliness in
general, and the inar-
tistic arrangement of
its volutes in partic-
ular, which spring out
diagonally so as to pre-
sent four equal and sim-
ilar faces.
The example shown in
Fig. 13 is taken prin-
pally from the first of
those just mentioned,
with only such altera-
tions as are necessary to
bring it down to a gener-
al type. In it we find the
pedestal slightly longer
in the die than was the
Doric, while the cor-
nice Cand base A of the
_ 7 pedestal are more richly
b 3 a molded than in either of
the previous orders. The
base D of the column,
however, is of the famil-
iar Attic type that has
already been described
in connection with the
Greek-Ionic order, and
exhibits the first point
of strong resemblance
to the Greek ancestor.
The shaft of the column
is nearly of the same


26 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
height as the Greek; and, in many examples, is grooved by
twenty-four flutes separated by fillets, though in this exam-
ple there are but twenty.
By a strange perversity, however, when we arrive at the
capital, we meet a striking difference from the Athenian
order. In the columns of the portico of the Erechtheum,
we have a mrkmg, between the echinus of the capital and
the astragal of the column; but in the Roman-Ionic, the
flutes of the shaft extend almost to the eyes of the volutes.
In their Doric order the Romans inserted a necking above,
which did not exist in the Greek order and must have been
borrowed from the Attic-Ionic, or, possibly, from the Tus-
can; but when they adopted the Ionic order, they seem to
have taken especial pains to omit the detail that, according
to previous appearances, they particularly admired. For
some reason, they omitted this necking, and the Roman-
Ionic capital has a flat, crushed appearance in consequence,
as shown. The Roman-Ionic volute contains but one
band, while that of the Greeks possessed three, though
there are instances where a single band was coiled in the
I capital of the Greek
order, as in the temple
on the Ilissus River,
Fig. 6. But the Ionic







I order reached the ze-
nith of its perfection
{if—15?; in the Erechtheum, and
it is with the details of
that building we must
compare any subsequent
Ionic constructions.
The architrave G and
frieze H of the Roman
order are very similar
to those of the Greek, but between the frieze If and
corona of I is inserted a row of dentils with upper and
lower bcd moldings, which cast a serrated shadow and
emphasize the projection of the corona. '
4'3!!!
1
._ in !


u. iiiununil


§4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 27
22. The Ionic capital above referred to in the temple of
Concord is illustrated in Fig. 14. It is shown here, not on
account of its architectural beauty, for it has none, but
because in certain classes of early .Renaissance work, this
style of cap was redesigned by Palladio and used in com-
binations where its defects were not so glaring. The prin-
ciple on which this cap is designed is that the volutes a are
growing out and curling over the edge of the contracted
echinus 0, while the whole is covered with an eight-sided
abacus 6, strongly resembling the Corinthian. The space
under the abacus and between the volutcs is filled with a
carved rosette, or, in a few instances, with an animal's
head.
23. Roman-Corinthian 0rder.—\Ve now come to the
Corinthian, which we may consider a typical Roman order.
There, is but one example of richly foliated capitals in all
Greek art, and the modern Corinthian order, though prob-
ably taken from it, bears but a general resemblance to its
prototype. We have gone into the details of the Greek-
Corinthian capital, and the Roman style will only be dwelt
upon where it contrasts with the details of the Greek. The
Roman-Corinthian capital, shown at F, Fig. 15, has two
rows of leaves, eight in each row, so disposed that of the
taller ones composing the upper row, one comes in the mid-
dle, beneath each face of the abacus, and the lower leaves
alternate with the upper ones, coming between the stems
of the latter; so that, in the first, or lower tier of leaves,
there is in the middle of each face, a space between two
leaves occupied by the stem of the central leaf above
them.
24. Fig. 15 is not taken from any particular edifice, but
is compiled from a number of different structures, in order
to get a general type of the order. The shaft here is fluted
with twenty-four flutes, though in many of the best examples
it is not fluted at all. The portico of the Pantheon possesses
one of the handsomest examples of the Corinthian order in


28 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §4
Rome, but the granite columns are left unfluted, and their
surfaces are highly
polished, to com-
pensate for the
omission. The base
of the Corinthian column
varies somewhat in dif-
ferent examples, but _is
most frequently an en-
riched variation of the
Greek-Attic. It is scarce-
ly necessary to comment
on the pedestal of either
the Corinthian or Com-
posite orders, as there is
no change from the ped-
estal of the previously
described orders, except
an elongation of the die
kg and an increase of the
E number of the moldings
\ that ornament its top C
" c_ and base A. The same
may be said of the base D
E of the column, the only
i change from the previous
0. orders being 'an increase
L___ of the members between
the two torus moldings.
t The shaft E of the col-
~ _ umn is but slightly longer
'than in the Ionic order,
.T_ but the increase in the
height of the capital
makes the entire column
ten diameters high. ,The
entablature, however, is very different from any we have
yet described. The architrave G is divided into three






1
“III




FIG. 15.


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 29
horizontal bands, or facias, as was the Ionic, but instead of
a plain projection
of one facia beyond
the other, they are
separated by a number
of different small mold-
ings, which, in nearly
every instance, were
carved and enriched al-
most to excess. The
frieze H is here shown
as plain, but the ma-
jority of examples show
it carved in high re-
lief. The cornice I
exhibits the greatest
alteration from the pre-
vious orders that we
have yet seen. A row
of dentils are support-
ed by a cyma reversa
immediately above the
" " ' frieze, similar to the
Ionic arrangement; but
- immediately above this
we have a heavy ovolo
supporting a row, of
course, of modz'llz'ous.


F
16m/ 71p ———f——"- Elli/0P.
E





D
y-Jlj -Io—-5mJjA—- --25-—Q—/Mijp.-1
C
25. A modilllon is
the projecting bracket
supporting the corona
of the Corinthian en-
tablature. These brack-
ets possess a volute
somewhat similar to
that of the Ionic capi-
tal, but curved in the opposite direction.
8

A

Fm. 16.


30 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
26. Composite Order.—Between the Corinthian and
Composite orders there is very little difference except in
the size of the volutes, and, with the exception of the cap-
ital of the column, there is scarcely any difference in the
proportions of their parts. Fig. 16 shows the general
form of this essentially Roman composition, but omitting
entirely the ornamentation of the frieze and moldings,
which is as much a part of this order as the triglyphs
are of the Doric. Ornamentation, as a rule, forms no part
of the order that it enriches, and, consequently, should not
be considered a part of the structure of the order, but
the Composite order was invented by the Romans for no
other purpose than to carry heavy ornamentation; in fact,
it was the excessive and extravagant ornamentation of
the Corinthian order that caused the Composite to spring
into existence, and our example is, therefore, not com-
plete until it receives such ornamentation as may be
appropriate to its purpose. The general form is here
given, and the application of ornament will be discussed
later, in its proper place.
The pedestal of the Composite order is almost identical
with that of the Corinthian, there being but a few slight
changes in the moldings of its base and its cap, while the
die is a trifle longer. The base, shaft, and capital of the
column are the same- height as the Corinthian, and with
the exception of the capital are almost the same in design.
The architrave, frieze, and cornice have the same rela-
tive proportions as in the previous order, but are treated
somewhat more elaborately in the subdivisions of their
parts.
The Composite capital is a combination of the Cor-
inthian and the Ionic capital from the Roman temple of
Concord, heretofore referred to. It is not an artistic
combination, but its broad, strong volutes give an unus-
ual surface on which to carve florid ornament, and, as
such, it suited exactly the later-day admirers of every-
thing strictly Roman. It suits its place in modern art
very well, when in proper handling, but the Renaissance


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 31
architects were conspicuous in Italy by the interior appli-
cation of the Composite order in every spot where it did
not belong.
27. The 'Roman Acanthus.—The acanthus leaves
under the Roman modillions and those around the bells
of the Corinthian capitals are placed, one before the
other, stifily and inartistically; they are not even bound
together by the necking at the top of the shaft, but appear
to have been cut off to rest directly upon it. It will be
remembered that in the capital of the Egyptian column,
where the stems of the flowers are arranged around the
bell, they appear to be continued through the necking of
the column, and at the same time express a beauty and
a truth.
The great facility that the Roman system of decoration
affords for the application of this acanthus ornament to any
form and in any direction, is the lamentable cause of the
invasion of this ornament into most modern work. Its
design requires little thought and is so easily manufac-
tured that it has encouraged designers in an indolent neg-
lect of one of their especial provinces—that of invention.
In the use of the acanthus leaf, the Romans showed but
little art. They received it from the Greeks most beauti-
fully conventionalized, and though they went nearer to
the general outline of the leaf, they exaggerated the
surface decoration. The Greeks confined themselves to
expressing the principles of the foliation of the leaf,
and bestowed great care in the delicate undulations of its
surface.
28. Character of Roman Ornament.—As said here-
tofore, Roman ornament consists essentially of one scroll
growing out of another and encircling a flower or a group
of leaves, as shown in Fig. 17. which is a characteristic
piece of Roman ornament. This is the principle of Greek
ornament, and though the Romans borrowed the principle,
they omitted the Greek refinement.


32 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
The most characteristic method of using the acanthus
leaf in Roman art can be seen in the Roman concep-
tion of the Corinthian
capital, Fig. 15. The
amount of design that
can be obtained by
working on this prin-
ciple of Roman orna-
ment—of leaf within
leaf and leaf over leaf
-—is very limited, and
it was not until the
principle of one leaf
growing out of an-
other in a continuous
line was abandoned,
for the adoption of
a continuous stem
throwing off ornaments on either side, that the pure
conventional ornament received any development.



29. Painted Decorations—The painted decorations
of Roman art are comparatively few; the style was some-
what similar to what we see at Pompeii—an adoption from
the Greek, executed in the hands of the Roman artists.
The coloring is hardly worth great consideration, .as it
possessed nothing of an original character; and the stu-
dent should bear in mind that all art forms of Rome are
borrowed forms. Her construction she inherited from
Etruria, and combined it with the art obtained in Greece.
In fact, it might be said that there is no true Roman
style, that is to say, executed by Romans themselves, for
the Roman was essentially a warrior and a politician, and
his art works were designed by the subjugated Greek and
his structural works put into effect by descendants from
the Etruscans.
The transition of Greek ornament into the styles of
Europe was simply delayed by the conquest of Greece


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 33
by Rome, and, during the delay so caused, the style
was degraded, and spread throughout the country in
that condition. -
ROLIANESQUE ORNAMENT. .
30. Development of the Romanesque Style—In
considering the Romanesque style, it must be borne in
mind that the Roman Empire covered almost the entire
continent of Europe, and that Roman art had penetrated
as far west as Spain and as far north as England and the
Baltic Sea. After the downfall of the Western Roman
Empire, the conquering races from the North attempted
to carry out the Roman style of building as they found
it in different parts of the country, and the endeavor to
apply these art forms under a new system of religion,
and influenced by different conditions of government and
living, together with the necessity of practicing a rigid
economy in material, caused an alteration of the original
Roman style and brought about the style that we now
consider Romanesque.
31. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, in 476
A. D.,- therefore marked the beginning of a new architec-
tural era throughout all Europe (except possibly in the East-
ern Empire, with its capital at Byzantium), and the so called
dark ages that followed this event may be considered as a
formative period of western civilization during which the
barbaric conquerors of Rome became gradually Christian-
ized and were subjected to the authority and educational
influences of the Church.
Under these conditions a new architectural style was
developed, founded on the traditions of the earlier Chris-
tian builders, but modified in dilferent regions by local
influences. The prevailing characteristics of the style
were at first essentially Roman, for Rome soon recovered
her antique prestige as the leading city of Europe, and
the Roman monuments covering the soil of Southern


34 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
Europe were a constant object lesson to the builders at
that time.
32. Influence of the Church.-—Romanesque archi-
tecture was distinctly ecclesiastical. Civilization and culture
emanated directly from the Church, .and the requirements
and discipline of the religious orders gave form to the
builders’ art.
Corinthian columns, marble incrustations, splendid mosa-
ics, etc. Were not to be obtained in the forest lands of France
and Germany, and the priests caused to be erected with
unskilled labor churches of stone, and the struggle with this
structural problem underlies the entire system of Roman-
esque design. \
33. System of Building Under Roman Domination.
The Romans, when they wished to erect grand monuments
of public utility, could send to the spot, no matter how
remote, an army of soldiers, and, by their tyrannical system
of government, compel the very inhabitants of the locality
to desist from all their employments and work for the
emperor of Rome. They thus achieved by a multitude of
hands those prodigious results that today stand monuments
not only of their enterprise but also of their despotism.
Had the builders of the Middle Ages desired to pursue
this course, where would they have found the army of work-
men? In countries not only without stone but without
money to buy it, without beasts of burden to transport
material if they could buy it, without even roads over which
to travel, how could these people make any attempt to follow
the course of their Roman predecessors?
Bearing these facts in mind as we study Romanesque
ornament, we will readily see in the earlier examples an
attempt to copy Roman art—an attempt that failed as a
duplication of an antique style, but Was eminently successful
in the development of a new style that was much more
rational than the one back to which the Middle-Age builder
had been looking.


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 35
34. In Fig. 18 is shown the capital of a column, the
moldings of which and the crude formations of whose
leaves are easily traceable to the Roman-Corinthian order;




FIG. 1a 7 I Fic.19.
and the capital shown in Fig. 19, though entirely different
from that shown in Fig. 18, also illustrates the influence
of classic art and the Corinthian order in the formation of
the style at this period.
More clearly, perhaps, than either of these is the base shown



F10. ‘20. FIG. 21.
in Fig. 20, which dates back to the eleventh century. Here
the moldings are almost identical with those seen on the
classic columns. In Fig. 21 is shown a base of later date,
which exhibits a radical departure from the classic lines.


36 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §4
35. The frieze shown in Fig. 22 is taken from an exam-
ple in Southern Germany, dating back to the twelfth century.





\
.iiiiiiiiil}|};,,nllr;l; ,




FIG. 24.
The treatment of the leaf forms there clearly shows a classic
origin, but the boldness of the treatment shows an inclination


§ 4. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 37
to become independent of the traditions of the classic
style, and in Fig. 23 the ornament, taken from a French
church of the twelfth century, shows a decided freedom from
the governing rules of classic design, although the, character
of the curves and proportions of the surface covered is
strongly suggestive of the Greek anthemion. In Fig. 24 is
shown a most independent example, where we have the main
running stem and the branches from alternating sides, while
the small pyramid forms cut in the main stem appear here
and are characteristic of the Romanesque period.

i'llll'


militia»i...........imtumntllllll»,“ ...illllllllli I. :i mm
FIG. 25.
In Fig. 25 is shown an example of German twelfth-century
art that shows the possible influence of Celtic work. Observe
that, complicated as this design at first appears, it is really
very simple in construction and contains only one leaf form
arranged in two positions. The entire free flowing lines are
then woven around these forms
to produce a most satisfactory
effect.
36. In repeating ornament
and diaper patterns, Fig. 26
shows a simple arrangement of
circles from the church of
St. Denis, at Paris, dating back
to the twelfth century, while


38 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
Fig. 27 shows a diaper pattern from the Lincoln Cathedral,
7 - in- England, of the same period,
showing a radical difference in
style on account of the remote-
ness from Rome.
In Figs. 28 and 29 are shown
two patterns taken from stained-
glass windows, the former of Ger-
man design and the latter French.
The simplicity of the design in
each case is its distinguishing
characteristic, and, though in ap-
pearance somewhat complicated, a little study eliminates all



“‘1 .


§4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 39
complications, and shows the geometrical principle on which
it is constructed to be of utmost simplicity.
37. Origin of Gothic and Byzantine Ornament.—
From these few examples, with which the artists of the
Romanesque period decorated their structural details, we
see that the application of Romanesque forms was simple—
simple from a necessity of economy, and simple on account
of a freedom of mind devoid of any art traditions.
The builder and designer of the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries had no memories of Rome or Greece to follow, and
no historical forms that had been handed down from genera-
tion to generation, to copy which was almost required by
law, and to depart from which would have been a sacrilege
in the eyes of his country. The medieval builder attacked
his problem with no other tools than his eye and his
brain, and gradually developed the form of art that we call
Romanesque, and that culminated in two entirely new
styles, both in construction and ornamentation—the Got/tic
in the West and the Byzantine in the East.
BYZANTINE ORNADIENT.
38. Oriental Influence.—In the East, around the city
of Byzantium, Romanesque ornament was influenced by the
art of Assyria and Persia. In fact, its entire character
became tinged with an oriental spirit, and, in the course of
the next three or four centuries, it developed into a new and
entirely different style of architecture and art, known as
Byzantine. The old Roman forms became obsolete and
gave place to new forms, original, beautiful, and artistic.
It will readily be understood that there would be a period
of transition between the slowly developing Romanesque
and the finished Byzantine style, and it is with such exam-
ples of ornament as date from this period of transition that
uncertainty as to their proper classification arises. It is
more diflicult to distinguish between these styles, whose


g4
HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 41
.oa .O-h


q.

(Q
A . ' 1..)
Fr, -fifitr, ,
t. , A Talent.


42 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
exhausted by the prodigious expense. But the church was
built, and is certainly one of the grandest architectural
monuments the world has ever seen. The plan and con-
struction of this edifice is no more remarkable than the scale
and treatment of its interior decoration (see Fig. 30), and it
stands to Byzantine architecture as the Parthenon stood to
the Greek. Unfortunately it is now converted into a Moham-
medan mosque, and the severity of the Mohammedan religion
required that its beautiful interior decorations should be
covered from sight by repeated applications of whitewash.
However, we have been able to secure reproductions of some
of these great ornaments so characteristic of the Byzantine
style.
41. Examples of Byzantine Style.-—At Ravenna,
which was the seat of government of the Eastern Empire
under Justinian, the church of San Vitale is also a fine
example of the Byzantine style, and at Ravenna, Byzantine
art reached its height in this edifice.
Venice also felt largely the Byzantine influence, and the
church of St. Mark, built in the eleventh century, is a monu-
ment patterned largely after the plan and decoration of Hagia
Sophia; and, extending as far south as Sicily, we have the
cathedral of Monreale, near Palermo, showing strong Byzan-
tine influences, but at the same time possessing many details
that are so strongly character-
istic of the Romanesque style
that it is difficult in many cases
to classify them.

42. The capital shown in
Fig. 31 is from one ot the
columns in the first tier of
. arches in the church of Hagia
Sophia, at Constantinople- The
scrolls in the upper part of this
column undoubtedly have their
origin in the Ionic order, and, though the entire capital is


FIG. 31.


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 43
decorated with the conventionalized acanthus leaf, observe
how widely different it is from any Roman model. Here
the block of the capital is sound and heavy, and at its bot- '
tom is a foliated ring that seems to bind it together, while
the carved leafwork grows
out of the top of the column
and enters materially into
the construction of the capi-
tal itself.
Another Byzantine capi~
tal, shown in Fig. 32, is
taken from another church
in Constantinople, built
about the same time as
Hagia Sophia, but less
original in detail. Here
the heavy scrolls project
from the angles of the capital very much in the same man-
ner as the volutes in the temple of Concord at Rome, and
the place usually occupied by the abacus is filled by a heavy
semipyramidal form on which the ornament seems to be
applied as a surface decoration more than a component part
of the construction.
The effect of this illustrates, however, a radical departure
from the traditions that limitated the architectural designs
in Roman art; and even
when we arrive at Byzan-
tine capitals of the eleventh
century,as seen in St. Mai k's,
at Venice, Fig. 33, we can
still observe the influence of
Roman art, but thoroughly
subservient to the Byzantine
school of design.
. In Fig. 33, the volutes at
FIG, m, I the top of the eolumn, the
shape of the capital 'as it
swells out to the abacus, and the general character of the


44 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. UR
4
entire detail are strongly suggestive of its Roman-Corinthian
.origin; but the strictly conventional treatment of the leaves,
the character of the scroll around the abacus, and the bind-
ing together of the ornament in
,II E. I I I I I I | the construction show plainly the
. n " influence of the work in the East.
> r7 l
‘1‘ ~.\_
,. '\
| 1/
\
Fig. 34 is another example of
Byzantine capital, from Italy, and
is even more freed from Roman
influence than that of the previous
example. The long elliptical
curves formed by the leaves, the
sharp-pointed lobes, and the deep
v indentations are all suggestive of
F1644 " its Byzantine origin, while the
little row of dentils so useless];
arranged around the top show the difficulty of producing
any work in Italy without some taint of classic spirit.


43. The running ornament is illustrated in Fig. 35,
which example is taken from the same church as Fig. 32,
where the leaf form is thoroughly conventional, and, though






FIG. 85.
tending slightly toward a scroll, is governed by a continuous
wavy line, from opposite sides of which the leaf forms branch.
Fig. 36 is an example of geometrically arranged running
ornament from Hagia Sophia. The main geometrical forms,
as will be obserVed, are circles, but these circles are not
formed complete in themselves, but result from the crossing


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 45
and intersection of two wavy lines precisely the same in
general character as the wavy line that forms the governing
element of Fig. 35. Instead of branching foliage from oppo-





Fro. 36.
site sides of the lines, in the latter case, however, geometrical
figures are arranged within, and foliated forms that have the
cross of St. George for their guiding element are used to
form prominent details of the design.




' '2’", ' . L -, l\-.‘\V
J /1' I t
,' V i 'i
" ).‘
 , y/
it ’ ~ A? J \_
/ ‘\..~;;/\
I i l I

é




M..
",6‘ 1*.ch
"swims-.5?“-
FIG. 87.
44. Going back again now to the church of St. Mark,
built in the eleventh century, we have a wall decoration


46 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §4
between two arches, shown in Fig. 37. Tracing out the
outline of this running surface ornament, it will be observed
that the same wavy line governs its principle and direction,
as in the case of Fig. 35; but a close study will show that the
branching of leaves from one side is accompanied by a branch
from the opposite side, so near that the general feeling is
of a scroll growing out of a scroll, somewhat after the order
of classic art. Above this ornament, however, the semi-
circular ring is ornamented by geometrical devices within a
governing outline, precisely similar to that seen at’Hagia
Sophia, Fig. 36.
In all these examples, the student will observe that the
character of the leaf is particularly uniform, that it is in the
principle of the decoration that we find the greatest variation,
and that the variation in this character only amounts to a
greater or lesser display of oriental or classic influence.


45. Examples of Byzantine art found in Greece are
usually purer than any found in Italy, as Roman art and
influence never secured a thoroughly characteristic foothold
in the conquered country. Byzantine art was built on Greek


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT, 47
art in the first place, and examples of it on Greek soil are
usually of excellent character. Besides this, Greek examples
have not been mutilated by Mohammedan invasion to the
extent that we find them in other eastern countries, and the
color treatment and contrast can be best studied there.
46. Ceiling Decoration. Fig. 38 shows an example of
ceiling decoration from the church of St. George at Thessa-
lonica. The circular ornament within the border was exe-
cuted in red on a blue ground, though the hollow-sided
square in the center of it was gold, as were also the triangles
at the four corners. The peculiar outline of the device adja- _
cent to the four sides of the interior rectangle is suggestive
of Arabian origin, and is exceedinglyingeniousinits method
of preserving symmetry and preventing awkward repetition.
The border around this was executed entirely in gold on a
blue ground, with the exception of the extreme outside line,
which was red.

47. Wall Decomtlon.—Fig. 39 is an example of wall


FIG. 39.
decoration from the same edifice, the rectangles and circles
containing the leaves and crosses, all being worked with a


48 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4
plain gold round, while the figures and half of the smaller
crosses were green and the outlines of the larger crosses and
the remaining smaller crosses were red. The effect is very
rich, and the arrangement of the rectangles and smaller
circles shows a knowledge of surface division that is well
carried into effect. The student's attention is particularly
called to the fact that the shape of the groundwork between
the rectangles is also crucial, and that every effort is made
to bring that symbolic detail into prominent display.
48. In giving examples of Byzantine ornament, nothing
could be more characteristic than the stone panels herewith
illustrated. The style of the ornament itself, the character
of the carving, and the development of the geometrical pat-
tern are all details that. are shown here in a most character-
istic Byzantine form.
’ '4 >\‘ ‘_ . e; ~~ \M ‘ M 5‘
r ,. ' _. 'g‘g‘,‘;l'§1<>g!ft
., , . 4 g._ 4')sz
‘ J p j _ ‘ " {213' L? 0 P'Za'epalffi) ‘1"
I1! 1?. . V. '7' .. ~ l .11,‘\ _L.:‘ I
w, l)! *‘\_‘¢l .‘,(



1,} _. ‘
lit! ‘ I _ v.'. ‘ I},
. _ , § ‘ ' — ,nw 7‘2 ‘; ‘.‘;E ’X. 1. ,f‘! 'I Q . _. I g0} at?! J
“fl ‘ \ 74')? 4’1“. "1,",
i " “ugymil‘ggfi; ‘
V ‘ w-
r; '
A '. _-l'\" - 9K , {in} "3",! _, . {iii/Q5.“
a. rA-'

FIG. 40.
49. The pierced screen shown in Fig. 40 is from
Ravenna, and illustrates the geometrical pattern based on
an arrangement of circles (somewhat after the style of the
Celtic ornament), in which is carved the typical Byzantine


§4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 49
leaf. The cross outlined in the center was emphasized in
the original by a plating of gold, and the spaces around the
foliage were filled with birds whose peculiar modeling and
conventional outline is characteristic of the Byzantine style.
Another characteristic of the style, shown clearly in this
illustration, is the sharp angular cutting of the leaves, the
deep circular and elliptical openings between the lobes of
two adjacent leaves, and the tendency of the whole panel to
appear in high relief on a dark ground rather than to be
pierced through entirely.
In Fig. 41 is shown another screen of the same character,
where the interlaced bands that form the geometrical outline


p of the foliated ornament were originally gilded, and the leaf
forms carved between them are similar to those in Fig. 40.
50. Fig. 42, however, shows a trend in a different direc-
tion. Here the openings in the screen are larger, the exterior
portion of it being outlined with a design undoubtedly
derived from the Grecian fret, while in the center a large
Latin cross divides the panel into four smaller rectangles,


50 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §4
each filled with a particular device symbolic of Christianity
and characteristic of the Byzantine style. Observe also the
running foliage around this panel, and its branching leaves
and fruit, alternately from opposite sides, and note the differ-


FIG. 42
ence between this style of treating foliage and that of the
Roman and Greek artists, where continuous foliage was
accomplished by growing one spray or stem out of a calyx
or cup from which a scroll emanated.
51. The capital of the column shown in Fig. 43 is also
from Ravenna, and the peculiar looking birds on the upper
part, as well as the sharply indented foliage, are character-
istic of this style. Here, also, is seen that same geometrical
pattern as the governing outline to which we called atten-
tion in Fig. 40, and also the wandering-vine border line,


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 51
throwing off its leaves on alternate sides in a similar manner
to the outline in Fig. 42.
That the capital of the column is cut in full relief is clearly
shown by the fact that the light shines through the screen
work on to the stone interior, as may be seen. This style
of capital will be found throughout Northern Italy where



any example of Byzantine style exists. The dark portions _
of it were originally gilded, and inust certainly have pre-
sented a most remarkable effect.
52. Turning to St. Mark's, at Venice, Fig. 44, we find
a frieze such as shown in Fig. 45, the lines of which are
based on identically the same motives as the screens we


52
HISTORIC ORNAMENT. g4


“ .
I.
w
v
6
n
a
r”.
ll


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 53
have already studied; but the carving, though in high relief,
does not pierce the screen, and the border of the panel, as
well as the treatment of the foliage within the panel, shows
a highly developed Byzantine feeling. Observe, however,


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FIG. 45.
the influence of its proximity to Rome on the treatment of
the scroll forms. In the central part of the panel we do_
not have the running vine, with its leaves branching from
each side, but a partly controlled tendency to grow one


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 65
strong Byzantine effect that the classic taint is fairly
obliterated.
54. Iiigenuity of Byzantine Ornament—The geo-
metrical arrangements in Byzantine ornament are exceed-
ingly ingenious, and especially remarkable in mosaic work,





Flo. 47.
the monotony of which they destroy by well planned and
complicated constructions based usually upon a variation of
the straight line and the right angle.
In Fig. 48 is shown one of the doorways in the cathedral
of Monreale, near Palermo, around which mosaic patterns
are inlaid in the jambs and also in the flanking walls. The
pattern of this mosaic is typical of examples of that art in
the Byzantine style, as the Byzantine mosaics can nearly
always be distinguished from the Roman mosaics by the


56
HISTORIC ORNAMENT.
§4
fact that the geometrical construction forms an integral part
of the design.
There is one style of this mosaic ornament
that is also typical of the Romanesque period, particularly






FIG. 48.
This consists of a geometrical arrangement of
shaped pieces of glass in a complicated series of
diagonal lines, the directions of which are defined and
terminated by means of pieces in different colors.
in Italy.
lozenge


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 57
The examples of this work in Central Italy are much
simpler than those of the southern provinces of Sicily, where
the influences of Saracenic art are very much felt; and this


mosaic work, as observed in the southern provinces, is very
difficult to classify positively, either in the Romanesque or
the Byzantine style.


58 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
55. In Fig. 49 are shown some clustered columns from
the cathedral of Monreale. One group of four columns is
richly carved with the interlaced ornament so familiar in the
examples of Byzantine art, while the adjacent columns, inlaid
with zigzag lines of mosaic, are more suggestive of Roman-
esque art, and the capitals and bases of both sets of columns
are more in accordance with the Romanesque idea than with
the Byzantine. This, however, may be largely accounted for
when we consider that both styles were merged together
in Sicily at about the close of the twelfth century, and the
examples in Figs. 48 and 49 are here given in order that the
similarity of styles may be carefully studied.
56. Sculpture in Byzantine Art.—Pure Byzantine
ornament is distinguished by broad-toothed and acute-
pointed leaves, which in sculpture are beveled at the edge
and are deeply chiseled throughout and drilled with deep
holes at the springings of the teeth. The running foliage is
generally thin and continuous. The ground, whether in
mosaic or painted work, is almost universally gold. Thin
interlaced patterns are usually preferred to geometrical
designs, and the introduction of animal or other figures is
very limited, especially in sculpture, and in painted work is
confined principally to holy subjects in a stiff conventional
style, exhibiting little variety of feeling. In fact, in Byzan-
tine art, sculpture is a very secondary importance.
57. Sculpture in Romanesque Art.—Romanesque
ornament, on the other hand, depended mostly on sculpture
for its effect. It is rich in light and shade, deep cuttings
and massive projections, and a great intermixture of figure
subjects of every kind with foliage and conventional orna-
ment. The place filled by mosaic work in the Byzantine
art, in the Romanesque is supplied generally by paint. In
colored ornament, animals are as freely introduced as in
sculpture, and the ground no longer confined to gold, but
composed of blue, red, or green. In other respects, how-
ever, the two styles are very much alike.


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 59
ASIATIC ORNAA'IEN T.
58. Characteristics of the People.—Before studying
the style of the ornament of this section of the eastern
hemisphere, let us consider how different are the character-
istics of this people from the European nations whose
ornament we have so far analyzed. Oriental people are
traditionally immobile in character and unprogressive in their
methods of business and manufacture. The processes of
weaving, carving, and other practices of art design are trans-
mitted carefully and faithfully in the oriental nations from
generation to generation, and it is therefore practically
impossible to assign a precise date to any one production, so
similar are the designs. The study of oriental art is there-
fore freed from any minute chronological examination, and
the student is able to consider the subject in a broad sense,
_ considering only primary and original styles that predomi-
nate over lesser divisions and personal modifications. These
styles can be divided into three general groups: (1) C/n'nese
and japanrsc, Indian, and Arabian.
CHINESE AND JAPANESE ORNALIENT,
59. The Chinese are a nation of great antiquity, and we
can discover no detail of art training that they have ever
given to or received from any other civilization. This nation
has been ever satisfied with itself, and this lack of progression
and consequent isolation have given it an originality of
character devoid of any detail that we find of the art works
of other nations, unless we except those general geometrical
formations that instinct seems to have implanted uniformly
in the minds of every known race.
60. Primitiveness of Chinese 0rnament.—Chinese
ornament does not seem to have gone beyond the very
earliest stages of design that we find among the most prim-
itive people. They are even behind the New Zealander in


60 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4
their theory of applied art, and are plodding along in the
creation of fresh designs at a fixed point that is neither pro-
gression nor retrogression. Like all oriental nations, they
possess a wonderful faculty of color harmony, but they have
never expressed an appreciation of pure form—a condition
that must necessarily be arrived at by a subtle process and
result from highly endowed natural instincts, or from the
development of primitive ideas through successive gen-
erations of artists, each improving on the work of its
predecessor.
In their decorative and woven patterns, the Chinese pos-
sess only just such talent as might be expected of a most
primitive people. Their most successful efforts are those in
which a geometrical pattern forms the basis of a design, and
even in these they depart from patterns formed by the inter-
section of equal lines, and seem to have a very imperfect
idea of the distribution of space. '
Their taste for color, which amounts almost to an instinct,
enables them in some measure to balance form, but in designs
deprived of color they seem to be almost helples's. The
Chinese are certainly colorists, and are able to balance with
equal success both the fullest tones of color and the most
delicate shades. They are not only successful in the use of
_ the primary colors, but also in the secondaries and tertiaries,
and they are particularly deft in their management of the
lighter shades of pure color, such as pink, light blue, pale
green, etc.
61. Lack of Idealism in Chinese Ornament.-In
their printed paper hangings, the treatment of both figures
and landscape and of ornament is so conventional that, no
matter how inartistic we may consider it, we feel that it is
within the bounds of decoration. In all cases, their instinct
thus rcstrains them within the true limit, and although the
arrangement is generally unnatural and inartistic, they never
by shades or shadows violate consistency, as is repeatedly
done in work at the present day.
In their floral patterns, they always observed natural laws


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 61
of radiation from the parent stem, and tangential curvature.
It could not very well be otherwise with a people like the
Chinese, whose strongest peculiarity is their fidelity in copy-
ing, and hence we must infer that they are close observers
of nature. It is the taste to idealize on this close observa-
tion that is wanting. On the whole, Chinese ornament is a
very faithful expression of the nature of this peculiar people.
Its characteristic feature is oddness. We cannot call it
capricious, for caprice is a playful wandering of a lively
imagination; but the Chinese imagination is disorderly, and
all their works are wanting in the highest grace of art,
namely, idealism.
62. Dearth of Chinese Architecture.—-The extreme
fancifulness of Chinese ornamental compositions, and the
lack of order or method in them, is not surprising when we
take into consideration the fact that the Chinese have never
developed anything worthy of the name of architecture in
the true sense of the word. They have no original form of
construction that would be likely to give rise to a system of
ornament in which even the most insignificant designs have
been known to assume character and even grandeur, as is so
well exemplified in Egyptian style.
63. The absence of a national architecture renders the
character and genius of the Chinese easily understood. To
this peopie, that seems to occupy itself with naught but
details in everything, the conception of a monumental
building is entirely beyond comprehension. Certainly, this
circumstance is largely responsible for the condition of
the Chinese today and the rudimentary character of their
designs.
The first element of beauty in the Chinese school of art is
variety, and in their foliated designs we find leaves following
one after another bearing not the slightest resemblance to
One another. One panel of a screen painted with aland-
scape will be set beside another ornamented with metallic
arabesques. The use of straight lines and right angles is


62 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
either studiously avoided or so disguised that they will be
vague or misunderstood.
64. Chinese Colorlng.—That the Chinese imagination
is of adisorderly character is shown in some of their curiously
shaped forms; these are so entirely different from those with
which we are more familiar, and so completely destitute of
the elements that cause an impression of grandeur, that the
interest in their designs is with difficulty maintained. The
Chinese are apparently ignorant of the simplest laws of
perspective, and seem in no way to comprehend the effect of
light and shade. Notwithstanding this inferiority, however,
the coloring of their ornament is so rich, and their imagina-
tion is so wild and irregular, that they make a varied and
charming use of their ornament in particular applications,
such as ceramics, incrustations, and woven fabrics. . Their
productions are models of color harmony, and are in some
respects superior to the works of other nations. The very
defects in their designs form sources of some of the good
qualities that accompany them, and the capricious activity of
their minds inclines them to make an ornament of every-
thing, whether it be a cloud, wave, shell, rock, or form from
the animal world. The bright-colored butterfly flitting
among flowers and the flaming thunderbolt bursting from
the heavens are of equal importance to the Chinese artist
when applied to a surface as ornament.
To these rich and varied resources may be added a limited
number of time-honored figures that, to a certain extent,
have symbolical significance. lVe are all familiar with the
Chinese dragons—those monsters with frightful heads,
formidable looking teeth, and fearful claws—certain funny
looking dogs with claws, sharp teeth, and curling mains
somewhat resembling the lion, grotesque birds, and the
mandarin duck, all of which are conspicuous in Chinese
decoration.
65. Adherence to Standard Forms.—A peculiarchar-
acteristic of this art is that, though it appears in itself so


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 63
capricious, its execution expresses such faithfulness of trans-
mission in the representation of things from generation to
generation that the lapse of hundreds of years has not caused
the slightest modification of one of these standard ornaments.
This may be due to the effect of the imitative instinct of
this isolated nation that, so advanced in some points and so
primitive in others, is always consistent in itself. It is
possible, however, that this fidelity in the observance of the
form and coloring of some preceding work is due to some
mysterious rules—some sort of ritual perpetuated through
various ages. Ancient laws and customs established certain
rules governing the color of the robes and vestments of the
imperial court, according to different dynasties; once it was
white, afterwards green, and the Tai Tasig dynasty, now
reigning in China, dresses in yellow.
Chinese art is a mixture of ideal and imitative elements,
the latter being used in the mest conventional manner, the
coloring of which is also conventional and not in the least
subject to any imitation of nature. -
66. Japanese Art, though borrowed from the Chi-
nese, possesses much greater individuality and is better
preserved to the present day. The Japanese have devel-
oped the study of nature, especially in birds, with more
truthfulness and power of observation than did their ances-
tors or rivals, and their imitative style is therefore less
conventional. However, even though their delicate pro-
ductions have added fresh charms to the old Chinese cer-
amics, they are not equal to the figures of the work of the
finest periods.
One of the principal causes of the general progress of
Japanese art may he found in the fact that a great profusion
of examples of design of all sorts, conceived by good artists
and carved in wood, are so distributed as to be constantly
before the general public. Therein lies an element of prog-
ress, as it cultivates a taste for objects of art among the
common people and creates a demand. When all objects
and utensils of service and utility are richly carved and


64 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
decorated with ornamental designs, the eye is bound to
become educated and the general taste of the people more
refined. This is strongly exemplified in the Egyptian
civilization.
INDIAN ORNAMENT.
67. Unprogressiveness of Indian A1~t.—Although less
isolated than China, and in more frequent communication with
the rest of the world, Indian civilization has not experienced
such changes as mark the history of many other nations.
The social and religious organizations, the priests, and castes
of people, the sacred books and poetry, and the manners,
customs, and superstitions remain today much as they were
among the Hindus hundreds of years ago.
Art naturally has shared in this standstill, and the sub-
stance of Indian decoration is still limited to a few general
features that for many centuries have undergone no funda-
mental alteration. The most striking of these characteristics
are the continuity and abundance of decoration. The sur-
face decoration is usually filled up entirely with a profusion of
ornamental forms that, if not exactly alike, are very similar.
The ground color is always warm and harmonious—occa-
sionally light, though more frequently dark—which serves
to unite the designs and add greatly to the general effect.
68. The method of distribution and the admirable feel-
ing for color procures in Indian decoration a richness and
calm that gives it an undefinable sense of repose. The
tendency of the style toward monotony is overcome by this
powerful unity that leaves no room for desire or need of
greater variety. The designs are usually based on some
floral type and are treated in a most conventional manner,
and though the imitation bears a closer resemblance to
nature than in most of the styles we have studied, it is by no
means servile. The type from which an ornament is derived
can usually be recognized without trouble, and, although
floral ornament is occasionally seen under the pure art form


66 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §4
1. When gold ornaments are used on a colored ground,
or where gold is used in large masses, there the ground is
darkest. Where gold is used more thinly, the ground is
lighter and more delicate.
2. When gold ornament is used alone on a colored ground,
the color of the ground is carried into it by ornaments or
hatchings worked on the ground colors in the gold itself.
3. When ornaments in one color are on a ground of con-
trasting color, the ornament is separated from the ground by
an edging of a lighter color to prevent all harshness of contrast.
4. When, on the contrary, ornaments in a color are on a
gold ground, the ornaments are separated from the gold
ground by an edging of darker color to prevent the gold
from overpowering the ornament.
5. In other cases where varieties of color are used on a
colored ground, a general outline of gold, of silver, or of
white or yellow silk separates the ornament from the ground,
giving a general tone throughout.
7: . ,In Fig. 51 is shown a diaper pattern taken from an
Indian textile, and exhibits the regularity of repeated form




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that thoroughly fills up the surface, as heretofore described.
There is a slight tendency toward a geometrical formation


§4 , HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 67
observable in this pattern, where the wavy line becomes
tangent to its neighbor. This geometrical pattern is
not as rigidly carried out,
however, as in Fig. 52,
where the construction lines
governing the main details
consist merely of semi-
circles connected by short
straight lines, thereby forming
knees, as indicated at a. The
style of ornament enclosed in
the geometrical figures thus
formed is typical of Indian
design, and shows a number
of forms tangent to a general
stem, all of which may have
had their origin in brush
strokes of painted work, or
possibly in the shape of the
palm leaf, which they slightly
resemble. Fm, 52
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74. In Fig. 53 is shown a typical example of Indian
ornament taken from a woolen fabric, many of the details of

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which will be found similar to the strokes referred to in


68 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
Fig. 52. These forms, though more or less foliated, do not
bear a very strong resemblance to the natural type, but in
Fig. 54 we have an example of silverware where the chased
design is a conventionalized form of flower, but in more
direct imitation of nature than exhibited in the other
examples.
75. These few examples illustrate by comparison the
different handling of ornament by the Indian designers to
suit it to various purposes. The patterns shown in Figs. 51
and 52 are seen more usually in light fabrics, while that in
Fig. 53 is woven in heavier woolen goods, and that in Fig. 54
is executed in metal.
In objects of low-tone combinations of color, a black gen-
eral outline is used to Separate the ornament from the ground.
The object always appears to be, in the woven fabric, that


each ornament should be softly and not harshly defined, that
colored objects viewed at a distance should present a neu-
tralized bloom, that nearer approach should exhibit the
beautiful details, and that a close inspection should divulge
the means whereby these effects are produced. In this, the
Indian carries out the same principle of surface decoration
that we find in the architecture of the Arabs and Moors. The
ornament in the spandrel of a Moorish arch and in an Indian
shawl are constructed on precisely the same principles.


§ 4 _ HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 69
76. Indian decoration, like the Chinese, is unprogressive
and introduces no new forms in its designs, but repeats
traditionally generation after generation the same forms for
the same purposes. I
ARABIAN ORNAMENT.
77. Important as was the influence of Byzantine art in
Europe from the sixth to the eleventh century, there was no
people that it affected more than the great and spreading
Arab race that propagated the creed of Mohammed, and, after
conquering the finest countries in Asia and Africa, finally
obtained a footing even in Europe. In the earlier buildings
executed by them in Egypt, Palestine, and Spain, the influ-
ence of the Byzantine style is very strongly marked, and the
tradition of the Byzantine school affected all the adjacent
countries to a greater or less degree.
Although the Arabs must have possessed an original art,
only a few traces of it remain, and these are in legends
wherein grand buildings are spoken of that date back to
remote antiquity.
It is known that the wandering and stationary tribes dis-
tinguished each other by the name of “Felt people " and
“Clay people," and this would lead one to the impression
that the latter title implied a knowledge of ceramics; but the
character of the decoration of the pottery of these early
tribes is. at present unknown, as is also that of their arms,
fabrics, and fixed dwellings.
78. Development of Arabian Ornament.—On their
contact with the Greeks, East Indians, and Persians, the
Arabian people produced a style of ornament that formed an
important part in the compromise now called by the name
Byzantine. Subsequently, when Byzantine art had reached
its zenith, Arabian art, under the influence of Islam, took the
form under which we now know it, and may have shown in
some applications a certain Byzantine influence exercised on
the Arab practice. It is unreasonable, however. to consider


7O HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
Byzantine art, as is sometimes done, as being originally a
formation of the Arab style, as the latter has too much char-
acter and unity not to be in itself an original conception.
There appears to have been a mutual influence exercised
between the Byzantine and Arabian during the earliest peri-
ods, as inevitably happens in a contest for supremacy between
two neighboring styles; but if the Arab received anything
from the perfected Byzantine, it may be said that they were
only partly taking buck their own from an art that had drawn
so largely from oriental sources, not only during its forma-
tion but also up to the period of its greatest development.
79. Influence of Mohammedanism.——\Vhen the
Mohammedan religion spread with such astounding rapidity
over the East, the increasing demands of civilization natu-
rally led to the creation of a new style of art, and while it is
certain that the early Mohammedan structures were either
an adaptation of old Roman or Byzantine buildings, or else
buildings constructed from the ruins and materials of the
ancient monuments, it is equally certain that the new ideas
and expression of feelings must at a very early period have
given rise to a characteristic form of art. In buildings con-
structed largely of old materials, they endeavored to imitate
the details borrowed from old buildings, and the same result
followed that had already taken place in the transition of the
Roman style to the Byzantine. The imitations were crude
and imperfect, but this imperfection created a new order of
ideas; and instead of returning to the original model, they
gradually threwoff the restrictions, and earlyin their history
formed and perfected a style of art peculiarly their own.
80. With the study of Arabian ornament, we meet the
first restrictions in the application of certain forms in deco-
ration. The Mohammedan religion forbids the use of any
animal or vegetable forms as an element of design. The
Koran, which occupies the same position in the Moham-
medan belief that the Bible does in the Christian, distinctly
states that the follower of Mohammed “Shall make no


§4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 71
images." we therefore find in the Arabian style, as a substi-
tute for the foliated design we are now so familiar with, a sys-
tem of constructive ornament, the complicated framing of
which was fascinating to the geometrical mind of the Arab.


81. This is shown clearly in Fig. 55, which is the out-
side of a staircase in Egypt, the panels of which are enriched
by very beautiful gcmnetrical devices—complicatcd in their
construction but really simple in their formation when their


72 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
governing lines are traced out. Take, for instance, the large
triangular panel, and it will be found that all the figures
therein are formed by the intersection and crossing of a
number of zigzag lines, several of which are exactly the
same in pattern but arranged at different angles.
This is characteristic of all Arabian and Moorish designs,
as we shall see hereafter. The continuity of the ornament
entirely covers the surface in Arabian as in Indian art, and
nothing can be removed from the design without occasioning
a feeling of loss.
The means employed, however, are different, and, while
the mere repetition of objects frequently suflices in Indian
decoration, the Arabian ornament, on the contrary, is built
up and bound together in all its parts. Everything is con-
nected, and, from the circumference to the center of the
interlacings in a piece of rose work, there is a continuous
line that cannot be broken without destroying the design.
This imaginative construction is sometimes double, that is,
fOI'ITiCdl by two complete systems that follow each other to
an end without confusion, but meet and overlap to produce
incidental figures, intersections, and alterations.
82. Arabian Decoration. -— Notwithstanding this
learned complication, Arabian decoration is clear and dis-
tinct, thanks to the general purity and fineness of the lines
and the exclusion of all superfluity. This is also due to the
principle observed in the construction of the “roses,”
wherein the wider spans are reserved for the extremities of
the circumference, leaving to the radiating center, from
which they diverge, the fine work
that throws out boldly, thus fix-
ing the eye on the key of the
whole composition as the central
point of a circle.
83. In Fig. 56 is shown
another example of this style of
ornament, taken from a mosaic


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 73
pavement in a mosque at Cairo, in Egypt. Here the geo-
metrical simplicity of the pattern can be easily traced, as
the design consists simply of two horizontally arranged
zigzag lines, crossed at regular intervals by sets of diago-
nally arranged zigzag lines, the patterns of which are all
identical.
84. In Fig. 57 we have an ornament generated on a dif-
ferent system but on a similar geometrical idea. This orna-
ment, too, is suggestive of the fret pattern, though entirely
different from any frets we have hitherto observed. How-
ever, the shape of the enclosed figure abca'cj, it will be






FIG. 57.
observed, is identically the same as the figure g1: z'jkl, and
the repetition and alternate arrangement of these two pecu-
liar outlincs give us the key to the whole system of orna-
ment shown in the figure.
This result is obtained by an arrangement of the simplest
forms imaginable, but the geometrical and intellectual study
required to perfect these forms to bring about the result is
something tremendous, and the student will readily see that
it really requires more brain work to produce a simple look-
ing design like Fig. 57, than the complicated arrangement
of straight lines shown in Fig. 56.
8". Another pattern is shown in Fig. 58, and consists of
a number of scrolls of a more or less geometrical character.


74 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §4
and, though simple in itself, it is fascinatinegcomplicated in
its conception. The design is executed in two colors, and a
little study will show that the outlines of the two colors are
identical. The light portions of the design in the upper half
of the figure are a duplication
of the dark portions of the
design in the lower half of the
figure, and vice versa, every
detail on one half being exactly
reproducible in the opposite
color on the other half, and, if
the figure were sawed out on
the line dividing the two colors,
it would produce two outlines
exactly the same in every respect. We called attention to
this fact in connection with the Greek frets, but no Greek
ornament ever carried this wonderful mathematical detail
to such a nicety.


86. Arabian Coloring.—In Fig. 59 we have a ceiling
taken from a mosque at Cairo The repetition of similar
forms is clearly marked here, though the geometrical ele-
ment is largely lost owing to
the surface covered by the
flat decoration. The colors
here used were a light blue
for the groundwork, over
which was laid the general
design in bright gold, and
that overlaid with a pale yel-
low, almost approaching a
cream tint. Light blue and
pale yellow are very prominent tints in Arabian ornament;
red is used but sparingly, and then of a most intense shade;
while green is introduced in small arabesque figures, scat-
tered through with others of gold and occasionally of blue.
The ground colors in nearly all instances are blue, creamy
yellow, and occasionally red. -


§4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 75
87. Fig. 60 is from an illuminated copy of the Koran,
and illustrates the influence of Byzantine art on that of
Arabia. The general construction lines of the ornarnentare
. Byzantine in character, while the filling in is typically Ara-
bian. The small irregular spaces in the border of the desigr
a " A ‘ W.
‘ M _ 0-"..-
~\ . mummmmmmnumnmnnmmnmifhw. IuumullmIllmllmnmmlmm
Immmmmmmumummwwm . . 'uirm:m:unmalwn1.m:_


at a are green, the square enclosed spaces at b are a brilliant
red, and the groundwork that shows through at c is a deli-
cate shade of blue. The ornaments worked on these grounds
and in these spaces are either a bright gold or white, and the
filling in of the general outline is a creamy shade of yellow.
88. In the primitive Arabian style, unmixed with the
Persian, the flower, properly so called, is never to be found,
but in its place appear other forms resembling it and are
apparently inspired directly by nature. This sort of sub-
ject, half way between imaginary conception and the repre-
sentation of natural flowers, does not appear simply as a
termination of scrolls, as among the Greeks, but forms an
integral part of the decoration and does not break the lineal
network.


76 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §
5;.
TURKISH ORNAMENT.
89. Characteristics of Turkish Ornament.—The
architecture of the Turks, as seen at Constantinople, is
patterned after the early Byzantine style, though their sys-
tem of ornamentation is a. modification of the Arabian style.
In fact, it may be considered as an application of Arabian
ornament, without any understanding of the meaning, deri-
vation, or type of that ornament.
When the art of one people is borrowed by another of the
same religion but of different character, temperament, and
customs, the resulting designs are certain to show the defi-
ciency of intellect or refinement that the borrowing people
possessed in contrast to the others; and this is the case with
the Turks when compared with the Arabs. There is the
same difference in the refinement, elegance, and judgment
of the Turkish ornament and Arabian ornament as there is
between these two peoples. The Turks themselves can
hardly be considered an artistic nation. They have built
buildings and executed designs in their cities, but have
employed foreign artists to do the work. All their public
buildings, therefore, present a mixed style. It is not at all
unusual to find in a Turkish building floral ornaments of
Arabian and Persian origin side by side with details from
Rome, the Turks having exhibited a tendency to abandon
the traditional style of their forefathers.
The Turks are the first of the Mohammedan nations to
adopt European fashions in architecture, and their modern
buildings and palaces are the work of European architects
and artists, and are designed in the most approved European
style.
90. The Turkish embroideries give about the only style
of ornament that we can consider strictly national, as work
‘of this character must necessarily exhibit the characteristics
of the race, and, judging from this, it will be readily seen
that their art instinct is far inferior to that of India. Indian
embroidery is perfect in the distribution of its forms and all


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 77
its principles of ornamentation. With Turkish ornamenta-
tion, the only examples we have that approach any degree
of perfection are in the carpets, but these are executed
mostly in Asia Minor, and are probably not designed by
Turks. The designs of most of them appear more Arabian,
and differ from the Persian carpets in being more conven-
tional in their foliage treatment.
91. The general principles of the distribution of form
are the same in Turkish and Arabian ornament, but there is
a difference in the treatment. In both the ArabianIand
Moresque styles, the surface of an ornament is only slightly
rounded and the enrichment is secured by sinking in the
lines, or, where the surface was left smooth, additional pat-
tern upon pattern was obtained by painting. Turkish orna-
ment, on the contrary, presents a curved surface, and the
effect is not as broad as that produced by the sunken-feather
treatment of the Arabian and Moresque. Another peculiar-
ity that readily distinguishes Turkish ornament from Ara-
bian is its abuse of the reentering curve, thus causing all
its detail to have a feeling of instability and unrest. This
is also, to a certain extent, characteristic of the Persian
style. In the Moorish style, however, it appears only
exceptionally.
92. It is a very difficult matter, in fact, almost impos
sible, to clearly explain the differencesin styles of ornament
that have so strong a family resemblance as the Persian,
Arabian, and Turkish, but, after practice, the eye detects
them as readily as it does the difference between Roman
and Greek. The general principles remaining the same,
there will be found a peculiarity in the proportions of the
masses—more or less grace in the flowing of the curves, a
fondness for particular directions in the leading lines, and a
peculiar interweaving of forms, the general form of the
conventional foliage usually remaining the same. The rela-
tive degree of fancy, delicacy, or coarseness with which these
are drawn will at once distinguish them as works of the


78 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
refined and spirited Persian, the not alone refined, but
reflective, Arabian, or the unimaginative Turk.
93. The most prominent colors in Turkish ornament are
green and black; in fact, these form a feature of the orna-
ment. In modern Turkish ornament, green is much more
prominent than in ancient examples, where blue was the
important color.
PERSIAN ORNAMENT.
94:. Characteristics of Persian Ornament.—The
time at which we are most familiar with Persian art is at the
period of its greatest splendor. The outlines of the orna-
ment are generally taken from the conceptions of Arabian
architecture, but modified by Indian tradition and the
peculiar genius of the Persian race. The style of Persian
ornament is less compressed and austere than the Ara-
bian, and possesses more freedom and elegance, while its
sources of double derivation give it a greater element of
variety.
The floral motive is employed in both its aspects. In
some examples it is scattered through the decoration with
apparent freedom, and, in others, inserted in the linked net-
work and usually placed at the intersection of lines; but even
in the latter case, it is treated in a manner that is medium
between the Arab conventionality and the Indian naturalism.
A consideration of the. characteristics of the Persians will
help us to understand this more fully.
95. Persian Compared With Arabian Art—The
Arabs belonged to the Mohammedan sect of Omar, while the
Persians had split from this faith, and belonged to the sect
of Ali, and were great drinkers of wine. They therefore
attributed to flowers a symbolical language, and did not
exclude the representation of flowers in their decoration,
which is also animated by real and fantastic animals, and
sometimes, though rarely, with the human figure. The


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 79
resources resulting from this mixed style are enhanced by
the manual skill and remarkable fertility possessed by the
Persians. Bookbinders, potters,e1nbroiderers, and minia~
ture painters emulate one another in taste and skill. Per-
sian carpets are still considered the finest in the world,
and the dishes, vases, and enamel bricks from that country
are models of taste, and European art seeks them out and
manufacturers endeavor to equal them by imitation.
96. Persian Compared With Indian Art.-The Indian
and Persian styles resemble each other in their polychro-
matic decoration. The rule is usually a silhouette, with
geometrical outlines relieved by conventional coloring on a
dominating generating ground.
97. The Mohammedan architecture of Persia never
seems to have attained the perfection of the Arabian build-
ings in Cairo. Although presenting considerable grandeur
in the main features, the general outlines are less pure, and
there is awant of elegance in all their structural details
compared with the edifices of Cairo. It is not strange,
therefore, that we find their system of construction much
inferior to that of the Arabians and Moors. The Per-
sians, unlike the Arabs and Moors, were free to intro-
duce animal life, and thus mixing up subjects drawn
from real life with the inanimate forms of decoration,
they were led away from the tendency to a pure style
of ornament.
98. The great attention given to the illumination of
manuscripts in Persia, which were widely spread through
all Mohammedan countries, would naturally tend to spread
the influence of this mixed style, and the decorations of
houses at Cairo and Damascus, and the mosques and foun-
tains of even Constantinople, are tainted with it to a greater
or less extent. Groups of natural flowers are constantly
found growing from vases and enclosed in panels of com
ventional Arabian ornament.


80 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
MOORISII ORNALIENT.
99. Derivation of Moorish Art.—-The Moorish style,
with but a few distinguishing characteristics, is the direct
offspring of the Arabian. The methods of construction, the

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forms of ornament, and the frequent use of inscriptions are
common to both styles. However, in Moorish decoration, a
characteristic feature is the use of a third color, or ground


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 81
surface, worked over or between two others that serve as a
framework. This may be seen in Fig. 61, which is a detail
from the Alcazar, at Seville. Here the geometrical con-
struction of the Arabian style is everywhere evident, while
in the soffit of the arch at a is seen the typical relief Moorish
ornament painted in three colors, as hereafter explained.
100. The Alhambra.—In discussing the ornament of
the Moors, we will confine our illustrations largely to details
taken from the Alhambra, in Spain, because this is one of
their chief works of art, and the one in which their system
of decoration reached its culminating point. In fact, the
Alhambra occupies the same position in Moorish art as does
the Parthenon in the Greek, or Hagia Sophia in the Byzantine
style. Every principle of art that we find in the ornament
of any other people, we find obeyed by the Moors in this
erection of the Alhambra. Here are the eloquence of Egyp-
tian art, the grace and refinement of the Greek, and the
geometrical complexity and variety of the Byzantines and
Arabs.
101. Characteristlcs of Moorish Ornament—The
ornament lacked the charm of symbolism, however, that is
so characteristic of Egyptian ornament, for this was forbid-
den by the religion of the Moors; but its place is more than
supplied by the Arabic inscriptions, which address them-
selves directly to the eye by their personal beauty, and not
only excite the intellect by the difliculties of deciphering
their complex and curious involutions, but also delight the
imagination when read by the beauty of the sentiments they
express and the music of their composition. Long fantastic
letters, interwoven with graceful but intricate geometrical
patterns, as shown at a in Fig. 62, lead the eye to decipher
the words, and we find, as a part of the construction of their
very buildings, sentiments that are ever present and asso-
ciated with all their daily doings, and ever simple but
truthful phrases elaborately twisted or intricately woven,
such as, “ There is no conqueror but God. ”


82 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
102. The builders of this wonderful structure were
fully aware of the greatness of their work. It was inserted
in the inscriptions on the walls that this building surpassed





FIG. 62.
all other buildings. They also state in the glittering eccen-
tricities of the design that, “He who stops to study
with attention will reap the benefit of a commentary on
decoration. "


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. . 83
103. Decorated Construction and Constructed
Decoratiom—Lct us now follow the injunction of this
inscription and learn some of the general principles that




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FIG. 63.
appear to have guided the Moors in their decoration. In
the first place, they always regarded the first principle of
architecture—t0 decorate construction and never to construct
decoration.


84 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
In Moorish art, the decoration arises most naturally from
the construction, and the constructive idea is carried out in
every detail of the ornamentation of the surface, as shown in
Fig. 63, which is a window opening, around which, it will be
observed, the ornament is arranged to set forth and empha-
size the opening as a structural detail. We have already
said that true beauty results from a repose of mind, felt
when the eye, the intellect, and the affections are satisfied
and free from all sense of want. When a building is con-
structed falsely, and appears to derive or give support with-
out doing either one or the other, it fails to afford this
repose, and therefore can never pretend to true beauty,
however harmonious it may be in itself.
The Moors and the Mohammedan races generally have
ever regarded this rule, and we never find a useless or
superfluous ornament, or one that does not arise quietly and
naturally from the decorated surface. The lines grow out
of each other in gradual undulations; there are no excres-
cences; nothing could be removed and leave the design as
good, or make it any better.
104. The surface in Fig. 64 is entirely filled with orna_
mentation, but no detail of it can in any way be altered and
so improve the design. In a general sense, if its construc:
tion is properly attended to, there can be no excrescences.
The general forms were first cared for; these were subdi-
vided by general lines, the interstices of which were then
filled with ornament that was again subdivided and enriched
for closer inspection. (This will also be observed by careful
study of Fig. 60.) They carried out this principle with the
greatest refinement, and the harmony and beauty of all their
ornamentation derived their chief success from this observ-
ance; their main divisions contrasted and balanced perfectly,
The detail never interferes with the general form, and, when
seen at a distance, the main lines strike the eye and the fine
detail disappears; nearer approached, more detail comes into
the composition, and, on close inspection, all detail of the
surface appears as a grand powdering of ornament. The


g4 HISTORlC ORNAMENT. 85
effect of this treatment is well illustrated in Fig. 65, where
the general arched construction is the main consideration.
The subdivision of the surface into general panels by means
of ornamental bands is of next importance, and the surface
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FIG. 64.
decoration of these panels then receives the final considera-
tion. However, though these may be left to the last, they
receive the closest attention and a care in their treatment not
even second to that in the construction of the arch itself.
105. The Primary Elements.—I-Iurm0ny of form
appears to exist in the proper balancing and contrast of the


86 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
straight, inclined, and curved elements; as in color there can
be no perfect composition in which either of the three
primary colors is wanting, so in form, whether structural or
decorative, there can be no perfect composition in which





either of the three primary elements is wanting, and the
variety of harmony in a design depends on the predominance
or subordination of these three forms.
106. In surface decoration, an arrangement consisting
of straight lines crossed by other straight lines, as in Fig. 66,


,8, 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 87
is monotonous and affords no feeling of satisfaction. Thisis
because only one of the primary elements is present—the
straight line; but, if we introduce lines that tend to carry the
eye toward the angles, as in Fig. 67, the pleasure is increased
and the figure has more repose. This is due to the presence























Flo. 66. FIG. 6?. FIG. 68. Flo. 69.
of another primary element—the inclined line. Now, add
the third element—the curved line—as shown in Fig. 68, and
the figure expresses complete harmony. In this case, the
straight line or square is the leading form and the others are
subordinate, but the same result can be obtained by making
the inclined line the leading form, as shown in Fig. 69.
107. It is the neglect of this simple rule that causes so
many failures in paper hangings and carpets, and more espe-
cially in articles of dress. The lines of papers generally
appear to run up through the ceiling most disagreeably in
one direction only, carrying the eye right through the walls
of the apartment.
The study of any design or pattern that has been regarded
with any degree of satisfaction in ancient times, will show,
as component parts of its structure, the straight line, the
curved line, and the inclined line characteristic of the surface
decoration of the Moors. '

108. Consistency of Moorish Ornament. In the
decorative art of the Moors, all lines flow out from a parent


88 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
stem. Every ornament, no matter how remote, can be traced
to its branch and root. An ornament is so adapted to the
surface decorated that it often appears to suggest the general
form rather than to have been suggested by it. In all cases
where foliage flows out naturally from a parent stem, the eye
is never offended as is done by modern practice in the random
introduction of ornament without reason for its existence.
However irregular the space they have to fill, the Moors
commence by dividing it into equal areas, and around these
they fill in their detail, but invariably return to their parent
stem. They appear in this to work by a process analogous
to that of nature.
109. Take, for instance, the leaf of avine, the object
here being to distribute the sap from the parent stem to
the extremities; it is evident that the main stem should
divide the leaf as nearly as possible into equal areas. So
again with the minor divisions, each area is then again
subdivided by intermediate lines that all follow the same
law of equal distribution, even to the most minute filling
in of the stem feeders.
110. The Moors follow another principle—that of radi-
ation from 'the parent stem—as may be seen in a chestnut
leaf, wherein the leaflets all radiate from the parent stem,
each leaflet diminishes in size toward the extremities, and
each area is proportionate to the leaf.
The Orientals carried out this principle with marvelous
perfection, as did the Greeks in their honeysuckle ornament.
A greatdiflerence between the Greek ornament and that of
the Arabian and Moresque, however, is that the former
grows its ornament scroll out of scroll as before explained,
and the latter grow their ornaments off from each side of a
continuous stem. With the Moors, all junctions of curved
lines with curved lines, or curved with straight, are tangen-
tial to one another.
111. Conventionalism in Moorish Ornament.—A
charm found in the works of the Arabs and Moors lies in


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 89
their conventional treatment of ornament. Their creed for-
bade them to represent living forms, and, therefore, they
could not let their art decline to realism even though they so
desired. They worked on the same lines that nature worked,
but always avoided a direct transcript; they took her prin-
ciples but they did not copy her works.
112. Coloring in Moorish 0rnan_1ent.—The coloring
of the Moorish ornaments was treated as skilfully as was the
form. They followed certain fixed principles founded on
I observations of natural laws. The colors employed on their
stucco work were in all cases a combination of the three pri-
maries—blue, red, and yellow, the last being represented by
gold—and the secondary colors—purple, green, and orange—
occurred only in the mosaic dados. These, being nearer the
eye, formed a point of repose from the more brilliant color-
ing above.
113. It may be remarked here that among the Egyp-
tians, Greeks, Arabs, and Moors, the primary colors were
used exclusively in the earliest period of the arts, and, during
the decadence, the secondary colors were used. Thus, in
Egypt, the temples of the Pharaonic period were painted
entirely in primary colors, while those in the Ptolemaic period
used the secondaries. The early Greek temples were deco-
rated in the primary colors, while at Pompeii every variety
of shade possible appears. In modern Cairo, and in the East
generally, we have green appearing frequently side by side
with red, where blue would have been used in the earlier
times. This is equally true of the works of the Middle Ages.
In the early manuscripts and in stained glass, the primary
colors were chiefly used, although other colors were not
entirely excluded, while, in later times, every variety of shade
and tint is used indiscriminately, with preference for none.
1 14. In Moorish art, the primary colors were used in the
upper portions of the design, and the secondary and tertiary
colors on the lower portions. This is entirely in accordance
with natural law. We have the primary blue in the sky, the


9O HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
secondary green in the trees and fields, and the tertiaries in
the earth itself. It is also observable in flowers, where the
primary colors are the buds and flowers, and the secondaries
are the leaves and stalks.
115. The ancients always observed this rule in the best
periods of art; though in Egypt we do occasionally see a
secondary green used in the upper portions of a temple, but
this arises from the fact that all ornament in Egypt was
symbolic, and if a lotus leaf were used in the upper part of
a building, it would necessarily be colored green. The law
is true in general, and the aspect of an Egyptian temple of
the Pharaonic period usually gives the primaries above the
secondaries, while, in the Ptolemaic period, the order was
inverted. In Pompeii, we occasionally find in the interior
of the houses a. gradual coloring, from the roof down, of a
light to a darker color, ending with black, but this was by
no means universal. '
116. System of Moorish Coloring.—The system of
Moorish coloring might be considered absolutely perfect.
All the surfaces were modeled and proportioned according
to the color they were to receive, and, in using the colors
blue, red, and gold, they took care to place them in such
positions that they should be best seen themselves and add
most to the general effect. On molded surfaces they placed
red (the strongest color of the three) in the depths, where it
might be softened by shadow, and never 011 a raised surface;
blue was placed in the shade, but not deep shade; and gold
on all the surfaces exposed to strong light, for it was evi-
dent that by this arrangement alone could their truc value
be obtained. The several colors are either separated by
white bands or by the shadow caused by the relief of the
ornament itself, and this seems to be an absolute principle
required in coloring—colors should never be allowed to
impinge on one another.
117. In Fig. 70, the background a, on which the orna-
ment is placed, was of a deep-red color, while the leaf forms 6


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 91
were colored with the primary blue. All the rest of the
surface, including the necks of the columns, was gold, and a
grand harmonious bloom was spread over the whole design.





1 18. Blending of Colors—In coloring the grounds of
the various diapers, the blue always occupies the largest
area, and this is in accordance with the theory in optics and
the experiments that have been made with the prismatic
spectrum. Rays of light are said to neutralize one another in
the proportion of 3 yellow, 5 red, and 8 blue. Thus, it will
be seen that a quantity of blue equal to the sum total of the
required quantity of red and yellow will produce an effect
of harmony and prevent the predominance of any one color


92 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §4
over the others. In the Alhambra, yellow was replaced by
gold, which tended toward a reddish yellow, and the blue on
this account was further
increased in proportion,
to counteract the tend-
ency of the red to over-
power the other colors.
119. Moorish orna-
ment is governed by cer-
tain geometrical patterns
in its formation, although
the number of these
patterns is small. In
Fig. 71 is shown an in-
terlaced pattern consist-
F1G.71. ing, firsl, of vertical and
horizontal lines arranged
in pairs, the distance between each pair being twice the dis
tance between the lines composing each pair; srcona’, of diag-
onal lines drawn through
the pattern at an angle of
45°, and spaced a distance
apart equal to the verti-
cal and horizontal pairs.
The diagonal lines are
arranged so that the set
of squares formed by their
intersection will contain
in their centers the inter-
section of the vertical and
horizontal pairs.




120. In Fig. 72 is
shown a slight variation Fm. 72.
of this same interlaced
pattern, wherein the vertical and horizontal lines are drawn
singly and the diagonal lines are drawn in pairs, but of


§4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 93
slightly different proportion from Fig. 71. The amount
of Moorish ornament that can be developed from these
two figures is unlimited, and the Moors themselves extended
even this limit by the variety of coloring in the different
parts.
Figs. 7 3 and 74 are based on the system shown in Fig. 71,
and Figs. 75 and 76 are developed from the system shown








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in Fig. 72. A slight variation of the systems themselves
will produce most remarkable results in the figures.


FIG. 74.
121. However much disguised, the whole ornamen-
tation of the Moors is constructed geometrically. Their


94 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
fondness for geometrical forms is evinced by the great
use of mosaics, in which their imagination had full play.


P10. 75.
However complicated may be their patterns, they are all
extremely simple when the principle of setting them is
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once understood. They all arise from the intersection of
equally distant lines around fixed centers.


§4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 95
WESTERN ART.
CELTIC ORNAIMENT.
122. Origin and Character.——In studying the orna-
ment of Western Europe, we follow a chronological order
instead of an ethnological one, as we have been doing here-
tofore, the history of ornament in this section being pro-
gressive and free from outside influences except to a very
limited extent.
When Byzantine art spread over Western Europe, as it
did about the twelfth century, it must have found among
the nations of Celtic origin an indigenous art, arising from
the peculiar aptitudes of that race. The Celts undoubtedly
had a spontaneous national art, though its birthplace,
whether in Scandinavia or Ireland, has never been satisfac-
torily decided.
123. Interlacing forms almost the only element of the
Celtic designs of the earlier period, and this establishes its
antiquity, for the intertwining ornament is essentially a
primitive style. Its distinctive mark is the division of the
surface, decorated by such a combination of lines that the
development is usually happy, possible, and logical, and
there is no doubt that the origin of these designs was pro-
cured originally from interlaced cords. The pliability of
this original type would account for the curved instead of
acute angles, this being a characteristic difference between
the Celtic and Arabian geometrical designs.
124. The variety of productions obtainable from such
simple elements is remarkable. In many of them the com-
plications prove, by their skilful divisions, and the ingenuity
of the windings, a practical comprehension of ornamental
construction. There is lacking, however, in this style, a
vital element—the element of more extensive representation
—and its resources were threatened with exhaustion from


96 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
having used every possible combination of the intertwinings
of a cord.
125. Introduction of Animal Forms.—In combi-
nation with Byzantine art, Celtic ornament advanced in
style. A portion of the original interlacings was still
retained, and for the discarded part was substituted the
stem from which sprang the leafwork and terminated in
floral spans.
Having thus attained some decorative richness, the Celtic
style rose to the level of art; at the same time, the differ-
ence already mentioned between it and purely geometric
conceptions, such as are usually found in Arabian decora-
tions, became more striking, from the frequent introduction
of the heads of quadrupeds and birds, serving as terminals
to some of the principal lines that were made to represent
bodies elongated out of all just proportion or probability,
and from which emerge feet and claws corresponding with
the head. Such as they are, these fantastic and grotesque
images constitute a separate art that the interlacings alone
could never have reached.
126. Distinguishing Characteristics.— The chief
characteristics of the early Celtic style consist : first, of the
entire absence of foliage or other vegetable ornament; 51‘:-
and, the extreme intricacy and excessive minuteness and
elaboration of the various patterns, most of which are geo-
metrical, consisting of interlaced ribbon work, diagonal or
spiral lines—each of which invariably wove itself alternately
above and below each successive transverse strand—strange,
monstrous animals, and birds with long topknots and tongues
and tails intertwining in almost endless knots. Some of the
manuscripts have entire pages covered with elaborate pat-
terns in compartments, the whole forming a beautiful cruci-
form design, and one of these facing a commencement of
each of the four gospels.
The labor employed in such a mass of work must
have been immense. the care most infinite. as a critical


VD
4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 97
examination with a magnifying, glass does not detect
an error in the truth of the lines or the regularity of
the interlacings; yet with all this minuteness, the most
harmonious elfect of
coloring has been
produced.

127. Intrleacy
of Deslgn.—Of the
curious intricacy of
some of these designs
an idea may be ob-
tained by following
a ribbon in one' of
these patterns, as,
for instance, in the
upper compartment
of Fig. 77. The
method adopted to
.secure this intricate
interlacing, so that each strap shall alternately cross above
and below each following one, can be better understood










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NW? 3!
(d)


by reference to Fig. 78, where the preliminary arrange-
ment of a woven pattern is laid out at (a) and the turning
and joining of its exterior ends are shown at (/1), while


98
HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
at (r) is seen the completed interlacement and complication
of interior curves and returnings.










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/.\/<\/~z w Zl \4 “4&7
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awmnmam
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FIG. 79.
\
Sometimes two ribbons run parallel to each other, but are
interlaced alternately, as in Fig. 79. When allowable, the


FIG. 80.
ribbon is dilated and angulated to fill up particular places in
the design, as in Fig. 80. The simplest modification of this


pattern, of course, is the
double oval seen in the
angles of Fig. 81. This
occurs in Greek and Syr-
ian manuscript, in Roman
__ tessellated pavements, but
rarely in Celtic mann-
il script.
128. Syn1bolism.—
No symbolic meaning
seems to have been at-
tached to the Celtic orna-
ments, except perhaps in
the designs so frequently
found without beginning or end. in which appears what
might be a symbol of eternity.


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 99
The union of the Celtic and Byzantine styles did not
entirely give way to the Gothic style with which it long
existed. It furnished types for the finest ornamentation
of glass and manuscripts, that in this period, from the
eleventh to the fourteenth century, resembles stained glass
on a reduced scale.
GOTHIC ORNADIENT.
129. Evolution.—Gothlc art grew out of and suc-
ceeded the Romanesque in Western Europe in the same
manner that the Byzantine did in the East. Each was the
result of an attempt to adapt a modified Roman style to the
new conditions caused by political, religious, and geograph-
ical changes. In Western Europe, however, the Roman-
esque style failed to develop into a new architectural system
until about the middle of the tenth century, while the
Byzantine became a perfect style of art before the close of
the sixth century.
130. Influence of Rellglon.——Gothic art in every par-
ticular was directly opposed to classic art, not only because
it was developed by the nations that had conquered Rome,
but because it was a Christian art, in opposition to a pagan
art, and its architecture was based on an economical system
of construction, while that of classic Rome was an extrava-
gant construction. Its greatest monuments were built to
the glorification of the Supreme Being, while those of
Roman art were for the glorification of the empire. It is
not surprising, therefore, to find the best and purest exam-
ples of Gothic art in localities most distant from Rome, and,
as we gradually approach the south of Europe, we find
Gothic ornament tainted more and more with classic influ-
ence until, in Italy, the examples are so different in feeling
and expression from those we find in England that they
constitute almost an entirely different style. In France,
the style is not as pure as in England, but it contains none
of the extreme variations seen in Italy, and being patterned


100 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §4
more or less after the English examples, derives what good
it has from that country.
13 1 . German and English Gothic.
In Germany, Gothic art was copied from
J the French, and carried the imperfec-
' 3‘ tions of the French style to a still lower
degree, and its entrance into Italy from
Germany renders its condition in the seat
of the old Roman Empire so debased that
it possesses none of the underlying prin-
ciples of the pure Gothic style.
English-Gothic ornament may be di-
vided into three general periods, each
associated approximately with the cen-
tury of its greatest development. These
periods are called the Early English, or thirteenth century,
the lh'mmlm’, or fourteenth century, and the Pvrpma’z'cular,
or fifteenth century.


FIG. 82.


Generally speaking, the Early English period is char-
acterized architecturally by long, narrow, lancet-shaped


§
4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 101
windows arranged in groups of two or three, as shown in
Fig. 82, the space between the openings usually containing
a third perforation in the form of a trefoil or quaterfoil
included under the same dripstone as the window opening.
The mullions, or bars, separating the window openings
were, toward the latter part of this period, split to form a
network in the upper part of the window, called tracery,
as shown in Fig. 83. This tracery was greatly elaborated
as the style advanced, and filled the upper portion of the
window with a complicated series of geometrical forms that
were frequently richly elaborated with a. ball-flow” orna-
mmt, as shown in Fig. 84.
132. The Ball-Flower Ornament.—The ball-flower
ornament is characteristic of the Decorated period, and






- = (litnnilinniiimiii
FIG. 85.
'I Will llllllllllll
consists of conventionalized floral forms nearly spherical in
shape, a detail of which is shown
in Fig. 85. They were not always
used to such an excess as is shown
in Fig. 84, and were inserted un- ‘
der the dripstone at regular inter-
vals, as shown in Fig. 86, which
is a sedile, or scat, sometimes
built in the interior walls of a
church. The dripstones of this
period usually terminated at each
end in the carved head of some
person of prominence, such as the
king or bishop, as shown in Fig. 84.
As we approach the Perpendicular period, the lines of


102 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
tracery are still more complicated but arranged more in
perpendicular pan-
els, the horizontal
elements being sup-
pressed as much as
possible.
133. Designs
for \Vindowv
Heads—All these
designs for window
heads were worked
out on simple geo-
metrical combina-
tions, as shown in
Fig. 87, which is a
window with six
days, or openings,
divided in two groups of three each by means of pointed


§4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 103
arches shown at baa and cde, over which a circle is
struck, with its center at 0, whose diameter is equal to half
the width of the window, and its circumference is divided
into twelve parts, as shown at 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. Within each
of these parts, small circles, tangent to one another and to
the circumference of the great circle, are described, and
form the generating elements of the interior design.





FIG. 89.
This example is given with its construction lines simply
to show how these details are geometrically worked out.
All the elements of the design can be located and executed
by means of a pair of compasses and a straightedge, without
any other device to lay off measurements.
The lower part of these windows on the exterior, during
the Perpendicular period, as said before, were divided into


104
HISTORIC ORNAMENT. g 4
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§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 105
long panels, the total window opening usually being of
immense area, as shown in Fig. 85, which is, the west front
of St. George’s Chapel, at Windsor. This also shows the
general exterior appearance of the Gothic architecture of
Great Britain, and, with the west front of Westminster
Abbey, shown in Fig. 89, will be interesting to compare



“I; ' ’J'Vyéz
lrll'lillllij




with the Gothic art of other countries, which we will con-
sider hereafter.
134. French \‘Vlndow 'l‘raeery.—In France, the
progress of window tracery was similar to that of Eng-
land, but on less systematic lines, and the doors and win-
dows tend more to rich elaboration on the exterior, usu-
ally being carved with full-length human figures, as
shown in Fig. 00, which is one of the entrance doors to
the church of Notre Dame, Paris, the full front elevation
of which is shown in Fig. 01. A comparison of Fig. 91


106 HISTORIC ORNAMENT.
4
C110
with the two examples of English Gothic will be interest-
ing, showing the tendency of the latter to vertical lines
more characteristic of the Gothic style, and of the French
to horizontal lines influenced by its closer proximity to
classic art.

135. Gothic Architecture in Italy. In Italy, Gothic
architecture is unique, and though the Palazzo Vecchio,

'Vr1!ywir .,
, int-gm .
‘ I'Iv "rnm “I‘li'i'ft f






FIG. 98.
at Florence, shown in Fig. 92, possesses the crude, bold,
unassuming construction of the early Gothic castles, it
scarcely represents the fundamental principle on which the
Italian design is developed. It is in Venice that we find
more elaborate examples, where window tracery is carried
to a most fanciful extreme.
The Foseari Palace, shown in Fig. 93, shows the gradual


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 10'?
development of this window treatment, which seems to con-
stitute the entire idea. of the Italian-Gothic style. In the






/ 4/41/4/4a
'






lower story we have the plain ogival arch, and in the central
portions of the second and third stories, small colonnades,
I


108 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
connected by pointed arches, and in the upper of the two
with pointed arches, separated by plate tracery. In the top
story, this tracery is carried to an elaborate extreme. This
system of treatment, though based on entirely diflerent
structural ideas from the Gothic of the North, brought
about many happy results, however, and the palace of Con-
tarini Fasan, also known as the House of Desdemona, shown
in Fig. 94, exhibits how adaptable the style of this Vene-
tian work is to modern requirements by the careful pro-
portioning and grouping of its parts and treatment of its
details. _
It is not in the exterior of these buildings that we find
the most of value to us in ornamental design, except possibly
in Venetian work; therefore, the treatment of the interior
details we will now consider in regular order, having under-
stood the transition in style that took place from the British
Isles to the Italian peninsula.
136. Evolution of Gothic Ornament—The transi-
tion of the round arch, characteristic of the Romanesque
style, to the pointed arch, characteristic of the Gothic style,
is easily traced in buildings where the two styles are inter-
mingled, many of these being extant about the beginning of
the thirteenth century, as shown in Fig. 95, which is taken
from an arcade of Canterbury Cathedral, in England. But
the passage from Romanesque ornament to that of the Gothic
period is by no means so easily traced.
All traces of the acanthus leaf have by this time disap-
peared, and we find a purely conventional style of ornament
prevalent in all buildings of the time. The nearest approach
to the acanthus formation we find in the illuminated manu_
scripts of the twelfth century, where ornamental forms, such
as shown in Fig. 96, are used, and appear to have been
derived from some old Greek manuscripts, as Gothic orna-
ments are formed by a continuous stem throwing off leaVes
on the outer side and terminating in a flower.
Early English ornament is the most perfect, both in prim-
ciple and in execution, of all the Gothic period. There is as


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 109
much elegance in distinct modulations of form as there is in
the ornament of the Greeks. It is always in harmony with
the structural features of the building, and always grows


naturally from them. It fulfils every one of the conditions
that we desire to find in a perfect style of art, but it remained
perfect only so long as the style remained conventional. As
the style became less idealized
and more direct in imitation,
it ceased to be an ornament of
structural features, but became
ornament applied.
137. Characteristics.—
In the capitals of the columns
of Early English architecture,
the ornament rises directly
from the shaft, above the neck-
ing of which the column splits


110 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
into a series of stems, each stem terminating in a flower, as
shown in Fig. 97. This is analogous to the mode of deco-
rating the Egyptian capital. In the decorated style, on the
contrary, where a much nearer approach to nature was
attempted, it was no longer possible to treat a natural leaf as


part of the shaft, and therefore the shaft is terminated by a
bell shape, around which the leaves are twined, and the
more natural these were made, the less artistic became the
arrangement, as shown in Fig. 98. This method of applying
orn'ament reminds us of the Roman-Corinthian capital.


In the Perpendicular period, the capitals of the columns
were usually plain, and the shaft consisted of a cluster of


§4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 111
small columns. In some large buildings, however, the capi-
tals were carved with shallow foliage of a pronounced
geometrical shape, as shown in Fig. 99.
In foliage and running ornaments on hands and moldings,
the Early English period shows examples where the lines of
the ornament follow
the general directions
of the lines of the mold-
ing, and the foliated
work is conventionally
rendered, but, at the
same time, is graceful
and natural, as shown
in Fig. 100. In painted
bands, the lines usu-
ally are easy and flow- .
ing, following the principle of carved work, as shown in
Fig. 101.
During the Decorated period, however, there is less effort
made to continue the foliage in the direction of the molding,
and the guiding stem fre-
quently wanders directly
across the molding, from
one side to the other, pre-
serving the governing
principle of throwing
leaves off alternately,
but at the same time
chopping the molding up
into a number of sec-
tions rather than giving
it a feeling of continuity.
In Fig. 102 is shown
an example of molding
from this period, where
the guiding stem of the foliation crosses and recrosses the
molding almost at right angles to the line of its direction,
and though the leaves are arranged to cover up this guiding


FIG. 101.



FIG. 102.


112 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
stem to a certain extent, the fact still remains that its most
prominent sections are seen across the molding, instead of.
flowing with it.
138. In the Perpendicular period, the system of decora-
tion is still further removed from that of the Early English,
and the molding is fre-
quently divided up into a
number - of rectangular
panels, each of which is
decorated to represent
some specific natural
form, but so convention-
alized as to be reduced
to a pronounced geometrical outline. This is shown in
Fig. 103, where the leaves of the grape vine are reduced to





FIG. 104.
perfect rectangles, spaced evenly along the molding, between
which bunches of grapes are geometrically arranged.

139. Spaudrels.»-In the
spandl'els of the arches, so
long as the conventionalism of
the Early English style was
maintained, one main stem -.
was distributed over the panel,
from which sprang leaves and
flowers, as shown in F i'g. 104;
but as the style advanced the
stem ceased to be the guiding F", 10;,


g4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 113
form of the ornament, and, in the endeavor to represent in
stone the softness of nature, lost all its grace and decorative
characteristics. Finally, the stem as a leading feature dis-
appears, and we find the
spandrels filled with three
immense leaves, springing
from a twisted stem in
the center, and bearing
no structural relation to
the panel on which they
are planted, as shown in
Fig. 105.
140. Diapers. —— In
the painted wall decora-
tions and diapers, the Early
English artists usually
divided the surface into a
number of geometrical forms within which a simple con-
ventional ornament was introduced resembling tile work.
The devices covering these ornaments were sometimes
heraldic and other times
based on forms borrowed
from the vegetable world,
as may be seen in Fig. 106.
During the Decorated
period, the Wall divisions
are less naturally divided,
and circular disks, within
which are' stenciled geo-
metrical patterns, are
spread over a wall sur-
face, and between them
_ are arrangcd shields with
coats of arms and other
devices, as shown in
Fig. 107. Another system prevalent in the Decorated period
was to divide the wall into a number of bands, each of which


114 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §4
was decorated with a running ornament, as shown in Fig. 108,
where the character of this running ornament is not widely
different from that seen in the Early English period, as
shown in Fig. 101. How-
's. ~ aw


ever, introduced with
this foliation are forms
from the animal world
that seem to possess no
relation to the design, or
the ornament, or the posi-
tion that they occupy.
The diapers of the
Perpendicular period are
attempts at realism, and
in Fig. 109 is shown a
painted wall in which
the pointed arch of
ogival form and the foliations and crockets characteristic
of the carved work of this period are attempted in the repro-
duction on the flat surface. This form of arch, with its
compound curve — con-
vex below and concave
above—is a distinguishing
characteristic of the Per-
pendicular period, as is
also the subdivision of its
under surface into the
small arches or foliations,
as shown. Within each of
these panels (which in all
work were long and nar-
row, giving the style its
name of Perpendicular),
the wall was decorated in
the conventional pattern
as shown, and executed in
two colors. Similar patterns were also used for silks, tapes-
tries, and other fabrics of this period.






L a ' “F
_ K


i r .r
a, '
Fm. 10a


§4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 115
In Fig. 110 is shown another style of wall treatment of
the Perpendicular period, where the surface remains flat
and no attempt is made to depict arches or moldings bor-
rowed from carved ornament, but details from the vegetable
world are drawn realis-
tically against a back-
ground interspersed
with eonventionalized
outlines of leaf forms.
141. Zenith of
Architectural Devel-
opment.—In the thir-
teenth century, beyond
all others, architecture
was at its zenith. The
mosques of Cairo, the
Alhambra in Spain,
Westminster Abbey,
and the Salisbury and
Lincoln cathedrals, in v
England, all possess the same secret of producing the
broadest general effect combined with the most elaborate
decoration. In all these buildings there is a family like-
ness; although the forms differ and the forces that have
called them into existence are totally unlike, yet the prin-
ciples that they embrace are the same. They all exhibit the
same care for the leading masses of composition, the same
appreciation of the undulations of form, the same correct
observation of natural principles in the ornamentation, and
the same elegance and refinement in all the decoration.
The attempt to produce at the present day a building of
the character of those in the thirteenth century would be vain
indeed. Whitewashed walls with stained glass and encaustic
tiles cannot alone sustain the effect that was arrived at when
every molding had its color best adapted to develop its
form, when from the floor to the roof not an inch of space
but that had its elaborate and appropriate ornament—an


§4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 117
144. Rayonnant Period.—In the Rayonnant period,
the capitals of the columns, like those of the Decorated
period in England, are
formed of bell shapes
over which foliage is
arranged; but, as shown
in Fig. 112, the French
arrangement is far infe-
rior to the English, inas-
much as no attempt is
here made to have the
foliage a part of the sup-
porting construction. It
is evident that the bell
shape does the support-


FIG. H2.
ing of the superimposed
load, and the carved vine is
simply an ornament laid on
the surface to break up its
monotony.
145. Flamboyant Pe-
rlod. ‘— The Flamboyant-
style, shown in Fig. 113,
carries this fault to still
greater extent, and the
twisted foliation is plainly
planted on the bell shape,
growing from nothing, supporting nothing, and apparently
ready to drop ofl, as there is no reason why it should be left
F10. 1115.


118 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
there. In Fig. 112 the vine is of a clinging character and
would naturally appear to attach itself to the capital,
although it does not appear to grow naturally out of the
shaft of the column in the manner characteristic of the
foliage of the Early English capitals. In Fig. 113 the folia-
tion. is not only of no particular character, but it is simply
' “stuck on " with no
origin and no struc-
tural relation and con-
veys no idea of fitness
or propriety.
In the running bands
and moldings we find
the same characteristics
as those of England, but
not so pure in form.
In Fig. 114 the foli-
ated forms, it will be
observed, appear to be
attached to and grow
from the top and bot-
tom members of the
molding. The line of
F‘G- 11* their growth is curved
toward the center of
the molding, but, at
the same time, follows
the line of the mold-
ing itself and appears
continuous with it;
while in the Rayonnant
period, as shown in
Fig. 115, the molding
is divided up in sec~
tions more like the
Perpendicular period of
England, and the leaves, though growing apparently from
the stonework beneath them, are nevertheless stiff and




'illill'lfl'l’w '


I, ‘ 1 ‘ " g . ,.- .
I'l‘ih . ' ' I r
’ .f
' v I I I" I' . V :
. 1.1...1'.‘ 1,. Hilv'li/i'ii.=@
FIG. 116.


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 119
geometrical and do not appear to belong to the surface on
which they are placed.
A characteristic of the Flamboyant style is seen in Fig. 116,
where the guiding stern of the ornament that is carved
on the molding is in some places clear from the molding
itself, and though it shows great skill in the carving,
exhibits little art in the
design. The leaves and
floral forms are twisted
so that their ends repre-
sent forked fiames, from
which the period gets its
name, and there is no
structural relation be-
tween the foliation and
its moldings.
146. Early French
diapers divide the wall
surface into geometrical
forms in a manner similar
to that in England, and stenciled within these figures are
characteristic devices typical of the nation and the style.
In Fig. 117 we have a
wall divided intolozenge
shapes by diagonal lines,
within some of which
flr'urs-dc-lis are sten-
ciled in gilt on a blue
ground, while a simple
foliated outline is sten-
ciled within the others
on a gold ground.
In Fig. 118 is shown
a more complicated de
sign based on the inter-
section of a number of
circles whose centers


120 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
are found at the intersections of evenly spaced vertical and
horizontal lines. In this case, the ground of the decoration
is pink, and the outlines of the subdivision and the stenciled
forms within them are in gold.
147. The character of surface treatment in the Rayon-
nant period is best shown in Fig. 119, which is from
an illuminated manuscript. The
lines Of the foliage and the




FIG. 120.
geometrical rendering of the flowers are characteristic
of this style of work, and the twisted forms are suggest-
ive of the change that -
is taking place toward
the Flamboyant period.
In Fig. 120 is shown
another example from
illuminated manuscript,
where the naturalistic
treatment of the flower,
with the foliage reduced
to a flame-like outline,
shows the systematic ren-
dering of all work of this
period.


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 1‘21
148. German-Gothic Details.—Germa.n-Gothic de-
talls were influenced more largely by France, but, at the
same time, borrowed ideas direct from England. Fig. 121
shows a wall diaper divided into circles somewhat after the
manner of the English example shown in Fig. 107, within
which geometrical forms are stenciled in some cases, while
in others the conventional brush form of the eagle, emblem-
atic of Germany, is rendered in light green on a darker
ground of the same color.
149. Mlsinterpretatlon of G0thic.—AS the term
“Gothic " as applied to architecture is, in the minds of most
persons, associated almost entirely with ecclesiastical edifices,
we are all likely to labor under the impression that the
medieval cathedrals were the only structures built during
these dark ages. As a matter of fact, however, every build-
ing erected during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
throughout Western Europe, was built in what we now call
the Gothic style. In order that we may better understand
this domestic architecture and its details, from which much
of our ornament at the present day has descended, it will be
necessary for us to look into the habits, customs, methods
of living, and government of the people at this period.
Kings, princes, earls, and even the lesser nobility, all lived
in castles during this period, and these structures form a
most important part of the architecture, as they are undoubt-
edly the prototype of the modern dwelling house from which
have descended all those details of house plan that modern
requirements have brought into service.
150. Feudal Systerfm—At this time all lands were held
under what is known as the feudal system. When the
tribes from the North had conquered Rome and overrun the
entire Roman Empire, the generals or chiefs of the different
military organizations were given lands for themselves and
their subjects over which they ruled as kings and princes.
This system existed throughout all Europe, but with slightly
varying conditions in Italy, France, Germany, and England,


- 122 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §4
according to the influences of each locality. The general
principle was the same, however, and we will confine our dis-
cussion simply to the effect of this system in France, inas-
much as it reached a most thorough organization there, and
had a more marked influence on the subsequent art of the
period of the Renaissance.
The political organization of a country under the feudal
system consisted in the bulk of the land being divided into
states called fisz, which were held by their owners on the
condition that they should, when called on, perform certain
military duties to their superiors or pay them fees in grain,
wines, cattle, etc., and in default of such service or payment,
the land could be reclaimed. The superior lord might be
the king of the realm, or some nobleman that held a feudal
tenure from the king, and who in turn created fiefs by and
under his own personal rule.
An important detail of the old feudal law was the fact that -
the king or superior lord, from whence comes the modern
term landlord, was entitled to the fealty of his own tenants,
but not to that of his subordinate tenants, every man looking
for rule and discipline only to his own immediate lord and
master. It therefore frequently happened that one of these
noblemen would build up a community so powerful as to
feel practically independent of his king, and therefore
refuse to render to his superior such military service as
was demanded. The result of this was inevitably the
same—war between the king and his subject. On the other
hand, if the subject remained loyal to his king, he was likely
to depend on the royal influence and encroach somewhat
upon the fief of some one of his feudal neighbors. This
would bring about the same result—war between two feudal
barons. And even if he remained within his own territory
and was true to his sovereign, the prosperity of his fief or
his influence with the royal court was sure to excite the
jealousy of some one of the surrounding nobles and bring
about war.
It would thus appear that the feudal barons were at war
with one another a large part of the time, and these frequent


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 123
wars required that the medieval castle should‘be a military
post from necessity and a domestic household for convenience.
During the war the castle was the stronghold of the lord and
his retainers, and during peace it was a house of entertain-
ment for his guests and vassals.
151. Castle of’Coucy.—In Fig. 122 is shown a plan of
the castle of Coucy, near Laon, France, the irregular outline
of which is due to the fact that military engineering required
that these structures should conform as nearly as possible to
the top of the hill, on 1,:
which they were usually ii
built, thereby rendering a“
it impracticable to storm
the fortress from more
than one side—that on
which the entrance was
located,
A large tower, or keep
—in the French castles
called the donjon —
guarded this main en-
trance and at the same
time served as a strong-
hold and point of last
resort in case other por-
tions of the castle should
fall into the hands of
invaders. The clonjon
of Coucy was 180 feet in
height and 108 feet in
diameter, and the walls
were 34 feet thick at the F'G' 122‘
base. The uppermost of its three stories was the largest, as
the walls were thinner at the top, and 1,500 men could be
here assembled in a circular room and receive their instruc-
tions for the military routine of the day. In the middle
story was the family apartment for use during siege, and in

1.


124 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
the basement were storerooms for sufficient provisions to
last 1,000 men over a year.
The keep was surrounded on the outside by a moat, or
water-filled ditch, shown at a, beyond which was a large
enclosure shown at A, called the outer bailey. This was a
large piece of cultivated land and contained the chapel r and
the stables s. The interior courtyard a' was called the inner
bailey and was the only outdoor area open to the garrison in
time of siege.
These points are of interest, as from them are developed
many details that are characteristic of the modern house in
plan, while other details 'of more decorative value had their
origin in devices originally invented for purely military
purposes.
152. In Fig. 123 is shown a bird’s-eye view of the castle
of Coucy and the surrounding country. Around the top of
each of its five towers will be obserVed small projections that
carry an enclosed gallery. The spaces between these pro-
jections, or corbels, as they were called, were open through
the floor Of this overhanging gallery, and, in time of siege,
when the walls of the castle were surrounded by sappers
and miners endeavoring to disintegrate the stonework and
gain access to the interior, deadly missiles were shot straight
down from the floor of the gallery, or quantities of boiling
oil or molten lead were used to make the base of the walls as
unapproachable as possible.
The windows in the castle all opened on the inner bailey,
no openings being permitted toward the outside except
small loopholes of‘ suflicient size only to shoot an arrow
through. The tops of the individual walls enclosing the
inner bailey were notched, and the rectangular sections of
wall between the notches—called battlements—each con-
tained a large loophole, as may be seen in the perspective
view at j. Behind these battlements was a platform on
which archers could stand and shoot at an invading force,
while a similar treatment of the top of the walis around the
outer bailey enabled the besieged to defend the outer bailey


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 125
against the besiegers before finally retiring within the castle
walls for safety.
All these details were altered from time to time, as civil-
ization advanced, and when the invention of gunpowder
w.
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126 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
153. Mode of Living in Ancient Castles—Regard-
ing domestic life within these castle walls, it is well to
remember that, previous to the fourteenth century, there
was not much subdivision in the household apartments even
of royalty, the king and queen and the servants and retainers
all usually occupying one room, known as the great hall. This
great hall is shown in the plan at 11, and was to the domestic
part of the household what the donjon was to the military—
the main apartment wherein all household duties were per-
formed. Here the lord sat at his meals with his family, his
guests, and his retainers; here he' transacted all business of
the day, both financial and domestic; and here in the earliest
times he slept at night on a rough couch at one end.
By degrees, society began to improve and become more
refined, and the constant daily association with servants and
soldiers becoming undesirable, the great hall was divided
into two apartments, one of which was known as the will“
drawing roovi, where the lord and his family could retire
after meals, but the hall was still retained for business and
dining purposes. However, a further subdivision provided
another room for the transaction of business, which was still
called the lmll, but in distinction the remaining portion was
called the dining lzall. These three rooms—the hall, the
dining hall, and the withdrawing room—were the principal
apartments in the house or castle, and, consequently, the sep-
arate sleeping apartments, which advanced ideas demanded,
were crowded into any out-of-the-way corner that circum-
stances afforded. For this reason, these sleeping rooms
were often dark, cheerless apartments, and were designated
by the term chamber—a word derived from the Latin, mean-
ing a dark vault—and finally, when the bedstead was intro¢
duced as an article of household furniture, the sleeping
rooms were called bad chambers, to designate them from
other rooms in the castle of similar character but not for
sleeping purposes.
154. Heating of Ancient Castles—In the earliest
days, the castle was heated by an immense fire-grate located


§ 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 127
in the center of the room, the smoke from which passed
through openings in the roof called louvars. Subsequently,
this grate was removed from the center to the side wall, and
the louver was replaced by a chimney stack. This neces-
sitated a separate chimney for each room, and is responsible
for the fact that nearly every French chateau built in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries bristles with beautifully
designed chimney stacks above the roof, and nearly every
room in the French chateau of the Renaissance period pos-
sesses a fireplace and a distinctively designed mantel.
155. IIeraldry.—Another point of this feudal system
is the subject of heraldry, which is of vast importance in
its relation to historic ornament, inasmuch as it is based
entirely on that important characteristic of all ornament,
namely, symbolism. It is doubtless true that armorial bear-
ings were not in much general use until the twelfth century,
when they were brought into prominence by the crusades—a
term given to those wars waged by the Christians of Western
Europe against the Mohammedans around Jerusalem for the
purpose of rescuing the Holy Sepulcher from the hands of
infidels. '
The purpose of heraldic devices was to designate one per-
son from another, as surnames did not exist in those days;
and though the painted device by which the savage sets
forth his personality may be considered as heraldic as the
device borne on the shield of a soldier, it is with the latter
class that we have to do in ornamental design.
We have seen in Egyptian art evidences of heraldry,
inasmuch as the two serpents flanking the sun disk of the
winged globe are symbols of Upper and Lower Egypt, and,
therefore, heraldic. But with the twelfth century, we arrive
at a system of heraldry whereby the heraldic device was
passed down from generation to generation, in the same
manner that the family name is transmitted at the present
day. A heraldic device would be transmitted from father
to son, on the death of the former, with few alterations, so
that in our study of the history of subsequent styles, we can


128 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 4
locate and date many details by our familiarity with the
insignia associated with certain royal families.
156. The Fleur-de-lls.—The fleur-de-lz': has ever been
emblematic of France, because Hugh Capet, the first French
king, carried it on his shield as the insignia of his family,
and subsequent rulers used this same emblem as an indica-
tion of royalty, while they coupled with it some other device
to more clearly establish their own personality. In subse-
quent periods, as we shall see, the initial letter was fre-
quently used by royalty on works of art erected by them
during the period of their reign; but this is not of so much
importance to us as the helaldic devices, as several sover-
eigns of the same name ruled many years apart. The
importance of these heraldic devices cannot be overestimated,
as will be pointed out when we study the ornament of the
subsequent periods in the Renaissance.


HISTORIC ORNAMENT.
(PART 3.)
RENAISSANCE ART.
INTRODUCTION.
1. Orlgln.-—Alth0ugh the medieval style of art and
architecture prevailed throughout all Europe for at least six
centuries, it is still a,difficult matter to draw a line at certain
dates when the influence of the ancient classic art utterly
ceased and the .revival of that classic art after the Medieval
period took place. In fact, if the two subjects were studied
separately and independently, it is not unlikely that traces
of revival of classic art could be discovered even before the
classic style itself had become extinct.
It must be borne in mind that Italy, in the extreme
southern part of Europe, was the seat of the original Roman
government, and the country wherein the classic style devel-
oped to its greatest voluptuousness. The Roman people
spread all over civilized Europe and established their monu-
ments everywhere, but no place so profusely as in Italy
itself.
After the conquest of Rome by the barbarous hordes from
the North, the Latin-speaking people were largely confined
to the Italian peninsula, and though a new style of architec-
ture was deVeloped by the conquering race—a style since
derisively termed Gothic by the artists of the Renaissance
§ 5
For notice of the copyright. see page immediately following the title page.


2 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
period—the original Romans at home still endeavored to
adhere to their ancient traditions and styles of art. If this
point is thoroughly understood, there will be no difficulty in
tracing the progress of Renaissance art from Italy through-
out Europe. We have seen that the farther north we go
from the site of the Roman Empire, the purer was the style
of the Gothic art that prevailed, inasmuch as it was less
hampered by the tradition of classic art.

2. Revlval of Classic Style. Now, when it comes to
a revival of the classic style, it is not strange that that revi-
val should take place first in Italy, where the Gothic style
never secured a prominent foothold, that the revival should
spread from Italy to France—a people made up largely of
Latin extraction—and that, lastly, it should extend from
France to England, but in a very imperfect form, as the
English people were not Latins and had no sympathy with,
nor tie to, the original Latin style. Bear in mind also that
the Celtic ornament, of which we have studied, originated
among the earlier inhabitants of the British Isles and natu-
rally influenced any importation from a strictly foreign coun-
try, as was Italy.
3. Seope of Renaissance Perlod.—In describing
Renaissance art, we will commence at the period of its
infancy and continue under this heading down to the present
day, inasmuch as there has been no new style evolved and
no revival of any other style that need break this term of
continuity. Moreover, it will not be inadvisable for us to
set a period or character of the Renaissance style that theo-
retically may be considered the best, and, in doing this, we
must consider all the influences that are brought to bear.
4. Intention of Renalmnce Artists.—The efiort of
the Renaissance artists was not to invent a new style. nor to
bring about through a transition a development based on
classic lines, but to deliberately copy the monuments of
pagan Rome and Greece and use these heathen forms, no
matter how inappropriate or illy suited for the purpose of


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3
modern Christian art. They were different from anything
they had ever seen or conceived; they were the products of
an age cf wonderful art and literary advancement, and, in
the eyes of the Renaissance artists, were accepted as supe-
rior to anything they could themselves devise.
5. Renaissance Art in Italy—The style of Renais-
sance we find in Italy, where Gothic art had its slightest
influence, naturally adheres as closely as possible to the old
Roman forms, for there they had the old Roman buildings,
many of them still intact, that could be copied line for line.
The invasion of Italy by Charles VIII of France, toward
the close of the fifteenth century, brought into the latter
country examples of this revived Italian art that were much
admired by the French public, and the revival of classic art
was immediately felt throughout France. Devoid of actual
buildings from which they could study their designs, the
French artists were compelled to go to Italy and study, and
French kings imported Italian artists to do work in and
around Paris. Either experiment was bound to produce an
altered style.
6. Introductlon Into France.-—The French artist had
been working in the Gothic style, and he studied the Italian
monuments with an idea of medieval construction in his
mind. The Italian artist came to France possibly with a
clearer idea of classic art, but was hampered in his execution
by the necessity of employing workmen that had cut stone
in no other style than that which had prevailed during the
six centuries of the Middle Ages. An even compromise can
therefore be considered to have taken place between the
perfect construction of the Gothic style and the perfect pro-
portion of the classic art.
7. Introduction Into England.—The introduction of
Renaissance into England, however, was far different. True,
her artists studied the styles under great Italian masters at
Rome, but they, too, had to compete with designers in the
local school, where Gothic art had secured its strongest


4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
foothold. Germany and Holland before this had adopted the
Renaissance style from France, and the systematic patience
of the Germans and the phlegmatic immobility of the H01-
lander are well woven into the style of classic art they
reproduced. When these perverted ideas were transmitted
to England, it is easily understood that they contained few
details that could be considered purely classic. By a suc-
cessive alteration through several countries, they could be
with difficulty identified with their original type.
8. Purity. of French Style—We may therefore con-
sider that in France we find the best examples of a practical
adaptation of the ancient classic ornament to modern condi-
tions and purposes, while in Italy we find a Renaissance of
classic art that adheres more closely to the classic style, but
can hardly be considered even a new departure. In Eng-
land, however, the style that was developed in the Renais-
sance period is not classic at all, except in its derivation, and
there, after repeated endeavors to apply the inappropriate
forrhs to the modern purposes, the style was abandoned and
an endeavor made to revive that of the Medieval period.
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE.
9. 0rlgin.—Fragments of exquisite beauty in stone,
bronze, and marble were hardly covered over by the top of
the soil in the ruins of the ancient buildings of Rome, and
these buildings therefore became quarries from which stone
was easily obtained and recut to be used for tombs and other
buildings wherein the style of art for which they were origi-
nally used played no part. This accounts largely for the
fact that Gothic art secured so little foothold in Italy and
remained for so short a time.
The pointed arch was introduced in the northern part
of Italy early in the thirteenth century, and this might be
considered the planting of the seed of Gothic art in this
territory; but almost at the same time there was a protest


6 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. §5
12. Publication of Vitruvius.—Through these illus-
trations, which display a study on the part of the artist of
ancient art, types of ornament geometrically opposed to those
of the Middle Ages were disseminated over the continent of
Europe; and, in 1511, the publication of the architecture of
Vitruvius at Venice, with illustrations of the classic orders
of architecture, set a final seal upon the fate of matters in
art and afforded the means of spreading throughout other
countries those details of ancient design that had so engaged
the art public of Italy.
13. Italian Aversion to Gothic Forms—However,
before those laborers that were endeavoring to bring classic
art and literature to the front had succeeded in getting the
least sign of encouragement, it was apparent that the Italians
did not take kindly to Gothic forms. The acanthus leaf was
typical of Italian art, and the foliated capitals of the Gothic
school had to accept this form of vegetation.
In its earliest stage, Renaissance art in Italy was really a
revival of classic principles, and it was not until the middle
of the fifteenth century that it could be considered an actual
revival of style.
14. Roman Influences—At Rome the great wealth of
the Italian princes and the great ecclesiastical works under-
taken by' successive pontiffs of the Church attracted to that
city the highest procurable ability in the art world, and it is
for that reason that we can still find in Rome, in the various
palaces and churches, the most exquisite fragments of deco-
rative sculpture in detail.
15. Donatello.—One of the most interesting qualities
of this style of ornament is the skill with which those by
whom it has been wrought have availed themselves of a
variation of light and shade by the treatment of the surfaces
on which the ornament is raised. The refined appreciation
of the delicate shades of relief in sculptured ornament was
carried out with the greatest perfection by Donatello, an
artist whose authority on matters of art was held in the


§5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 7
highest esteem by the people of Florence, and whose example
was followed by all classes of artists.
He was the first to practice the true basso rilicr/o, by
which the effect of projection and of rounded molding
is obtained within what would appear to be impracti-
cable limits of relief; that is to say, in modeling his orna-
ment on surface, it was raised but slightly above the surface
but was treated in its carving so as to appear in high
relief.
Donatello then combined this style of work with mrsso
rilie'z/o and alto rilievo, the former being a half relief, and the
latter being a sunken ornament below the surface on which it
was executed. This combination maintained a division of the
subject of his design into several planes. Donatello enriched
many of his .ornaments with elements derived from the art
of painting.
16. Plane System. At the zenith of its perfection, this
system of regular arrangement of ornament in planes was so
ingeniously managed in position of light and shade that,
when viewed from a distance, the relief presented only cer-
tain points symmetrically disposed with some dominating
geometrical figure. An approach of a few yards served to
bring to the eye lines and details connecting the points of
greatest importance, and a still nearer approach revealed the
leafage of the delicate tendrils that were required to convey
a tangible idea of the type of nature selected for the conven-
tionalized design. And beyond this, no inspection could be
too close a test of the artist’s perfect appreciation of the
refinements of surface texture.

17. Characteristics—In the hands of less profoundly
impressed artists than Donatello—those possessing an inferior
sensevof the proper limit of convention in sculpture—the
introduction of pictorial elements in the has relief design soon
degenerated into realism and confuston. Great as was the
skill of Ghiberti, the effect of many of his most graceful
compositions was marred by the introduction of perspective


8 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
effect and accessories too servilely copied from nature. In
many of the ornaments of sculpture, this fault is exagger-
ated until the dignity of the design is lost in the frivolity of
the detail. These monuments, decked with huge garlands
of flowers, hung with heavy cartouches and tablets, and fan-
cifully overgrown with foliage, appeared more as examples
of the artisan's skill than works of art commemorative of the
date or dedicated to sacred purposes.
This is somewhat illustrated in Fig. l, which is a part of a
cornice taken from the Palazzo Vecchio, or Town Hall, of
Florence, Italy. This also illustrates the minutia of detail
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with which this style of ornament abounded. Along the
frieze are heavy garlands of flowers, the design of which
includes also fruit and grain, while at the points between
which they are stretched are hung shield-shaped eartouches
bearing devices of a more symbolic character. The fieur-
de-lis, emblematic of certain royal families, and the crossed
keys of St. Peter are here seen, and it would appear that one
of them must be strangely out of place in the frieze of a
town hall. The other ornaments on the moldings, though


§5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 9
elaborately carved, are less out of place and are characteristic
of the style and period.
18. Frivollty and Incongrulty of Designs.—The
panels in the elaborately carved seat in Fig. 2 show to what
extreme and frivolity ornament of this character can be ear-











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FIG 2.
ried. Here, as the settee in St. Peter’s Church, Perugia, we
have a design not only proportioned according to the pagan
rules and ideas, but elaborately interspersed with grotesque


10 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
figures, comic masks, griffins, bucrania, flowers, and fruit,
not one of which would appear to be particularly identified
with any detail of the Christian faith.
Many of the designs of this period are strangely incongru-
ous with the purpose for which they are called into existence.
Tragic and comic masks, musical instruments, antique altars, _
tripods, hybrid marine monsters, and chimeras do not har-
monize well with monuments reared in consecrated edifices
or dedicated to religious rites. However, this fault of the
confusion of details cannot be laid entirely upon the shoul-
ders of the artists of the Renaissance period, as their works
may be considered simply as a reflection of the taste and dom-
inant spirit of the age; and this revival of mythological
symbolism was a protest against the hampering trammels of
esthetic tradition erected into dogmatism by the rulers of the
East, and endorsed by the Church during those centuries
when its ascendency over an ignorant and turbulent popula-
tion was at its greatest height. The minds of even the most
religious men were thoroughly imbued with such inappro-
priate and incongruous associations in the fourteenth century
1 9, Value to the Designer.—To the designer, the study
of this period in ornament is of the greatest value, as in no
style has ornament ever been better spaced or arranged to
contrast more agreeably with the direction of the adjacent
architectural lines by which it was bound and always kept in
subordination. Rarely do we find an ornament placed in a
horizontal position that is more suitable to a vertical one, or
vice versa; and rarely are the proportions of the ornaments
and moldings, Or the stiles and rails by which regularity and
symmetry are given to the Whole, at variance with one
another.
20. Propriety of Subject—In Fig. 3 is shown a
column from the inner court of the Palazzo Vecchio, with
its stucco decorations in the style of the Renaissance of this
period. Observe that the arabesques fit perfectly the rect-
angular panels on the sides of the octagon column, and


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 11
that the ornament is well spaced, appearing not crowded or
excessive, but flowing naturally and preserving a proper
relation between the plain surfaces and the richly orna-
mented ones. None of this ornament could be said to have


been better suited to a horizontal position, nor can it be
stated that the relative proportions of the details of the
ornament are such as to make one portion of it any more
prominent or excessive than another.
In Fig. 4 is shown an'other column from the same build-
ing, ornamented on an entirely different system, although
included in the group with the one of the previous example.
Here the flowing grape vine winds spirally around the col-
umn, and the leaves and fruit are so disposed as to set elf
clearly the details and at the same time preserve that space
relation that is always characteristic of good ornament.


12 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
The capitals of these columns, it will be observed, are
almost identical in design, although one of them crowns an
I octagonal column and the other
a round shaft.
21. In Fig. 5 is shown one
end of a sarcophagus in the
tomb of Marsuppini, at Flor-
ence, designed by a pupil and
follower of Donatello. This is
considered one of the finest
examples of Italian-Renaissance
sculpture. The treatment of
the leaves and foliage, and the
proportioning of the ornament
to the surface, with the digni-
fied simplicity of the inscription
and frame, make it deserving
of close attention and considera-
tion of the method by which
its decoration is handled. The
relation here of plain surface
and running ornament is very
happily proportioned, avoiding
so successfully the appearance of excess, so characteristic
of most Renaissance design and at the same time satisfying
the mind as to its sufiiciency.


FIG. 4.
22. Sqrollwork.—In Fig. 6 is shown the capital of a
pilaster from the church of San Spirito, in Florence. The
treatment of the acanthus leaf here, it will be observed, is
very similar to its treatment on the‘ Roman-Corinthian cap-
ital, very few alterations having been made in the type.
The introduction of the oak leaf in an acanthusized form
shows a step in progression, as does the introduction of the
acorn accompanying the leaf. The peculiar form of S scroll
in the center of the capital, each side and below the acorns,
is characteristic of the Renaissance, and has its origin


g5
13
HISTORIC ORNAMENT.
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14 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
undoubtedly in that irrepressible tendency of Roman orna-
ment to end its scrolls each time in a flower. The propor-
tioning of the ornament to the surface in this case, however,
is much more moderate and refined than in the Roman-
Corinthian capital, and though copied after the classic
model, this is certainly an improvement on it.
23. Follated Terminations.-—-In Fig. 7 is shown a
portion of a cornice suppprted on pilasters around the door-
way in the same church. The treatment of the frieze shows
its origin in Roman ornament, but the introduction of the



FIG. 7.
human figure and birds with foliated terminations reminds
us again of the innovations made by the Renaissance artists.
Observe that all surface is here ornamented, that every
molding is cut to break up an appearance of continuous line
and cast‘an irregular shadow, and that the surfaces, such as
the top of the pilaster and its capital and the panels in the
frieze just referred to, all have their decorations properly
proportioned and in keeping with the position they occupy,


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 15
In Fig. 8 is shown another cornice from the same church,
the design of which follows more closely the ancient classic
model. The ornament on the frieze is carved in high relief
and does not possess that easy flowing feeling that is seen
in the previous example. The same may be said of the
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moldings on the pilaster that supports the cornice, and of
the capital of this pilaster. The ornament is too thick and
there is not sufficient blank surface to rest the eye from this
abundance of detail, thereby giving the whole design a feel-
ing of unrest that was more characteristic of the extravagant


16 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
Corinthian order of the Romans than the more refined hand“
lings of Italian art. '
In Fig. 9 is shown a bracket that forms a detail of the
pulpit in the church of St. Croce, in Florence, the treatment
of the decoration of which is well worthy of study. The
ornament is not excessive and Well fills the surface where it is



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FIG. 9.
placed, and the leafwork is carved in low relief and does not
possess that excessive surface molding that so materially
detracts from some of the work of the later Renaissance.
24. Examples of Venetian Renaissance—In Fig. 10
is a bracket from the Ducal Palace at Venice, and is charac-
teristic of the style of the Venetian Renaissance. The
scrollwork and treatment of the foliage in this bracket is
particularly happy, and illustrates, more clearly than any
example we have had, the obedience to those laws of nature
that must be observed in all good ornament: radiation from
the parent stem, tangential curvature of lines, and distribu-
tion of areas. The latter rule is particularly well shown in


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 17
this by the gradual diminution in surface occupied by the
running ornament as it extends into the extremities of the
triangular panel. The scrollwork under the bracket is not
so artistically formed or well proportioned, but errors here _
are amply balanced by the good points of the scroll.
In Fig. 11 is shown a panel from a large candelabrum
that gives a very clear idea of the treatment of Venetian
arabesques. The panel is symmetrical on each side of a
center line, carved in high relief in stone, and is treated in









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FIG. 10.
a manner that makes the ornament somewhat monotonous
in itself but well proportioned to the surface it is intended
to cover, with enough blank space to prevent tiresomeness
in its study. i
25. Ingenuity of Renaissance Designer. Fig. 12 is
a panel under the balustrade of the stairs in the cathedral at
Sienna. This illustrates to a remarkable degree the inge-
nuity and fertility of mind possessed by the early Renais-
sance designer and sculptor. Here we have, forming the


18 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
running border around a trapezoidal panel, the guilloche
ornament so characteristic of classic art, and the running
arabesque identified with the classic-revival period; within
this a modified form of the old Greek fret and then an irreg-
ular panel, the surface of which is carved in low relief with





a foliated scroll and arabesque that close study discovers is
terminated at one end in a grotesque animal and at the other
in a bunch of fruit.
26. Renaissance Ironwork.—N0t only was art at this
period exemplified in details carved in stone and marble,
modeled in stucco and painted on canvas, but the iron
worker executed many details that brought his trade almost
to a fine art.
Fig. 13 shows a bracket from the Florence Museum, rep-
resentative of a cornucopia filled with grapes and leaves.


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT.
19
The treatment of the scrollwork and the elaboration of all
the detail of this device is peculiarly well adapted to the




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purpose, and altogether this exhibits a remarkable design
for a piece of work of this kind.
In Fig. 14 is shown a portion of an iron grille from the
cathedral at Prato, one portion of which, based on the com-
binations of the circle, shows a slight leaning toward Gothic
ideals, while the panel to the right is strictly Renaissance in
the treatment of its leafwork and small figures; but the


20 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
general direction of its outline, with its alternate branches to
the left and right, undoubtedly have their origin in the
Gothic school of foliation.
It must be borne in mind that at this period there was no






FIG. 13.
separation in the branches of the art world. A man was
architect, painter, and sculptor at once, and often combined
these with the trade of goldsmith. The great artist Raflael
designed ornaments for carvers in stone and metal, and
exhibited in them the purest taste and most exquisite fancy.


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 21
27. Michael Angelo, Sculptor and Artist—Michael
Angelo was born in 1475 and was a pupil of Domenico
Ghirlandajo. Having shown at an early age a strong talent
for sculpture, he was given an opportunity to study in a
school for the culture of sculpture founded by Lorenzo de
Medici. The Medici family was banished from Florence
when Angelo was 20 years of age, and the young sculptor
‘4..~
>-~
A .n
1
1
4
4
i"
'1,
z"
,.


was forced to retire to Bologna, where he worked for a while
on the tomb of St. Domini. He returned to Florence, how-
ever, and about the time of his twenty-third birthday finished
his celebrated statue of Cupid, and also his Bacchus, which
were the cause of his being invited to Rome.
At Rome, among many other works by him, is the Pieta
now standing in St. Peter's Church. His gigantic statue of


22 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
David, at Florence, was his next great achievement, and
before he was 30 years of age he was summoned to Rome
by Pope Julius II for the purpose of designing his Mauso-
leum, for which building the famous statues of “Moses”
and “The Slaves ” were originally designed.
Thus far the work of Michael Angelo has apparently been
that of a sculptor, with possibly the exception of the design
of the Mausoleum. His next great work, howcver, was the
painting of the Sistine Chapel—one of the greatest of his
achievements, whether we regard it purely as a work of
intrinsic art or as a monument that exercised a powerful
influence both on the art of a contemporary character as well
as that of later times.
For Pope Paul III, in 1541, he completed his vast fresco
“The Last Judgment " in the same chapel, and the
remainder of his long life was chiefly devoted to the con-
struction of St. Peter's Church, on which he was employed
at the time of his death, in 1564, and for which he refused
any remuneration.
During the long life of Michael Angelo, everything he
executed expressed a desire for novelty, and this is the only
detraction he ever seemed to have from the study of pure
excellence. His daring innovations in ornament are most
striking. His large broken pediments and moldings, his
sweeping consoles and scrolls, his direct imitation of nature
in some of his enrichments, and the amount of absolutely
plain surface that he uniformly preserved in all his archi~
tectural compositions, seem to bring new elements into the
field of design that were greedily snapped up by men of
lesser genius than he himself possessed.
Thus the style of the Roman school became materially
altered through the work of Michael Angelo. Subsequent
artists, down even to Vignola himself, so far as ornament
was concerned, adopted all his beauties, and defects of design,
the greatest of which were an exaggeration of manner.
28. Giacopo Tatti Sansovlno.—Venice seems to be
the only city of Italy that did not follow the style that was


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 23
set by Michael Angelo, and this was probably due to the fact
that she had a hero of her own in Giacopo Tatti Sansovino.
This artist was born at Florence in the year 1479. Having,
at an early age, displayed a remarkable talent for art, he was
properly educated and distinguished himself by his build-
ings at Florence. He was then taken to Rome by San Gallo,
architect of Pope Julius II, where he attracted the notice of
Bramante, and made, under Bramante’s direction, a large
wax model of the Laocoon, in competition with other artists.
Sansovino‘s was judged to be the best, and a bronze cast was
taken of it that finally came into the possession of Cardinal
Lorraine and by him was taken to France in the year 1534.
Sansovino was obliged to leave Rome on account of his
health, and was placed by Bramante with the artist Peru-
gino, who was then painting the ceiling in the Toore Borgia.
Perugino was so pleased with Sansovino's ability that he
caused him to prepare many models for his own use.
In the year 1514, most elaborate preparations Were being
made at Florence for the entry of Pope Leo X, and Sanso-
vino was employed in the preparation for designs of many
triumphal arches and statues. The works were so success-
ful that he was given the commission by the Pope to make a
design for the facade of San Lorenzo, in Florence. After
this he continued in Rome and was employed both in sculp-
ture and architecture, and was the successful competitor for
the church of St. John, of the Florentines, against Raffael
and Antonio San Gallo. From this on he was engaged on
work of importance in Rome until the year 1527, when
Rome was taken by the French, and Sansovino sought
refuge in Venice, intending from there to visit France,
where the king had offered him employment. The Duke
Andrea Gritti, however, persuaded him to remain and
undertake the restoration of the cupolas of St. Mark's
Church—a work that he performed so successfully that he
was appointed to a public office, given a house, and provided
with a stipend. It was to this appointment that Venice
owes so many architectural monuments that are among the
finest examples of Italian art.


24 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
FRENCH RENAISSANCE.
29. Rapidlty of Transltlon.—The transition from the
style of the Middle Ages to the style of the Renaissance, that.
took place so gradually in Italy, was in France sudden and
complete. The campaigns of Charles VIII, Louis XII, and
Francis I in Italy brought them in contact with the wonder-
ful art productions of that country, and filled them on their
return to France with an ambition to rival the splendid
palaces and gardens of Italy, for which purpose they took
with them Italian artists to act as instructors to the French.
However, although these imported Italians introduced many
classic elements and details into French art, they failed to
dominate the natural spirit of the French master masons
and architects in matters of general composition. There-
fore, the early French Renaissance is wholly unlike that of
Italy, from which it derived only a few minor details and
the impetus that carried it forwards. On account of its
possession of greater originality than the Italian style, and
its freedom from the baser incongruities that prevailed in
the Renaissance in Germany and England, we can take the
French' style as a good standard, and study it as a revival of
classic art modified almost perfectly to fit more modern
ideas. It is important in studying the French Renaissance
to bear in mind the periods into which it is divided and sub-
divided, and also to bear in mind the dates of these periods.
In modern practice, when any designs are executed in any
particular style, the French styles more than any others are
rated according to their period rather than nationality.
30. Periods of French Renalssance.—French Renais-
sance may be divided into three general periods: (1) Valois
period, or Renaissance proper; (2) Bourbon, or Classic,
period; and (3) Rococo period.
1. Valois Period—The Valois period extends from 1483
(about the time of the invasion of Charles VIII into Italy) to
1589 (about the end of the reign of Henry III). This may
be subdivided into: (a) The Transition period, comprising


le-P
5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 25
the reigns of Charles VIII and Louis XII and the early
years of Francis I, extending from 1483 to 1515. This
period is characterized by a picturesque mixture of classic
details and Gothic ideas. (12) The style of Francis I, or
Early Renaissance, extending from about 1520 to 1547. The
ornament of this period is distinguished by its great variety
and grace of composition and the exquisite beauty of detail.
(c) The Advanced Renaissance, combining the reigns of
Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III, extend-
ing from 1547 to 1589, and distinguished by the general
adoption of the classic proportions in the orders and a decline
in the delicacy and originality in the treatment of the orna-
ment. In other words, this period represents, as did the
later Renaissance of Italy, an attempt to actually reproduce
all classic forms.
2. Bourbon Period. —This period of the Renaissance
extends from 1589 to 1715, covering the reign of Henry IV
and of Louis XIV. This may be subdivided into the style
of Henry IV, covering entirely his reign and part of the
reign of Louis XIII, extending altogether from 1589 to
1645. The distinguishing characteristic of this period is
the excessive use of the classic orders and other forms with
a heavy, bold, florid ornament. The style of Louis XIV
begins during the reign of his predecessor and extends to
the time of his death—from 1645 to 1715. This is the great
age of classic architecture in France, wherein the luxury and
wealth of the nation and its desire for splendor exceeded its
taste in art and represented in its architecture an attempt at
the grandeur of Rome.
8. Rococo Period—This period may be considered the
decline, and is distinguished by the marked extravagance of
detail derived from the leaf and other ornamental forms of
previous periods, combined with rock and shell forms, so
capricious as to be absolutely meaningless.
This period of French Renaissance terminates in what is
known as the Empire style. This consisted of a strong pro-
test against the frivolity of the ornament of the Rococo, and
a returnvto the actual detail of more classic forms. As it


26 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
progressed into the nineteenth century, it expressed itself
under the reign of Napoleon, as emperor, and attempted to
produce the grandeur of Imperial Rome.
France had conquered the greater part of Europe, and
believed that she was to set up a universal empire covering
the entire country, as Rome had done, and with this idea in
mind, built triumphal arches, columns of victory, gorgeous
palaces, and country Chateaux, and in every way lavished
money on public and private monuments, in an endeavor to
visibly express her imperialism.
31. Castles and Chateaux—The transition from the
Gothic to the Renaissance is more clearly expressed in the
chateaux, or country residences, of the nobles than in almost
any other class of buildings,and for that reason we will confine
our discussion largely to a few of these interesting edifices.






We have seen how the castle of the Middle Ages was built
mainly for defense, its ornamental features being merely
an embellishment of the necessities that were prominent in
its construction. Such was exhibited in the general appear-
ance of the castle of Coucy, Fig. 123, Historic Ornamml, § 4.


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 27
The remodeling of these Gothic castles to suit the taste of
the Renaissance brought in many incongruous but very
picturesque ideas. In Fig. 15, a view of the castle of Amy-
le-Rideau, it will be observed how the towers and turrets
characteristic of the old style are retained, how the upper
portions are still carried out on bold corbels, and their tops


W Out/ma Plan of
CHA TEAU DE 8L0/5v
FIG. 16.
roofed over in a cone; but the drawbridgc, the meat, and
the portcullis have disappeared. Broad airy windows dimin-
ish the extent of blank wall surface characteristic of feudal
times, and pilasters each side of the windows, topped with
classic capitals and carved in rich arabesque, show the adop-
tion of Italian art. The plan, composition, and grouping
of the parts are still French and more or less feudal, and the
Italian art has only affected the detail.


28 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
32. Chateau de Blois.—The largest, and, in many
respects, the most important, of these country residences of
royalty is the Chateau de Blois, and this we will consider in
detail, as within it may be traced the gradual transition of
each phase of the French Renaissance, from the time of Louis
XII to the time of Henry IV, thereby including the entire
Valois and a part of the Bourbon period of this style.
In Fig. 16 is shown a plan of this structure, the irregularity
of which gives evidence of its medieval origin. About the












year 1500 Louis XII remodeled the east wing, which bears
his name, a front view of which is shown in Fig. 17. In this
may be seen the elliptical arch, the clustered column, the


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 29
high-pointed gable, and the slender pinnacles whose origin
can be traced to medieval days, but the introduction of flank-
ing pilasters and arabesque ornament, though here but spar-
ingly seen, is suggestive of the change to come.
On the outside of this wing, the archway that leads through
to the “Court of Honor," shown 4
in Fig. 18, is flanked on each ' "
side by heavy piers, over which
is a conventional Gothic niche
wherein, against an elaborate
background of fleur-de-lis, rides
King Louis XII on his charger.
To the right of this is a little
doorway that gives the pedestrian
access to the passage, and over
this entrance, in has-relief, is
carved a porcupine, the emblem
of 'Louis XII, and a knotted
cord for Anne of Brittany,
his queen. Of these‘emblems pm 15,
we will have more to say later.
We will now turn to the wing of Francis 1. on the north-
west side of the court. This was erected but fifty years
after the one we have just considered, but the difference
in style is manifest even to the most casual observer, as
shown in Fig. 19.



33. French Conception of Roman Ideas—The artists
of the sixteenth century, hurried along by the swift current
of fifty years of wonderful intellectual regeneration, seemed
to arrive at a comprehension of the use that the Romans had
made of the Greek orders. They seemed to understand that
' the orders were not used in Rome as elements of construc-
tion, as they had been in- Greece, but as decorative details
having no essential relation to the construction itself. They
seemed to comprehend by instinct that there was no reason
why they should not take those same Roman orders and
details and use them in any way they chose—structural or


30 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
non-structural—so long as their use suited the purpose to
which they were applied.






FIG. 19.
Thus a study of this period of French architecture shows
that the French builders accepted not the conventional


§5 ' HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 31
restrictions of the classic formulas, but the spirit of -these
formulas, as an organized system of ornamentation. A study
of the court facade of this Chateau de Blois shows that the
lessons in classic styles given by the imported Italian mas-
ters were accepted by the French architects with respect and
intelligence, but not learned by rote. The Italian rules had
an influence, but were not accepted as a law.
34. Octagonal Stalrcnse.—The greatest artistic effort
of this period was probably the octagonal staircase that -
appears in this facade. It is considered one of the master-
pieces of the sixteenth century, though itis at the same time
an example illustrative of the audacious independence of the



French architect. It has no architectural relation to the
wall surface from which it'protrudes, except that its four
great free-standing buttresses support a cornice and balus-
tradc that are a continuation of those on the wall. These
buttresses are niched and contain exquisitely carved figures,
while between them extends the balustrade of the stairs,


32 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
divided into panels carved with the crowned salamander
emblematic of Francis I, and in other places with the mono-
gram F and C under a crown, standing for Francis, and
Claude, his queen.
In Fig. 20 is shown a large detail of this salamander device,
and the form of its crown, decorated with fleur-de-lis. This


FIG. 21.
is the key of the period and style, as was the crowned porcu-
pine aikey to the style of Louis XII. The fleur-de-lis will be
found on nearly every detail connected with French royalty,
as it was adopted originally by Hugh Capet, the first king of
France.


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 33
If we now go into this castle and wander through its
rooms, we will find many details typical of the spirit of the
French people and suggestive of their love of display and
art. We will be able to judge largely the period of each
particular room by the emblems characteristic of the reign.




Fm. '22.
35. Development of the Fireplace.—It was about
the beginning of the Renaissance period that the chimney as
a means of carrying 0% the smoke was introduced into
France, and in the Chateau de Blois we see the full develop-
ment of the fireplace. Therefore it will be well to make a


34 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
study of these details by themselves, inasmuch as the student
can then make a better comparison.
36. In Fig. 21 is shown an old mantel that stood at the
end of the great hall of the States General. Its design is
Gothic in feeling, as is plainly shown by the crockets around
its cornice. The columns either side of the opening are
carved with Gothic capitals, and the ornament extending
across the top of the opening is Gothic in its detail, though
indicative of the influence of the Renaissance arabesque.
In Fig. 22 is shown a mantel of the hall of the Guards,
the details each side of the opening of which, as well as the
panel across the top of the opening and the frame panel over
the mantel, are certainly Gothic in feeling. The pilasters at
each side of the mantel, however, and the capitals-at their
tops, are certainly of Italian origin and design.
These two examples, particularly Fig. 21, give a good idea
of the earliest ornamental mantel used in French art, and are
typical of the designs in use at the close of the fifteenth
century.
37. Heraldry.—In Fig. 23 is shown the mantel known
as the Mantle of Crowns, on which in high relief we find the
crowned porcupine emblematic of Louis XII, together with
the crowned initials L and A, standing for Louis and Anne
of Brittany, his queen. Around the frieze is a knotted cord
that also is emblematic of Anne of Brittany, and in later
years was used by some queens as a sign of widowhood. The
dolphin forming the background of this mantel, and bearing
the crown of France, appears as a detail in many French
designs emblematic of heirship to the throne, the nearest heir
to the throne in France being called the Dauphin—a word
derived from the dolphin, that fish being the emblem.
Another interesting detail in this design is found above
and below the knotted cord, around the frieze; above is the
conventional fleur-de-lis emblematic of the kings of France,
and below it is the conventional form of ermine emblematic
of the queen, Anne of Brittany.


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 35
In Fig. 24 is shown another mantel from the Chateau de
Blois, of the period of Louis XII, in which the crowned por-
cupine and the crowned ermine are each displayed in sepa-
rate panels, the ermine in this case being shown as a complete
animal instead of the conventional form representingits fur,



Fla. 2!.
as displayed in the previous figure. The moldings of this
mantel and its general outline and proportions are strongly
suggestive of the Gothic style, but the treatment of the
arabesque at each side of the panels, the carving of the
three-quarter columns that mark the separate panels, and
the frieze over the fireplace, show conclusively their Italian


36 HISTORIC ()RNAMENT. 7 § 5
origin. It will be observed that the initials L and A are.
repeated across the top of the chimney, and the background
of the panels containing the reliefs of the porcupine and
n x a a a) ‘
‘._. y'_
dais .. *9;


ermine are each diapered with the fieur-de‘lis and conven-
tional form of ermine fur.
38. In Fig. 25 we have another mantel of this same
period, where the frieze over the top of the fireplace opening
is evenly divided between the crowned initials of the king
and queen, on a fleur-de-lis and ermine background, typical
of their houses or families. The crowned porcupine between


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 37
the two—the symbol 'of Louis XII—appears in nearly all
designs executed during the reign of that king. Above
the fireplace are the figures of two angels, supporting the
crown of France, and the shield bearing the escutcheons




FIG. 25.
of both the king and queen. A little observation of the
detail at the top, and the moldings of the columns, will
show that the Gothic influence still pervaded the art of
the period.
In Fig. 26 is a chimney with the emblems of Anne of
Brittany. The elaborate A and knotted cords against a


3S HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
background of ermine, together with the entire treatment
of the design, is suggestive only of the house of the queen,
undivided with that of King Louis.
Fig. 27 shows a mantel wherein no initials occur to indi-
cate to whom or what period it belonged; but we can easily



FIG. 26.
judge from the presence of the knotted cord in each of the
side panels, and the existence of this device as a border to
the center panel, and its stenciled background of ermine and
fleur-de-lis, over which the. shield surrounded with shells has
been placed. ‘


§5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 39
39. In Fig. 28 is shown a mantel of the later period—
that of Francis I—a fact that is clearly declared by the pres-
ence of the salamander in its design, a word concerning
which might be necessary. The salamander is a mythical




FIG. 27.
1
animal supposedly so cold blooded that it will actually quench
fire when placed ~within it, and the design here shown
expresses this idea of the salamander, standing on a bed of
coals and surrounded by flame that he is supposed to quench
by the coldness of his breath.


40 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
The details of this mantel are very classic. The capitals
of the columns are derived undoubtedly from the Italian
Renaissance. The acanthus leaf forming the bracket at the



FIG. 28.
corners of the mantel, and the bracket over the crown, as a
sort of clumsy keystone in the center, are decidedly Italian
in their molding. The mantel is chiefly interesting by its
strong personality and association with the reign, period,
and person of Francis I.
40. In Fig. 29 is shown what is called the Chimney of
the Fleur-de-lis, the upper background of which is stenciled


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 41
exclusively with fleur-de-lis, and bears in its center the
crowned shield surrounded by shells.
We now arrive at Fig. 30, a mantel in a room known as
the Cabinet of the Queen, and here we get the severe clas-




sicism characteristic of the period of Henry II. The pilas-
ters each side of the mantel, and the panels of the wall,
all richly carved in arabesque, and the frieze over the top of
the mantel, with similar ornament, show the predominating
influence of Italian art. The background of the upper
portion of the mantel, with its stenciled H and fleur~de-lis,


42 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
and the oval cartouch or modillion in the center, with its
crowned H surrounded by laurel leaves, stamp this design
characteristically with the period of Henry II, while a small
cartouch in the center of the mantel over the fireplace open-
ing bears the initials H
and C, standing for
Henry, and Catherine
de Medici, his queen.
The study of these
designs and escutch-
eons is of particular
interest to the student,
as nearly all detail of
the French Renaissance
period can be classified
easily by hearing in
mind the heraldic sym-
bols characteristic of
each reign and period.
41. ' Wall and Cell-
lng Decoration—N0
less interesting than the
mantels of this cele-
brated chateau are the
decorations of the walls
and ceilings with the
characteristic surface
. ornament of the period.
The same monograms
and initials are here
found in embossed leather, surrounded by richly foliated
ornamentation in strong colors and gold. _
In Fig. 31 is shown a room known as the King’s Chamber,
the walls of which are decorated with a repeating pattern at
regular intervals, within which we find the initials H and C,
for Henry and Catherine, the king and queen. An enlarged
detail of this wall decoration is shown in Fig. 32, and is


FIG. 80.


U19
5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 43
valuable as a characteristic wall treatment of the period of
this French Renaissance.






In Fig. 33, the decorations of Queen Catherine’s chamber
may be seen, and it is interesting to note that in each of
31.
Flo.


44 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
these rooms there is an abrupt termination between the wall
decorations of the main room and the dado or wainscot of
the niche or alcove, no attempt being made to blend the two






FIG. 82.
patterns so that they die or fit into each other. The inde-
pendence expressed is in perfect accordance with that
already spoken of in the arrangement of the buttresses of
the great staircase. '


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 45
Beyond this room, through the open doorway seen in
Fig. 33, is another apartment, the walls of which are treated

FIG. 33.




with a surface decoration shown in Fig. 34. The single letter
H under the conventional crown indicates this apartment to


46 HISTORIC ORNAMENI‘. 5
have been decorated in the period and style of Henry II,
and a little study of the design in comparison with Fig. 32
will show the simplicity and neatness of the earlier style as



FIG. 84.
compared with the later one. Fig. 35 shows a third example
of the wall decorations of this chateau.
These wall decorations are very valuable to the interior
decorator of today, inasmuch as they furnish him with a


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 47
clear suggestion of the style of interior work during the
Renaissance period, of which so few examples are in exist-
ence at the present time.
FIG. 35.





42. Fontaineblean and Versailles—During the decline
of the Renaissance to the period of the Empire, the seat of
government and the royal family were centered in Paris,
and the palaces of Fontainebleau and Versailles are the


48 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5
most important, with the exception of the Louvre, of the
many palaces of France. They are both built up of sections
that vary in style and age from the fourteenth century to
the present day, but in each 'of these parts the greatest
architectural interest centers in the details of the period of
Francis I and his immediate successors.
The details of this style of architecture, as seen in Fon-
tainebleau and Versailles, are more urban than those from
the chateaux we have just been considering, and, though all
these buildings in their proper sense Were palaces, yet the
two structures in present consideration were always spoken
of as such, inasmuch as they were the city residences of the
king in distinction from his country seat.
43. Variation of Styles—In the rooms of these palaces
can be seen the furniture and decorations whose style is
typical of French art during each period of the Renaissance
and at the height of its glory. Here, during the reigns of
Louis XV and Louis XVI, we have the style of furniture
characteristic of and known by the names of these monarchs,
as well as that dainty specific style of design called JVlarie
Antoinrllo. After the year 1662, French furniture can be
roughly divided into four styles, corresponding to the four
monarchs under whose influences its manufacture was car-
ried on. These are: Louis XIV, Louis XV, Louis XVI, and
Napoleon, usually called Empire.
As in all cases of subdivision into periods, there is a tran-
sition from one period to another that makes the styles over-
lap one another, and the distinctive characteristics of each
cannot be applied with certainty. The dividing lines in the
case of French furniture, however, are more clearly drawn
than in other art details, inasmuch as each style seems to
have been the result of a court fashion that depended largely
on the taste of the reigning monarch.
44. Louis XIV loved pomp and grandeur, and the forms
of Louis XIV furniture are bold and severe in line and pro-
portion—a fact that kept them from appearing gaudy in


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 49
their excessive gilding. A great desire in furniture at this
period was magnificence, and native woods were 'set aside in
preference for foreign woods from India and America.
Rarity of material was of more importance than any other
detail, and artistic composition was now relegated to an
inferior place. The effect of this was to make the details
small, as the use of costly materials required that they should
be treated with care and that even the smallest fragments
should be used.
45. Introduction of Costly Materials—A great differ-
ence was thus established between the old-fashioned joiner,
faithful to the carving of native woods, and the eabinetmaker
to the king, whose care was to produce objects of magnifi-
cence. In other words, vulgarity was introduced into the
scheme of ornament, and brilliant and costly materials were
used solely ,for their expression of brilliancy and costliness;
and it is from this standpoint that French furniture of this
period must be regarded. The skill lavished upon it and
the fancy and variety that characterizes its design and the
minuteness of its workmanship in inlaid surfaces, graven
and chiseled brasses, and the ingenuity of its construction
and expense, can then be appreciated.
46. Diseoumgement of Symmetry.—During the
period of Louis XV, furniture loses the dignity of outline
and proportion that characterized that of the previous style,
although it possesses all the brilliancy and gaudiness of the
former. Another detail of importance between these two
styles is that in the Louis XIV work symmetry was not dis-
tinctly observed, as the great effect of varied light and shade
was enhanced by the abruptness of unsymmetrical parts. In
the period of Louis XV, this eccentricity became a law, and
symmetry became not onlya detail of no consequence, but
a thing not to be encouraged. This caused the design to
reach the height of irregularity, and the style took the name
of Rococo—a term in the French language meaning frivolous.
In this eccentric ornamentation other details figured, and


50 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
roses, cornucopia, vases, scrolls, etc. are interwoven with a
great predominance of shell-like forms. There is nothing in
the entire range of art acting as an example or prototype of
this Rococo idea. Every shape and line throughout it is
twisted and turned until it is almost a deformity; the
ordinary acanthus scroll was carried into an endless reedy
foliation. Nature appeared to be looked upon as a rude and
barbarous affair that needed some dressing of French taste,
and yet some specimens of Louis XV furniture impress us
both with the actual skill of the man that did the work,
whether in metal or wood, and that the pieces of furniture
are themselves marvels of decoration. These twists and
turns, though absolutely meaningless, seem to have an object.
They reflect the light from gilded metal in a thousand
different ways, and from a thousand different points, while
the high relief affords an abundant play of light and shade
amidst this brightness. Toward the end of the reign of
Louis XV, a reaction set in against these absurdities, sim-
.ply because the exaggerated style was being carried beyond
reasonable limits.
47. Under the'reign of Louis XVI, the furniture is
similar to that of his predecessor, inasmuch as the festoons,
garlands, gildings, and shell decorations still exist, but the
shape of the chair, and the care and study expended on it,
is Very different. Refinement is evident in every one of its
lines and proportions. The earlier chair, with sprawling
legs—called the rancan—was not to be accepted during the
reign of Louis XVI, but to be departed from as widely as
circumstances would permit. During this period, we find
none of the bandy-legged forms of the chair and table
characteristic of the previous style, but straight-turned and
sometimes fluted shafts imitative of attenuated vases or
cups, or suggestive of little columns or colonnettes. The
gilding was used, not entirely over the surface, to increase
the gaudy appearance, but in lines, to accentuate the fluting
of the column-like legs more than to emphasize the curves
of the moldings that were turned according to Greek ideas.


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 51
48. The entire interior decoration of this period par-
took of a similar reformation. The panels of the rooms
were divided into straight lines, and omitted all details of
the rococo flourishes. These panels were painted white,
and the pilasters between them were carved in rich and
delicately executed arabesque.
The whole scheme of decoration of this period was
equally elaborate and rich with that of its predecessors, and
various articles of furniture were made of tulip wood,
laburnum, or of rosewood, and on other occasions they
would be executed in lighter wood, colored in various gold
and brown shades by means of a hot iron. The chief orna-
ment was marquetry of elaborate pattern, usually in floral
garlands with borders of fine diaper work. The chairs,
beds, and couches were usually upholstered in fine Gobelin
tapestry or costly French and Italian silks, all of which were
further enriched by beautiful metal mounts, while inlaid
bits of Sevres porcelain added a delicacy to the whole.
GERMAN AND ENGLISH RENAISSANCE.
49. Influence of Italian Art.—Renaissance ornament
penetrated into Germany at an early period, but was not
particularly popular at first, and took no hold on the hearts
of the people until the spread of books and engravings pre-
pared the way to the adaptation. From an early period
there had been a steady current of artists leaving Germany
to study art in Italy, and the return of these affected many
of their countrymen.
50. Albert Durer, a German artist and illustrator, in
many of his engravings, showed a perfect understanding
of the,conditions of Italian design, leaning occasionally to
the Gothic style of his early master and on other occa-
sions to the Italian style of his more recent studies. The
spread of these engravings undoubtedly influenced the
German taste, but, even at its best, the Renaissance of
Germany was impure. The inclination of her people for


52 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
difficulties that could be solved by the hand rather than
by the head soon led her into strapwork, jeweled forms,
and monstrous devices more animated than graceful, but
exhibiting fully the delight of the clever mechanic to
execute details that were difficult to handle but easy to
conceive.
51. Introduction Into England.—The introduction of
Renaissance art into England dates from about the year
1518, when Henry VIII employed an Italian architect to
design a monument in memory of Henry VII, which still
exists in Westminster Abbey and is almost a pure example
of the Italian style of that period.
The same architect designed a monument of the Countess
of Richmond at Westminster, and shortly afterwards left
England for Spain, leaving behind, however, a number of
Italians attached to the service of Henry VIII, by whom a
taste for the Italian style was thoroughly inoculated into
the country. Among these was the architect John of Padua,
who appears to have done more work than any of the others,
among the most important of which is the old Sommerset
House, built in 1549.
At the time these Italian artists were spreading a taste for
Italian architecture and sculpture throughout the length
and breadth of England, another influence was at work to
temper this style and prevent its being accepted in its purest
form.
52. IIolbeln.—In 1524, the celebrated German artist
Holbein came to England from Holland, and to him and
John of Padua is due mainly the resulting style of archi_
tecture that appeared in England during the reign of
Elizabeth. Holbein was a man of great individual genius
as a painter, and naturally inclined to establish the taste of
the German school in England, and, though he died in
1554—thirty years after entering the country—his influence
on John of Padua is plainly seen in the results of that archi-
tect during the subsequent years.


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 53
53. Dutch Influence. ——At the time of Elizabeth, a
number of artists came over from Holland, built several
buildings, and painted many portraits, and, though these
artists and architects were thoroughly imbued with a taste
for Italian art, that taste was certainly affected by their
Dutch surroundings and education.
Theodore Havens, of Cleves, was architect of four gates
of Caius College, in England, built toward the close of the
sixteenth century, and at this time it appears that most of
the Italian architects had left the country. There were
many English goldsmiths and jewelers, as well as a number
of artists and architects, whose names appear prominently
at this time, and all this jointly had the effect of conglom-
crating the Dutch, Italian, and English-Gothic style of art.
54. Political Ties of England and Holland.—During
the reign of Elizabeth we meet a great preponderance of
Dutch names, considering that it was an English country,
which is accounted for by the fact that England was bound
by political and religious ties with Holland; and although
the greater number of these names are applied to artists and
painters, it must be borne in mind that all the arts were
connected closely in those days, and artists and sculptors
were frequently employed to design models for ornament
and even for architecture, and, in the accessories of their
own pictures, found frequent opportunity for the exhibition
of ornamental design.
Michael Angelo was an artist and painted the ceiling and
side walls of the Sistine Chapel, at Rome; Michael Angelo
was a sculptor and carved much of the statuary that now
stands in the corridors of some of the most ‘prominent
museums of Europe; Michael Angelo was an architect and
completed the building of St. Peter's Church, in Rome, the
most stupendous undertaking of the age and the largest
structure now in existence.
55. Influences on English Art.4During the early
part of Queen Elizabeth's reign, we are then justified in


54 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. '5' 5
concluding that a most important influence must have been
exercised on English art, through the medium of the Prot-
estant states and low countries and also of Germany.
Heidelberg Castle, in Germany, was completed about this
time, and it is not unlikely that this, too, had an effect on
English art, especially when we consider that Princess Eliza-
beth, daughter of James I of England, was queen of Bohemia,
and held court at Heidelberg about the beginning of the
seventeenth century. Records show that toward the close
of Elizabeth's reign, and about the beginning of that of
James I, English artists seem to have predominated, and it
would appear that at this time would be found the most
- likely development of a strictly native style. It is to be
deplored, however, that this period of English art, known as
jacobean, is undoubtedly the most inartistic, inappropriate,
and ill-composed in all history.
56. Elizabethan Ornament.—Thus we may expect to
meet with the purest Italian ornament during the reign of
Henry VIII. During the reign of Elizabeth, his daughter,
We perceive but a slight imitation of the Italian models
and an almost complete adoption of the style of ornament
practiced by the decorative artists of Germany and the
Netherlands. In the reign of James I, Elizabeth’s suc-
cessor, we find this same style continued, or attempted to
be continued, by the English artists, but in a large and
gross manner.
57. Characteristics.—There is little, then, that can be
justly termed original in Elizabethan ornament. It consists
more of an adaptation of foreign elements—an adaptation of
elements with which the adapters had no intimacy, and about
which they had little understanding. The characteristics of
Elizabethan ornament may be described as consisting chiefly
of a grotesque and complicated variety of pierced scrollwork
with curled edges, as though a number of short straps were
interwoven and their ends allowed to curl up; of interlaced
bands, sometimes on a geometrical pattern, but more often


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 55
flowing irregularly and capriciously; bands composed of strap
and nail-head ornaments; festoons of fruit and drapery inter-
spersed with roughly executed figures of human beings;
grotesque monsters and animals, with here and there large
and flowing designs of natural branch and leaf ornament.
High-paneled apartments often filled with designs of foliage,
shields, and coats of arms, grotesque keystones in arches,
and immense flowing brackets, are freely used; and the
carving, whether in wood or stone, is always very roughly
and crudely executed, and the design coarse and ill-adapted
to the material in which it is executed.
Unlike the adoption of the Classic style in Italy and
France, these ornaments are not applied to a Gothic system
of construction, but the entire building is masked under a
coat of plaster or other material, and the groundwork of
classic simplicity is first laid, to receive the meaningless
ornament that stamps the period.
58. Revival of Antique Art.—-About the beginning
of the sixteenth century, the revival of the antique art,
which we have already discussed, in Italy became invigorated
and reduced to a system, as we have said before, through its
popular introduction afforded by the means of printing and
engraving. Translations of the work of Vitruvius, copiously
illustrated and ably commented upon, were printed and
spread so as to become the foundation of work for every
designer of eminence throughout the country, and at the
same time offered a suggestion on which at least half a dozen
other writers prepared treatises on architecture, among them
Palladio and Vignola, whose works have been preserved and
form the standard down to the present day.
. 59. Architecture and ornament during the period of the
English Renaissance may be considered as failures from an
artistic standpoint. The purest ornament developed during
this great historical period we find in France, where it was
uninfiuenced by any foreign elements of importance except
those received from Italy with the style itself.


56 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
CONCLUSION.
60. Object 01’ Complete Reviewal of Historic Orna-
ment.~—Thus we have considered the entire range of historic
ornament, from the earliest days of Egypt to the beginning
of the nineteenth century. The object of this study has not
been to acquire a number of forms that were characteristic
of each period, that the student might copy or imitate out-
lines and designs of the past, in order to execute ideas
characteristic of a certain historic period. The purpose has
,been to train the mind in order that the natural develop-
ments arising from conditions in the past can be applied to
the probable conditions that would arise under similar cir-
cumstances of the present day and the future.
61. Influences Affecting Styles of Art.—It has been
pointed out that religion, politics, and geography have
affected the character of ornament in different countries, as
well as historic influences, and at the present day we find
that the majority of the ornament is affected by the inven-
tions and advancement in science and art characteristic of
the nineteenth century, as was the Renaissance period char-
acterized by the advancement of learning in its period. In
fact, the latter half of the nineteenth century has been
characterized by some writers as a New Renaissance, if
such a term can be reasonably used. It certainly bears a
similar relation, to the three hundred years that preceded it,
that the beginning of the Renaissance period bore to the
centuries before its dawn.
62. Effect of Environments on Art and Architec-
ture.—In the fifteenth century, we have the introduction
of books to the masses of people, through the invention of
the printing press and printing. A spread of desire for art
and learning followed as soon as the antiquities of Rome
and Greece were learned, and with this development of the
human mind, a rapid advancement of civilization took place
that characterizes the period as one of the most brilliant in
history.


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 57
In the same manner, we have a number of inventions
characteristic of the latter half of the nineteenth century
that have so changed the conditions of man that his entire
habits and character are different from those of his ancestors
in the Renaissance period. Steam and electricity have been
controlled so as to convert night into day, and make it no_
longer necessary to discontinue any line of work or manu-
facture at sunset. These same agents have rendered the.
distances between business centers—even on two continents
—matters of only a few hours’ or days' travel. Conversa-
tion between individuals a thousand miles apart is so easily
maintained that it may be considered that space, from a
business standpoint, 'is practically annihilated, and, with a
hundred other inventions, we are confronted with a propo-
sition in design today that makes the _traditions and devices
of past ages simply symbols of antiquity.
The modern mind is so imbued with mechanics and inven-
tions that the present age can give little time to the study
and development of a national or characteristic art. Designs
of the past have been copied, and we are satisfied to imitate
what has been done in this line, instead of trying to do some-
thing for ourselves. The human mind has not attempted to
invent practical art forms, and years hence the study of the
art of this period will be considered in much the same terms
that we now consider the art of the Jacobean period in
England.
63. Adherence to Old Designs—A simple illustra-
tion of this may perhaps be seen in the ordinary chandelier,
or hanging light. In the days when candles furnished all
the light for rich and poor that was obtainable, it was cus-
tomary that a rod or bar should hang from some portion of
the room and support on its end one or more candles. The
introduction of lamps to general use made it necessary that
there should be a bulb or metal globe somewhere near the
bottom of this red, to be filled with oil to supply the lamp that
still was suspended from the ceiling by a rod, or, occasion-
ally, a chain. With the introduction of gas as illuminating


58 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
power, the rod was replaced by a pipe, still in imitation
of the old rod, but serving the double purpose of support-
ing the chandelier and conveying the gas to the burner.
The horizontal bars that formerly carried lamps now carry
lava tips from which the gas burns, and the large round
I balls or globes that originally contained the oil to supply the
lamp are now false, hollow devices, used to cover the joints
where the vertical and horizontal bars are united.
In addition to this, elaborate designs for gas fixtures often
introduced long chains from various portions of their cross-
bars to staples in the ceiling, suggesting that these fixtures
were hung from the ceiling by chains, as the lamps of old—
a clumsy deceit, inasmuch as the chains nearly always bun g
loose and the fixture was plainly supported by its central
pipe.
From a point of design, nothing could be more incon-
sistent than to borrow the chain that hung the lamp of Our
ancestors and use it as a decorative element where it was
allowed to hang in a limp curve, on account of this outline
being more pleasing ~to the eye. The reason for this is to
be found in the fact that the designer did not invent new
conditions to suit the new material. Had he never known
of chandeliers for candles and lamps and been called upon
to design a device for gas, there is no doubt he would have
done much better. .His knowledge of historic ornament in
lamp fixtures, therefore, did not benefit him, but injured his
ability to design something original for gas, and now, with
the introduction of electricity, many are continuing in the
same-error today.
64. All that is required for an electric-light illumination
is a pair of small wires to convey the current, and a bulb in
which the incandescent fiber is enclosed. The designer is
free to use these two agents in any form he pleases, to elabo-
rate them in any way he chooses, and to produce an equal
illumination of a room in the simplest and most artistic way
that circumstances can possibly admit. Yet, the majority
of our electrolier designs are based on developments of the


60 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
Carpets on floors were practically unknown at this period,
and some of the richest palaces had floor coverings of no
better material than straw; but in the nineteenth century
we require carpet, and our Gothic interior need not be made
as crude as a barn in order to be correct; we can use hard-
wood floors and rugs, or if carpet is more desirable, we
must avoid colors and designs that are inconsistent with the
spirit of our purpose.
66. \Vindow and Wall Ornamentation.—We must
remember that glass was scarce and expensive at this time,
and that in most cases the windows were large and filled
with small panes—first, for the admission of sunshine and
air, and, second, for economy. But glass is cheap now, and
it is not necessary that we should divide our windows up
into a multitude of trivial openings, in order that our panes
may be small, because they were in the Gothic period.
Leaded glass and stained glass existed in those days and
can be used now to obtain any effect we desire that is con-
sistent with our purpose. Walls were hung with tapestries
at that time, whereas to-day the paper manufacturer has,
for economical reasons, crowded the tapestry industry into a
comparatively second place, except for the very wealthy.
However, we can cover our walls with paper if we choose,
but its design should not be suggestive of any period but
the one we have in mind.
And so throughout, all our efforts may be carried out with
the material we have in hand or available at the present
time, if we but stop to consider the reason for certain things
in the past and a reason why they should or should not be
reproduced in the present.
67. This same suggestion applies to the designer of
fabrics of all kinds as well as to the decorator, and, whethe 1-
executing a design for a carpet, wall paper, dress fabric, or
linen damask, it is a simpler matter, if its practice is once
started, to imitate the spirit of any age or style than it is to
attempt to copy the elements of existing designs.


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 61
HISTORIC LETTERDYG.
68. Lettering does not in reality form a part of Historic
Ornament as the various other ornamental details do, but it
is here introduced with the explanation of the characteristics
of each style, in order that it may be associated with the
ornamental style of each characteristic period. We all know
that there was no such style of alphabet as we term Antique
Egyptian extant in ancient Egypt, but we do find letters of
this character in certain Roman works executed at a late
period on Egyptian soil, and it is from these that it derives its
name. The styles of letter here given must all be accepted
with a certain amount of liberality, as each, though in har-
mony with the period it represents, has certain modern char-
acteristics introduced for purely commercial advantages.
69. The practical designer is frequently called upon to
execute ornamental lettering appropriate to some historic
style and in harmony with some practical purpose. For this
reason the student is herewith given a number of useful
alphabets, with a brief description of each, that will enable
him to execute the outlines of each letter properly and pro-
portion them according to rules. The titles given to these
alphabets are names by which they are known in modern
use and explain themselves.
There is no rule by which one can determine what style
of letter is best suited to each particular purpose, but it is
well to bear in mind that legibility is always the first con-
sideration, and where the lettering of a design is intended
to convey direct information, as in a sign or piece of adver-
tising matter, the lettering should be simple and clear in
order that the purpose of the design may not fail. On the
other hand, where the lettering is for a certificate, diploma,
memorial, or other piece of matter that is more ornamental
than instructive, the lettering may be elaborated to any
degree within reasonable limits. The relative amount of
space covered by letters and background is a matter of
design that is considered in the same manner as spotting,


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§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 63
and the proportions of letters to each other must also be
considered in the composition of the design, as matters of
the principal and subordinate parts of the same design, all
of which will be more fully explained hereafter.
Elaboration of letters or the use of elaborate letters does
not enhance either the beauty or the value of the design
unless these letters are used intelligently, and a plain letter
correctly and intelligently proportioned will produce a much
more pleasing effect than the most elaborate style badly and
ignorantly arranged.
ANTIQUE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET.
70. This letter, Fig. 36, is almost identical with the plain
Egyptian, the distinction being in the addition of the spur at
the angles of the letters, but no variation occurs in the propor-
tion of the letter or its stroke. The stroke of a letter is the
proportional width of its heavy lines in comparison with its
height. In this letter the stroke is one-fifth the height. as
shown by the small squares in which the letter surface is
'divided. Some designers make the spur much more exag-
gerated than is shown on this plate, while others make it
scarcely perceptible. The examples given herewith, how-
ever, may be taken as an average, wherein the spur projects
about one-third the width of the stroke. All letters having
a horizontal stroke, as the E, L, etc., have these strokes fin-
ished with a beveled end, on which the spur is added at
the same _angle. The ends of the strokes of the C and the
upper stroke of the G and S, and figures 2, 8, 5, 6, and 9 are
beveled at an angle opposite to that of the other letters
referred to above. This bevel, shown on the upper terminal
of C, is made by drawing a line from a point one-fourth the
width of the stroke to the right of 5 a to a point one-third
the width of the stroke to the left of 5 c. The points6 a and
5 0 refer to the intersection of the fifth vertical line from
the left side of the letter, with the third horizontal line
marked 0.
The middle bar of the A is the width of the stroke below


64 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
the center; the middle bar of the H is one-half the width of
the stroke above the center; while the middle bars of the E
and F are exactly in the center. The f is finished with a
spur at 5 e, as well as just above 1 e. The points that deter-
mine the inclination of the strokes of the K are from 5a to
two-thirds the width of the stroke below 2d, and from 4 f to
the intersection of the upper slanting stroke with line 3 one-
third the width of the stroke above a'. The two slanting
strokes of the ill meet in the center of the letter at a point
on line f, and no spurs exist on the insides of the slanting
strokes at the top. The tail of the Q is cut on an angle of
~15 degrees, the shorter side being the width of the stroke in
length and the longer side being equal to the distance from
28 to 8f. The tail of the R is a slanting stroke; the points
of contact are 4d to 5f. The strokes of the W come to a
point on line a to correspond with the ill. The corner of
the Z is beveled off at about the same angle as the interior
of the 5 and the top of the character &. The long slanting
stroke of the character & is drawn from a point one-half the
width of the stroke to the left and below 1 a to a point one-
half the width of the stroke to the right of 4f. The corre-
sponding, or upper, slanting stroke, from its top to the
beginning of the curve, is made from a point one-half the
width of the stroke to the right and below 4a to a point 2d.
The other slanting stroke intersects the long stroke the
width of the stroke below this point and is parallel with the'
upper stroke, finishing on line c. The curve by which these
strokes are united is three-fourths the width of the stroke to
the left of line 1 at e. The middle bar of the numeral 8 is
beveled at a slight angle, as shown. The character of the
numeral 5 is changed at the point where the vertical stroke
joins the curved bottom portion of the numeral 5. The
point added below the line a' is necessary to fill out the space
to the line of the curve. The numerals 6, 8, and 9 are about
one-third the width of the stroke wider than the other char-
aracters, but are similar in other respects to the same
numerals in the plain Egyptian alphabet.
The lower-case letters are, in many respects, the same as


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 65
those in the plain Egyptian alphabet, although many excep-
tions occur. All strokes extending above the line a are
cut at an angle of 60 degrees, to which the spur is added
at the same angle. This characteristic is also observable
on letters of shorter height, such as the z', j, m, n, etc., but
the ends of the strokes of all letters extending below the
line are finished without this detail.
LIGHT ANTIQUE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET.
71. The difference between the alphabet shown in Fig. 37
and that shown in Fig. 36 is almost entirely in the weight
of the stroke. The capital letters and figures of this alpha-
bet are one-fourth higher than wide, with the exception of
the letters A, .‘W, O, Q, S, 1V, etc., which are wider than the
others, and the letters 1, L, and N, which are narrower.
On the top line we have, in A, a letter whose width is
equal to its height, and in [a letter whose width is but three
thirty-seconds its height. The cross-bar of the A is two and
two-thirds strokes above the bottom line, and the curved line
at the top and to the left of A is a short pen or brush stroke
termed the cyma, on account of its resemblance to the curve
of the Greek moldings of that name. The purpose of the
cyma in lettering is to fill the space between the slanting
parts of the letters, or extremities of letters where wide
openings are likely to appear where the letters are placed
together. It is also used as an integral part of some letters,
as in the Q and lower part of the Z. In other styles of
lettering the cyma is frequently used as a structural part of
many letters, particularly in the Old English alphabet. On
the letter A the cyma is eight strokes in length and is located
one stroke to the left of the upper point of the A.
The letter B is fashioned so that its lower portion to the
middle of bar is eight strokes above the bottom line, and
projects one stroke to the right of the upper portion. As far
as it goes, the letter C is a perfect are of a circle, and the spur
on the inside is about two strokes from the top line. The


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§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 67
lower extremity of the letter projects a stroke beyond the
top and finishes at a point about three strokes above the
lower line. The right side of the letter D is semicircular
and becomes tangent at the top and bottom three strokes to
the right of the vertical. E, F, G, and H each possess a
. middle bar that is located four strokes below the top of the
letter, and in the letters If and F this middle bar extends to
within three strokes of the right extremity of the letter. In
K the slanting stroke begins three strokes above the lower
line and extends to the top line where the end is beveled at
an angle of about sixty degrees. The letter L is about one
stroke narrower than the other letters, and the cyma is
placed over it so that its lower extremity is even with the
right-hand portion of the letter. 114' is two strokes wider
than the other letters, and in some cases is made precisely
like an inverted W, except at the union of the two slanting
strokes where the letter is finished flat with a spur instead of
being pointed as in the IV. Here the middle strokes of the
11! are brought to a point one-half the width of the letter
below the top line. The slanting stroke of the Ncommences
on the vertical stroke one~fourth the width of the letter
below the bottom line. The loops of the Pand R are very
different in style, the middle bar of the P being four and
two-thirds strokes from the bottom line, while the middle
stroke of the R is six and two-thirds strokes above the bottom
line. The tail of the R intersects the middle bar at a point
where the curve becomes tangent. The letter 5 curves in
each direction from a point in the center of the letter on a
line with the middle bar of the R, and this letter is narrower
at the top than at the bottom and can be enclosed in an
isosceles triangle whose height is about three times the
height of the letter. The W is precisely the same as two
V’s joined at a point two and two-thirds strokes below the
top line. The vertical stroke of the Y extends six and two-
thirds strokes above the bottom line, the letter being twelve
strokes wide on the top. The X is nine strokes wide on
top and thirteen strokes wide on the bottom. The letter Z
is the same width as the average letters on top, but it may




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§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 69
be finished either with the cyma as shown here, or with a bot-
tom corresponding in detail to the top, as the fancy dictates.
The figures are of the average width of the letters, the 3
being similar to the S, and the Z to the 7. The lower-case
letters are easily constructed, as shown.
HEAVY ANTIQUE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET.
72. The style of letter shown in Fig. 38 is the heavy
extreme of the Antique Egyptian style, in the same manner
that Fig. 37 was the light extreme of this style. Between
these two extremes the style may be varied to almost any
extent, slight variations in the form of letter being necessary
to suit the different conditions. The Heavy Antique Egyp-
tian, however, is rarely used as a solid black letter as shown
in this figure, and is only so printed here in order to preserve
uniformity in the alphabets.
In much design work this letter is found in simple outline,
and though extremely bulky on account of the weight of its
stroke, it may be gracefully handled and elaborately orna-
mented to produce a most pleasing efiect. The stroke in
the Antique Egyptian alphabet should not exceed one-third
the full width of the average letter, which is the extreme
illustrated in this case, and it will be observed that with this
heavy stroke it is necessary that certain letters, such as the
K, S, V, IV, etc., be carried beyond the limiting top and
bottom lines, in order that the full outline of the letter may
be shown without confusion of parts. In some places, too,
it will be found necessary to diminish the width of the stroke
in order to leave necessary space between strokes, and other
variations may be indulged to suit specific circumstances.
MEDIEVAL ROMAN ALPHABET.
73. This style of letter, by many authorities, is termed
the Antique Roman, but it belongs to the historic period
indicated by its name. The Medieval Roman alphabet as


ogre m we Q
chEgsm
MdmoZEdS
Ewammuma.
~20“ 113/ RH


§ 5 ' HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 71
shown in Fig. 39 possesses three distinct and characteristic
features. First, there is a small spur that projects above
and below the lettering lines, and there is another projection
of the inside line of the stroke beyond the fine line fora
distance of about one-third the stroke, as in the top of the
letter A and the bottom of the letter N; and besides these,
every angle between a stroke and a fine line is rounded.
The width of the stroke here is from one-fourth to one-fifth
the height of the letter, and the spur is one stroke long and
is joined to the letter one stroke above the bottom, or below
the top line, thus making the curve on the inside an exact
quarter circle.
All letters average five strokes in width, with the excep-
tion of such letters as have heretofore been described as
varying from the regular limits. In the letterA the fine
line intersects the stroke at the point of the letter, and
though on its inside the stroke is carried past the fine line,
the intersection takes place precisely as though this peculi-
arity did not exist. The horizontal fine line of the A is one
and one-fourth strokes above the bottom of the letter.
LIGHT AND IIEAV Y FRENCH ROMAN ALPHABET.
74. In modern usage the Roman alphabet is varied
somewhat to suit certain purposes. One of these variations,
called the “New York Roman,” adheres in outline very
closely to the original Medieval form with the exception of
the projecting spur of the stroke beyond the fine line.
Another variation, known as the “French Roman," dilfers
from its prototype by increasing the weight of the fine line
in order that it may be better expressed in carved stone-
work, etc. The variations of these three styles, from an
extremely light letter to an extremely heavy letter, is prac-
ticed by all designers, but the similarity is such that we only
give the normal conditions of the Medieval Roman and
extreme conditions of the French.
In Fig. 40 is shown the Light French Roman alphabet,


Q®FQDTMUN_
.w N>X€>DFW
MQLOZ ESE?
~I®LMD®E4~
hugger zen/Era





H
§5
HISTORIC ORNAMENT.
was“ REMIX“
Q.
1 Jklmnopq rsiu
abodefgh
Z Vlll ]X X XX'L'C-D'M'
abodefghijklmno
new“ “Mums:
IllllllllllVVVIVII
qust
Z
Meow-N m. ROMA“
FIG. 42.
and this fills the
same position in
the variation of the
alphabet as the
Light Antique
Egyptian. In giv-
ing the letter
weight, as shown
in Fig. 41, certain
liberties are taken
with the fine lines,
as shown in the
lower strokes of
the E, L, and Z.
In using these
Roman alphabets,
care must be taken
to have the lower-
case letters well
proportioned in the
weights of their
strokes with the
capitals that are
used. In Fig. 42
are shown the
lower-case letters
of the French
Roman and the
Medieval Roman
alphabets, the
former, it will be
observed, possess
ing a much heav-
ier stroke. These
lower-case letters.
in Fig. 42 are pro-
portioned for the
normal condition


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 75
of alphabet, and where used with the heavy or light
alphabet, they must be increased or diminished in stroke
accordingly. The use of the Roman numerals with these
alphabets is by no means essential, but the numerals are
given here in order that the proportionate stroke may be
observed. There are many cases where the use of the
Medieval Roman alphabet is appropriate beyond all other
alphabets, and it is usual that in such cases the Roman
numerals be used.
GOTHIC ALPHABET.
'75. The style of letter we term “Gothic ” was designed
during the latter part of the Medieval period and is asso-
ciated both historically and architecturally with the style of
Gothic architecture that existed during the Flamboyant
period in France and the Perpendicular period in England.
In modern use this letter is largely applied to church deco-
ration for the purpose of making religious quotations, and is
also used in printing for certain kinds of literature on
account of its origin in ancient monasteries. It is similar
but much more easily read than what we term “Church
Text," and is, therefore, given here to the exclusion of the
latter, as it is much more serviceable.
In Fig. 43 the capital and lower-case letters, as well as
the figures, are shown, and the distinguishing characteristics
of this style lie in the peculiar formation of the letters
A, C, E, F, IL], and U. The letters A, .M', N, etc. do not
possess any slanting strokes as they do in the Roman
alphabets, but are formed with a vertical stroke as one of
their sides and curved strokes for the rest of the outline.
The letters C and E are closed on their right sides by a
vertical line ending in small dots or volutes, the line on E
being longer than that on the C. The Fis similar in gen-
eral outline to the capital F of the Roman styles, but carries
its spur on the upper fine line below the bottom of the
letter itself. The capital H is but slightly varied from the
lower-case It, and the j is peculiar in its general details to


Faazémaw memwmmwmflsmeme
oewsenwnna
swmmgke
meHQmHQ imam
Ewemwmvmm

a sees. a.


_ Nylvm???
FMMTOAHOZ
iévwfiwfi .
,WPQEQUQQ


NNHXUQV?
fiFmeflvQQz
Zfixwvw l
Imavvm @Q U was“.
$52 duvet/£53
55.. fig Wyn


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 79
this style of alphabet. Other details of peculiarity exhibit
themselves to the student as he studies this style. This
letter is frequently elaborated in certificate and engrossing
work, by means of shading and elaborate backgrounds, and
'some proportions of the letters may be slightly changed in
order to suit them to particular circumstances.
A later development of this alphabet is shown in Fig. 44,
where the letters A, M, ]V, etc. partake of the same char-
acteristics as the Roman letter, while the peculiar ogival
form of outline characteristic of the Gothic style is main-
tained in all of the curves in the stroke. A strong character-
istic difference, however, between the alphabet in Fig. 43
and that in Fig. 44 is that in the former all the fine lines
are straight and in the latter all of the fine lines are curved,
except in the A, K, 11]; etc. This style of letter, usually
termed “16th Century,” is suitable where more elaboration
is required than the Gothic style permits, and is seldom used
for church work as it is associated with that period of archi-
tecture when the building of churches was in its decline.
Another style of letter that had its origin, also, in the
Gothic is illustrated in Fig. 45 and is termed “ Henry VII "
inasmuch as the only existing example of this work is to be
seen in the Henry VII Chapel at Westminster Abbey. As
a matter of fact, this is technically a Renaissance style,
although like all early Renaissance art it developed from
the Gothic. The tendency to elaboration and the intro-
duction of meaningless curves and forms is characteristic of
this period, but the style of alphabet when properly treated
afi'ords a very valuable means of enriching a design that is
composed almost entirely of lettering work.
OLD ENGLISH ALPHABET.
76. A standard alphabet that has ever been popular
and is ever serviceable under certain conditions is the Old
English, shown in Fig. 46. There can be little doubt that
this bears a close relation to the Gothic alphabet, and,


mmamma: ‘
savages? has.“
e seems
ereemgeeeZé
evangees‘se saw
@éwfiwee


§ 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 81
indeed, its lower-case letters are very similar to the Gothic;
and, though it is much used in church work and in the
designing of certificates and other engrossed documents, it
is not as legible as the Gothic alphabet and is more suitable
for conditions where ornamentation is required rather than
cleaninformation.
It will be observed in this alphabet that the cyma forms a
marked characteristic in each of the letters. For instance,
in the letter E nearly all the strokes are composed of at
least a portion of the cyma. Certain letters are very hard
to distinguish from one another in this alphabet, and care
should be taken to remember the distinguishing character-
istics of each in order that they may be rendered without
referring constantly to the copy. In some forms of alphabet,
the C and the E are almost identical, the exception between
the two letters being that the E contains a solid stroke where
the two horizontal fine lines exist in the C. We think it
preferable, however, to use the form of E shown in Fig. 46,
although this is somewhat confusing when compared with
the F. It will be observed that the vertical stroke of the F
is a straight stroke and not a cyma as in the E, and that a
fine line connecting the upper spur of the F with the main
stroke is straight instead of a curved continuation of a cyma
as in the letter E. T and U are also difficult to distinguish
in some styles of alphabet, and study should be given to the
formation of the I and f in order that they may not become
confusing.
A little consideration of these letters will show the student
that there are only three or four different styles of stroke
and that many different letters are formed simply by the
addition of some detail of other letters. For instance, the
letter E differs but slightly from the letter L, except in the
addition of its center spur, and the left-hand portion of the
letter M is almost identical with the letter 1. Similar
resemblances will be found in many other letters, such as
the Q, R, etc., and the Z, though shown on this plate with
a compound final stroke, is often drawn with a top and bot-
tom of the same character.


82 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. § 5
The lower-case letters are similar to the lower-case letters
of the Gothic alphabet, except that they are somewhat
heavier in their stroke, but for all practical purposes the two
styles are so near alike in their lower case that one is fre-
quently used with the other without invoking any severe
criticism.
77. In making use of these alphabets in design, it has
been customary to , associate all the Roman styles with
Classic and Renaissance art and to use the Gothic and “ 16th
Century" with Medieval art; while the Henry VII and Old
English are used both in Medieval and Renaissance art.
There are cases where one style of letter may be used per-
fectly proper in another style of art, but care must be given
to this consideration when the mixture of styles is attempted,
as it will readily be seen that there is nothing particularly
incongruous about using the Roman 'letter in Renaissance
art, or even in Gothic art, but a Gothic letter would be highly
out of place in Classic art no matter what were the circum-
stances. The reason for this should be clear, as the Gothic
architect might have inherited some knowledge of the Roman
letter and used it in his designs, but it would be utterly
impossible for the Roman designer to borrow a letter of the
Gothic style inasmuch as that letter had not been invented
during the period of the Roman architectural styles.
78. The initial letters that are woven in many of the
designs of French Renaissance art usually tend toward the
character of the French Roman, and the interwoven initials
of H and C in the wall decoration shown in Fig. 32 are
borrowed from the style we have herein described as French
Roman, and comparison of other initials that will be found
carved in the stonework of the mantels illustrated in the
foregoing pages will indicate that they have all been adapted
to their modern purpose from the more ancient style of
classic letter.


ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
1O
COMPOSITION.
Unity in Design.—Compositlon in art deals almost .
entirely with the grouping of the elements of a design to
bring them together and appear as a unity.
No matter of
how many parts a design may be composed, if these parts
are properly treated, it will
present to the eye an appear-
ance of unity and individu-
ality, and only in such
periods of art history,as the
designs have presented this
unity do we find a progress
in a thoroughly artistic
sense.
To illustrate this some-
FIG. 1.
(a)
(b)
FIG. 2
what, we have, in Fig. 1, a group of six lines, all of one
length, but irregularly arranged. There is no expression
gs
For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page.


2 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. _ § 6
of unity in this, nor is there anything about it suggestive of
an attempt at any kind of an arrangement, but in Fig. 2
these same six lines are so placed as to convey an idea
beyond the lines themselves, and the individual lines are
lost in the expression of unity. Another method of pro-
ducing this impression is to surround the irregularly drawn
\ ——/_\/ F“___”_l
/\ i .
///\//\ | -
\//\/\ L _____.|
FIG. 8. FIG. 4.



























lines with some detail of more importance, as shown in
Fig. 3, where a number of irregular lines are included within
a rectangle and the force of the outline is sufficient to com-
bine all the lines in one idea. Again, the smaller lines may
be grouped to form a series of geometrical figures within a
similar geometrical figure, and produce this same feeling, as
shown in Fig. 4.
2. Limit of 0ntllne.—In order to express this feeling
of unity, there must be a limit in the outline governing the
arrangement of the lines; for instance, in Fig. 5 we have a
AAAA_
Fro. 5.
series of equal lines arranged in groups that repeat indefi-
nitely; but there is nothing to stop them and there is afeeling
of continuity as though it might be extended forever in the
same arrangement without materially changing the form.
This feeling is not unity, but continuity, of which we shall


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 3
have occasion to speak later. In Fig. 2, the arrangement of
the six lines, in one case, conveys an impression of extension,
as though it could be extended in any direction and in all
directions without impairing the original form—this is con-
tinuity in all directions. The other geometrical form in
Fig. 2 conveys the idea of unity and contraction without any
impression of a desire to spread out.
3. Assemblage of Details to Secure Unity—In
assembling the subordinate details of a design in order
to secure a unity in the whole, there are three general
arrangements or groupings that completely satisfy the
mind to a sense of unity: One single object always looks
well alone, unless improperly subdivided or surrounded by
a lot of trivial and discordant details. An arrangement con-
sisting of a group of two things can be made to look well,
unless there is too great a difference in their form or size, or
unless they are badly united. Any group of three things
looks well, unless they are of uniform size or consist of too
prominent a character to be expressed in any quantity at all.
SURFACE DECORATION.
4, Subdivlslon of Space. Surface decoration con-
sists in the subdivision of a given space so that its parts
shall bear a relation to one another that varies in form and
shade. This subdivision may
be accomplished by the judi-
cious spacing of a number of
straight lines so that the sepa-
rated members bear a definite
relation to one another. Take,
for instance, the square; its pro-
portions cannot in any way be
varied, as all its sides are equal;
but its surface may be divided
into a number of smaller I
squares, as shown in Fig. 6, F10. o.


4 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
(5
CIIJ
simply by the placing of equally spaced vertical and hori-
zontal lines. This, however, does not accord with our
idea of unity, because, if it expressed unity, we should feel
that nothing could be taken away from the square without
destroying its value, and, in Fig. 6, should we take away
eleven of the smaller squares across the top and one side,
we would still have a square very little different from the
first one.
5. Arrangement of L1nes.—Suppose we divide the
surface of the square somewhat as shown in Fig. '7, spacing
the dividing lines more irregularly and grouping the lines
themselves in pairs and singly. This relieves the surface
of its monotony, and the various parts bear definite relations
5%










FIG. 7. FIG. 8.
to one another, so that the surface appears as a unit, the
subtraction of any member of which would materially
change its appearance. In Fig. 8 we have another sub-
division of the surface of the square where the lines are not
symmetrical on all four sides, and yet this is relieved of that
feeling of monotony so dominant in Fig. 6.
An immense variation of surface can thus be accomplished
simply by ~the placing of lines, and the more irregular the
intervals between the lines, the greater scope is there for
invention and design, as there is no limit to the number of
different arrangements that can be arrived at in the division
of a space in this manner. The symmetrical arrangement in


§G ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 5
Fig. 7 is the character of subdivision we must adhere to in
the design of ceilings, paneled wainscots, and the like,
while the unsymmetrical design shown in Fig. 8 is char-
acteristic of woven fabrics such as plaids and other dress
goods.
6. In order to fully comprehend the importance of this
simple suggestion, the student should make a freehand
drawing of a simple square measuring about 4 inches on
each side, and divide it by vertical and horizontal lines into
various relative shapes. A piece of tracing paper laid over
the square, so as to retrace its outline, may be used to
advantage, and a traced square made in this way may be
divided into a number of pleasing forms that may afterwards










FIG. 9.
be compared to determine which of the arrangements are
more satisfactory to the eye than others. When this has
been determined, endeavor to ascertain what arrangement of
lines satisfies the eye most, and what arrangement satisfies it
least. Some arrangements will always be more interesting
than others, and a little study will show that the most sat-
isfactory groupings are dependent entirely on the variation
in the proportions and relations of their parts. Take, for
instance, Fig. 9, wherein we have six different arrangements
on precisely the same grouping of lines, the relative parts
of this being produced by shade and not by line grouping,


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 7
in the Venetian style or the most brilliant coloring in
Moorish art.
8. Relation of Colors.—In the coloring of parts we
do not really consider the actual spectrum shades that exist
on adjacent members of a design, but rather the tints or
shades as they appear to the eye. A design may be
expressed in two tints or it may be expressed in more, and
the depths of these tints should bear a definite relation to
one another in proportion to the surface that is covered.
\Ve know that the three primary colors—yellow, red, and
blue—exist in their pure form in perfect harmony in the
proportion of 3, 5, and 8, and the same maybe said of black-
and-white compositions. A certain depth of one shade must
be in exact proportion to a lighter or darker shade, in order
that a feeling of harmony may exist in the composition. In
all examples of ancient art we find that attention has been
given not only to the exact subdivision of a surface in order
that the space relations may be pleasing, but that the most
careful consideration has been given to the coloring of each
of these divisions and its appearance and relation beside the
coloring of its neighbors. This color relation can exist
in line composition where the lines used are of different
breadths, or weights, thereby bringing somewhat the effect
of a surface element in their appearance.

9. Light and Shade. We find in certain oriental designs
for rugs a thorough understanding of this relation of light
and shade, and to it we are indebted largely to the influence
of Mohammedan religion on oriental art. As the creed of
Mohammed forbade the representation of any natural form,
it became necessary for his followers to secure pleasing
effects in their designs by color relation or light and shade,
and thus freed from the struggle to imitate nature, their
whole attention could be concentrated on this other element.
10. Reversion of Colors.—In Fig. 11 is shown a
design for a rug, based on the simplest geometrical lines,
while in Fig. 12 the same identical pattern is produced, but


8
§6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
reversed so far as its color relations are concerned.
It is at
once evident that any design consisting of but two tones is


FIG.
11.
Put the border of Fig. 12 on
susceptible to this reversing
of its treatment in color
relations, and parts of it
also can in some cases be
reversed, while others remain
the same. For instance, in.
Fig. 11 we have a rug with
a dark center on which the
geometrical ornament is
traced in light lines, while
the border is of a light shade
and the geometrical orna-
ment is traced in dark lines.
In Fig. 12 we have exactly
the reVersal of this—a light
center and a dark border.
Fig. 11 and we have a dark
rug throughout, the geometrical ornament of which is
executed in light lines; reverse this new pattern,and we have
what would be the equivalent
of Fig. 12 with the border of
Fig. 11. In this way a num-
ber of different arrangements
in light-and—shade effects can
be made with the same geo-
metrical design as its founda-
tion. In fact, many grades of
rugs and carpets are woven so
that one side presents one
effect and the other exactly
its reverse in light and shade.
11. Reverslon of Trent-
ment.—In Fig. 13 are shown
four styles of ornamentation,
each of which is expressive











of unity and balance in its


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 9
design, but each at the same time being perfectly capable of a
reversal in treatment in three or more ways. For instance,


FIG. 13.
in any example the border can consist of black figures on
a white ground and the center of white figures on a black
ground, or the border and center can both consist of white









III-r-
. lug-III-
I










.E "a. mm m“. 4% .h".
I I I I I I.
I-I I... I“: 'I. I'-

FIG. 14.


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 11
figures on a black ground, or a third arrangement will per-
mit of a reversal of the first; certain figures can be changed
and others remain the same, thus giving a great variety.
The proper understanding and comprehension of this
color relation in surface decoration enables the student to
produce an almost unlimited variety of effects, as is shown
in Fig. 14. Here we have eight examples of variation in
light and shade, all based on precisely the same geometrical
arrangement, the entire variation being produced simply by
a variation in the relation and proportion of the effects of
light and shade. The frequent practice of rendering in
this manner is of immense value to the designer. Let him
divide a surface up into a number of small rectangles and
then work over them with a brush charged with heavy
color, and group these rectangles so as to produce different
symmetrical designs, in order that he may familiarize himself
with the capability of these forms for extension and compre-
hend the value of a thorough understanding of this principle.
12. Variety of Designs from Same Elements.
Referring to Fig. 14, the eight examples there shown are
executed in but two colors—black and white—and all based
on a uniform arrangement of lines that divide the surface
originally into a number of small»squares. Turn this prin-
ciple over to immediate practical work, and we find that, in
laying a tile or mosaic floor, any one of these designs could
be produced with a series of tiles or mosaics cut to uniform
squares representing each of the squares divided in our sur-
face design, and colored in proportion to the light and shade
of our example. ‘
In wood mosaic or parquetry work, a number of simple
squares or a combination of squares and rectangles of uni-
form sizes in light and dark woods would produce any of
these eight patterns and many more. The arrangement of
the geometrical constructive principle of diagonally inter-
secting lines so as to produce the triangle, the lozenge shape,
or the hexagon, brings us again in contact with other sys-
tems of construction in which the variety is also unlimited.


12 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. § 6
CONVENTIONALISM.
13. Necessity of Conventionalism. —Conventlon-
allsm of design is usually very much misunderstood by
students in art, and the majority are inclined to believe
that it is simply a term that means stiffness and rigid for-
mality in a design. This is entirely wrong. A conventional
treatment may be easy and flowing as well as severe, both
qualities being necessary and valuable in their proper places,
but by no means is either one of them absolutely necessary
at all times.
As an illustration, take a piece of pottery or a china plate,
and the design executed on it represents a spray of flowers.
While it is proper that the designer should go to nature and
draw his instructions from natural forms in order to create
decorative design, there is a limit to which he can carry this
imitation justifiably, and it is in this spray of flowers where
that limit shall be expressed.
14. Shall the imitation be a portrait of the flower spray,
showing the light and shade, and the shine of the leaves, and
all the details connected with the appearance of that spray
under particular conditions of surrounding and lighting? Or,
shall it represent the spray regardless of light and shade, so
that, no matter under what conditions the plate or pottery
appears, its decoration will always seem to be in place ? A
plate is a movable object, and its decoration is seldom seen in
the same position twice in succession. Therefore, a painted
spray on this plate, that demanded a certain condition of
light in order that it should appear to its best advantage,
would be entirely out of place, while one with the light and
shade ignored, all the refinements of form still retained, and
all the delicate details of nature emphasized, would certainly
be most suitable.
In the naturalistic treatment, the beautiful and delicate
details of nature are lost in the attempt to make the spray
seem natural, and, in making it natural—contrary as it may
seem—we make it false.


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 13
15. Invention and Imitation.—Decorative art origi-
nates in two distinct faculties of the mind—the invent-Ive,
or constructive, and the Imitative. Inventive ornament
consists of an arbitrary and abstract arrangement of lines
calculated to produce a pleasing effect. This is character-
istic of the savage tribes, though traces of it pervaded all
the great styles, the frets and interlacings of the Classic,
Medieval, and Arabian styles being of this character. Invent-
ive ornament of this class affords the best practice to the
student in the study of decorative design, and, at the same
time, offers the best and simplest means of demonstrating
some of the greatest principles of ornament.
16. The Oval in Nature—There is an abstract form
that seems to pervade many beautiful forms in nature; this
form we call the oval, and on it are based many outlines
seen in the vegetable world. It is an elementary outline of
many leaves, and also enters into the composition of the
human head and hand.
In studying the oval we find that its two sides are
alike, that is, it is repeated on each side of a center line.
It is not only repeated, but, being reversed, one side is
contrasted to another, and still, again, throughout the entire
curve—unlike the curve of a circle—there is a constant
change of form and direction; therefore, we have a variety.
Hence, three important principles of design—rrpvfz'lzbn,
contrast, and varirly—are expressed in the simple form of
this oval.
1'7. Repetition, Contrast, and Variety—Now let us
take up these three principles in a point of design. The
simplest arrangement of lines in order to secure repetition
is somewhat shown at (a) in Fig. 15, but here there is no
variety; while at (b) we secure variety with the same
arrangement for repetition by making the lines of varying
lengths, but there is no contrast. Let us again change them
and put them as we have them at (c), which gives us con-
trast, but destroys our variety. However, by adopting the


14 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. §6
three methods in (a), (1)), and (c), we have in (d), repetition,
variety, and contrast—the three elements that we seek.
Abandoning lines, let us return to some natural form. In
l l l I
|||||l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l
(~\/\/\/
Flo. 15.
1a)


(b)



Fig. 16, at (a), we have repetition, at (b), we have variety,
and at (c), by combining (a) and (b), introducing the third
element as in the previous case, we have repetition, variety,
and contrast in leaf forms as desired.
18.‘ Symmetry and Radiation—In addition to these
principles, we have evolved two more, so far unspoken of,
as shown at (b) and (d) in Fig. 15. These principles are,
\i/ //
FIG. 1?.
symmetry and radiation. Symmetry has many forms of
expression, but usually may be considered to mean lz'kesz'a'e‘d-
mars, no matter what the form of the object may be. At (a),


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 15
Fig. 17, is shown a form of symmetry that consists simply
of the arrangement and repetition of a given form each side
of a center line; this is known as
bz'symmrtry. At (b) is a similar arrange-
ment where the forms on the sides are
the same in detail as the form that
separates them; this is known as tri-
.rymmz'lry. At' (a), where there are a
number of forms each side of a similar
form in the center, we have what is
known as multzkymmefry.
By bringing the forms shown at (11),
Fig. 17, together to form a unity, we
have an example of radiation from a
point, as shown at (d), while the dis-
tribution of the forms along a center
line, as shown in Fig. 18, gives an example of radiation
from a center line.
FIG. 18.
ORNAMENT.
LINEAR ORNAMENT.
19. Ancient Pottery Decoration. From a considera-
tion of the earliest forms of historic art, it will be found
that, after the most suitable form of utensil for the purpose
required had been arrived at, the easiest and readiest means
were employed to execute the decoration of its surface.
The elements of the pattern were of the simplest character—
composed of straight lines—and a pointed stick was gener-
ally used to execute the ornament in the soft clay of their
pottery.
Fig. 19 shows a vase where the straight lines variously
arranged in patterns are disposed in bands, and the patterns
are a result of simple arrangement in accordance with some
fundamental principle handed down from generation to
generation. Pottery is selected for the demonstration of


16 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. UR
6
this point; inasmuch as it is of a more durable character,
we have more examples of the early period, and it there-
fore furnishes a more reliable series of art development.
It has often been demonstrated that the
patterns evolved by weaving are identi-
cal with, and often suggested by, the
patterns found on pottery. It is only
incidental to point out' in this figure
that' there appears to be an unconscious
obedience to the laws of fitness in the
application of these straight-line pat-
terns. They are not applied in an
arbitrary way, but in harmony with the
structure they adorn.
20. Fitness of Ornament—As a
usual thing, the rim comes in for deco-
ration in order to give the part most
likely to fracture an appearance of strength, while any change
in the contour of the form is usually emphasized by additional
ornamentation. The reason for this may be found in the
fact that the application of ornament gives an impression
of strength, and, when a vase or jug in its plastic condition
is difficult to maintain in shape, the idea naturally sug-
gests itself to the potter to decorate that part that exhib-
its the weakness of the form. This determines largely the
location of the bands around the curves. We will find
also a precedent for this in the vegetable world, as
changes in the directions of stems are generally accented
in some way or other by the thickening or broadening of
the point of union for the two elements. The stem of a
leaf is usually almost as large or thick as the branch itself at
that point.


FIG. 19.
21. As we progress in the study of prehistoric decora-
tion, the later examples possess the curved line, and the
zigzag—so common in early work—becomes softened and
gradually develops itself into a wavy scroll, as shown at


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 17
(a), (b), and (c) in Fig. 20. The changes arise from the fact
that the angles are first rounded off, and the other portions
of the line between the curves are softened and graduated
until the zigzag loses its
identity entirely in the
wavy line at (c).
22. Constructive (a)
Origin of Decoratlve W
Art.-—From these illus- (b)
trations it will be readily
understood that decora-
tive art had a construc- (c)
tive .origin. Primitive
man, finding it necessary
to provide coverings for his body, learned that the weaving
of certain strands produced certain patterns, such as the zig-
zag, lozenge, etc., and in later periods, when he had learned
the use of metals, he applied the forms thus associated in his
mind. These forms were again adopted in decorating other
materials, and hence formed a starting point for decoration.
FIG. 20.
23. Evolution of Deslgn.—If the student Will now
follow out graphically the progress of design from the work
of the savage to that of civilized man, he will comprehend
a number of details that he otherwise could not learn.
On a sheet of paper, rule off a number of equally spaced
vertical and horizontal lines, as shown in Fig. 21. Then
emphasize certain lines of the square meshes, but varying
the emphasis by shade work or spotting to produce different
patterns all based on- the same geometrical principle as
shown at (a), (b), (c), and (d). (a) is the simplest form, and
consists of repeated crosses alternating with squares, while
(b) is evolved on the same principle, but by uniting the inter-
mediate squares with the crosses; (c) is another pattern
resulting from the inclusion of a greater number of founda-
tion squares, and (d) shows how an interlaced design may
be produced. The geometrical figures at (r) contain




FIG. 21.


(b)












(d)



























(e)









(0)




























FIG. 22.



. 9
all/
p.


U10
6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 21
elements of more progressive design, and resemble the pat-
terns usually evolved by the savage race.
In Fig. 22 is shown a different series of patterns evolved
by working on the diagonals of the squares and then by the
introduction of semicircles struck from the angles or inter-
sections of the diagonals.
24. Limitless Variety of Patterns.—The product of
various patterns on this plan is almost unlimited, a few of
which are shown in Fig. 23 in order that the student may
better understand the extent to which this can be carried.
At (a), Fig. 23, quarter circles are struck from the center
of each figure, thereby forming a series of wavy lines
that determine the shape of the pattern. At (25), how-
ever, a series of semicircles is emphasized so as to gen-
erate a trefoil pattern, while (a) and (d) are produced by
means of a number of tangent circular arcs, and is
developed upon lines crossing one another diagonally so
as to. leave lozenge shaped spaces instead of squares or
parallelograms. '
In the latter case we have a series of figures produced
somewhat as shown in Fig. 24, each of which can be used as
1<>
(0) (W (0) (d)



FIG. 24.
the element for the construction of a new pattern, as shown
in Fig. 25. If, now, we reduce the forms shown in Fig. 24
to their own individual elements, we get a series of forms
similar to Fig. 26, and, applying these as elements of design,
produce results similar to Fig. 27, where at (a) we have an
orderly arrangement of the obtuse angle shown at (a) in
Fig. 26, at (1)) a combination of the quadrants shown at (b)




FIG. 25.


§ 6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 23
in Fig. 26, and at (c) a similar combination of the ogee
curves, shown at (c)
in Fig. 26. , Straight
lines alone may be r
combined almost (‘1
m)
without limit, as
shown in Fig. 23;
and a combination of
curves and straight
lines, or curves, straight lines, and spirals, gives a great
(6)
Flo. fit.


'FIG. 27.
variety of forms, which can be introduced and combined
to form an unlimited series of patterns.
' \Vv/
' >
s\
(b)


O




FIG. 28.
25. Brush Decoration of Pottery.—We have been
considering so far only linear patterns as Were found in pre~
historic pottery when pottery was ornamented chiefly by
incising the soft clay with a hard point. In later periods,
however, pottery was decorated by means of the brush, and,


24 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. §6
as has already been pointed out, the use of this employment
led to much excellence in ornamental art.
It will now be readily understood how the combination of
a few brush marks produced such important historic forms
as the Greekpalmette and honeysuckle ornament, and the
fleur-de-lis and other devices common in medieval heraldry.
In the first instance we considered the development of
linear design in pottery decoration; then the application
of pottery design to surface decoration and an analysis of
forms that these arts produced; and, finally, a production
of new forms from the elements of the original ones. If we
now follow out the same idea and reproduce these forms
with the variety that can be given them through brush
decoration, we introduce an entirely new lot of expressions
that linear decoration is incapable of carrying forth.
NATURAL ORNAMENT.
26. Union With Geometrical 0rnament.—-History
shows that, as civilization advanced, greater ability for the
expression of ornamental design was developed, and that
mere geometrical design was found insufficient. Natural
forms were therefore resorted to in order to add new fea-
tures to the preexisting forms, and this was done in such a
way that the new elements should harmonize with the old.
The natural representations, though imitations of nature,
were not pictorial copies, but modifications to suit their pur-
pose, or, as we now consider it, conventional renderings;
and it is the union of these two principles—the imitative
and the inventive—that has given rise to the most impor-
tant styles of ornamental art. Therefore, in applying
natural forms to decoration, the student must always guard
against the tendency to run into a pictorial representa-
tion, as pictorial forms do not harmonize with the older
geometrical lines that may be called on to serve with them.
Forms adopted from nature must be adapted by a judicious
conventionalism.


U]-
C?
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 25
CONVENTIONALISM IN ANCIENT ART.
27. Kinds of Conventionalism.——In historic ornament
we find two kinds of conventionalism: first, the eonven-
tionalism of principles or ideas, and second, the conven-
tionalism of facts. The first deals only with the principles
or ideas of growth common to a number of classes of plants or
objects, and not representative of any specific form. The
second deals with the individualizing of particular plants or
objects, giving a more or less geometrical rendering of them.
28. Egyptian Conventionalism.—For instance, the
art of the Egyptians, being purely symbolic, bound them to
the conventionalism of facts, and in using their favorite
flowers—the lotus' and
papyrus—in decorative
art, they did not copy
them pictorially, but con-
ventionalized them in
such a manner that they
readily conveyed the idea
of the type and at the _
same time obeyed the rules of their geometrical foundation.
In Fig. 29 the papyrus is shown at (a) and the lotus at (b),
in their natural forms.
In Fig. 30 is shown a
border based on the primi-
m tive zigzag of prehistoric
ornament, and decorated
at (a) with a conventional
(“1 "’1 (°) rendering of the lotus
Fm' 80' and at (b) with a conven-
tional rendering of the papyrus, while at (c) is shown the
lotus flower with its curved outline as we see it in later
Egyptian art after the curve of the zigzag had been evened
up, as heretofore shown in Fig. 20.


FIG. D.



29. Greek Conventionalism. The art system of the
Greeks, however, was of the other kind of conventionalism—


26 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. §6
that of principles or ideas. Greek art not being symbolic,
there was no necessity to represent particular plants (though
at times they did so), and usually in their ornament we find
principles expressed without indicating any particular natural
type. - .
In Fig. 31 is shown an ornament found as a border on
many vases. Its structural line is undoubtedly a develop-
ment of the zigzag, while the leaf forms owe their origin to
the limitations of brush
work, and the general
character of the orna-
ment is indicative of a.
class of running plants,
but expressive of no par-
ticular plant. Another point observable in Greek art is the
way in which the scrolls are decorated, which, though based
on a principle of vegetation, do not imitate any particular
type.
In Fig. 32 is shown an example of Greek foliated orna-
ment; it will be noticed that the principles there expressed
are based on certain ideas derived from the vegetable world.
In Fig. 33 is shown a branch of a shrub from nature, and it








FIG. 81.


FIG. 32. FIG. 83.
will be observed that the part of the shrub above the
branches is smaller than the part of the shrub below the
branches, and that there is a considerable thickening of the


(‘11-)
6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 27
part where the main stem and the branching stem unite.
The Greek ornament in Fig. 32 is simply a development of
this principle, and does not imitate the plant at all, but
ornaments the idea. '
30. Development of Leaves.—Following the general
growth and development of plants comes the consideration of
their leaves; these should be studied systematically, accord-
ing to their develop-
ment. Such study will
show that in spite of
the apparent irregu-
larity of leaf form there
is a regular order in
their outlines. It has
already been shown
that leaves develop
according to some geo-
metrical principle, and it will be found that the majority of
leaves or leaf clusters may be enclosed within a circle or an




FIG. 85.
ellipse, as shown in Fig. 34; and a continuance of this prin-
ciple to the study of flowers will show that the top views of
many flowers are governed by the same geometrical figure,
as shown at (a), Fig. 35, where the buttercup, daisy, and


28 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. § 6
phlox are shown, while at (b) the side views of these flowers
are enclosed within a triangle.
31. Geometrical Forms in Nature—The study of
nature will show that this principle can be carried out exten-
sively, even to the fruit or seeds of the various plants; and
a careful study of individual forms and their details will
enlighten the student to many ideas that can be reduced to
'a geometrical principle and thereby become conventional-
izcd, while other facts observable in nature can also be con-
ventionalized to give a closer representation of the form.
CONVENTIONAL ORNAMENT.
32. Natural Forms in Deslgn.—\Ve will now try to
show how the study of nature can be applied in ornamental
design. Suppose we return to Fig. 21 and take the design
worked out at (a) and decorate it with forms from nature.
seat“
H% r;1 rd
i&1w real ,
FIG. 86.
9%








%





%



lVe will surround the extremities of the radiating lines with
figures derived from the study of nature, such as the edges
of some flowers, and produce a design somewhat as shown
in Fig. 36. A similar treatment of (c), Fig. 22, will


CIR
6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 29
produce a design somewhat as shown in Fig. 37. Fig. 38 is
based on the development of (a), Fig. 23, and Fig. 39 is a
development of (d),
Fig. 22.
33. Now, instead
of dividing our sur-
face up into rectan-
gles, as we did in
Figs. 21, 22, etc.,
we will let the out-
line of some natural
form govern the
subdivision; and in
Fig. 40 we have a
pattern where the
contour of a five-
lobed leaf is used as the governing principle of the outline,
within which other floral forms are used to form a surface
decoration. This, it will immediately be observed, is the
method of using natural forms practiced by oriental artists,
and the pattern shown in
Fig. 40 is strongly sug-
gestive of Arabian art.
For instance, at (a),
Fig. 41, is shown a spray
of leaves from nature,
while at (b) is an Arabian
design based on the out-
W w line of this spray of leaves.
FIG. 38.




34. Arrangement of
Ornament in Indian
Art.—In Indian art a favorite way of spacing out the orna-
ment was after the manner shown in Fig. 42, where the leai
form is evidently of the lotus type. Diapers in Indian art
are often designed as shown in Fig. 43, where there is no
attempt made to represent any particular plant, but simply


30
gs
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
an application of principle
S.
Thus, we see that the conven-
tionalism of principles is almost unlimited in its extent, and




QC
e


,
e
.
FIG. 89.
stews
42>
@
t <
t t
a
Q
we will now consider
the con ventionalism of
facts.
35; Convention-
alizlng :1 Plant
Forn1.—Take, for in-
stance, any plant suit-
able for the purpose,
and adapt it to orna-
ment. We are not
going to make a pic-
ture of it, but study
its characteristics, par-
ticularly those that
distinguish it from other plants, and idealize the original.
It will be necessary to examine more than one specimen of
the selected plant, because a peculiarity or accidental mark
in one individual may not be found in another, and what we
then require is a knowl-
edge of the details and
characteristics common to
the entire family or kind
to which the chosen speci-
men belongs. This knowl-
edge can be acquired only
by long and continued ,
study of plant analysis, as
a limited study is likely to
render an untrue repre-
sentation.
36.


Realism and Conventionalism.-—TO copy nature
as she is presented to us, with all the accidents and defects,
would be to render her realistically. To correct nature by
knowledge derived from the study of all her works in each


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 31
class, would be to treat her naturally. To reduce the
result of these studies to a principle that expresses a
simple fact with the fewest possible lines, as was done by


FIG. 41.
the Egyptians with their lotus blossom, is to treat nature
conventionally.
For instance, at (a), Fig. 44, is shown an ivy leaf sketched
from nature. It cannot be considered as ideal or natural,
because its shape is not even the average shape of a number


FIG. 42.
of leaves; therefore, (a) is a realistic drawing. At (1)), how-
ever, is shown what might be considered a composite picture
of a number of leaves possessing all the corrections of irreg-
ularities found in the entire class. This is a naturalistic ren-
dering of the ivy leaf, and the reduction of this leaf to a


32 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. §6
pentagonal form, shown in Fig. 34, reduces it to the simple
expression of an idea, and presents the ivy leaf in a most
conventional form.

37. Consideration of Purpose. The extent,however,
to which the modification of the details must be carried in
order to apply a plant
form in design must
be determined by the
purpose of its applica-
tion, whether the design
is to be free or severe.
If the design is to be
severe, the geometrical
rendering shown in
Fig. 34 will be most
serviceable, but, if the
design is to be free, the
naturalistic form shown
at (11), Fig. 44, may be
used. The form shown at (a) with all its shadings and
gradations, so strongly characteristic of the growing plant
under certain conditions of lighting, is never suitable to
ornament.



FIG. 48.
38. Taste in Conventionalism.-—Now let us consider
this application in Fig. 45. At (a) is shown the application
of the flower to the primi-
tive design illustrated at (e)
in Fig. 21. The flattened
curves of the flowers and
leaves in the natural repre-
sentation as shown in Fig. 46
are arranged at (a), Fig. 45,
stiffly, in order to harmonize
with the severe character of
the design. But the char-
acter of the plant is maintained, because its main features


(a)
FIG. 44.


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 33
have not only been adhered to, but have been empha-
sized. Observe the indented ends of the petals, the serrated
edges of the calyx, and the acutely lobed characteristic of

















FIG. 45.
the leaves. At (11), Fig. 45, however, the lines forming
the basis of the pattern are composed of curves and do
not demand so severe a treatment of the ornamenting
plant, and the flower is rendered in a freer and more
naturalistic manner than was possible
in the previous case.
39. Thus, it will be seen that the
conventionalized rendering of a natural
object requires careful consideration as
to the extent to which the geometrical
rendering shall have influence, and the
idea that conventional rendering is sim-
ply a geometrical rendering, without
consideration of the properties and application, is entirely
wrong.


FIG. 46.


34 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. § 6
ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT.
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS.
40. Although good ornament is possible with the sim-
plest forms and materials, it is undoubtedly true that the
higher the form of decorative art, the nobler must be the
elements of which it is composed. The elements of orna-
ment are therefore drawn from a great many different
sources, but may be classified in a general way under two
distinct heads—the artificial and the natural. These may
again be subdivided, for the sake of convenience, into six
subordinate classes—gmmetrz'ml, arr/zz'tectural, industrial,
wage/able, animal, and the human figure.
41. Under the subject of geometrical ornament, we
include frets, traceries, diapers, interlacings, etc., together
with those forms that are so simply developed in the orna-
ment of the savage races. In architectural ornament, we
include columns, entablatures, pediments, cartouches, etc.
Industrial ornament may be considered to include all
musical instruments, vases, spears, and other arms, as well
as laces, ribbons, etc. Vegetable ornament embraces
designs from plant life—leaves, flowers, fruits, festoons,
various rosettes, etc. —while under the animal classification
we have quadrupeds, fishes, birds, insects, and reptiles, as
well as such imaginary figures as griffins, dragons, etc.
The human figure used in design includes both natural
and mythological representations, the terminals of foliage
designs used in the Renaissance periods, the caryatids used
in classic art, as well as certain creations in the mind of
man, such as sphinxes, atlantes, mermaids, etC.
GEOMETRICAL ELEIMENTS.
42. Frets.—The simplest form of geometrical elements
we find in the frets, which throughout all ages and with all
peoples seem to have been a favorite method of ornamenting


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 35
flat surfaces. They are used largely for borders, for which
they are eminently fitted, but diapers are also formed of
them in Japanese and Egyptian art.
In fretwork, the pattern and the ground are usually
equally spaced, but this need not always be the case, as a
strong effect is sometimes obtained by making a variation in
this respect, as shown at (a), Fig. 47. Another variation
that may be attained in frets is accomplished by changing ~
the formation of the figure that forms their governing
outline. It is not necessary that this figure should be







square or even rectangular, as is clearly illustrated at (b)
and (c), the former being a parallelogram in the form of
each section of its pattern, and the latter developed on the
intersection of a series of diagonal lines, this being more
characteristic of ornamental work, and suitable for flat or
inclined surfaces. The introduction of curved lines in this
class of work, either in conjunction with straight lines or
entirely by themselves, leads us to various interlaced pat-
terns, including the guilloche and basketwork.
43. The study of geometrical ornament is of particular
value on account of the elements that lie at the base of the
elaborate and intricate patterns that oriental artists and the
Middle-Age mosaic workers so freely indulged in. \Vith a
thorough understanding of geometrical ornament and the
possibilities of geometrical arrangement, the designing of
complex and intricate patterns becomes a comparatively
simple task.
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS.
i4. Construction Allied With Beauty—Next in the
order of our subdivision we take up architectural ele-
ments, and we must consider that architecture properly


36 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. § 6
comprehended is the art of construction allied with beauty
--not construction made beautiful by superadded decora-
tion, but construction with beauty incorporated with it. In
all the best periods of ornamental art, it has been architec-
ture that has afforded the greatest field for its development;
and in pottery, stained and painted glass, ironwork, jewelry,
and the decoration of pilasters, shafts, etc., architectural
construction has had a most marked influence.
In decorated designs, certain architectural forms have
been used in their pure and simple form, but most fre-
quently they have been modified by imagination so as to
bring them in harmony with other details with which they
are associated. Hence, in some forms of ornament, we
find but a suggestion of architecture, while, in others, a
distinctive characteristic.
45. Adaptation of Architectural Forms.—In adapt-
ing architectural forms to a surface design, it is entirely
unnecessary that the stiffness and structural rigidity that is
demanded in architectural practice should be maintained in
the surface pattern, because the same structural conditions
do not exist. There is no physical weight to be provided
for, and, in the decoration, the introduction of the appear-
ance of weight is all that is
necessary so long as the eye is
satisfied.
The representation of a frieze
may be taken from a carved pro-
totype, but the details of the
relief expressed in the original
carving need form no part of the
textile or other surface design,
the element of beauty lying in the
direction and proportioning of the
lines only; the frieze may there-
fore be reduced to a simple sur_
face treatment.
The same may be said in the design of an iron grille





1C9






(a)
FIG. 48.


§ 6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 37
either for a railing or for a gate. The design should be
influenced if not governed by some characteristic of a simi-
ilar detail in its original material. For instance, the design
of the fence panel shown at (a), Fig. 48, is clearly copied in
its general outline from the stone baluster of the classic
balustrade shown at (6). The treatment of the head-piece
over the gateway shown at (a), Fig. 49, is clearly developed









FIG. 49.
from the broken pediment characteristic of certain Renais-
sance work shown at (17). These details as reproduced in
iron are not copies of the original, but simply ornamental
forms founded on a principle of earlier construction. In
the same manner a well-designed iron railing is influenced
in its proportions and composition by the architectural orders
and classic proportions for balustrades.
46. The Volute Scroll.—Some of the ornamental
details derived in architecture and applied in decorative art
will now be considered as to their origin and proper treat-
ment. There is, for instance, the little volute scroll so
characteristic of the Corinthian column as it curls out under
the corner of the abacus. The gracefulness of this feature
and its apparentvstrength render it particularly adaptable in
setting out friezes and other purely ornamental arrange-
' ments where the qualities of grace and strength are to be


38 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. § 6
combined, as shown in Fig. 50, where afrieze is designed




FIG. 50.
using one of the forms of scroll shown in Fig. 51, all of
ffff
FIG. 51.
which have been taken from the capitals of the various
modifications of the Corinthian.


S


(fl)




(b)
FIG. 52.


§ 6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. v 39
47. The Ca.rtoueh.—The cartouch is another archi-
tectural detail that enters largely into decorative design; it
owes its origin to the ancient use of paper or parchment
labels for inscriptions and badges. The margins of these
labels were usually cut
in some ornamental
shape and afterwards
curled into scroll forms
of an ornamental char-
acter. This led to
a systematic develop-
ment, and, subsequent-
ly, in conjunction with
interlaced ornament,
produced a new kind of
decorative work that we
usually term cart-ouch
work. This element
is invaluable to the
designer, both in its
capacity as a filling-in
treatment for an uninteresting piece of background, and as
a strengthening element to the general composition.
At (a), Fig. 52, is shown one of the earliest and simplest
forms of this cartouch work, while at (b) is shown the paper
from which it is cut. In Figs. 53
and 54 are shown examples of
advanced and more complicated
cartouches, developed from the
same general principle. It is
easy to understand the develop-
ment of the cartouch form into
the carved work shown in
Fig. 53, where a shield-shaped
cartouch, with its curled and
ornamental edges, is carved in
relief with the human figure.
In Fig. 54 is shown a further


40 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. § 6
development of the ornament, in order to convert it into
a frame, as was done during the period of the Italian
Renaissance. The general form varied, but became more
elaborate in design as the Renaissance spread into France
and Germany.
INDUSTRIAL ELEMENTS.
48. Association With Architectural Elements.—The
industrial elements of design are not widely separated
from the architectural class, and are considered here under
a different heading simply as a matter of convenience. Indus-
trial objects, such as tools, armor, musical instruments, etc.,
are used in various ways in decoration, usually for purely
symbolic purposes. These articles are usually introduced
purely from an esthetic sense, with no other purpose than
to please the sense of vision, and are therefore arranged to
present to the best advantage the beauty of their forms.
49. Symbolism.—In the symbolic use of these details,
it should always be remembered that there are two ideas
associated with nearly all symbols—one, the idea of recall-
ing something to the memory; the other, the expression of
an entirely new idea, or the illustration of one. Thus, the
Latin cross may stand as an expression or as a symbol of
the Christian faith, or it may act as a reminder of the
crucifixion of Christ. Another case is where the musical
instrument, the lyre, so frequently used to express the idea
of music, may with equal propriety set forth a reminder of
the ancient use of that instrument in the classic musical
entertainments.
50. Prehistoric Emblems—At (a), Fig. 55, is shown
a prehistoric emblem of God. It had its origin almost
undoubtedly in early sun worship, which fact is attested by
the circle, and the survival of this form is seen in the halo,
or nimbus, painted over the heads of the saints during the
Middle Ages. At (11) we have the Egyptian symbol of
divinity, but of a more complex character. The circle is


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 41
still retained but is supported by outstretched wings, indica-
tive of sovereignty and ubiquity of the deity. The scara-
baaus of the Egyptians, shown at (c), was a detail that
appeared frequently in their designs. At (d) we have the
nimbus, or halo, characteristic of the Christian symbol of
glory, and at (r), (f), (g), and (1:) we have four forms of


(e) (4)
FIG. 5b.
crosses known under the names of the Latin cross at (e),
the Greek cross at (f), the cross of St. Andrew at (g), and
the Maltese cross at (/1). At (1) is shown the old symbolic
monogram of Christ, composed of the two Greek letters of
his name X (c112) and P (7110), with A (alpha) and Q (omega),
the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, added to
indicate his eternal character.
51. These few forms will serve to illustrate the extent
to which symbolism enters into modern ornamental design,
and alittle study and thought will bring to the student‘s
mind and attention numerous other examples of the same
kind.
NATURAL ELEMENTS.
52. Vegetable Forms—Of the elements of design
that are taken directly from nature, our first consideration
will naturally be the vegetable forms. Here the material
presented to the designer is not only unlimited in style, but
is easy of adaptation to all his requirements.


42 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. § 6
In using plant forms for design, there is material for the
designer in every part of the growth—the roots, stalk,
leaves, flowers, and seed all contain details that may sug-
gest ideas to the designer. While there may be nothing of
great beauty in the root of a flower itself, yet there is always
sufficient detail of importance there, and, if properly studied,
can give rise to beautiful ideas.
53. Thickening of Stem at Points of Departure.
In all good ornament of a flowing character, no matter how
conventionally it may be arranged, it has always been the
practice that there should be a thickening of the stem at
the point of departure of the two
reversed growths, as shown at (a),
Fig. 56; or, if more than one starting
point is used, a stop is usually intro-
duced between the two sections of


design that are run-
ning together, as at (b).
54. Botanical
Principles in Design.
Now let us see how
the application of some
of these principles of
growth can be proper-
ly considered in orna-
mental design. Let us
study the botanical
aspect for a moment.
We have in botany


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 43
a term called inflorescence, which is the arrangement
or growth of flowers on the stem, the simplest form of
which is shown at (a), Fig. 57. Taking its principle of
growth and not copying in any way the specimens, we can
introduce it in the design shown at (c), where it formsa per-
fectly proper termination with the scroll, with which it har-
monizes, as well as with the longitudinal character of the
border pattern. At (6) is shown another form of inflores-
cence, and at (d) is shown its application to a scroll orna-
ment as before.
55. There are many different characteristics of botanical
growth, each of which is capable of furnishing an idea that
can be carried out as simply as the above, and always to
good advantage, in the product of satisfactory designs.
ANIMAL ELEMENTS.
56. Frequent Use in Design.—Animal elements
have always been used in ornamental art in a more or less
naturalistic manner, and, though these forms are more diffi-
cult to treat ornamentally than are inanimate forms, the
ancient artist used them frequently, as animal forms will
increase the interest in any composition. In Celtic orna-
ment, for instance, elements from the animal world are
introduced even with the purest geometrical designs, and
we find down to the present day that conventionalized rep-
resentations from the animal world are most conspicuous
details of heraldry.
In certain periods of art, animal forms were preferred
even to the vegetable forms, as man in his early condition
had a closer interest in certain classes of beasts that aided
him in his struggle for existence, such as the horse, rein-
deer, dog, etc. His admiration for them lay more in his
comprehension of their usefulness than in his admiration of
their form, as his chief business in life at that time was the
provision for his natural wants and his own protection.


44 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. §6
57. Imaginary Beast-s.——In later periods, when man
arrived at an easier state of living, he became more sensi-
tive to the beauty of the world, and it is then that we have
the naturalistic rendering of animal form giving way to
more conventional representations, such as are found in the
imaginary beasts, like griffins, dragons, and chimeras.
Throughout the history of art, the formation of any style
of ornament depends largely on some preceding style, and the
earliest form of development that we have must necessarily
have arisen from the geometric, or a combination of some later
form with an earlier geometric form. This combination of
form naturally leads to a combination of conventional ideas,
and we have the union of the attributes of one animal with
those of another. We have already considered the two kinds
of conventionalism that can exist—one, the conventionalism
of facts, and the other, the conventionalism of ideas.
58. Conventionalizing Animal Forms.—In the con-
ventionalizing of animal forms, it is usual to express the



Fm. 5‘1.
idea by means of a symbolic representation and the fact
by a conventional rendering of the animal. To make this
more clear, we will take, for instance, the griffin, shown
in Fig. 58, which is composed of the body of the lion and
the head and wings of a bird, and is usually symbolic of


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 45
watchfulness, strength, alertness, and swiftness. Vt’e find
this figure on the piers of gateways, and it was often used
by the Greeks to adorn certain portions of their temples.
In this representation, we conventionalize the idea by
representing it symbolically, the eagle’s head and wings and
the expression of the added ears being symbolic of watch-
fulness, alertness, and swiftness, whereas the lion’s body is
symbolic of strength. The conventionalized facts we find in
the reduction of these emblems to a form by which they can
be combined in one figure.
59. Sphinx, Wivern, Ete.-Other figures of this char-
acter are the sphinx, shown in Fig. 5!), which combines the


human head with the body of the lion—symbolic of intelli-
gence and strength; the wlvern, shown in Fig. 60, which con-
sists of a sort of winged
serpent with a bird’s head
and legs, and carries the
same idea as the griffin,
with the addition of wis-
dom indicated by the ser-
pent's body, and alertness
during the nocturnal hours
from the batslike form of
its wings.
Another figure of this
character, which is of Greek


46 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. §6
origin, is the chimera, shown in Fig. 61. This figure is
supposed to typify a volcanic mountain in Greece, which,
according to various legends, was infested with lions at the
top, and around the middle with goats, while the foot of


the mountain abounded in venomous snakes. The chimera
therefore combining the forms of the lion, goat, and ser-
pent, from whose mouths issued flames and deadly gases,
became the symbol of terror and devastation.
The dragon shown in Fig. 62 has ever been an emblem
of the evil forces of the natural and moral world. It com-


FIG. 82.
bines in its characteristics the litheness and repulsiveness
of the lizard and serpent, the swiftness of action charac-
teristic of various winged creatures, and the fierceness and


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 47
belligerency of the carnivorous animals from the form of its
teeth and claws. To intensify its evil appearance, it is fre-
quently represented as belching flames.
There are numerous other animals of a mythical char-
acter that have their origin purely in the conventionalism
of some idea, and the reduction of numerous animal forms
to the conventional rendering is almost unlimited in its
application.
60. Difficulty of Adapting Animal Forms. In the
case of animal forms, it is not so easy to adapt them to the
requirements of ornamental design as it is the free and varied
growth of plants. The latter have a multitudinous repetition
of parts that enables the designer to adapt them without
violence to nature, while animal forms have a proscribed
and limited number of parts that narrows the limit of their
employment and presents difficulties in the way of their
successful adaptation. It is therefore necessary that ani-
mal forms should be analyzed in the same manner that
plant forms have been analyzed in this course of study,
in order to learn the characteristic lines of their compo-
sition and reduce them to a form capable of conventional
rendering.

61. It is comparatively easy to draw accurately any
animal form, and yet such a form is likely to be utterly
unfit for decorative purposes, while a less accurate repre-
sentation may be highly suited to decorative work; and we
will find that the animal forms usually seen in the designs
of the more barbaric nations are better suited to ornamental
art than the realistic renderings of the later periods.
62. Birds and Running Ornaments—Birds also may
be combined successfully with running ornament, as they
are not only graceful in themselves, but are pleasantly
associated with all plant growth, and they can be arranged
so that their lines flow with the lines of the ornament and
harmonize with it perfectly. Certain quadrupeds can thus
be treated also, but not always so readily.


48 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. §6
At (a), Fig. 63, is shown a border ornament consisting of
a foliated design, through which a dog is seen running after
a bird, while at (b) is a rough outline of this same design




FIG. 68.
showing how the curves of the dog’s body are in harmony
with those of the ornament, and how the introduction of this
detail is so suitable in the combination shown.
Again, at (a), Fig. 64, is shown a design where the bird
alone is introduced, while at (b) the outline drawing of it
shows the arrangement of the foliated design and its rela-


(b)
FIG. 64.
tion to the bird form, together with the line of curvature
that makes the two details harmonize, the latter being
shown in dots. Fig. 64 is taken from a stone carving of the
sixteenth century.


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. ‘49
63. Wings in ()rnament.—While we are considering
the introduction of bird forms it will be wise for us to con-
sider the subject of wings and the introduction of wings
in ornament. There are few details of animal form that
have been so extensively introduced in various convention—
alized forms. to represent both ideas and facts, as the wings ‘
of birds and bats. Though the bird’s wing is composed of
flesh and feathers, and the bat’s wing is made up of a skele-
ton framework between the parts of which a thin skin is


stretched, the principle governing the outline of each is
practically the same, and, in addition to this, it might be
noted that the structure of wings and that of the human
arm is very closely allied.
At (a), Fig. 65, is shown the outline of a bird’s wing,
while at (b) is shown the outline of a bat's wing, and at (c),
an outline of the bone construction of the human arm.
The relative arrangement of these details will show their
relation in structure, while Fig. 66 shows three forms of


50 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. §6
bird's wing, differing materially in outline, owing to the
arrangement of the feathers, but based on precisely the same
skclcton construction as is shown at (a), Fig. 65.
64. Proportions 0f Wings—At (a), Fig. 66, the wing
represented is that of a common sparrow, while (b) shows
the pigeon's wing, and (c), that of the sea swallow. It will be
observed that in the order they are named these wings are


FIG. 66.
from birds each of whose flight is more prolonged than the
former—the sparrow, flying but short distances; the pigeon,
usually capable of traveling a mile or more on the wing;
while the sea swallow is flying a majority of the time. The
relative extent of the outward extremity of the wing, it


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 51
will be observed, increases with the flying qualities of
the bird. In apply- ' -' ~ )- '
ing these wing forms
to design, it is fre-
quently necessary to
take these details into
consideration.
65. Application
of Wings. —We have
already considered the
application of the wing
in the design of the
winged globe shown
at (1;), Fig. 55, but its 35 , ,4 : l . , _,
application to other 51" x " ‘
forms we will consider . ; .- \ .,.~
, ,fi _.
here. In Fig. 67 is shown the character- ' ‘ ' "
istic Egyptian hiero- ._ i .
glyph of the goddess FIG-67.


Neith, who carries in each hand a symbol, and whose out-
4’5, stretched wings typify her
world-wide sovereignty.
In more modern applica-
tion, we find the use of wings
in the Greek sphinx, shown
in Fig. 68, where the treat-
ment is less conventional
than in the Egyptian style,
and the possession of the
wings distinguishes this sphinx
from the one of Egyptian
design. Fig. 69 shows a still
more modern application,
where, in a female figure,
the wings replace the arms
and are outstretched in the


\ ‘


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 53
illustrated in the forms of the pheasant's feather shown at
(b), Fig. 70.




FIG. 71.
67. Insects in Design.—The use of insects in decora-
tive design is not as extensive as of birds, though the mark-
ings of the wings of some of them, particularly the butterfly,
are easily applicable in some characters of design, as shown


at (a), Fig. 7‘2, where a border is designed on principles
taken from the butterfly's wing illustrated at (b), and the
simple mosquito, illustrated in a conventional rendering at


54 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. §6
(a), Fig. 73, is easily applicable to a diaper ornament, as
shown at (b). There is no limit to the extent to which these
m M,“
HIST sea 1
FIG. 73.


forms may be varied, or combined with plant forms, to pro-
duce any given variety of ornament.
68. Fishes in Ornament.—The use of fishes in orna-
mental art is somewhat limited. With the exception of the
dolphin, we have very few historic representations of this
class of animal; but, in order that there may be a thorough
understanding of the details that must be considered in the
designing of any fish-like form, there is illustrated in Fig. 74
\¥_\ a typical fish, with the
.~"\k\l\_hl(a) five principal fins that
x y m) I \ exist in nearly every
example, though they
A 'i i v I may be varied in form.
At (a) is the dorsal
fin; at (b), the neutral
“6' 74' fin ; and at (c), the per-
10ml fin. The tail is technically known as the caudal fin, and
the fin between the ventral and the tail is termed the anal fin.
Each of these fins is developed to a greater or less degree
in different fishes, in some of which it is divided so as to pre-
sent two fins. For instance, it is not unusual to find two or
more dorsal or two or more ventral or anal fins on one fish,
and in rendering them for conventional treatment, it would
be well to bear in mind a certain type of fish from which to
study, and to preserve the characteristics of this fish in the
rendering.


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. V 57
square a b c d, and the horizontal and vertical lines dividing
this square into sixteen smaller squares determine the posi-
tion of important parts of the body.
Thus, the distance b e is one-fourth the height of the body,
and the line passes through the middle of the chest; the dis-
tance 6 f is one-eighth the height of the body, and the line
\-/
\(


FIG. 7?.
passes under the chin; the distance f g is one-tenth the
height of the body, and the line passes tangent to the chin
and through the roots of the hair; f /z is one-sixteenth the
height of the body, and marks the distance of the eyes above
the chin; while fz' is one thirty-second the height of the
body, and marks the distance of the bottom of the nose
above the chin. It will be here observed that the arms
extended horizontally measure the same distance across,


60 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. §6
side view of the leg is composed of a series of convex lines,
these should not be given too much prominence over the
general proportion of the whole limb, as such a rendering
would give a result somewhat as shown atl(a), Fig. 79; while
a closer observation of this whole member would lead to the
discovery that, notwithstanding the existence of convex
curves in the shin, the line in the front of the leg is con-
cave, as shown at (b), while that of the back is convex.


(a) (d) (8}
The same may be said of the forearm, which is frequently
drawn as shown at (c), Fig. '79, with the inside of the fore-
arm convex, in order to show the softness of the curves at
that point; but, as a matter of fact, if its general contour
were taken into account, it would be found to be concave,
as shown at (d), and a proper rendering of it would be more
as shown at (c).
The student should carefully analyze these details in
studying the human figure, not only as a guide to its truth-
ful representation, but also in order to study the details of
its conventionalism to arrive at a proper principle for its
general design—a principle that can be enlarged upon after
the main outlines have been established.
'7 5. Difficulty of Free Rendering.—In considering
the application of the human figure to decorative purposes,
the same rules hold good as for decoration with foliage, but
its rendering is, of course, more difficult, as we cannot
handle it as freely as we do the plants. The human figure
has to be taken in its entirety, without exaggerating its


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 61
structure in any way (except for the purpose of caricature,
which does not enter into this course of study), and its
elementary lines must be thoroughly comprehended by the
student.
Details of the human figure have been combined with
animals, as has here- illiiiifiiif]’l,'iHill|llllilmliillWM]WI"
tofore been shown iiil ‘ _ Lilli,“
i/ Q 1". ‘
. 'i IQ












and illustrated, as in
the sphinx, etc., and
we will presently
have occasion to give !
other examples. The
combination of the
human figure with
foliage is character-
istic of many designs
of the Renaissance
period, where the
lower portions of the
body were permitted
to terminate in leaf-like forms and enter into the foliated
ornament of an arabesque or panel, as shown in Fig. 80.


76. This style of treatment probably grew out of a
development shown in Fig. 81, where at (a) is shown a half
figure that might appear more suitable to the filling of a


FIG. Bl.
certain space than the full-length figure. The lower part of
the figure is covered by drapery, the elaboration of the folds


62 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. § 6
of which brings it to the form of a design shown at (b),
which further elaboration brings to a foliated form as at (c),
and subsequent renderings form a part of the figure as illus-
trated at ((1). Attention is simply called to this here to illus-
trate a possible progress and growth and to show the ration-
alism of foliated terminations under certain circumstances.
77. Human Figures as Supports.—The use of the
human figure as a support in the place of a column, or occa-






;'_;||i§iIIE
fig urn-yr rm .





C


sionally, with artificial terminations, under brackets, is
shown in Fig. 82, which is taken from one of the cai'yatids


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 63
used in the north porch of the Erechtheum at Athens,
while in Fig. 83 is shown a front and side view of the
Egyptian method of carving human figures as supports,
though, in the latter case, it will be observed that the figure
does not actually support any of the superimposed load, but
simply rests against a pier. The Greek artists, apparently
appreciating the inappropriateness of the human figure to
act as a column and permanently support something super-
imposed, increased the proportions
and gave them a
strong architectonic
feeling.
78. During the
Renaissance period,
the use of figures as
supporting mem-
bers was very much
misunderstood, and
the combination of
these elements with
the attempt at grace-
fulness of line led
to such misconcep-
tions as shown in
Fig. 84, where the
curved dotted line
shows the real line
of support through
the figures, and, at
the same time, gives
an expression of
weakness to the
detail as an archi-
tectural member.
A comparison of this with the Greek figure shown in Fig. 82
will readily illustrate the error made by the more modern
designers.



FIG. 84. FIG. 85.


64 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. §6
The use of half figures, called termini, is characteristic
of the Renaissance period, an example of which is shown in
and, although the latter method is


Fig. 85. N 0 great load
should be superim-
posed upon them, in
order that their appli-
cation may be harmo-
nious.
79. Application
of “Hugs—In the
application of wings
and feathers to the
human figure, Egyp-
tian art usually at-
tached the wings
below the arms, as
shown in Fig. 67,
while the Assyrians
usually attached them
behind the shoulders,
as shown in Fig. 86,
the less rational one
from an anatomical structure, it is the one that survives at


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 65
the present day, and is usually used in modern work.
Fig. 87 is taken from Greek vase paintings, and shows the
Greeks' idea of wing treatment; while the Renaissance
example shown in Fig. 69 possesses an exaggerated outline,
the curves of which in no way appear to agree with the
hidden structure, though the development of the wings in
the place of arms is much more rational than the form
shown in Fig. 87.
80. Fabulous Creatures. -— Many fabulous crea-
tures—partly human and partly animal—have been created
during the periods of grotesque art, and to Greek art we are
indebted for most of these mythical creatures, as their cen-
tral idea was the glorification of the human form. Greek
mythology had so many
deities representative of
different characteristics
and ideas that separate
gods and goddesses, illus-
trative of separate con-
ceptions, were indispensa-
ble; and not only were lit-
erature, arts, and sciences
typified by a form of I ' a
human being, but the ‘\ \ 7
seas, the rivers, the moun- '
tains, the woods, the trees, \ , .
and the rocks were all i




- - we M \
representatively depleted v .- “MW §§
in some ideal form, and ‘ ,i\'\
even the natural devices ._ ' \k‘
and calamities of man- ‘ i ii " ‘
kind had some symbol
in human guise.
When these, however, were insufficient to properly express
their ideas, the human form was combined with that of abird'
or animal, or some reptile, in order to complete the symbol-
ism as far as possible. Therefore, in their personification
Pro. 88.


66 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. §6
of the free untrammeled woodland life, they gave to the
figure of a man the legs and horns of a goat, to intensify the
idea of wild freedom, and as a result we have the mytholog-
ical forms of the satyr and Pan illustrated in Fig. 88.
81. Greek Sphinx.—’I‘he Egyptian sphinx, being sym-
bolic of the combination of intellect, wisdom, and power, is
represented with the human head and the lion's body, as
shown in Fig. 59; while the Greek sphinx differs in form
from that of the Egyptian, as it is usually represented as
being of the female sex and possessing wings. This sphinx
by the Greeks appears to have been adopted as the personi-
fication of malignity combined with mystery, and to her is
accredited the practice of propounding riddles to those that
visited her and tearing to pieces all that failed to solve them.
The gracefulness of the creature's form, however, caused it
to become a favorite as an ornamental element, and it is
used frequently in mural decoration and for the adornment
of bronze tripods
and other devices
purely of an orna-
mental character.
82. Centaur.
The combination
of man and horse,
called the cen-
taur, was repre-
sentative of a race
of warriors cele-
brated in Greek
mythology for
their horseman-
ship. Their skill
was so great that
the rider and horse
appeared as one; hence, the development of the idea shown
in Fig. 89. A similar device was the combined form of a




FIG. 89.


§6 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 67
woman and a horse, or, more frequently, of a woman and a
deer, typifying the huntress, or a denizen of the forest.
83. Medusa.—The head of Medusa, shown in Fig. 90,
is emblematic and typical of the sensations of extreme fear
and terror. According
to Greek mythology,
Medusa was the most
celebrated of the Gorgon
sisters, who were origi-
nally priestesses 0f Athe-
na, but having broken
her vows of celibacy and
ultimately marrying Po-
seidon, she was punished
by the goddess Athena,
by having each of her
beautiful wavy locks
transformed into a ven—
omous serpent, and her
head thus assumed the horrible aspect depicted in the illus-
tration.


FIG. 90.
84. License in Designing the Human Figure.
Thus, the human figure is seen to have pervaded certain
classes of ornamental design throughout all ages, but has
been altered or modified in order to suit it to characteristic
purposes and places, or its details better arranged to har-
monize with other elements of ornament.
The restrictions that influence and largely govern the use
of certain ornamental forms in conventionalized design
must all be considered 'of equal importance in the applica-
tion of the human figure, and a truthful portrayal or
realistic rendering is permissible only under the rarest
circumstances of absolutely monumental work.





PRACTICAL DESIGN.
PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN PRACTICAL
DESIGN.
1. The principles that are involved in the production of
good repeating patterns are rtfz'lz'lz'on, rolllrasl, and t'arz'rly;
balance, synmchry, and unity; Inugi'ntz'aljzmclz'mz,- radiation
and proportion; and growl/1, sfaliz'li/y, nylon; and films.
2. Repetition. Repetition in many respects is the most
important principle in textile design, as an all-over repeat-
ing pattern implies in itself the idea of repetition, and whereas
there are many all-over designs that do not repeat, they are
confined to hand work, such as rugs, embroidcrics, and other
products beyond the scope of the designer for the loom or
the press. '

3. Alternation.—In connection with repetition we have
alternation, wherein the repetition consists of a form that




duplicates itself alternately with another form, as shown in
Fig. 1. Alternation is very useful in some cases when it is
§7
For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page.


2 PRACTICAL DESIGN. § 7
used to vary repetition and avoid monotony. It produces
a slight feeling of contrast combined with a feeling of con-
tinuous variation, but it must not be confounded with the
principles of contrast and variety, which are separate and
distinct.
4. Contrast. and Var!ety.—-The feeling of contrast is
best expressed in a design wherein the
linear elements meet or cross each other
nearly at right angles, as shown in Fig. 2,
and contrast is best effected by an arrange-
ment of lines that brings about this con-
dition, as shown in Fig. 3, which is an
ancient Greek pattern wherein this prin-
ciple dominates the entire design, all the
lines being arranged to join each other nearly at right
angles.
The feeling of contrast is not confined entirely to designs
FIG. 2.




..i,;_j.?_;
of a rigid character, and Fig. 4 illustrates an example wherein
this principle is carefully handled in a design of a soft and
flowing character. At a will be observed the main flowing


FIG. 8.


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 3
line broken by the scroll that crosses it at right angles,
and, therefore, stands not only in contrast with it but also
assists in giving a feeling of variety. Variety is the very
essence of a design and
the principle that gives it
brightness and prevents its
monotony, and though the
variety of design must not
be so extensive as to rob it
of its feeling of repose,
there must be sufficient
change to rest the eye from the observation of any par-
ticular form.


5. Symmetry and Balance—Symmetry and balance
are principles that exist when the arrangement of ornament
is such that the details on both sides of a line or point are


FIG. ‘L


exactly repeated or duplicated, as in Fig. 5, or are of equal
value, as in Fig. 6, the former being a symmetrical element,
the latter a balanced element.
6. Tangential Junction.-—-Tangential junction of lines,
as we already know, is a detail depending on the close
observation of nature, and is illustrated in several forms
in Fig. 7. Radiation is also a principle that we have


g;
PRACTICAL DESIGN. ‘ §7
already considered, and whether that radiation takes place
from a point or a line is
a matter to be decided
according to the character
of the ornament. Growth
is another principle derived
- ' from observation of plant
QT“ ----- ---" form, and the curves exist-
ing in long slender leaves,
“‘3' 7' such as that of the cattail
and flag, or even blades of grass, are expressive of this
principle.
it
7, Subordination is a principle that must be introduced
into certain parts of a design in order to prevent monotony;
there must be principal features and subordinate features,
and if every detail is brought into equal prominence there
will be neither contrast nor variety. In every good design
there should always be a principal feature, such as a bright
flower or group of flowers or of leaves, or of some other
striking object, and the rest of the design should sink into
the background and take a secondary place.
8. Fitness—The question of fitness is simply the appli-
cation of a certain class of design to certain materials. Of
course, it is evident that the style of design that would be
suitable for a carpet would be utterly unsuitable for a printed
cotton goods or a velvet, and would be out of place for
printing on a fine silk. Then, there is always the considera-
tion of fashion—a subject that every designer is bound to
be familiar with and governed by, although his good sense
may at times be opposed to it; but designs are made for
commercial purposes and the designer must bow to the'
prevailing fashions even though his artistic nature rebel.
Therefore, a design should always be thought out or men-
tally planned at first, and its style, scale, and character
suited and fitted to the material and purpose in which it is
to be carried out and for which it is to serve.


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 5
9. Proportion.——In connection with fitness we come to
the principle of proportion, which is most difficult to decide
upon, as, under it, the designer must make up his mind as to
the relation between the lengths and breadths of the repeats,
the scale of the pattern, etc.
10. Unity.-—The last principle to be considered, per-
haps, is unity, and in this we must sum up all the previous
ones. However well the plan may be balanced and however
well the natural formations and growths may be observed
and adhered to, and thoroughly adapted though the design
may be in scale and proportion to the material in which it is
executed, it is of little value unless all these principles unite
in a characteristic whole that prevents any one of them
becoming unduly prominent or makes it appear that they
are not bound together inseparably.
PLANNING THE DESIGN.
11. Characterlstlc of a Design.~—It is always well to
have a clear idea of what the main characteristics of a design
are to be before the actual work of arrangement IS begun.
These characteristics will be influenced largelyby the mate-
rial purpose of the finished fabric as well as the trend of the
prevailing fashions. If, for instance, the design is to be
woven in tapestry or other hanging, then it may be bold and
rich, emphasized by the arrangement of strong and contrast-
ing colors. But, on the other hand, if the design is for a
dress fabric, it must be made to a much smaller scale and
the colors be much more subdued. In the case of a dress
fabric, it should always be borne in mind that the scale
must be kept down, as some one is going to wear it; and,
there being a comparative uniformity in the sizes of various
people, we have a definite scale to work to. It has been
shown that the most convenient size for a repeat in dress
patterns is about 4% inches, as the folds of the dress and the
numerous seams would destroy the effect of the repeat if it
were made much larger.


6 PRACTICAL DESIGN. § 7
12. Geometrical Basis—It must always be borne in
mind that it is absolutely necessary that the plan of any
design that is to be reproduced by mechanical means, such
as a printing block, must always have a geometrical basis,
and the repeat must be governed by a regular geometrical
figure. This figure is called the unil, and it is the govern-
ing shape of the unit of the pattern; it must always be
enclosed in itself, or in a multiple of itself, in a square or
oblong whose dimensions correspond with the dimensions
of the printing block from which the design is to be
reproduced. '
This may be more clearly understood by reference to
Fig. 8 (a), where the unit of the design and the size of


1’ '\

,
a“,
k . _,
(C)






















(0)
FIG. 8.
the repeat are identical, the small dark square indicating the
unit after which the cards would have to be cut in weaving,
and the dotted exterior square showing the size of the block
from which the pattern would be produced in printing. At
(0’), however, the lozenge shape contains the unit of the
design, and the complete repeat is composed of one whole
diamond and four quarters, which together, as shown at
abca', are contained in an oblong, this oblong being the
repeat for which the cards would be cut in weaving. At (12)
is shown the manner in which this oblong would be treated


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 7
in a square if it were intended to reproduce the design
by printing, the square there representing the printing
block; while at (c), (e), and (f) are shown the methods
of treating such forms as the triangle, hexagon, and ogee
shape, which are considered in the same manner as was the
lozenge.
13. Unit and Repeat—It is important that the student
should always keep clearly in his mind the difference between
the unit of a design and the repeat, and not confound one
with the other. A comparison of all the details of Fig. 8
will show that the units are always made up of regular
geometrical figures that fit together, leaving no interstices
between them. This, of course, is a necessary characteristic
that the unit must possess. The diamond, the square, and
the oblong are the most useful shapes; but on general prin-
ciples the lozenge or diamond is the best of all.
14. Defective Design.—As said before, it is necessary
that a clear and definite idea should be possessed when a
design is started, on which the subsequent building up can
depend. In Fig. 9 are shown two renderings of the same
style of ornament intended for the same purpose, though the
one at (b) in no way fulfils the conditions.
It is assumed that this is a design for a stripe in some
piece of goods, and an irregular wavy line is drawn, from
which spring a number of leaves and flowers, regardless of
any preconceived order, except that the design must repeat
beyond the lines ab and ed. The line, the leaves, and the
flowers have no apparent relation to one another, nor to the
border of the panel itself, and the three flowers at a acci-
dentally fall together and form a straight line across the
stripe, making a very awkward accentuation at the end of
each repeat—a characteristic of repeating designs that the
designer usually tries to conceal.
15. Remedy for Defects.—At (a), however, the same
elements are used and show that, by a little consideration.


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 9
the design and adds to the impression that the floral orna-
ment could not readily be removed without impairing its
appearance.
16. The Parent Stem.—In Fig. 10 is shown a surface,
or all-over, pattern somewhat of the same character as Fig. 9,
the limitations of which are precisely the same as those of the
border. The principal line, or the main stem, is drawn first,
and once located, the designer must determine whether this
line is to form an essential detail of his design or simply to
be a starting element. In many cases, the parent stem is
inserted into a design solely to give some logical growth and
provide some element that the flowers and leaves can spring
from, but in no way forms an important part of the design
itself, and might be removed without impairing the design
'
 the least. In this case, however, the parent stem is one
of the most important factors and must be put in with care
and thought.
17. Principal Feature. In all designs, or at least in
nearly all, there should be some feature that by its promi-
nent color, shape, or size is more prominent than the others,
and it should be so placed that it will immediately attract
the eye. Such being the case, it is necessary that the means
by which this attraction to the eye is attained must be con-
sidered before the design is started. A design without a
leading feature is uninteresting and tiresome, and it natu-
rally follows that if this leading feature is so important, it
is necessary that it should be the most beautiful and the
most interesting part of the design.
In the present case, the repeat is first decided on and the
wave line is carefully studied with the idea that it is to be a
prominent detail in the finished design. Its curve must be
graceful, of good proportions, and so arranged that it will
not interfere inharmoniously with its adjacent curves in
the other repeats. The four large leaves in the corner of
each repeat being intended for prominent features, should
also be carefully drawn and placed in position. In general


10 PRACTICAL DESIGN.
7
Q'IIJ
practice it would be found advisable to sketch the design in
outline at first, as shown in Fig. 10 at ((2), because it is likely
to be modified after the design is worked out and it would
be a waste of time to try and work out the finished details
at once.
The next detail in the preparation of the design is the
conventional flower in the center of the repeat; this should
go in next, and it would seem advisable to place the flower
at some point central between the four large leaves. The
necessity of placing this flower in a central position can be
readily seen by referring to Fig. 11, where the design is the
same as that shown in Fig. 10, except that the flower is not






FIG. 10.
in the center but thrown to one side, over one set of the
leaves. The effect of this can be readily seen, that inas-
much as the flower is removed from the center, the character
of the pattern ceases to be of the all-over type, and resolves
itself into a series of stripes. This does not absolutely spoil
the design, as it would be considered all right if a striped
pattern were wanted; but when an all-over pattern is wanted,
this treatment is certainly all wrong. After the flower is


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 1]
drawn in outline, the rest of the figure is blocked in as
shown in Fig. 10
18. Effect of the Repeat.—In all cases in laying out
adesign, it is advisable to draw more than one repeat, as
the student can then judge somewhat better the appear-


FIG. 11.
ance of it when multiplied in the loom or the press. Few
but the most experienced designers can judge the prob-
able efiect and know how to avoid faults that are likely
to appear, unless several repeats are laid out in each
direction.


12 PRACTICAL DESIGN. § 7
Having considered the preliminary arrangement of the
plan for the repeat itself, we will now take up the different
methods of securing this repeat, and consider the advantages
of each case.
DROP PATTERN.
19. Unit of the Pattern.-~The drop pattern takes
its name from a characteristic that requires the unit to be
dropped one-half its length in order that adjacent members
s33 s


may properly match, and it has been suggested that the
lozenge shape is best adapted as the figure constituting the
unit of any pattern. In fact, though this shape is used as


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 13
the basis for nearly all repeating diaper patterns, it is
almost indispensable in the construction of the drop pat-
tern. Every practical drop pattern, if properly analyzed,
will be found with the lozenge as its fundamental form,
though, as a rule, this shape is concealed in the superfluity
of ornament.
In Fig. 12 the lozenge shape does not appear at all,
although it can be easily shown that. it is the govern-

[A
Q




1‘3 Y ‘
,‘aae
:1


I
\M
FIG. 13.
ing principle of this design. If we join the four central
points of the four large five-lobed leaves, the resulting
figure is lozenge-shaped, and a similar figure would be pro-
duced by joining any four repeating points in the design,v
as shown in Fig. 13.


14 PRACTICAL DESIGN. § 7
20. The Enclosing Rectang1e.—Notwithstanding the
fact that this lozenge shape is the governing principle of so
many designs, it must not be forgotten that the practical
working out of the pattern in the loom, or the printing of


the pattern in the press, requires that the design s/zal/ be
(VIC/056d wit/tin a rrrlnlrgle, and the amount that has to
appear in the design will be one complete lozenge and four
quarter-lozenges in order to make up the rectangle. An
exception to this rule, however, will be found in center ties
and roll carpets, which will be considered later on.
21. Symmetrical Deslgns.—Where a design is sym-
metrical on both sides of a given center line, as shown in


16 PRACTICAL DESIGN. § 7
dropped at e f g /1, this rectangle representing another
width of 'carpet roll that fits the first so as to make a
perfectly connected design. Thus it will be seen that the
same points do not repeat in this design in less than twice
the width of one roll, as may be seen at a’ and k, where
'\""1"."."Iri'm‘ {I‘ll 'iil‘iifi'l-i“ ,, |i||l\h|1l, l , ;\|| H- ‘i
Helms“ Iii ‘ lviilly‘l'illiteii-I,
I ' " '1
| 4", H
, Il'l 13"“ 1‘“ x||||t i,
1 . p».
M,


















- n n'i'il. 1%
,' ' .'.:i£ii,i,1,!" Hi- '
. ‘l'\‘ .; “l 1'? “fill
, 1.; fl;- ' Ii 1..
k 5 MP1} ‘u ‘1' ' 1" “2%
satellite.atrium}: iiiljwimliw
FIG. 18.
the flower at d is completed in the section at k 54 inches
away from it. If the plan were adopted for a side-to~side
repeat, these forms would repeat every 27 inches horizon-
tally; but by means of the drop pattern we can, without
additional labor or expense, produce a carpet design of
apparently twice this width, and this same idea can be
carried out in wall paper.


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 17

23. Waste in Cutting. Another advantage in the use
of the drop pattern for carpets is that the chance of waste is
considerably reduced during the process of cutting and
fitting the widths together to suit the size of a room. This
can better be understood by referring to Fig. 17, where at (a)
the drop pattern is shown as its repeats would recur in a














(a)


FIG. 17.
room; and at (b) the side-to-side repeating pattern appears
as laid out upon the same room. This room is assumed to
be 13 ft. 6 in. X 15 ft., the narrower dimension requiring just
six widths of 27-inch carpet to cover it.
It will be seen at (a), that, beginning at the upper
left-hand' corner and cutting off from the roll what is
required for the length of the room, we will have four
complete repeats and a little over, and in replacing this
width to the right of this and laying off what is required
for the second length of the room, there will be a little
waste at each end, as shown at b and c. In the same
manner, the same amount of waste occurs at dr and half
as much at f g, while the breadths between, at I: and i,
are cut to exactly cover the room in the same manner as
the first one.
Looking now at the other arrangement at (b), we have the


18 PRACTICAL DESIGN. § 7
same space carpeted with a pattern that does not drop, but
matches from side to side, and it will be readily seen that
the waste, as indicated at bade and f, is considerably more
than the previous case, amounting to very nearly 4 yards.
Of course, the proportions of this room are such as to make
this rather an extreme case; but the fact remains that there
is less waste with the drop pattern, because the repeats fit at
half the height, and the greatest possible waste in any one
room length of roll will be half the length of a repeat, while
with a side-to-side repeating pattern nearly a whole repeat
of waste is possible.
On this account it is advantageous to keep the length of
the repeat short whether the design drops or not, for with
a long repeat there is much more waste in cutting than
where the repeat is moderate. In Fig. 16 the repeat is
entirely too long for economy, and had the lozenge form
been turned to a horizontal position it would have been
much more advantageous, inasmuch as the effort has been
in the first place to make the repeat extend over two
widths of carpet, and there is no good reason why the
repetition in a vertical direction should be of any greater
extent.
24. Planning and Drawing the Design—It is always
best to construct the lozenge shape so that its vertical and
horizontal dimensions are equal to the vcrtical and hori-
zontal dimensions of a full repeat, and then to sketch in the
principal details and general lines. The leaf forms can then
be filled in so that the upper right line of the lozenge will
out these details in exactly the same form and position as
the lower left-hand line, and the same may be said of the
upper left-hand line and the lower right-hand line. In gen-
eral practice, the best way of doing this is to sketch the form
roughly on transparent paper or tracing cloth, with a soft
pencil. These forms may then be gone over with a harder
pencil on the reverse side and the pencil markings trans-
ferred almost exactly uniform to any part. In the frequent
references that we will make to tracing paper hereafter, we


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 19
will in all cases mean simply the drawing or tracing of a
design on transparent paper and the transferring of the
design by means of that tracing to other parts of the draw-
ing. In this way the details of the general sketch may be
multiplied and extended freely in every direction. When
so multiplied and the forms appear to be well arranged
and distributed, an exact drawing can be made by means
of tracing paper and everything carefully drawn in its
proper place.
25. Striped Effect in Drop Patterns—In the true
drop pattern, the drop is always considered as half the height
of the repeat; but it is not unusual to have a drop pattern of
less than this, as, for instance, one-third the height of the
repeat. This is shown in Fig. 18 at (a), while at (b) the
if
I -








drop is only one-quarter of the height; but the result is
never as satisfactory, as an even distribution is not so
readily acquired and the comparative width of the repeat
is greater.
The bringing of the principal elements so much closer
together is also likely to produce a striped effect as shown at


20 PRACTICAL DESIGN. § 7
a b in Fig. 18 (a) and at ed in Fig. 18 (6); whereas in (c), where
the drop is half the height of the repeat, there is little or no
tendency to get a striped effect, as the principal elements of
the design are evenly distributed. The shorter the drop the
stronger is the tendency to produce a pronounced stripe and
increase the width of the repeat, and, therefore, the more
expensive to work out without any compensating advantages
regarded of value as ornament. For this reason it should be
borne in mind that drop patterns of less than half the repeat
are to be avoided if an even distribution of ornament is
desired, and the tendency of any part of the ornament to
run in stripes is to be obviated.
TURN-OVER 1H ETHOD.
26. Advantage of the Turn ()ver.—Another method
of planning a design is called the turn-over method, and
for many reasons is very desirable. With this method of
planning, faults can be avoided with greater certainty and
the design is given an appearance of greater complexity, as
the repeats alternating to the right and left are less evident
to the eye than when running in but one direction. This is
a most useful system of planning, and, when properly stud-
ied, a design can be executed in which faults are least likely
to occur; but the method is a most difficult one for the stu-
dent to master, because when the unit of one repeat is
reversed or turned over, the two units are likely to overlap
in some of their details.
27. Planning the Turn 0ver.—In Fig. 19 is shown
a turn-over design, with the geometrical constructions and
the main lines on which the whole is based. The first
consideration is the proportions of the repeat, shown at
abcd, containing but 1 unit and 4 quarter-units surround-
ing it. This constitutes the geometrical construction of our
design.
The next consideration is the character of the design itself,
and if we'assume the ogee outline as shown in this case, we


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 21
must divide the top corner of the repeat into four equal parts,
at 13f, g, 11, and draw in the ogee line f/z, in order to get any
degree of accuracy. In fact, all that is required of this line
is the portion from f to i, the other half being traced from
it, the two parts being exactly the same. The other four
portions may be traced in a similar manner.


FIG. 19.
Next, the large flower in the center of each repeat should
be placed in position, and care must be taken that each
alternate horizontal series of repeats is turned in a different
direction—one whole series toward the right, and another
whole series toward the left as shown—as no other arrange-
ment will produce the effect. _


22 PRACTICAL DESIGN. § 7
In the first blocking out of the design, much time will be
saved if the main features are sketched with a single line as
shown in Fig. 19, where the oval shape stands for the flower
in the center of the unit. When these oval shapes have been
repeated a sufficient number of times, the lines of the ogee
at I? should be broken away from their regular direction,
and the small flowers in each unit drawn upon these
branchings.
28. Elimination of Faults.—~By this time the design
has been advanced sufficiently to enable the designer to look
over it carefully and see that none of its details is likely to
overlap or go wrong in any way. It is, however, almost
certain that some detail will overlap another when the orna-
ment is first drawn and turned over on the adjacent dia-
mond, and if such overlapping occurs, of course the design
must be altered. If, however, the design develops satis-
factorily, the detail of the principal element in the center
may be repeated in the four corners, at a, 6, c, and d, and
then the flowers distributed along the line kk may be
sketched in place.
Even now though the design is finished in the last detail,
it is wise to look over it thoroughly, as it is almost sure to
require some alterations, lest when turned over one portion
will come into conflict with another; and the line where
the first lozenge joins the four adjacent ones may be so
thickly ornamented as to appear heavy, or it may be so
sparse that it requires filling. It is always at the points
where these units join that the most skill is required in the
arrangement.
29. Turn-Over-and-Drop Patterns—In some of its
details the turn-over pattern is not unlike the drop; it requires
1 unit and 4 quarter-units to make up the whole repeat, and
the unit contained in the whole lozenge is both turned over
and dropped, so that in making the design it is necessary
to trace off the first lozenge, reverse the tracing paper, and
drop it to the adjacent lower one. In fact, were it not for a.


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 23
needless lengthening of the name, this style of design could
better be termed the turn-over-and-drop pattern.
30. Avoidance of Faults—Turnover designs are
liable to the same fa’ults as are designs that go only in
one direction, but not to such a marked degree. This
partial avoidance of faulty lining is one of the advantages,
as the turning over of the unit causes a zigzag effect rather
than a line effect. An illustration of this effect is given in
Fig. 20, where at (a) a turn-over pattern is shown based on
the wave line, and its unit is indicated by the lozenge shape


FIG. 20.
in the center. Looking at this rectangular repeat, it would
be difiicult for even an expert designer to predict that the
whole design, when printed and many times repeated, would
appear faulty; but this faultiness becomes very evident when
the design is executed and a large surface spread out before
the eye as shown at (1)). If the design shown at (b) be held
at arm's length and the eyes half closed. a white zigzag line
will be perceived running systematically through the design
from top to bottom, as marked at a a a, etc.


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 25
33. Selection of System of Design.~Tlle selection
of the system of construction should not be made arbitrarily,
but should always be decided after mature thought as to
which would bring about the best result. The square pro-
duces a repeat in the same distance both vertically and hori-
zontally, and the rectangle gives us a repeat greater in one
direction than the other, according to which way it is turned;




the lozenge can be made to produce repeats in the same
proportion as the square or rectangle, but produces an
entirely different effect, as shown in Fig. 21, where the same
design is worked out on the system of the square as is
worked out on the system of the lozenge in Fig. 22. The
former is much more severe than the latter, and the limits
of the repeat are much more definitely marked. There is a
tendency, too, toward the expression of a horizontal and


26 PRACTICAL DESIGN. § 7
vertical system of lining in Fig. 21 that is not so apparent in
Fig. 22. It is therefore seen that for some conditions the


FIG. 22.
square might be preferred to the diamond shape, while for
other conditions the latter is preferable.
34. Variety Possible.-—On these geometrical bases
an unlimited variety of designs may be developed from
a simple sprig or spray to most elaborate combinations
of interlaced wave lines and ogee forms. These may be
roughly divided into spots, powderings, connected forms,
or stripes, in which the repeats are made continuous by
structural lines though the pattern may be made up entirely
of geometrical forms.
35. Simple Spot Designs.—In Fig. 23 is shown a, spot
design, the plan of which is based on the diamond, as is
very evident, and shows how valuable an arrangement the


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 27
diamond form is to us when much ornament is not a neces-
sity. It should always be borne in mind that ornament
is intended to beautify a material, and if the material will
look better with very little ornament upon it and plenty
of ground or bare space, the designer must confine himself
to just so much ornament as the fabric appears to demand.
ma


FIG. 23.
Then, for some purposes, an elaborate design is unsuitable,
so that too much ornament will vulgarize and spoil a fabric
rather than enhance its beauty. It is in such cases that
the spot character of design, as shown in Fig. 23, is most
useful, especially when the ground of the material requires
only sufficient ornament to break its monotony, or where the
material is to be used in small quantities.
36. Influence of Fashions—The prevailing fashions
influence this condition of design to a great extent, especially
in regard to wearing apparel. Sometimes the demand is for


28
PRACTICAL DESIGN.

FIG. 24.

FIG. 25


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 29
spots, sometimes for elaborately figured goods, and some-
times there is an occasion for a medium between the two, as
shown in Fig. 24, which is a design based on an elaboration
of the spot, but giving a spot and powdered effect.
Fig. 25 shows a style of design that is used very largely in
dress fabrics; its simple treatment renders it very suitable
and to a large extent obviates the danger of faulty lining,
and the design is very effective and easy to construct. It is
arranged upon the diamond plan, as shown by the dotted
lines in Fig. 26, the largest
spray being drawn first in any
of the unit forms, and then
turned over and dropped as
before explained. It may,
under some conditions, be suffi-
cient to trace simply the four
corners of the repeat and then
trace in the principal sprig to
fill the center of the lozenge
shape and occupy any bare
space that may appear. Under
these circumstances, it is wise
to turn the tracing paper back
and add the sprig to the larger
one and then insert the small
sprig in other repeats just as the large sprig was put in at
the four corners.
Where it is desirous that there should be but little of the
ground broken with ornament, a little running vine may be
used as the basis of the design, arranged in sprays somewhat
as shown in Fig. 27. The construction here is very simple,
and though the sprigs run in a lozenge shape, the pattern is
constructed upon the system of the square, as shown in
Fig. 28.


3'7. Irregular Unlts.—A design in which the forms
are connected is of much more importance to the designer
than a simple sprig pattern such as shown in Figs. 25 and 27.


30 PRACTICAL DESIGN. § 7
and is naturally much more intricate to eXecute. The struc-
tural basis of the design shown in Fig. 29 is an irregular
lozenge shape different from anything we have heretofore
considered, as shown in Fig. 30.
The simplest way of constructing this design is by means
of vertical and horizontal lines, the latter drawn at equal


FIG. 27.
distances, as at a 65, Fig. 30, and the vertical ones alternating
with a large and small space as at dc, e f, etc. The two
large flowers may then be placed in the upper corner of a
rectangle of the repeat as at a and the other large flower at
the intersection of the vertical and horizontal line, below
this rectangle, as at 11. The connecting lines and secondary
features may then be sketched in and drawn as shown. This


§7 _ PRACTICAL DESIGN. 33
five clover leaves, and the main feature of the design consists
of the arrangement of these flowers and leaves in order to
give the impression of simplicity and at the same time pro-
duce an all-over effect, without expressing in a pronounced
degree the system of its arrangement.
39. In Fig. 32 we have a turn-over pattern on the (lia-
mond basis and it conceals the simplicity of its development
through the possession of three equally prominent features.


The circular flowers, for instance, are arranged on the dia-
mond plan, and the other two features are intersected in a
regular order, while the stem oscillates from side to side,
sending off alternately to the right and left a scroll with a
bud or a blossom. The effect of this treatment, simple
though it is, is exceedingly pleasing and expresses the variety
that can be attained by the simple geometrical arrangements
that underlie it. Simplicity in the arrangement of a design
should always be the aim of the designer, as a pleasing effect


PRACTICAL DESIGN.
gr


FIG. 34.






FIG. 85.


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 37







‘9
,-’.<
\ ‘ .
/.'
eea$*
-6-
vu-
I
F .
\ [a 5, MI» 4.1,.
# i‘ ‘(iililll o ‘~.3L'§';~~Ij'71)
/ $§$ v a =
\ Ii a . m l I: :- . ml
II-
FIG. 36.


38 PRACTICAL DESIGN. § 7
the design on each side of a given center line, only one-half
of the pattern need be executed for weaving purposes, as it
can be adapted to a center tie. This example is particularly
interesting in showing the contrast of line, and it will be
observed by studying the elements of Fig. 37, which is a
skeleton outline of Fig. 36, that when one line crosses another,
in nearly every instance it crosses it at a right angle and
thereby gives to the design a sharpness and crispness that
characterizes it.
43. In Fig. 38 is shown a design based on the dia-
mond and arranged as a center tie. Its principal con-
struction lines are a pair of ogee curves that cross each


other, one of which follows the stem of the running vine,
and the other forms the governing direction of an orna-
mental ribbon work that underlies the main decoration.
This introduces also a contrast between the ribbon and
the design itself that causes the latter to stand up promi-
nently and prevents the whole composition from appearing
monotonous.


40 PRACTICAL DESIGN. § 7
46. Size of the Repeat in Dnmasks.—First, we must
consider the size of the article, and in most instances a size
that is an even multiple of a quarter of a yard is found to be
convenient. Fabrics such as table covers and table linen, or
carpets, will always be found to be multiples of a quarter-
yard in both length and breadth. For instance, 10 quarter-
yards by 7 quarter-yards gives us 7 feet 6 inches by 5 feet
























FIG. 89.
3 inches; and take a table cover of these dimensions as shown
in Fig. 39 and we have the setting out arrangement of the
repeats in which a very highly ornate treatment is given.
In this case, the size of the repeat is one-quarter of a yard
in each direction. This has the advantage of making the
design capable of fitting any size table cover, either in length
or breadth, that is desired, simply by increasing the number
of repeats.


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 41
The border around this, it will be observed, is the same
in design and dimension of its repeats both at the sides and
at the ends, and it may be readily observed that the secondary
repeats of the filling fall directly in line with the repeats of
the border not only on the sides and ends but also in the
corner.
This 9-inch square repeat is the simplest and least












/.










FIG. 40.

expensive way of dealing with a fabric such as a table cloth,
and is suitable for some particular designs, but the designer
is in no way limited to this shape.
47. Unequal Repeats.——In Fig. 40 is shown another
design of identical dimensions with Fig. 39, in which the
filling repeat is oblong and the proportion of the oblong is
such as to make it similar to the entire oblong surface of the


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 43
a troublesome one unless the design is similar to that shown
in Fig. 39, as it is a simple matter to design a corner to fit a
system of repeat that is uniform in the two directions. But
in running borders such as shown in Figs. 40 and 41, the
ornament must have a distinct development in one direction
and grow from itself continuously. In some forms of art
this is not difficult at all, but in a woven fabric it must be
borne in mind that the two side borders must be equal, the
top and bottom borders must be equal, and the corners each
the same.
48. In Fig. 40 we have a design of a border that is made
to connect around the corners without any break, while in
Fig. 41 we have at b c a design for a border that runs from
the center of the width around the corner to the center of
the length, where it is stopped by a rosette or other inde-












\ r
\ 1’
g \ I
I \
I \
z’f \
I \
1 \
1 \
\
\
\
\
| \
\
\
\
\
\
\
, \
_- \
’ \
I
/ \
\
, \L
FIG. 42.
pendent device. This system of treatment, however, requires
that the repeat of the border and its adjacent filling shall
amount to one-quarter of the whole fabric, as shown at
1; c d .r, and that whatever comes in this quarter must reverse
and repeat above and on the other side; this system also


44 PRACTICAL DESIGN. § 7
permits us to treat the angles of the filling with separate
ornament, as shown at (a) in Fig. 41.
When a fabric is square it is sometimes convenient to
duplicate the design on each side of the diagonal line,
as shown in Fig. 42, where the square is divided into eight
equal triangular pieces
as shown at fg/z, each
of which is symmetrical
but reversed from its
' neighbor.
49. Lace-Curtain
Design. — Where cur‘
tains are woven in one
piece, one of the most
popular schemes of de-
sign is to have a dado
treatment at the bottom“
and a border on each
of the sides. This bor-
der can be of the same
width on each side or of
varying widths, accord-
in g to the circumstances,
'or the design may be
Q such that the two bor-
ders and the dado con_
sist of one scheme of
ornament varying in
width to express the
proportion of each.
Much economy can be
effected, however, in the designing of curtains by having
the whole length worked out upon a symmetrical arrange-
ment so that the two halves each side of the center line
will be identical. This may be somewhat severe in
style, but is capable of producing the happiest of results.
In Fig. 43 is shown a symmetrical arrangement of design


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 45
duplicating on the center line y/l. Only one-half of this
design would need to be prepared on design paper, g/z/el
is?)
m
k:-
I
. "j
\ .
4 i\
\ '5: ' 1“



FIG. 44.
being the amount required for the dado, and klmn, the
repeat for the border and filling of the body of the cur-
tain; whereas in Fig. 44. just twice this quantity of design


4G PRACTICAL DESIGN. § 7
would have to be executed, as the pattern extends the full
width of the curtain.
The severity of style which this plan is likely to produce
may be somewhat obviated by the use of a free center,
shown in Fig. 45, where the design on each side of a given
center line is exactly balanced and reproduced. The amount
of design worked out on paper in this case is shown at a [It‘d
in the dado, and Cdt'f in the upper portion of the curtain,
and when this is woven, the
opposite side is separated
from it a distance equal to
17g. and the free center
- bg/zc in the dado, and
£1! kf for the repeat in
~ g the upper part of the cur-
_ tain would require to be
drawn out separately on
design paper.




50. Classification of
Borders. —We have so far
devoted all our attention to
the application of border
designs to such textile
.r fabrics as they are most
i generally used, but we will
now consider some of the
more typical details upon
which repeating borders
may be constructed. For
the purposes of classification, ordinary repeating borders are
termed [in]: or vertebrate, according to the method by which
the repeats are joined, the former being linked together by
some conventional form that tends to give the appearance of
combining the units, and the latter being built about a straight
line that acts as a sort of backbone through the whole design.
In Fig. 46 are shown several borders built up of historic
ornament and illustrating the principles of this classification.





'1 b I!
FIG. 45.


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 47
It will be noticed that in nearly all of them there is a decided
tendency to vertical and horizontal arrangement, that the
ornament grows, or appears to grow, at right angles to one
of the edges or from both of them. For instance, the Greek
border at (a) appears to be perpendicular to the inner edge,
glwi‘g " 7F 7


/'\_/














ll"ll§‘,llll"'
"it _.












FIG. 46.
while that at (b) is perpendicular to the outer edge, and at (c)
is alternately perpendicular to the two edges, each separate
element being connected by an S-shaped link. These designs
are all Greek in origin and express the handling of border
elements typical of the Greek style.
51. Borders for Hangings and Table Covers.—It
should always be borne in mind that the position of the


48 PRACTICAL DESIGN. § 7
goods or material on which the border is designed must
always be considered before the characteristics of the border
are decided upon. Table covers and scarfs are usually seen
in such a position that the border assumes a perpendicular
position in relation to the outer edge, and for such a purpose
the design shown at (6) would be perfectly suitable. On por-
tiers and other hangings, the lower border is perpendicular
to the bottom line, while the side borders could be either
perpendicular to the outer or the inner line, and a combina-
tion of effect is obtained by using the pattern shown at (r),
where the border runs all the way around, or the one shown
at (d), where the border runs up and down the sides and a
straight dado is designed across the bottom.
52. Borders for Rugs and Floor Coverings—Rugs
and carpet squares are usually observed from the center of
the room, and a border design is most satisfactory when it is
perpendicular to the inner edge of the border line, as shown
at (a) and (e), the latter being a design based on Arabian lines.
At (a) the link is parallel with the direction of the border and
turns up at each end to join the ornamental figures that
constitute the principal elements of the design. At (a) the
link consists of a number of semicircles, the ends of which
unite every other ornamental detail. At (f) it assumes an
S shape and lies in a horizontal position, while at (d) the link
travels from one side of the border to the other, as it does
- also at (6), though in the former case each S runs in the same
direction as its neighbor, and in the latter case they are
made to reverse alternately.
53. Vertebrate Borders.—All of the above are link
borders, while those shown in Fig. 47 are vertebrate borders.
The chief characteristics that we observe in comparing these
two figures is that the link border seems more associated
with classic art, while the character of the vertebrate border
tends more toward the Middle Ages and Renaissance design.
At (a) is shown the simplest pattern consisting of a
straight line or backbone, with a series of leaves growing


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. 49


§ 7 PRACTICAL DESIGN. ' 51
hanging, the corner is usually lost by the folding of the
cloth.
It should be borne in mind that the purpose of any angle







&.9 l
i
\J {_—}}T]—" "
Ql :
L“ 1
1!










FIG. 48.
ornament is to break the crudcness of a sharp corner, but its
form and contour must be consistent so that it leaves a
pleasing effect. In the filling at (a) in Fig. 48 is shown the


52 PRACTICAL DESIGN. § 7
outline of a rug in which the border and corner design shown
at (b) is used, and it will be readily seen that the style of
corner ornament shown at (b) is suitable only to a rug of
oblong shape, while the Oriental design shown at (c) is better
adapted to a rug with a square shape, though of course it
could be used in an oblong without any sense of incongruity,
whereas the form shown at (6) could not be used in a square
rug.
At (:1) is shown a corner design that breaks into the bor-
der and causes it to stop abruptly at each side. This design
is symmetrical upon the miter line as shown in Fig. 42 and is
capable of reproduction on four sides of a square as described
in connection with that figure.
One other style of corner design is shown at (r) where
the border runs around the corner, and repeats itself utterly
independent of the corner ornament, and the corner orna-
ment is woven or printed within the border line entirely
independent of the border itself. This corner ornament is
not enclosed in any definite outline as were (6) and (c), nor
is it symmetrical on the center line as are (c) and (d). It
therefore requires separate consideration in design and
requires no calculations for repeat in unison with a repeat
of the border.
55. Stripes.—The use of stripes in woven goods, of
course, applies almost entirely to the field where a border is
considered, or to the goods themselves exclusive of any con-
sideration of corner or border ornament, but the purpose for
which the goods are to be used will govern the size, strength,
and direction of the stripe entirely. Stripes running verti-
cally tend to increase the appearance of height, while stripes
running horizontally tend to decrease the impression of
height. It is for this reason that short persons are advised
to wear dress goods with stripes running vertically, and in the
decoration of rooms with very high ceilings, numerous hori-
zontal lines are introduced to decrease the effect of height.
In Fig. 49 at (a) is shown a combination of a stripe and
powdered effect consisting of narrow straight stripes from



















FIG. 49.


54 PRACTICAL DESIGN. § 7
which conventionalized flowers branch at an angle of 45°,
changing their direction at each alternate stripe. At (b) the
stripe consists of alternate wave lines with conventional
flowers growing in the broader spaces on and between them.
At (5) parallel wave lines are broken by systematic and con-
ventional ornament that grows from its sides alternately in
the same manner as described in the vertebrate border,
Fig. 47 (:1).
At (0') the stripe crosses the ornament in a diagonal direc-
tion at an angle of 45°, and consideration will remind the
student that the direction of this stripe is governed by the
diagonal of the rectangle representing the repeat. If the
repeat were within an oblong, the angle of the stripe could
be made greater or less than 45°, according to the propor-
tions of the rectangle. At is shown a more complicated
treatment of a striped design wherein three distinct styles
of contrasting stripe are used—a conventionalized floral form
alternating with a conventionalized geometrical form from
which it is separated by a heavy wave-line stripe.
56. Style in Historic Stripes.—In Fig. 50 we have.
three examples-of stripe ornament showing the characteris-
tics of historic styles. At (a) the straight stripe is relieved
of its monotony by an all-over pattern of sprigs, four of the
sprigs representing the four corners of a rectangular repeat
with the fifth sprig in the center. This might be considered
a combination of a stripe-and-spot pattern, the style of which
is characteristic of the old Italian brocades, this example
having been taken from a piece of Italian velvet.
The treatment given at (b) is entirely different from this
—a severely conventional design—being alternated with a
somewhat naturalistic rendering, thereby giving the effect
of a light stripe alternating with a dark one, a style of design
characteristic of the early Gothic period.
The pattern shown at (c) is from an old Spanish fabric
showing alternate light and dark stripes, each of which
heightens the interest of the other and both of which are
more or less elaborated with conventional floral designs.


$7
PRACTICAL DESIGN.




FIG. 50,





APPLIED DESIGN.
(PART 1.)
GEOMETRICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
1. Fitness—In applying any form of nature to a surface
in order to produce a decoration, it must unquestionably
possess a quality known as fitness for that purpose for
which it is required. It is just as important that the decora-
tion should exactly fit the utensil as that the utensil should
exactly fit the purpose for which it is made. Mere applica-
tion of ornament to a space is not decoration, nor is it
applied design. It must be adapted to that space as per-
fectly as possible, and in any respect that it falls short of
this perfect adaption, just in that respect does it fall short
of being a proper decoration.
2.‘ Influence of Shape.—-In Fig. 1 are shown four
shapes or forms, and it will require very little study to
determine that no two of them could be rationally treated
from a decorative standpoint in exactly the same way, and
in decorating them the first question that arises is, in what
direction should the lines run on the surface that is to be
occupied by them.
Here let it be known that the lines forming the boundaries
of the figure should influence the direction of the lines laying
out the pattern. The leading lines should emphasize the
lines of the boundaries, unless for some reason this cannot
be done, when the minor lines should be made to do so.
§ 8
For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page.


2 APPLIED DESIGN. § 8
This must all be done with perfect harmony and due care to
prevent monotony. Both of these principles can be observed
by paying particular attention to
the effects of contrast and variety.
3. Influence of Conven-
,_ tionallsm.—In determining the
,5) directions that are to be taken by
the leading lines of our design,
it is of the greatest importance
that the character the design is
to assume should be considered,
whether it is to be a purely con-
ventional composition to be based
on conventionalism of general
ideas, or on the realization of
some particular plant. In the
first case, we may assume any
ornamental lines we choose, so
long as they are suitable to their
surroundings; but if the design
is to realize some particular plant
form, the lines must be such that
they depict the growth of the plant and at the same time
are suitable to the space they occupy.
This limits our field of selection in the latter case, and we
must select our natural types with care, in order that both of
its conditions—adaptability of lines and adherence to plant
growth——will be carried out. We must not let stiff growing
plants be designed in easy flowing lines, nor must we allow
the soft trailing aspect of running vines to be stiffened into
an unnatural appearance, for such would not be convention-
alism, but quite the contrary.



(ll)




4. Emphasis of Structural Lines.—In Fig. 2 we have
the decoration of a surface similar to that shown at (a) of
Fig. 1, The first lines put in place here are the vertical
ones repeating and emphasizing the effect of the sides of the


4 APPLIED DESIGN. § 8
In Fig. 5 we have a decoration of a spandrel between two
arches, based on the outline form shown in Fig. 1 at (c);
the arches between which this spandrel is introduced being
important features of this construction, the curved lines



FIG. 5.
forming its boundaries are given more emphasis, while
the vertical line separating them is introduced to present
contrast.
Then, again, in Fig. 6, which is based on (d) of Fig. 1,
the spiral forms and semicircle within the top emphasize the
outline of the figure, while both con-
trast and variety are produced by the
flowing lines from the center to the
sides.
6. Harmony of Secondary
,0 Lines—It must be observed, too,
that while some of the lines used in
laying out the ornament are in accord
with the boundary of the surface,
the secondary lines must also be
influenced in their direction by the main lines, as shown
in Fig. 2, where the small branching lines from the ver-
ticals are influenced by the curves in the verticals them-
selves.
’ FIG. 6.


6 APPLIED DESIGN. § 8
such that the masses between them will bear a pleasing rela-
tion to one another. This can also be studied from natural
leaf forms. Take, for instance, the ivy leaf shown in Fig. 9,
and observe how even is the
distribution of the space—that
although the veins do not
equally divide the surface,
they separate it into varying
quantities so nicely graduated
and balanced that there is an
evenness and uniformity of
arrangement.
This distribution of masses
is materially affected when our
design is finished up and we convert the lines of our original
decoration into flowing leaf forms and general details, propor-
tioning the surfaces to the surface on which they are applied.


FIG. 9.
10. The general outline form shown in Fig. 2 suggests
the distribution of lines that we desire for the decoration of


FIG. 10.
this oblong surface, and the propriety and character of this
distribution is expressed much more clearly when our design


§ 8 APPLIED DESIGN. 7
is finished upon these lines, as it is in Fig. 10 (:1). Here we
have endeavored to preserve an even and restful balance
between the background and the surface figure, securing a
distribution of masses that would be materially influenced
by any change in the direction of the originally sketched
lines in Fig.
Our sketch in Fig. 3, showing another principle in effect-
ing the contrast of lines in order to secure a characteristic
decoration in a rectangular panel, when elaborated to the
completed form in Fig. 10 (b), illustrates clearly the value
of properly conceiving this distribution oflguide lines in
order that the finished design may be carried out without
material alteration of the original idea. ‘
1 1. The value of practice in this direction cannot be too
highly estimated, as it is of particular importance in. connec-
tion with surface designs, whether that surface be a wall, or a
floor, or the side of a building, or'a portion of the details of
some interior decoration, and in Fig. 11 is shown the spandrel



FIG. 11.
of the arch, the outlines of which were sketched in Fig. 5. In
working up patterns for an all-over design, it is necessary that
the unit of the repeat should be based on the same system of
treatment as we have considered in these single forms; other-
wise, we will not obtain the satisfactory results that we look
for in paper hangings, carpets, dress fabrics, etc.


8 APPLIED DESIGN. § 8
12. Geometrical Basis of Surface Decorations.—
Wall-paper patterns are laid out on a geometrical basis, and
the adoption of different geometrical forms will lead to a
great variety of designs in the filling in. In Fig. 12 at (a) is
a pattern suited for wall decoration or textile design, where
the leading lines are vertical and horizontal, and the repeated
iii a {Q3 ,3:
f. s
L 5-,
k 1/2; '4: 11‘ _
*3? ‘



re
.,





ornament consists in the joining of a number of decorated
rectangles. At (6) is shown a surface decoration where the
foundations of the geometrical construction are tangent cir_
cles, yet the pattern is so handled that the lines governing
its foundation principle are lost in the appearance of the
entire design, and a study of the circular design itself would


§ 8 APPLIED DESIGN. 9
show that the leading construction lines were set out in pre-
cisely the same manner as in Figs. 2 to 8. At (c) the basis
for construction of ornament is the lozenge shape, and this
introduces oblique lines giving the pattern an entirely
different character from the previous one, while at (d) the
structural lines of the pattern being of a wavy or ogival
character, give rise to the production of still another variety
of surface ornament.
In all of these designs the principal lines are in harmony
with the form of the principal figure, and the filling in of the'
figure is of a secondary consideration, although, of course, it
lies with the designer to limit the character of his decoration
simply to one figure or to run it into several figures, making
the design simple or complex as he desires.
l3. Retaining and Abolishing Fundamental Geo-
metric Constructions.—Then, again, the designer may
retain the original form on which the design is based and
emphasize it, or arrange that it will be abolished altogether
when the pattern is completed, adopting his course according
to the purpose to which the design is to be applied. As a
suggestion, it may be said that if the design is for a wall
paper to be used on a dado, the constructive geometrical
forms are better retained, as they impart to the design a
stiffness and strong look that make it suitable for the pur-
pose; but if the paper is designed to be .hung between the
dado and the frieze, the structural forms may be judiciously
dispensed with and the flowing, easy pattern of the ornament
left open that it may be more in harmony with the position
it is to occupy.
ARRANGEMENT OF DETAILS.
14. A method of evolving patterns upon the basis of
intersecting lines has already been shown; the ornament
formed on this principle has been analyzed as the basis for
new ornament. Starting from here, we will consider the
method of treating a surface according to the composition
and location of the ornament.





1».
st
\- . .. . . .
.t. . .
.\.. .k . .
... .N 4 . . r
.. s.
. .  .. I
N s. ,
a...” é .
I]. H. v. .
.u.
I. I
.0





















































































:3. Z.


§s 'APPLIED DESIGN." g -' 11
15. General Arrangements of Ornament in Surface
Work—There are five general arrangements of ornament
in surface work—dz'nprring, c/u'ckcring, striping and ban/ling,
paneling, and spotfz'ng and patt'drrz'rzg. Assuming that we
have simply a number of. square meshes laid'out as was our
foundation plan in Fig. 21 of Elemmts of Ornament, we can,
by simply filling in each square with'sOme form of ornament
and repeating the arrangement regularly, obtain the style of
treatment, known as diapering, shown in Fig. 13, where at
(a) and (b) the square forms are in a horizontal position, and
at (c), (d), and (/1), they are at an angle, or in other words,
a lozenge shape. At (1') and are shown the same design
as is used at (a) and ((3), only the method of laying out the
design is to have the ornament occupy only every other
square, thereby producing the treatment known as checker-
ing. At (g) we have a combination of these two forms,
called cheekering and diapering, wherein the design is
made lighter on every alternate square, thus giving a checker
effect, while each square is filled with ornament as in the
diaper effect.
16. In arranging our ornament in annexed squares, either
vertical or horizontal, and leaving spaces of‘one or more rows
of squares between, we get the efiect known as striping
and banding, as shown at (z'), (j), and (k); or by combi-
ning striping and banding in such a manner that the stripes
and bands enclose a certain amount of space, we get the
treatment called paneling, shown at (I), (m), and (n). An
extreme treatment of this gives us the effect shown at (0),
sometimes called lining, where the space is divided by lines
of different weights converting the surface into a number of
small panels like a plaid. By extending the space between
the ornaments to a greater or lesser extent, we obtain the
effect known as spotting and powdering, as shown at (/1),
(q). and (r). ' r - ' .
The difference between spotting and powdering simply
consists in the relative area occupied by the different pieces
of ornament. Where the ornamentation and the background





§ 8 APPLIED DESIGN. 13
are about of one area, or apparently so, the design is said to
be powdered, but where the ornament exists in small masses
with considerable space between, the effect is said to be
spotted.
17. D1aper.—We will now consider by itself each of
these systems of arrangement: First comes the diaper—this
consists of a pattern that regularly repeats itself so as to com-
pletely cover a surface without interval, or in such a way
that any interval that exists will form a part of the pattern.
It is what is usually termed an all-over pattern—an arrange-
ment of a most systematic character wherein each detail of
the pattern is confined to an allotted space and does not
overrun its boundaries.
The forms on which the diaper is based may be of any
shape, and frequently different forms may be used in the
same diaper design alternating with each other both ver-
tically and horizontally. This is shown in Fig. 14 where,
at (a) and (h), the geometrical forms governing the
diaper are squares and lozenge shapes, and at (t), tan-
gent circles.
18. As the diaper developed historically, the pattern in
each geometrical section was permitted to extend over and
run into the succeeding section, thereby tending in a slight
degree to obliterate the apparent geometric formation as
shown at (d) and (e); and, finally, as it developed still more,
the boundaries became ornamented as well as the spaces
enclosed by them, and the diaper took a form shown at (f).
It was then but a short step to the time when the formal
all-over pattern developed itself, and arrived at what we
consider the ordinary diaper pattern of the present day,
which consists of a surface decoration that rarely shows its
geometrical construction no matter how regular that con-
struction may be.
In Fig. 15 are shown four designs, at (a), (b), (c), and
((2’), wherein, after the geometrical guide lines have been
removed, it is a difficult matter to trace the character of


l4- APPLIED DESIGN. § 8
the ornament Each geometrical form shown dotted in
these designs contains the complete details of all the orna-
l


if ‘67. O i ,
H;ng at“? @s
0 >2. /
(d) §x\
FIG. 15.





ment of the entire surface and they repeat in each direction
unlimitedly. -
19. Fig. 16 shows additional patterns taken from pieces of
tapestry of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, whercon
the geometrical expression of the design has been empha- _
sized for the purpose of illustration. At (a) the square is
the basis on which the design is constructed and contains
every detail of the entire pattern, but in two forms, one of










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§ 8 APPLIED DESIGN. 17
which is the reverse of the other, forming what might be
considered a right-and-left pattern, so to speak. At (0),
however, the rectangle containing all the details of the
design is repeated without reverse both above and below
and on each side of itself. At (a), where the design is based
on the lozenge shape, the pattern consists of a simple repe-
tition of the lozenge form in diagonal directions on each of
the four sides of its origin, while at (d) the general design
is based on the circle, and the parts filled in, as well as the
parts between the circles, are emphasized in the design and
almost obliterate the geometrical basis of the construction.
From this it can be seen that the extent to which a system
of diapering can be varied is unlimited, and checkering is
so similar to it that we can readily see it also has no
limitation.
20. Checkering.—In Fig. 17, at (a) and (b), are shown
two systems of surface decoration by means of checker
work; at (a) the individual lines separating the checkers are
omitted from the design and the checker filling alone is
used, but at (b) the vertical lines of at least a part of the
checker work are maintained in the design, and the fillings
branch from either side of them in conventionalized floral
forms. '
21. Striping, Paneling, Banding, Spotting and
Powdering.—The effect obtained by striping is shown in
Fig. 17 at (c), where the broad stripe down the center of the
panel is blended into the border to improve the effect, while
the space each side is broken by a single spot. At (d) the
stripes run diagonally across the panel and divide its surface
up into a number of bands. At (a) is shown the appearance
of a panel decorated by spotting alone. Here a large cen-
tral spot forms a main feature and two smaller spots are
placed above and below, the whole being balanced by means
of vertical and horizontal lines. At (f) is shown the effect
in panel work of spotting and powdering, the whole being
arranged on a lozenge system of checker work, but destroyed
from a checker work effect by the powdered background.


18 APPLIED DESIGN. §8
APPLICATION OF ()RNMIENT.
n ANG ] NG FABRICS.
22. Propriety of Design.—In applying ornament to
any surface the greatest consideration must be given to
the question of purpose. The style and method of deco-
rating a textile fabric may be very appropriate for itself
and altogether inappropriate when applied to a wall sur-


FIG. 18.
face. For instance, even in the same class of goods, a
woven fabric that is to be used on a wall surface must
necessarily present a different problem in design from
one that is to form a hanging over a doorway—one is


§ 8 APPLIED DESIGN. 19
stiff, flat, and hard, from the surface it is called upon
to cover; the other is soft, movable, and flexible, and
uneven in surface when in use; and a design that is suit-
able for the one would surely be greatly out of place for
the other.
23. Here it must again be suggested that the method in
the style of design that will best accent the qualities desired
in each material will be the method most suitable in con-
structing the design. The wall must appear flat, and for
that reason a design that will not show any particular direc-
tion will be more suitable.
Vertical and horizontal stripes
must not form any part in
the decoration, and a scheme
based on diapering or pow-
dering, or an all-over system
of paneling, will be allow-
able.

24. On the other hand, a
curtain that is hung from a
pole is suitable to striping,
and horizontal or oblique
stripes work in very naturally
for such a purpose, as shown
in Fig. 18, as through the
folds the stripes are broken

"n,
\, ,/ ‘ L‘
and the strongest effect of I I ._~, 1,33»








the movability and softness w
of the goods is brought out.
Vertically striped patterns are to be avoided as hangings,
as their design tends to confusion, emphasizing the folds
of the goods instead of harmonizing them, as shown in
Fig. 19.
Another point that should be considered in designing
hangings is the size of the pattern compared with the weight
and quality of the goods—a heavy material that will lie in
FIG. 19.


20 APPLIED DESIGN. §8
bold round folds can support a pattern of large details and
vigorous design, but light goods that hang in delicate undu-
lations require a delicate handling in order that the pattern
may not appear incongruous or heavy for the goods.
WALL DECORATION.
25. Methods of Treatment.—In the wall decoration
of large and important rooms, the figures forming the detail
of the decoration may be bold and heavy, but in small rooms
of less importance in character the figures of the decoration
should be sufficiently reduced not to attract the eye from the
other harmonies of the room.
Aside from the scale of the detail of the pattern, there
should be considered the order of its distribution, for when
we begin to divide a surface into its different sections we
must consider the value of each section and the relative
importance each is to occupy in the design. For instance,
should we divide our wall into dado, wall surface, and frieze,
and possibly subdivide these members by moldings and
borders, we are emphasizing an idea derived from a struc-
tural value——the pedestal, column, and entablature of an
architectural order—and the parts having the greatest struc-
tural value should, therefore, receive the most severe treat-
ment, while those of less importance may have a delicate
and more picturesque treatment. The dado, being the
support of the wall surface, must therefore receive the
plainest and most dignified decoration, while the wall sur-
face itself may be freely treated with a diaper or spotted
decoration, and the frieze, with an elaborate though delicate
treatment.
26. Pilnster Forms of Treatment.—S0metimes the
wall may be divided by means of pilasters so that it consists
of a number of panels; then it loses its character as an entire
wall surface, and the panels should be decorated individu~
ally, while the pilasters as structural members should receive
proper treatment of importance and dignity.


24 APPLIED DESIGN. § 8
avoidance of too small a scale, as can be seen in Fig. 20.
The largest possible scale that can be worked on this prin-
ciple, next to the full size shown at (a), is shown at (b), and
the arrangement shown at (d), though satisfactory for a
repetition horizontally by
/a\ / dropping the pattern one-

/ third of a block, will not
repeat vertically and so am-
\ 1/ \ \ /<\ not be prz'n/rd.
(a) 32. Proportion of the
Unlt.-—-Here is the first
,1 \ / problem that confronts us in
I \ 1 making a repeat pattern.
K [1“ ,1"\ We have in Fig. 20 six
\ ,I' \ ,I' \ schemes of arrangement by
X which to adapt the form
\ \






shown at (a) to a different
\ I \ scale of pattern, each of
which is likely to present
(6) ‘ certain unsurmountable dis-
advantages. The scheme at
(b) may be too narrow for the
height according to the work of the design; (0) is still more
so; (1/) presents us with a smaller pattern than (a) in the
same proportion, but one that cannot be printed owing to
its lack of vertical repeat; (2) being but half the size of (a)
may be too small; and (f), though suitable in every respect
for a drop pattern, demands that the proportions of the
printing block be changed, which is not a convenient thing
to do. We therefore must resort to the printing of our
pattern in large scales as at (a), or reduce its proportions to
the forms shown at (b) and (c).



FIG. 21.
33. Bringing this down to a practical basis, we have in
Fig. 22 at (a) the diagram of a wall-paper pattern on a basis
of geomertrical figures and at (b) the method of dropping it
in order to secure the satisfactory repeats. This, however,


PPPPPPPPPPP N.













é garages
(at set a
FIG. 23.


§ 8 APPLIED DESIGN. 29
The fourth method, shown at (d), is by the introduction of
a number of panels, but this is only applicable where a
severe form of treatment is desired. The system of filling
a frieze with a few vertical ornaments is entirely in accord
with the structural conditions and recalls the vertical mem-
bers in the triglyphs of the Doric order, and the dentals in
the Ionic and Corinthian.
It makes no difference whether we lay out our frieze by
an arrangement of panels or by simple vertical elements, we
must bear in mind that it is always wise to accentuate the
structural lines, but the extent to which this is permissible
depends on the general scheme adopted. If the scheme of
design is severe and dignified, structural accentuation may
be carried out to a greater degree than if the treatment be
light and fanciful.
39. Borders—Borders are used sometimes in wall deco-
ration to separate the frieze and the dado from the filling or
wall space, or are sometimes used as the boundaries of
panels. Their primary office in design is usually to prevent
the decoration of one surface from lapping over and imping-
ing on that of another; therefore, an elaborate border of
complicated design requires a separating element of a plainer
character in order to keep its design from mixing with the
design of the filling and thereby forming a part of the
patterns it is intended to separate. This is sometimes
accomplished by making a distinct contrast between the
character of the pattern of the border and that of the
filling. This may be done in matter of color, or in the
arrangement of lines, allowing vertical lines to predomi-
nate one, and horizontal lines to form the characteristics
of the other.
40. Another use to which the border is put is that of
the enclosing of an ornament in order to confine it and give
it an expression of unity as illustrated in Fig. 3 of filaments
of Ornamrnt. In the case of pictures, the application of a
border in the form of a frame -is to separate it from the more


30 APPLIED DESIGN. § 8
conventional rendering of the wall surface on which it hangs
and confine the attention to that which is enclosed.
41. The treatment of the border depends entirely on
the space around it, and the character of the design must be
carefully studied in order that the border may not be of
more interest than the picture. Occasionally, when the
subject does not allow the enclosure a proper border, a
simple line around the edge to confine it to its apparently
allotted space is sometimes sufficient to satisfy the eye, but
this method should be but sparingly used and only when
some good reason warrants its adoption.
The character of the border, as said before, must be
studied relatively to the design surrounded; for instance, in
Fig. 26 is shown a panel of conventional design where at (a)
(a)






FIG. 26.
the simple line border is readily seen to be insufficient,
while at (b) a heavier border is introduced and suits its pur-
pose better. There is no rule that requires the design of a


32 APPLIED DESIGN. § 8
border to be simply a band around its subject demanding
parallel lines, and in Fig. 27 is shown a design where the
inside of the border is not parallel with the outside, but con-
sists of a surrounding member of special design to suit its
particular purpose.
In Fig. 28 we have at (a) a panel of foliated ornament
surrounded by a border composed of details, the interest of
which is too great and consequently conflicts with the inter-
est in the panel itself; but at (b) the same foliated ornament
is reduced in the border to a conventional rendering, thereby
suiting its purpose exactly and enhancing the value of the
design instead of detracting from it.‘
42. Corners—Besides the consideration of borders,
attention should be given to the consideration of corners
where borders turn around a frame or wall surface, and it
should always be remembered that a frame is structurally
formed in one of several ways, the three most prominent
of which are shown in Fig. 29, where at (a) we have the




(a) (b) (6)
FIG. 29.


miter joint, at ((1) a square joint, and at (r) the joggled or
halved joint. The joint is always apparently the weakest
part of a’structure, therefore the ornament should be added
in such a way as to apparently strengthen this part of it, and
in laying out a design it is advisable to start at the corner
and apply the ornament in such a manner that it will appear
to hold the corner in position and extend itself over the
vertical and horizontal pieces.
43. Pilasters—Besides horizontal borders, there are
vertical elements that fulfil the same functions, and under


34 APPLIED DESIGN. § 8
cord or ribbon as shown at (b), and this treatment should
be used only when the pilaster itself is of vigorous design
and requires no element to apparently strengthen its ability
to support. A third method is arranged upon a succession
of spirals growing apparently in vine form from the bottom
of the pilaster or panel and neither adding to nor detracting
from its value as a structural member, as shown at (c). The
fourth method, shown at (d), is similar in effect to the first,
and is based on a series of wave lines crossing and recrossing
a central stem without in any way adding to its apparent
support.
45. In the treatment of these, designs (a) and (11), being
additions to the development of structural feeling, will
require a conventional rendering of their details. The cen-
tral axis must be strong, and architectural elements can be
used in the subdivisions. ,On the other hand, the light delicate
treatment of (II) and (c) will permit of a naturalistic rendering,
and grape-vine, ivy, or morning-glory patterns, never suit-
able to the other surroundings, may form the type on which
the design is based.
CEILING DECORATION.
46. In every room there are two surfaces that require
consideration in connection with the architecture and deco-
rative treatment; these are the ceiling and the floor. The
first of these is usually the least decorated part of any
apartment, though in many historic buildings the conditions
are quite the reverse.
47. In decorating the ceiling it should always be remem-
bered that this detail of a room acts as a reflector of light
and should therefore be treated in such a manner that its
ornamentation will not render the apartment gloomy, and
particularly if the ceiling is low. It should certainly be
in harmony, both in design and color, with other details of
the room and particularly with the frieze or cornice with
which it is surrounded. Its design may consist of the most
simple treatment, limited to a border, with ornaments at the


§8 APPLIED DESIGN. 35
corners to strengthen them; or it may consist of a number
of structural lines covering the whole surface, particularly
if a structural treatment is given the frieze. This may be
understood somewhat by referring to Fig. 31, which shows a
FFJAFJFQ©
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structural arrangement of a ceiling resulting in panels of
irregular sizes and shapes, each of which forms a subject for
individual decoration according to its value in relation to the
others. This was the usual treatment accorded the French
buildings in the beginning of the nineteenth century.


as APPLIED DESIGN. 5 s
In Fig. 32 is shown a corner of a
ceiling in the style that prevailed
largely during the Elizabethan period
—a development of the elaborate
tracery of Gothic days, relieved with
spotted ornaments; while Fig. 33
shows a design for all-over treatment
suitable for a wall-paper pattern that
can be mounted on the ceiling as
other patterns are on the side walls.


38 APPLIED DESIGN. § 8
48. Adaptability of Deeoration.--Care must be taken
to suit the general decoration t0 the purposes of the room
and the character of its surroundings in each case, and
where a room is small and the intention is to have it cosy
and comfortable, a mild, delicate treatment of ceiling will
be found the most satisfactory; but, in large halls and
assembly rooms, a ceiling can be elaborated with more
interesting subjects, as there will be a number of points
from'which it can be studied. This was the method of
treating the Pompeian ceilings, as shown in Fig. 34.
49. It should also be mentioned that all ceilings are not
flat—some are arched, some are domed, and some have pre-
served the natural conditions by the insertion of paneling
between the beams. The decorative treatment of each of
these must be considered according to its case.
Flat ornament must not be applied to curved surfaces, as
it is likely to appear distorted, and the decorative details
that are suited for long narrow panels, in the depths of
vwhich illumination will be poor, are certainly not suited to
broad, open wall space. With domed and arched ceilings,
the character of the ornament should tend to vertical ele-
ments where the ceiling joins the side walls, and gradually
shape itself to horizontal elements as it rounds overhead,
each of these blending into the other to preserve unity in
the design.
FLOOR DECORATION.
50. Necessity of Flatnes<.—In covering the floors of
an apartment, no matter what the material is to be, it should
always be borne in mind that the prime element to be con-
sidered is that of the flatness of surface. It is proper that a
ceiling should be paneled, domed, or vaulted; that a side
wall should consist of pilasters and framed pictures, of pro-
jecting and overhanging entablatures, or be supported upon
a continuous dado; but under all conditions the floor is flat
and any decoration that tends to interfere with this flatness
is out of place, and wrong.


§ 8 APPLIED DESIGN. 41
given to the flexibility of its character. Carpet usually pos-
sesses a soft and somewhat yielding surface and it is there-
fore proper that patterns woven in it should be made up
largely of curved lines that are more expressive of softness
and flexibility than are straight lines—symbolic of firmness
and strength.
Great contrast in a carpet design is undesirable, because it
is expressive of hardness and firmness, at variance with the
character of the material. For instance, in Fig. 36 at (a) the
appearance of the design is uneven and there is too great a
contrast between the tones of color used. The treatment at
(b) is better and gives a flatter appearance, but the outlining
of the pattern has increased the contrast of the general
ground. At (6), however, the tones are brought nearer
together and the entire appearance is flat and soft, so that
the pattern and the ground melt and blend into each other .
in a harmonious manner entirely suitable to the material and
its purpose.
UTENSILS AND VASES.
52. 0rigin.—All objects that are products of industrial
art have evolved by successive developments from some
simple form that was originally constructed to serve a utili-
tarian purpose only. The most elaborate forms of cups,
vases, furniture, jewelry, etc. each have a most elementary
origin, and various alterations, for reasons of convenience,
have been forced upon them, in accordance with the con-
stantly altering conditions of society.
Take, for instance, a cup; this vessel has its origin in the
desire of prehistoric man to provide himself with some vessel
of capacity in which to collect water to drink and for other
purposes. The earliest cups and bowls were doubtless
natural ones, consisting probably of gourds, shells, horns of
animals, etc., and these crude implements satisfied man's
requirements until a more cultivated period of society was
attained, and we find man manufacturing utensils of clay.
Nothing was more natural than that he should imitate
in clay the same forms and shapes to which he had been


44 APPLIED DESIGN. § 8
body, the portion between the body and the stem was called
the calyx, and then came the stem and the foot.
The next development was on the principle of extension
of individual parts: first, the development of the calyx, so
that it was emphasized beyond the body of the cup, as shown
at (f) and (g); then the decoration of the frieze below the
lip became a feature, and, subsequently, for the purpose of
keeping out dust, etc., a cover'was added, as shown at (/1).
56. The term hanap is usually applied to those vessels
with covers to distinguish them from the open ones, and
when such vessels were made of large size—so large, in
fact, that they could not be handled without great incon-
venience—it became necessary to elongate the stem in order
that it might be grasped entirely around by the hand, or
else to add on one or two sides of the cup a handle. To
distinguish these two, it was necessary to call the large glass
with a stem a lama/9, while the one that was lifted by means
of a side handle was termed a laukard. I
The introduction of the long stem brought as a necessity
of construction another detail, the knoll), which is a ball or
protuberance in the middle of the stem to keep it from slip-
ping through the hand, as shown at (j) of Fig. 39, and the
stem was extended so that it was necessary to add a finial or
knob on the center of the cover, in order to preserve the
line of balance and apparent stability of a cup.
57. As luxury became more general, drinking vessels
became elaborately ornate and engraved and were regarded
more as articles indicative of wealth than for actual use.
The enrichment of the surface of the hanaps was usually
produced by three general methods, all of which are depend-
ent, for their effect, on the contour they bring about. The
first method is to add variety to the outline, the second
method to develop individual parts, and the third method to
subdivide the surface. -
The alteration in outline arose largely through the influ-
ence of the nature of the material used and the method of


46 APPLIED DESIGN. § 8
that of other drinking cups in order to minimize the danger
of upsetting. The base was afterwards made irregular in
shape, so that when the chalice was laid on the side to
drain, as it frequently was, it would not tend to roll in
one direction or the other, and
incidental with these changes,
the profile of the cup became
somewhat altered, until it
assumed generally the form
shown in Fig. 40.
61. The Jug and vaer.—
The jug and ewer seem to have
been evolved by an entirely dif-
ferent process from that which
called into existence the vessels
we have already considered, as
these vessels have a long side
handle for lifting them, instead
of a stem. Ewers were prob-
ably dcrived from vases and
beakers, by repressing the stem
on one side and cutting the lip
obliquely downwards so as to make it more serviceable, at
the opposite side.


62. I-Iandles.—In designing vessels with handles it is
important to give proper consideration for the position of
the handle with relation to the lips and spouts of the vessel,
in order that its contents may not act against the pouring
action. The point whereat a vessel can best be grasped and
turned to pour out its contents will be a little above the
center of gravity of the whole mass, and it is of the highest
importance to determine the point of the center of gravity
in order that the handle will be properly placed upon a
pitcher. This may be very easily done, graphically, by cut-
ting out, in cardboard, the form of a vertical section through
the center of the proposed vessel and drawing on this


§ 8 APPLIED DESIGN. 49
though floating on the waves of the sea give an irregular
outline to the top. The propriety of this distribution of
hair is evident from two points; first, it produces the hori-
zontal lines necessary to emphasize and apparently strengthen
the weakest part of the vessel, and, second, applies a type
of decoration consistent with the profile on which the out-
line is formed. The handles consist of dolphins reduced to
conventionalized forms according to the principles suggested
in the discussion of the animal elements of design in Ela-
ments of Ornament.
It is not necessary in a design of this character that the
entire profile should be used, or that it should be maintained
in this position or particular angle. It maybe varied to
suit any conditions according to the artist’s fancy, and is
used here only to illustrate that an interesting outline may
be applied to various widely differing objects, always caus-
ing a pleasing effect inasmuch as it is the proportions and
variations of the curves of these outlines that satisfy the
artistic eye.
When such an outline is adopted, whether it is the profile
of the human face, the curve of the neck, shoulder, or any
other portion of the body, or an established outline of any
other natural form, care should always be exercised that
the surface decoration accompanying it is in harmony with
the disposition of its various parts, and that members requir-
ing a treatment in horizontal lines are not handled in accord-
ance with the system of decoration that creates a wrong
impression. Each thing should be suited to its place; no
element should be applied unless it appears to be required,
and no ornament should be placed so that it will destroy the
effect of what is essentially an interesting outline or a well
proportioned surface.


' APPLIED DESIGN.
(PART 2.)
TEXTILE FABRICS.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

1. Appropriateness of Design. In making a design
for any class of textile fabric, the first object to be con-
sidered is, the use to which this fabric is to be applied.
This having been determined, the ornament of the fabric
can be considered either as part of the structure woven into
the fabric itself, or stamped on its surface, as in cotton
goods or in some silks. It thus appears that in the design
of textile fabrics we do not necessarily work entirely on
principles of art; but designate to the weaver, by means
of drawings, details that are to confine him to a certain
structure of goods.
2. Purposes of Fabrics—The use to which a fabric is
to be put very materially determines its structure, and we
may divide these uses, purely from a utilitarian standpoint,
into two classes—coverings for the body to keep it warm, and
coverings for our walls and furniture, primarily, perhaps, as
a decoration, but, in reality, also to provide warmth. In
both cases, the goods will be called upon to fulfil one condi-
tion; that is, wear, and in this subject of wear we are con-
cerned entirely with the structure of the goods, its ornament
§ 9
For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page.


2 APPLIED DESIGN. § 9
affecting the wear only inasmuch as that ornament affects
the structure. Some goods must bear strain in one direction
to fulfil this condition of wear, others must be able to stand
friction and general handling without apparent damage, and
others are likely to be called upon for both these qualities.
3. Textile fabrics may be generally described as a com-
bination of interwoven or interlaced threads, and the struc-
ture of that fabric consists of the method of interlacing these
threads in order that the fabric may serve all the require-
ments of its purpose. Now, the threads that go to make
up any woven fabric are divided into two sets—the warp
l/zrmds that run lengthwise of the goods on the loom and
are practically continuous throughout the entire piece, and
the weft l/zrmds that run crosswise of the goods and inter-
weave with the warp. “
4. \Veavlng.—-This interweaving is effected in the loom
by lifting a certain number of warp threads and passing the
weft thread under them, after which another set of warp
threads is lifted and another line of weft thread is passed
~ under. If, in this system of weaving,
" we lift every other warp thread and
pass the weft through, and then lift
every alternate warp thread between
and pass the weft thread back, we will
1- produce a weave of plain goods, such
as is shown in the diagram, Fig. 1,
where the warp threads with the odd
numbers 1, 8, 5, etc. are lifted and
the weft thread is passed through from
a to I). then the even numbered warp
threads 2, 1,, 6, etc. are lifted and the weft thread is returned
from b to c, and so on, alternately, weaving a piece of plain
cloth the width of which remains constantly equal to a b, but
the length can be unlimited and is determined entirely by
the length of the warp threads that are wound on a cylinder
in the loom, called the beam.




a:
v
1:3}.50'1'H
FIG.1.


§ 9 APPLIED DESIGN. 3
The structural design of any woven fabric depends entirely
on the arrangement of these warp and weft threads, while
its wearing qualities and utility may be dependent on the
character of the threads themselves, both as to the material of
which they are made and the mannerin which they are spun.
5. Effect of Twist in 1Veaving.—It will be seen from
Fig. 1 that the twist of the thread, or yarn, in the warp
threads is at right angles to the twist of the threads in the
weft and that it will be necessary, therefore, that these
threads should bend around one another and, thereby, leave
small open spaces, instead of lying quite tight and close
together. The thicker the threads of which the fabric is
made, the larger will be these open spaces; and the thinner
the thread, the smaller and closer will be the weave. Other
conditions of the yarn will affect these perforations also, as
a thread that is soft and fuzzy will pack in rather closely
and will practically fill up the open spaces by the projecting
filaments of fuzz and make a piece of solid goods,_so that in
the mechanical process of weaving we can press the goods
closely together and as the yarn springs out it will fill up
these small openings and produce a solid piece of goods.
On the other hand, if the yarn is twisted hard, so as to make
a firm, solid thread, it cannot be compressed as can the
softer yarn, and it will, therefore, be worked less closely
together, producing an open fabric, but, owing to the hard-
ness of the thread, a fabric that will
bear more wear from friction than
the previous one.
6. Now, in Fig. 2 we have an
illustration of a fabric precisely the
same as that in Fig. 1, except that
the weft thread is twisted in its
manufacture in the opposite direc-
tion to that of the thread used in the warp, and it will be
observed that the lines of this twist are parallel in weft and
warp and that when the threads are woven together the


Fit}. 2.


§ 9 APPLIED DESIGN. 5
be drawn through the fingers from its root to its end, it will
slip quite smoothly, but if drawn in the contrary direction,
it will feel rough and present considerable resistance.
It is the scales on its surface and the crinkliness in
its length that gives to wool fiber its particular value, and
when this fiber is spun into thread it is arranged so that
these scales on its surface are opposed to one another as
much as possible and thereby interlock and hold fast to
one another, and the more the thread is spun the closer do
they engage one another and the stronger does the filament
become.
10. Felting.—-It is not only in the spinning that these
scales are of value, but after the goods are woven they can
be put through a process called felting, in which the fibers
are pounded together and the scales made to interlock so
firmly that the fabric becomes perfectly compact and homo-
geneous so that it is with the greatest difliculty that the
individual warp and weft threads may be discerned and
unraveled. The waves, or crimps, in the fiber are "of value
in this operation, as well as the scales. The felting is
effected by wetting the cloth with soapy water and apply-
ing pressure. The result of this process is, that these
fibers are straightened out and the scales of the opposing
fibers engage, or lock in, with them, and when the pres-
sure is removed the natural spring or crinkliness of the
fiber causes it to return as nearly as possible to its origi-
nal position and draws all of the other fibers with it, caus-
ing compactness in the goods. This operation is repeated
several times so that the threads lose their individuality
and the cloth becomes a solid compact mass. Where felt-
ing is carried out to its greatest extent, the threads must
be especially prepared; and any pattern that is intended
to appear in the weaving, through this process is seri-
ously impaired or may be entirely lost. Different classes
of wools vary materially in this quality of waviness, and,
therefore, some are better suited than others to this class
of work.


6 APPLIED DESIGN. § 9
11. Cotton Fibers—Under the microscope, a wad of
cotton appears materially different from a lock of wool.
Cotton is a vegetable fiber and, when magnified, appears as
a thin flat tube or ribbon considerably twisted, and these
twists in the fiber are what give the strength to the cotton
thread by interlocking with one another somewhat after the
manner of the scales on the woolen thread. The cotton
fiber, however, is soft and pliable and does not possess that
natural crinkly spring that we find in the wool; hence,
threads that we are able to spin from it are weak and
do not possess the ability to be felted as do the woolen
threads.
12. Silk F1bers.-—Silk is obtained from unwinding the
filament from the cocoon of the silk worm and in reality is
not materially different from ordinary spider's web. Under
the microscope, it appears as a very straight, smooth, and
highly polished fiber, somewhat like a glass rod. It is soft,
exceedingly pliable, and lends itself readily to the forma-
tion of a thread, but it cannot be spun like wool and cotton,
as it has no peculiarities of surface that correspond to the
scales of the former or the twists in the latter, and silk
filaments can be made into thread only by twisting, a num-
ber of filaments being twisted together into fine threads and
then a number of these fine threads again twisted until a
final thread of proper weight is obtained.
13. Flax Fibers—Flax is a vegetable fiber appearing
like long blades of grass. It is cylindrical in form, and has
knots at regular intervals throughout its length. These
knots act, mechanically, in the spinning of the thread in a
similar manner to the scales in the wool and the twists in
the cotton fiber.
14. Of each of these four classes of fibers we can make
two entirely different kinds of thread, and it is in the manu-
facture of this thread that we materially affect the orna-
mentation and sometimes the structural formation of the
fabric.


8 APPLIED DESIGN. § 9
it is passed through two or three of these carding machines
in order to reduce it to a finer quality.
18. Woolen Yarn.—The essential distinction between
woolen and worsted yarns consists of a difference in the
quality of the wool and of a difference in the methods of
spinning into thread. Generally, it may be said that woolen
yarns are made from shorter fibers than worsted yarns and
of fibers that possess the highest felting qualities, or in
other words. that are most sharply crinkled, and that the
yarns are prepared from the carded fibers more or less
crossed and interlocked with one another with no attempt at
parallelism. Though these may be spun hard upon the
mule frame, they form a light fluffy yarn that is suitable,
when woven into cloth, to produce a partially felted goods,
which, in reality, is the distinguishing characteristic between
woolen and worsted goods.
19. Worsted Yarn.—\Vorsted yarns are generally
made of the long silky varieties of wool, and the fibers are
combed as well as carded, in order to bring them as nearly
parallel to one another as possible. The spinning of worsted
yarn is accomplished on a throstlc frame and the thread is
smooth and compact and does not partake of the character
of felting in any part of its weaving.
In all varieties of worsted and woolen yarns there is a
tendency for each to partake largely of the characteristics of
the other, some oolens being made from longer wool than
are some worsteds, and worsteds being made from short
staple wool, so that the actual length of the fiber has
nothing to do with the classification, but its felting quality
and method of conversion into thread forms the distinction.
20. Preparing “fool for Splnning.-—VVhen the carded
wool has passed through the third carding machine, it is in
the form of a continuous evenly distributed mat around the
last cylinder. To prepare it for spinning, it must be divided
into a series of equal strips or ribbons, and these condensed
into a round sliver sufficiently compact to stand winding on


§ 9 APPLIED DESIGN. 9
a bobbin. The condenser for doing this is attached to the
carding machine, and as the strips pass off the drum they
are acted on bya pair of rubbers that simply pinch the
sliver down to a smaller size by compacting the fibers with-
out twisting them. From this they pass to the spinning
mule and are drawn down to fine threads.
21. The Mule—The mule frame on which this spinning
is effected acts in_ a similar manner, but on a larger scale, to
the old-fashioned spinning wheel. Large bobbins or spools
of the wool sliver are placed on the frame and their ends
drawn and attached to vertical spindles that revolve and
give a twist to the yarn as it draws it. The frame contain-
ing the spindles advances to the sliver spools and then
backs away from them, as the sliver is gradually fed out as
the spools revolve. The entire distance moved by the frame
is 6 or 7 feet, during two-thirds of which the sliver is fed
out as the frame recedes, but during the rest of the distance
the spools remain stationary and the sliver is drawn or
stretched, thereby becoming thinner, and at the same time
it is rapidly twisted by the revolving spindles into an even
compact thread. When this twist is completed, the mule
frame advances toward the sliver spools again, and the spun
threads just completed are wound upon the spindles as the
mule frame advances.
22. The effect of this drawing and twisting at one time
is one of the characteristics of woolen thread. It is evident
that, in drawing, the stretch will not take place evenly and
that some portions of the yarn will be thinner than the
others; but it is also evident that these thinner portions will
be the ones that will be first affected by the twisting, or spin-
ning, of the bobbins and when once twisted become hard
and less subject to drawing, thereby causing the thicker por-
tions between them to be drawn out more. \Vhile the tend-
ency of this work is to equalize the thread, somewhat, it is
not sufficient to compensate entirely, and, therefore, woolen
thread is unequal and irregular in its thickness.


§ 9 APPLIED DESIGN. 11
according to the quality and uniformity that is demanded in
the goods.
25. Throstle Spinning.—After the yarn is drawn and
redrawn, the bobbins containing it are placed on a throstle
frame for spinning. In this process, the drawing is effected
in exactly the same manner as in the woolen yarn on the
spinning mule. The rovings, as the drawn yarns are
called, pass between pairs of rollers in which they are
drawn out by the difference of speed of rotation between the
front pair and the back pair, and as the cylinder cord is
delivered from the front pair of rollers, a spindle that is
revolving rapidly gives it the required twist.
These yarns or threads are known as singles. For some
uses they are twisted into two-ply or three-ply yarns on a
twisting frame where each single is drawn from a bobbin
and twisted with others into a two-ply or three-ply yarn, as
the case may be.
26. Characteristics of Worsted Thread.—In worsted
thread we have a yarn of great uniformity and evenness of
diameter, all the fibers being parallel and as nearly as pos-
sible of the same length. It therefore possesses the advan-
tage of uniformity in strength and is especially suited to the
weaving of fabrics where a pattern is to show in the finished
product as a result of the system of weaving. It will not be
suitable for milling or felting, because the fibers, being
parallel, will not lose their individuality. It will not resist
wear from friction to the same degree that woolen will,
because the threads will retain their individuality and
not become felted into the general mass; and thus the fabric
not being so compact as woolen, it will not possess, to the
same degree, the quality of retaining warmth.
On the other hand, the subsequent processes through
which the cloth may pass to finish it will in no way impair
the pattern, and a worsted fabric is always recognized by
the clearness of its pattern and the sharpness and smooth-
ness of its finish, both wool and worsted being possessed of
individual properties and advantages.


§ 9 APPLIED DESIGN. 13
does not possess the freedom from fuzzy surface that raw
silk does, yet many of the combed fibers are of considerable
length and this makes a very strong thread well suited for
the weaving of ornamental patterns.
30. The object of this short discussion, the manufac-
ture of threads, is to enable the student to be familiar with
the materials that are to be woven into a fabric, the design
of which he is to execute. In the descriptions that follow
of the weave of certain classes of cloths, the student can
readily see wherein a knowledge of yarn or thread will be
of great value in the preparation of his design.
WARP AND WEFT.
31. Plain Fabrics—In the fabrics shown in Fig. 1 we
have what is called a plain fabric, that is, one in which the
warp and weft threads are equal in quantity and diameter,
but we may alter this relation of warp and weft and by so
doing obtain an increase in weight of the goods; thereby
making a warmer cloth, if for wearing material, or an
increase of strength, where that is a requisite quality, or, in
other cases, an increase in ornamental value, if it is desired
to increase the effect of ornamentation by the weave.
32. Where the warp threads are heavier than the weft
threads, the weft will naturally bend around them and cause
ribs to appear lengthwise of the fabric; but where the weft
threads are the heavier, the warp will bend around them and
cause ribs to appear running across the fabric. The best
quality of fabrics, however, are those in which the warp
threads are the thinner and are arranged with a greater
number to the inch than the weft threads.
The weaving of these classes of goods is precisely the same
as the weaving of plain cloths, but the variations of the
relative quantities or thicknesses of warp or weft completely
changes the character of the fabric. In goods where the
weft threads are thicker than the warp threads and the warp


§ 9 APPLIED DESIGN. 15
threads 8 and 4 and over the warp threads 5 and 6, and so
on, and that the weft thread 0 4 passes over the warp thread
1, under the warp threads 2 and 8, and over the warp
threads 4 and 5. This produces an ?
effect that, in some goods other than “‘- i" "
cloth, is called a basket weaw, but, as c '
a matter of fact, it is a simple twill
upon the variation of which much
designing in dress goods is accom-
plished. Each warp thread passes
alternately over and under two weft
threads, or picks, and similarly each
weft thread alternately passes under
and over two warp threads, but each end does not pass over
the same threads as its predecessor.


/J .79140'
llGUflP/IK
FIG. 3.
35. This not only produces a pleasing pattern on the
surface, but it enables us to introduce more material into
the goods we are weaving, and, therefore, to produce a more
bulky fabric that is closer in its structure. The reason of
this is, that the warp and weft interweaving at greater
intervals permit the skipped threads to lie closer together
without any intervening transverse threads, thereby making
a closer and warmer fabric.
In the plain cloth, we have shown that we are able to
make goods wherein the warp threads lie Very closely
together and, also, goods wherein the weft threads lie very
closely together. In each case, the threads of the opposite
system are quite a distance apart, but in the twill we are
enabled to weave cloth wherein the warp and weft both lie
very closely together and give an even texture in both direc-
tions and, consequently, a corresponding increase in the bulk
of the fabric.
36. The twill may be altered in detail so as to increase
the bulk of the goods, simply by increasing the interval at
which two sets of threads interweave. For instance, the
warp thread may pass over several weft threads before it


16 APPLIED ,DESIGN. § 9
interweaves again and in this way bind this number together
in close contact and crowd them into a much smaller space
than they would have occupied had they been interwoven
alternately. But as this increase in weight is produced by
the skipping of a greater number of threads, the fabric loses
strength, inasmuch as it may not be properly interwoven,
and a considerable amount of friction of its surface will allow
these long overshot threads to become broken and to weaken
the fabric by fraying.
37. The yarn of which the goods is woven is composed
of single fibers, and when overshot for considerable distance
these fibers are presented to a greater length than they may
possibly be able to bear, causing a weak but warm fabric.
The looseness of the fabric will also reduce its power to bear
strain, and although a loosely woven cloth may be propor-
tioned to its interweaving so that it will be stronger under
tension than one more closely woven, yet it will never be so
strong in proportion to the relative kind of material of which
it is composed.
38. It is possible to make another order or arrange-
ment in twills, wherein we abandon the idea of increasing
bulk or warmth and endeavor to weave in order to acquire
the greatest strength; when it is desired that the pattern
shall be ornamental as well as be strong or warm, it must
always be borne in mind that the character of the weave
affects all three conditions—strength, warmth. and orna-
mentation. The class of goods known as satin: are twills
woven on a regular systematic basis; that is, the order of
interweaving two sets of threads does not follow consecu-
tively but at intervals.
In Fig. 4 is shown the system on which a satin is woven.
It will here be observed that the threads interweave at
every fifth end or pick and that the two succeeding picks
do not interweave with adjoining ends but at intervals of
two; that is, if weft a passes over No. 3 warp, weft b will
pass over No. 6 warp, and so on. Now, if it is desired to


§ 9 APPLIED DESIGN. 23
the fabric itself and partially of other material introduced
purely for ornamentation.
49. In Fig. 13 we have an example of a pattern for a
perfectly plain cloth on which a lozenge-shaped spot is
woven, and in Fig. 14 we have a section
through that cloth where, at a, the ends of
the warp threads are shown and, at b, the
weft thread, interweaving regularly except
where it passes over the five warp threads
to form the pattern in the center of the
lozenge-shaped spot, as at c d. The gen-
eral body of the cloth remains perfectly
plain, and the pattern is formed simply by the skipping of
a few threads. Of course, this affects the quality of the
goods somewhat and it is not so closely woven, but this


b
c d
I?@@@@@@@@%%@@@
FIG. 14.
defect will vary according to the size and number of figures
that are introduced.
50. In Fig. 15 we have an example of a piece of goods
woven on the principle shown in Fig. 14, and the number of
spots is distributed evenly over the
entire piece. Each spot must be
examined in its relation to each
pick and warp end, in order to
comprehend the pattern. The
spots a each commence on the same
pick, and so do the spots 6, 0, etc.,
and, further, we can see that a and
r are also woven on the same warp
ends, as are also 6 and d, so that in
reality a is a repetition of c in the
direction of the warp, and Z) is a repetition of d in the
direction of the weft. Consequently, we can see that a
and b are the only two spots in the pattern, the others be-


§9
25
APPLIED DESIGN.
21111111111115
I
. .OOIOOIOOOOO
A :0...‘.......
FIG. 17.


same distance apart, and the order
of interweaving each respective pick
and end is equal. The appearance
of the finished cloth will be the same
as that of Fig. 15, but it will be more
perfectly constructed and certainly
more plcasin g to the eye.
This system of weaving is very
simple and is based on what is called
an eight-end satin. In laying it
out, we must calculate the area of
the figure to determine the number
of the ends and picks that will be re-
quired to produce it, and if this num-
ber does not conveniently fit in with
the number of hooks contained on our
farquard mar/zine,thcn we must altcr
it to suit as the case may require.
53. The Jacquard machine
consists of an apparatus that is sup-
ported above the loom, and by means
of a number of Wire hooks extend-
ing to each thread of the warp in the
loom, it raises certain desired warp
threads and permits the shuttle with
the weft ound on it to pass under
the raised threads and over those that
lie below. In weaving any kind of
goods each throw of the shuttle is
preceded by a raising of certain warp
threads under which it is desired that
the weft shall pass. These raised
threads are usually called the “ shct ."
54. The design is punched on
cards similar to Fig. 17, where each
hole represents one of the squares of


§ :) APPLIED DESIGN. 33
linen yarn, while the pile is of wool. The methods of spin-
ning the yarns for this fabric, or any other class of goods, is
precisely the same as has been described. The wool that


forms the surface of the carpet is carded and spun in pre-
cisely the same manner as the wool that goes intoa dress
fabric. It is dyed to the color desired to be reproduced and
FIG. 24.


34 APPLIED DESIGN. g 9
wound on spools ready to go into the frame behind the
loom.
69. There have been many suggestions for economy in
the manufacture of carpets, and there are many carpets
manufactured that present the same general appearance as
Brussels but do not possess its great weight, owing to the
lack of goods in the body. One form of these carpets is
what is known as tapestry Brussels, wherein the threads are
not left idly inside the fabric, and exist only where the pile
is formed. In tapestry Brussels there is but one set of
threads of pile warp and that is printed so as to form the
pattern. The printing of the pile thread is effected by
measuring out the length of a certain color required in a
certain place to form the figure and that length of the
thread is colored accordingly. It is then woven into the
cloth as in ordinary velvet, and its pile brought to the sur-
face. Following it on the same thread is another color
required to form the ground on another portion of the fig-
ure. One printed thread thus serves for a number of col-
ored ones, and it certainly is a very economical way of produ-
cing'a colored carpet, but it is in no way so serviceable as the
body Brussels that it is attempting to imitate.
70. Wilton carpet is the same as Brussels carpet, except
that the pile is cut, and another formation of velvet carpets
is effected by setting the pile surface into the carpet in sec-
tions just as it is required. Rugs are also formed in this
way. The pile threads are neither warp nor weft, but are
simply tufts set in where the figure is required. The colored
threads are wound on long thin cylinders or rollers, possess-
ing all the colors that are necessary to form one pick across
the goods. A short length of these threads is then cut off
and falls in place parallel with the warp in the loom, while
the weft thread passes over them and binds them into the
body of the carpet. They are then cut off and the roll
passes on its way and makes room for another roll to bring
the next set of threads. This makes a very bulky loom, as


§ 9 APPLIED DESIGN. 35
there must be a separate roll for each pick across the loom
for every repeat. In fact, there must be one roll for every
Jacquard and in weaving long rugs it is not unusual to have
three or four hundred of these rolls, each one of whichi
used but once, to form the pattern. '
71. The designing of all these goods remains the same,
however, the only difference being in the design papers
themselves, which must be obtained for the particular pur-
pose they are required. Ingrain carpet cannot be designed
on Brussels paper, because it does not run the same number
of threads to the inch, and when designs are laid out on
paper care must be given that the proper subdivisions of
the paper have been obtained.


X
INDEX
Sn
Cornice
Corona. . .
Cotton fibers . .
“ yarn . .
Creatures, Fabulous
Cross, (lreek
“ Latin .
Maltese . . . . . .
Saint Andrew's . . . . .
Curtain design, Lace
Curved lines, Emphasis of.
Cutting,r carpets, \Vastc in .
Cyma recta
“ reversa
Cymatium .
.l
l)
Comparison of Indian and Per-
sian art
“ “ Persian and Ara-
bian art
Composite order
Composition. . . . . .
Conditions influencing
ture .
Conic sections. . . . . . . .
Consideration of purpose in design
Consistency in design. . . .
“ of Egyptian ornament
“ Moorish ornament
Construction allied with beauty .
“ and decoration in
Moorish art .
of design, Selection
of system of .
Moorish geomet-
rical ornament
Systems of
Constructive origin of decorative
art. . .
ornament
Continuity of lines . . .
Contrast and variety . . . . .
" variety, and rcpctitio
Conventional ornament . . .
" treatment of nature
Conventionalism . . . .
“ and realism .
Egyptian
Explanation of
(ircck
in ancient art
" Moorish orna-
ment . . . .
Influence of .
Kinds of . .
Necessity of
of Egyptian orna-
ment
" facts
" principles
ideas
Taste in. . .
Conventionalizini,r a plant form .
‘° animal forms
Corinthian base . .
" capital . .
order
40 ll
architec-
01'
Roman
Corner ornament
(‘orncrs
borders, and stripes
\1
nacq
‘. Page
92
‘24
17
31
me an
28
31
(i
30
LL")
1 2
l).-
H)
75:
'l I;
“1!;
Ivv
'
Q t
t
|_:.
'1
lv
44
16
15
64
‘27
4‘2
50
32
39
Damasks, Size of repeat in .
De'l‘hou. Decorated capitals. Characteris-
tics of. . .
“ period.........
Decorating, Effects of vertical and
horizontal . . . . . . .
Decoration, Adaptability of. . . .
“ Ancient pottery
and construction in
Moorish art
" Arabian
“ Ceiling
“ Elements of
‘ Floor . .
General rules of sur-
face in . .
“ Meaning of . . . . . .
“ Principles of . . . .
“ Surface........
" “ Geometrical
basis of .
Decorations, Painted Roman . .
Decorative art. . . . . . . .
" " Constructive origin
of
ornament .
theory exhibited by the
savage
Defective design .
Defects, Remedy for
Definition of bisymmctry . .
" " inflorescence . .
inventive ornament .
multisymmetry .
trisymmetry . . . .
unit . .
H 00
Sec. Page
4 7
4 7
9 6
9 12
6 65
6 41
6 41
6 41
6 41
7 44
8 I
7 18
3 63
3 63
4 8
7 40
7 72
4 109
4 100
S ‘21
8 38
6 15
4 83
4 72
8 35
3 2
8 38
3 8
2 l
3 ‘2
6 3
8 8
4 32
3 6
6 17
3 30
3 35
3 12
7 7
7 7
6 15
6 43
6 13
6 15
6 15
7 6


INDEX
Growth . . . . . . . . .
Guilloche . . . . . . . . .
Gutta:
- o g u I - u u u I v o
Hackling. .
Hagia Sophia
Hall, Hypostylc . . . . .
“ “ at Karnak
of assembly . . . . . . . . .
Hanap . .
Handles. Consideration of. in de-
signing vases and cups
Hanging fabrics. .
Hangings and table covers. Bor-
ders for
Harmachis . . . . . . . . .
Harmony in adaptation of human
figure to design
secondary lines
Head of Medusa . . . . . . . . . .
Heating of ancient castles . . . .
Heavy Antique Egyptian Alphabet
Heraldry. . . . . . . . . .
" in French art
Historic lettering
ll Cl
I a u o - - ~ . ¢ I - -
| . - o ¢ n a I o a u
- e n c 0
Modern use of.
Object of study-
ing . . . . . .
Value of study
' of . . . . . . .
OI OI
Holbein Holland and England, Political
ties of
Horn. . . . .
How to bisect a given angle
" “ study ornament . . . . . .
Humanfigure... “ figure, Application of
wings to . . . . .
figure. Details of, com-
bined with animal and
floral forms. . . . . .
figure. Difficulty of tree
rendering of .
figure. Harmony in adap-
tation of. to design . .
figure, Proportions of
figure used in design . . .
figures as supports. . . .
Hyperbola . .
" Methodofdrawing. . .
Method of drawing tan-
gent to
Hypostyle hall .
“ " at Karnak. . . . .
- Q - u v ' n n . . - - I o
- - ~ - a o - -
3
4
Q’Il-‘n L'I
:fl
1;!
6
ti
6
Srr. I new
4
70
H
40
17
23
17
4-1
67
126
69
1'27
ti I
59
53
2t;
33
H
56
()1
60
58
6‘2
61
6‘2

. g u n u u a -
l0
l n o a I . I
I
Idealism and Chinese ornament.
Imaginary beasts . . . . . . . . .
Imitation and invention. . . . .
Indian and Persian art compared
art . . . . . . . . . . . . .
" Arrangement of orna-
ment in . . . . .
“ “ Lack of progressive—
nessin........
" fabrics. Rules of coloring .
ornament . . . . .
.. ..
Characteristics of
Industrial elements; Association
of, with architectural
elements in design
ornament . . . . . . .
Infloresence, Definition of. . . . .
Influence of architecture
a 0 u I ~
' conventionalism .
" Italian art in German
Renaissance
" Mohammedanism
" " nature . . . . . . .
religion . .
" " " in Egyptian
ornament
in Gothic art
'the church . . .
" “ " Nile on Egyptian
ornament. . .
Influences affecting different styles
ofart. . . . . . . . . . . .
Ingenuity of Byzantine ornament
Insects in design . . . . . . . . .
Intention of Renaissance artists .
Interior of Egyptian temple. . . .
Intricacy of Celtic ornament
Introduction of Renaissance art
into England .
Renaissance art
into England .
Renaissance art
into France. .
Invention and imitation . . . .
of printing. I‘lfi’ect of . .
Inventive ornament. Definition of
Ionic architrave . .
" order . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ll 00
Roman . . . . . . . . .
Ironwork, Renaissance . .
Italian art and literature
" " Roman influence on . .
aversion to Gothic form . .
design of the eighteenth
century
Srr. Page
4 60
6 44
ti 1 3
4 79
4 64
6 29
4 64
4 65
4 64
4 65
6 40
6 4O
6 34
6 43
3 4
8 2
5 51
4 70
I 9
3 5
3 16
4 99
4 34
3 l4
5 56
4 55
ti 53
5 2
3 19
4 97
5 3
5 52
5 2
6 13
5 5
6 I 3
4 13
3 (H
4 8
4 ‘24
5 18
5 5
5 6
5 6
7 35


INDEX
Ornament. Geom etrical . .
l.
6.
Uotllic.. “ Evolution of . .
GrecwRoman . .
Greek . . . . . .
" Representative
types of
Historic. Modern use of
“ O b j e c t of
studying
Value of study
of. .
History of .
How to study
Indian
Characteristics
of
Industrial . .
Ingenuity of Byzantine
Japanese
Linear .
Meaning of
Moorish . . . .
" Blending ofcol-
ors in
Characteristics
of . . . . . .
Coloring in
Consistency of
Convention-
alism in . . .
geometrical.
Co nstruction
of
Natural . . . . .
Origin of Gothic and
Byzanfine
Persian
Pompeian
Primitive . . . .
Primitiveness of Chi-
nese
Renaissance .
Representative
Roman . .
Romanesque
Style in
Surface
threads
Turkish
Type of
Vegetable
\Vestern
a o u ¢ . I
Derivation of .-
IQ“
lb“
.5
amuawuua-aawv
Se‘l'. I’ILL'I‘
1H
99
108
7'.)
52
56
59
81
89
In
. I
88
H( l
24
39
78
79
s"
59
33
33
66
‘20
71‘»
31
34
95
()rnament. Wings in . . . . . .
Ornamentath in checker pattern
for fabric .
of fabrics . .
“ " " Layingr
out .
' pile fabrics
Reversion of treat-
ment in .
()siris . . . . . . .
Outline, Limit of. . . . . . . . .
Oval in nature. . . . . . . . .
" Repetition. contrast, and va-
riety expressed in the . .
l)
Painted Roman decorations . .
Paneling .
Papyrus
Parabola. . . . . . . . . . .
Parallclogram, Design based on
the . . . . .
Parent stem . .
Parthenon . .
Pattern, Ball . . . . . . . .
“ l)rop........
’I‘urn~oyer-and-drop
" Unit of . . . .
Patterns, Limitless variety of . .
Pedestal, Roman Doric . . . . . .
Tuscan
People. Types of
n g u 0 u
. Periods of French Renaissance . .
Perpendicular characters . .
" period .
Persian and Arabian art com-
pared . . . . . .
ornament.
tics of . . . . . .
Pilastcr forms of treatment .
Pilasters .
Pile fabrics
" “ ()rnamentation of . .
Plain fabrics. . . . . . . . .
Planning and drawing the design .
" design . . . . . . .
turn-over method in
design . . . . . . .
Plan of Egyptian temple
l’lant form, Conventionalizing a
Political tics of England and H01-
land . . . . .
Polychromy
Pompeian art
in
\IQ'JQQOIDWIB
q
mu
1;!
13
32
l l
17
26
‘26
'24
1]!)
100
'20
2|)
‘37
2s
13
ls
20
W)
~4-
30


INDEX
xxi
Wall surface. Naturalistic treat-
ment of '
Warp and weft in different colors,
Effect of
pile fabrics
threads
\Vaste in cutting carpets . . t. . .
Weave, Basket . . . . . . . . . .
Weaving . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
“ Effect of twist
Weft pile in fabrics
“ threads
\Vestcrn art . . . . . . . . . .
ornament . . . . . . . .
Wilton carpets . . . . . . . . . . .
Window tracery, French
Winged disk . . .
" globe . . . . . . . . . . .
Wings. Application of . . .
“ \ " "to human
figure
Assyrian method of attach-
ing. to human figure
I - s n a - o n n
y Q . . l n I u . n I
. s s | n n
a - . a I - o I g o c
SPF. P0138
R
has-
WIQU‘\IIO
e w
in“
29'
k1
' a
\I
105
o)-
..l
4')—
-i
51
fi-l
6-4
\Vings, Egyptian method of at-
taching, to human figure
in ornament . . . . . . . .
Proportions of . . . . . . .
Wivern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wool fibers . . . . . . . . . . .
for spinning. Preparing- . .
\Voolen yarn . . . . . . . . . . . .
\Vorsted thread. Characteristics of
" yarn
I n e u n n a I a n 0
" Silk . . . . . . . . . . . . .
s u n e n n - n e a n Q u a -
Knitting and carpet
Z
Zenith of architectural develop-
ment
Sec. Page
115